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o titut
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PHYSICS
FOR JEE MAIN & ADVANCED
SECOND
EDITION
Exhaustive Theory
(Now Revised)
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16. GEOMETRICAL
OPTICS
1. INTRODUCTION
Light is a form of radiant energy; that is, energy is emitted by the excited atoms or molecules that can cause the
sensation of vision by a normal human eye.
The branch of physics that deals with the phenomena of light is called optics. There are two branches of optics:
(a) ray optics and (b) wave optics.
SOME DEFINITIONS
(a) Ray: The ‘path’ along which the light travels is called a ray. The rays are represented by straight lines with
arrows directed towards the direction of travel of light.
(b) Beam: A bundle of rays is called a beam. A beam is parallel when its rays are parallel, it is divergent when its
rays spread out from a point, and it is convergent when its rays meet at a point.
O O O O
Real Virtual object
Real object Virtual object object
O O
Real Virtual
object object
Figure 16.1
1 6 . 2 | Geometrical Optics
If the rays converge at a point after an interaction with a surface, then a real image will be formed, and if the rays
diverge after an interaction with a surface, a virtual image will be formed.
O I I O
(a) (b)
Figure 16.2
Real object, virtual object, real image, virtual image: In Fig. 16.2 (a), the object is real, while the image is virtual.
In Fig. 16.2 (b), the object is virtual, while the image is real.
2. REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Definition
When the light falling on a surface turns back into the same medium, it means it is reflected. The angle made by
the incident ray with the normal to the reflecting or refracting surface is called the angle of incidence, and the angle
made by the reflected or refracted ray with normal is called the angle of reflection or refraction.
(angle of deviation)
N 180°
B
A
i i
O 90° i (angle of
A’ incidence)
Figure 16.4
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The above two laws of reflection can be applied to the reflecting surfaces that are not even horizontal.
The following Fig. 16.5 illustrates this point.
r
i
i
r r
i
Figure 16.5
B B’
O I
A A’
Figure 16.6
If an object is placed in front of a mirror as shown in Fig. 16.6, we get its image in the
mirror due to the reflection of light.
(a) The distance between the object and the mirror = the distance between the
image and the mirror.
O I
(b) The line joining the object point with its image is normal to the reflecting
surface.
(c) The image is laterally inverted (left–right inversion). Figure 16.7
Y
N N’ R’
R i-2
I
i
I
i
i i
X
Figure 16.8
(g) The minimum size of a plane mirror required to see the full-size image of a person by himself is half the size
of that person.
x
F
B
x
C
(x+y)
D G
y
E
Man
Figure 16.9
B
Real Space Vitual Space
Figure 16.10
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
To find the location of the image of an object from an inclined plane mirror, you have to see the
perpendicular distance of that object from the mirror.
I
M O I
O
Correct Wrong
OM=Ml OM=Ml
Figure 16.11
Sol: As the man is walking parallel to the mirror, the image of the point object S Figure 16.12
thus formed will also move relative to the man. We construct the ray diagram to
G
obtain the position of the image from the man.
C
The ray diagram is shown in the Fig. 16.13.
A H
d D
HI
= AB
= d; DS
= CD
=
2 S
E
d I
since AH =
2AD ; ∴ GH =
2CD =
2 =d B
2
F
Similarly IJ = d; ∴ GJ = GH + HI + IJ; =d + d + d = 3d J
Figure 16.13
Sol: The angle of reflection is equal to angle of incidence about the normal. If ray
M₁
makes angle α with the normal then the angle made with the surface is θ =90-α.
Completing the ray diagram for multiple reflection we get the angle θ. Figure 16.14
Different angles are as shown in the following Fig. 16.15. In triangle ABC,
B
θ 180°
θ + θ += =90°-
θ= 60°
A
C
Figure 16.15
make the ray reflect vertically upwards, we need to incline the mirror at an angle
90 − i
θ = where I is the angle of incidence.
2
90 − 20
⇒ θ= = 35°
2
Illustration 4: Find the velocity of the image when the object and mirror both are moving toward each other with
the velocities 2 m/s and 3 m/s, respectively. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: As both the object and mirrors are moving towards each other with a constant speed. The velocity of object
with respect to the mirror and velocity of image with respect to the mirror are equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction.
Here, v OM = − v IM
− ( v I − vM )
v O − vM =
⇒ ( +2m / s ) − ( −3m / s ) =− v I + ( −3 )
⇒ vI =
−8m / s
y y x
(2x+y) (2x+y)
Figure 16.18
3600
and n = for all other conditions.
θ
P hysi cs | 16.7
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
mirrors is three. All these three images will lie on a circle with center at
C, the point of intersection of mirrors M1 and M2, and whose radius is I1 a O
equal to the distance between C and object O. b
I3 I2
=90
o
Figure 16.20
Vijay Senapathi (JEE 2011 AIR 71)
4. SPHERICAL MIRRORS
A spherical mirror is a smooth reflecting surface that forms a part of a spherical surface. If reflection takes place
from the inner reflecting surface, then the mirror is called a concave mirror. If the reflection takes place from the
outer surface, it is called a convex mirror. The reflection of a light from a concave and a convex mirror is shown in
the Fig. 16.21.
i Light
r
C F C
F P
P
M’ M’
Concave Mirror Convex Mirror
Figure 16.21
(a) The rays of light travel from the left to the right direction.
+y
(b) All the distances measured from the pole and in the direction of light
toward the right of the pole are positive. The distances measured in the Light
opposite direction of light toward the left of the pole are negative.
C F P
(c) The transverse distances, above the principal axis, are positive and the +x
principal axis are negative.
Negative Positive
(d) If condition (1) in sign conventions is followed, this sign convention
follows the right-hand Cartesian coordinate system. -y
The following rules are used for locating the image of an object by considering the reflection of three types of rays
based on laws of reflection:
(a) A ray incident parallel to the principal axis will pass through the principal focus after reflection in the case of
a concave mirror and will appear to originate from the focus in the case of a convex mirror.
(b) A ray that passes through the principal focus of a concave mirror, or that passes toward the principal focus of
a convex mirror, travels parallel to the principal axis after reflection.
(c) A ray that passes through the center of curvature of a concave mirror or toward the center of curvature of a
convex mirror is reflected from the mirror along the same path.
F At the principal
focus F or in the Real, inverted and
1 Infinity focal plane diminished
Image problem
F
Figure 16.23
Figure 16.24
P hysi cs | 16.9
Figure 16.25
Between C and
infinity Real, inverted and
4 Between F and C C F
magnified
Figure 16.26
Figure 16.27
Figure 16.28
Figure 16.29
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Image formed by a convex mirror is always virtual, erect and diminished; no matter where the object is
placed (except for virtual objects).
Anurag Saraf (JEE 2011 AIR 226)
1 6 . 1 0 | Geometrical Optics
1 100
P=
− Where ƒ is in metres =
− Where ƒ is in centimetres
ƒ ƒ
Illustration 5: A convex mirror has a radius of curvature of 20 cm. Find the position of the image of an object
placed at a distance of 12 cm from the mirror. (JEE MAIN)
1 1 2
Sol: The position of the image is found using formula + =.
u v R
According to sign convention, if the object is placed to the left side of
1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 11
We have, + = or = − = − =
u v R v R u 20 cm −12cm 60 cm
Figure 16.30
60
⇒ v = cm .
11
The positive sign of v shows that the image is formed on the right side of the mirror and is a virtual image.
1 1 1 1 1 −1 B
Using + = ⇒ − = ; ⇒ v=
−15cm
v u f v 30 10 A’
A'B' − v −15 A
Now, = = ; ⇒ A'B' =
−1cm
AB u −30 B’
An image formed by the first reflection will be real, inverted and diminished.
Figure 16.32
For a convex mirror,
1 1 1
u' = +15cm Using
−55cm, f = + =
v ' u' f '
55cm
1 1 1 A’ A’’
⇒ − = ⇒ v' =165 / 14cm
v ' 55 15
165 B’ B’’
A"B" v' 14 3
Now, =− = − ⇒ A"B" = ( −1 ) =−0.2cm Figure 16.33
A'B' u' ( )
−55 14
The final image will be virtual and diminished.
E
Illustration 7: An object ABED is placed in front of a concave B
mirror beyond the center of curvature C as shown in the Fig.
16.34. State the shape of the image. (JEE ADVANCE) A D C F
P
v AB < uAB and vED < uED , So, mAB < 1 and mED < 1 .
Illustration 8: A mirror with a radius of curvature of 20 cm and an object that is placed at a distance 15 cm from
the mirror both are moving with the velocities 1 m/s and 10 m/s as shown in the Fig. 16.36. Find the velocity of the
image. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: As the object and the mirror are moving away from each other with different speed, the magnification of the
v2
image will also change. The velocity of image will be Vim = − Vom .
u2 -1
1 1 2 1ms
The position of the image is found using formula + = .
u v R 10ms
-1
1 1 2 1 1 1
Using + = ⇒ − =− ⇒ v=−30cm
v u R v 15 10 o
15ms
2 2
v v
Now, using Vim =
− Vom ⇒ ( Vi − Vm ) =
− ( V0 − Vm )
u2 u 2
Figure 16.36
( −30 ) −10 − −1
2
⇒ V
=i − (1 ) 2
( ) ( ) 45 cm / s .
⇒ Vi =
( −15)
So the image will move with the velocity of 45 cm/s.
Illustration 9: A gun of mass m1 fires a bullet of mass m2 with a horizontal speed v0. The gun is fitted with a concave
mirror of focal length f facing toward a receding bullet. Find the speed of separations of the bullet and the image
just after the gun was fired. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: The bullet when leave the gun it moves in direction opposite the motion of gun. As there are no external
forces acting on the bullet, then the momentum of the system can be conserved. The velocity of image will be
v2
Vim = − Vom .
u2
Let v1 be the speed of the gun (or the mirror) just after the firing of bullet. From conservation of linear momentum,
m 2 v0 = m 1 v1 ⇒ v = m2 v 0 … (i)
1
m1
du
m1
Now, is the rate at which the distance between mirror and bullet is increasing
dt
= v +v
1 0 … (ii) V0 V1
dv v 2 du m2
We know that ∴ = .
dt u2 dt
v2 2 Figure 16.37
Here, = m = 1 (as at the time of firing bullet is at pole).
u2
dv du
∴ = v1 + v 0 .
= … (iii)
dt dt
dv
Here, is the rate at which the distance between the image (of bullet) and the mirror is increasing. Hence, if v 2
dt
is the absolute velocity of image (toward right), then
dv
v 2 − v1 = = v1 + v 0 ⇒ v 2 2v1 + v 0
= … (iv)
dt
Therefore, the speed of separation of the bullet and the image will be
vr = v 2 + v 0 = 2v1 + v 0 + v 0
v r 2 ( v1 + v 0 ) .
=
m
Substituting the value of v1 from Eq. (i), we have v r 2 1 + 2 v 0 .
=
m1
P hysi cs | 16.13
N N
A A
i Rarer i Denser
B B
S S’ S r S’
r Denser C
Rarer
N’ C N’
Figure 16.38
If the refracted ray bends toward the normal, then the second medium is said to be DENSER compared to the first,
and the speed decreases.
Deviation due to refraction δ = i−r .
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
In general, light will travel in straight lines and the deviation occurs only when there is a change of
medium (or refractive index (RI)).
B Rajiv Reddy (JEE 2012 AIR 11)
r n2,v2222
sin i sin i 1 µ v λ
= cons tant ; = µ2 = 2 = 1 = 1 .
sin r sin r µ1 v 2 λ2
Figure 16.39
1
µ2 = RI of the second medium with respect to the first medium;
RI = c v1 ;
v1 , v 2 are the speeds of light in the first and the second medium, respectively;
λ1 , λ2 are the wavelengths of light in the first and the second medium, respectively;
c=the speed of light in air (or vacuum) = 3x108 m/s.
1 6 . 1 4 | Geometrical Optics
Note:
(i) The higher the value of RI, the denser (optically) the medium is.
(ii) The frequency of light does not change during refraction.
(iii) The refractive index of the medium relative to air = µr εr .
Figure 16.40
The incident ray and emerging ray are parallel. It shows that the deviation of ray is not affected by the refractive
t sin ( i1 − i2 )
index of the sheet; it depends by µ1 and µ3 . µ2 only causes lateral displacement which is given by x = .
cosi2
At a glance:
i1 i1
1 B Rarer 1 B Denser
2 Denser 2 Rarer
i2
i1>i2 i1>i2
V2<V1 V2<V1
2<1 2<1
2<1 2<1
Figure 16.41
P hysi cs | 16.15
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
In general, the speed of light in any medium is less than that in vacuum. The refractive index µ of a
medium is defined as,
Speed of light in vaccum c
µ = .
Speed of light in medium v
Illustration 10: A light beam passes from medium 1 to medium 2. Show that the emerging beam is parallel to the
incident beam. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: When a ray of light enters from one medium to other medium of different refractive index, then according
µ sini
to Snell’s law we get 1 = where i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction. The first refracted
µ2 sinr
ray is incident on other surface. So the angle o incidence on the second surface is equal to the angle of refraction
from first surface.
Applying the Snell’s law at A and B, µ1 sini1 =
µ2 sini2
µ1 sini2 i3
Or = … (i)
µ2 sini1 i2
i2
Similarly, µ2 sini2 =
µ1 sini3
i1
µ1 sini2
∴ = … (ii)
µ2 sini3
1 2 1
From Eqs (i) and (ii) i3 = i1 ; i.e. the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.
Figure 16.42
Illustration 11: The refractive index of glass with respect to water is (9/8) and the refractive index of glass with
respect to air is (3/2). Find the refractive index of water with respect to air. (JEE MAIN)
µ2
Sol: The refractive index of medium one with respect to medium two is given by µ 2 = .
1 µ1
To find the refractive index of water with respect to air, we need to obtain the ratio between w µg and aµg
Given=
w µg and aµg 3 / 2 .
9/8=
As a µg × gµ w × w µa =1
1 a µg
∴ =aµ w =aµg ×g µ w =
w µa w µg
3/2 4
∴ a µw
= =
9/8 3
1 6 . 1 6 | Geometrical Optics
Illustration 12: (i) Find the speed of light of wavelength l = 780 nm (in air) in a medium of refractive index µ = 1.55.
(ii) What is the wavelength of this light in the given medium? (JEE MAIN)
c
Sol: In a medium of refractive index µ the velocity of wave is given by v = and the wavelength of wave is given
µ
λair
by λmedium =
µ
c 3.0 x108
(i) v= = = 1.94 x108 m / s
µ 1.55
λ 780
(ii) λmedium = air = =503nm .
µ 1.55
PO − PI PI 1
= PO − PI =
OI PO
= 1 − PO or, ∆t = 1 − t, where t is the thickness of the medium over
PO PO µ
the object, and ∆t is the apparent shift in its position toward the observer. Note that ∆t is positive in Fig16.43 (a)
and negative in Fig. 16.43 (b).
P hysi cs | 16.17
O
D x
C x
Air i
Air
Medium A B
i r A Medium
I
r
O
(a) ( b)
Figure 16.44
Illustration 13: A printed page is kept pressed by a glass cube ( µ =1.5 ) of edge 6.0 cm. By what amount will the
printed letters appear to be shifted when viewed from the top? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: As the glass of thickness t = 6 cm is kept on the page, the image of letter appears to be shifted closer to eye
1
by ∆t = 1 − t
µ
The thickness of the cube = t = 6.0 cm. The shift in its position of the printed letters is
1 1
∆t = 1 − × t = 1 − x6.0 cm = 2.0 cm .
µ 1.5
5.5 Shift Due to a Glass Slab (Double Refraction from Plane Surfaces)
(a) Normal Shift:
Proof: Let OA = x
t
Now, =d AB sin ( i=
− r) sin i cos r − cos i sin r
cos r t
Figure 16.46
or =d t sin i − cos i tan r ... (i)
sin i sin i
Further µ
= = or sin r
sir r µ
sini
∴ tanr =
µ − sin2 i
2
cos i
d t 1 −
Substituting in Eq. (i), we get= sin i .
µ 2
− sin2
i
6cm
Illustration 14: A point object O is placed in front of a concave
mirror of focal length 10 cm. A glass slab with a refractive
index of µ =3 / 2 and thickness of 6 cm is inserted between an
object and a mirror. Find the position of the final image when
the distance x shown in the Fig. 16.47 is: (a) 5cm (b) 20 cm
(JEE MAIN)
(i) When x = 5cm: The light falls on the slab on its return path as shown in the Fig. 16.48, but the slab will again
shift it by a distance of ∆x =2cm . Hence, the final real image is formed at a distance of (15+2) =17 cm from the
mirror.
P hysi cs | 16.19
15 cm
I
x
x
15 cm
Figure 16.48
(ii) When x = 20 cm: The final image is at a distance of 17 cm from the mirror in this case also, but it is virtual.
Illustration 16: A point source of light is placed at the bottom of a tank filled with water up to the level of 80 cm.
Find the area of the surface of water through which light from the source emerges out. Assume that the refractive
index is equal to 1.33. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: When light travels from a denser medium (water) to the rarer medium (air) for angle of incidence i greater than
1
critical angle, than by Snell’s law we get sin C = .
µ
Q P R
Let the light emerges out of a circular area of radius r as shown in the figure. 90
o
1
Step 1. Using sin C = , We get
n
1
sin
= C= 0.7513
1.33
1
=
∴ C sin–1−(0.7519)
∴ C = sin = 48.750
(0.7519)= 48.75°
3.14 x ( 91.2 ) =
2
πr 2 =
Step 3. ∴ Area through which light emerges out = 26116.76 cm2 =2.6m2 .
1 6 . 2 0 | Geometrical Optics
Illustration 17: The critical angle for water is 48.2°. Find its refractive index. (JEE MAIN)
1
Sol: By Snell’s law we get µ = .
sin C Denser
1 1 i> C O
=µ = = 1.34 . Rarer
sin θc sin48.2°
Day-to-day life: Due to heating of the earth, the refractive
index of air near the surface of the earth is lesser than
that above the earth. Light waves from a distant object
reach the surface of earth at an angle of i > θc , so that the
TIR will take place, and the image of an object creates an Mirage
illusion of water near the object. Figure 16.50
N
r
2
i
1 1
O P C I I C P
u V
u
Figure 16.51
µ2 µ1µ2 − µ1
The relation between u=OP and v=IP is given by − = .
v u R
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The relation is valid for a single spherical surface or plane refracting surfaces, and the sign convention
for the spherical mirrors and spherical refracting surfaces are the same.
µ2 µ1µ2 − µ1
The refraction formula − = can also be applied to plane refraction surfaces with R = ∞.
v u R
dactual
Let us derive dapp = using this.
µ
µ2 µ1µ2 − µ1
Applying − = with proper sign and values, we get
v u R
P hysi cs | 16.21
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
1 µ 1−µ d
− = = 0 or v =
−
v −d ∞ µ R= 2
+ve
d 1
i.e. the image of object O is formed at a distance on the
same side. µ
d
dactual
or dapp = .
µ
O
Figure 16.52
Illustration 18: A sunshine recorder globe of 30 cm diameter is made of glass of refractive index n = 1.5. A ray of
light enters the globe parallel to the axis. Find the position from the center of the sphere where the ray crosses the
principle axis. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: As the light enters from air to the globe of refractive index n than for the refraction at the surface we have
µ1 µ2µ2 − µ1
relation + = .
u v R
First refraction (from the rarer to the denser medium): Here, u = −∞ , n2 = 1.5, R = +15cm .
n2 n1n2 − n1
Using the relation, + =
v u R
n2 n2 − n1 n1
i.e. = +
v R u P₁ C P₂ I’ I₁
R
1.5 1.5 − 1 1 1 u’
⇒ = + = ;
v 15 ( −∞ ) 30 V
⇒ v = 45cm . Figure 16.53
∴ Distance at which the image is formed from the center of the globe is (15+7.5) =22.5 cm.
Illustration 19: Locate the image of a point object O in the situation shown in the figure. Point C denotes the
center of curvature of the separating surface. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: According to the sign convention as the object is placed left to the pole, the distance of it is considered to be
µ2 µ1µ2 − µ1
negative. Using the formula − = we get the distance of image from the centre of curvature.
v u R
1 6 . 2 2 | Geometrical Optics
we have 3 / 2 − 4 / 3 =
3/2−4 /3
AI1 −20 10
+ve
or AI1 = −30cm .
Now, the first image I1 acts an object for the second surface, Figure 16.56
where
BI1 =
u= −50cm .
−(30 + 20) =
4 /3 3/2 4 /3−3/2 .
∴ − = N
BI2 −50 −10 M
P
−100 cm, i.e. the final image I2 is virtual
∴ BI2 =
and is formed at a distance of 100 cm (toward
left) from B. The ray diagram is shown in the I2 I1 O A C B
figure.
20 cm
The following points should be taken into
30 cm
account while drawing the ray diagram.
100 cm
(i) At P, the ray travels from a rarer to a denser
medium. Hence, it will bend toward normal PC. Figure 16.57
At M, it travels from a denser to a rarer medium
and hence moves away from normal MC.
(ii) PM ray when extended backward meets at I1
, and MN ray when extended meets at I2 .
P hysi cs | 16.23
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Here, v is +ve, u is −ve, hi is −ve, h0 is +ve (the distances measured above the axis are positive). So, if we
µ v
put these sign conventions, in Eq. (vi), we obtain the same result m = 1 .
µ2 u
Chinmay S Purandare (JEE 2012 AIR 698)
⇒ v = −32cm.
h2 µ1 v h2 −32cm
The magnification is =
m = or = + 6.0 cm. .
⇒ h2 =
h1 µ2u 1.0cm 1.33x( −40cm)
The image is erect.
1 6 . 2 4 | Geometrical Optics
Figure 16.60
C1 O
F
C2 O
C1 C2
Figure 16.61
The optical center, O, of a lens is a point through which the ray does not get deviated. The principal axis is a line
passing through the center (s) of curvature and the optical center. If the object is at infinity, the image is formed at
the principal focus and vice versa. The focal length is the distance between the optical center of a lens and a point
on which a parallel beam of light converges or appears to converge. The aperture of a lens is the effective diameter
of its light-transmitting area. The intensity of the image is directly proportional to the square of the aperture.
Figure 16.62
Figure 16.63
Figure 16.64
Figure 16.65
Figure 16.66
Figure 16.67
First focus (F1): If an object (real in case of a convex, virtual for concave) is placed at the first focus (F1), the image
of this object is formed at infinity, or we can say through F1 it becomes parallel to the principal axis after refraction
from the lens. The distance from the first focal length is ƒ1 .
Incident light
P P F1
F1
+ve
First focus
Second focus
P F2 F2 P
Figure 16.68
Second focus or principal focus ( F2 ): A narrow beam of light that travels parallel to the principal axis either
converge (in case of a convex lens) or diverge (in case of a concave lens) at a refraction (r) from the lens. This point
F2 is called the second or principal focus. If the rays converge, the lens is a converging lens, and if the rays diverge,
then the lens is a diverging lens. It can be seen from the Fig. 16.68 that ƒ1 is negative for a convex lens and positive
for a concave lens. But ƒ 2 is positive for a convex lens and negative for a concave lens.
ƒ1 =ƒ 2 if the media on the two sides of a thin lens have the same refractive index.
We mainly concern with the second focus ƒ 2 . Thus, wherever we write the focal length ƒ, it means the second or
principal focal length. Therefore, ƒ = ƒ 2 and, hence, ƒ is positive for a convex lens and negative for a concave lens.
If an object is in a medium of refractive index µ1 at a distance u from the optical center of a lens having radii of
curvature R1 and R2 and of refractive index µ2 , its image is formed at a distance v from the optical center, then
1 1 µ2 1 1
− = − 1
− .
v u µ1 R1 R 2
1 1 1 µ2 1 1
If is the focal length of the lens, then = − = − 1
− .
ƒ v u µ1 R1 R 2
P hysi cs | 16.27
•• If µ is the refractive index of the material the lens is made of with respect to the surrounding medium air,
1 1 1 1 1
then = − = ( µ − 1 ) − .
ƒ v u R1 R 2
•• If I and O are the lateral or transverse size of the image and object, respectively, the magnification m is given
I v
by, m = = .
O u
1 100
•• The power P of the lens is given by=
P = dioptre.
ƒ(m) ƒ(cm)
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
R
The focal length of a mirror ƒM = depends only on the radius of
2
curvature R, while that of a lens depends on µ1 , µ2 ,R1 and R 2 . Thus,
when a lens and a mirror both are immersed in a liquid, the focal
length lens changes, whereas that of the mirror remains unchanged.
Suppose µ2 < µ1 , i.e. the refractive index of the medium (in which
the lens is placed) is more than the refractive index of the material Figure 16.71
µ2
the lens is made of, then − 1 becomes negative, i.e. the lens’
µ1
behavior changes. A converging lens behaves as a diverging lens and vice versa. An air bubble in water
Illustration 22: The focal length of a convex lens in air is 10 cm. Find its focal length in water. Assume
=µg 3 / 2 and
= µ w 4 / 3 (JEE MAIN)
1 1
Sol: The focal length of lens is given by
1 1 1
= − =
f v u
( 1µ
2
)
− 1 − .
R1 R 2
1
ƒ air
(
= µg − 1 ) R1 − R1 ... (i)
1 2
1 µg 1 1
and = − 1 − ... (ii)
ƒ water µw R1 R 2
O
Illustration 23: An image I of point object O is formed by a lens whose
optical axis is AB as shown in the Fig. 16.72.
(a) State whether it is a convex or a concave lens? A B
(b) Draw a ray diagram to locate the lens and its focus. i
Figure 16.72
(JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: For the convex lens, the image of the object is real, formed on the opposite site and is always inverted while
for concave lens the image of an object is always virtual, erect and on the same side of object.
(a) (i) A concave lens always forms an erect image. The given
image I is on the other side of the optical axis. Hence, the lens O M
is convex. F
A
(ii) Join O with I. Line OI cuts the optical axis AB at pole P of the
B
P
lens. The dotted line shows the position of the lens.
I
Then, draw a line parallel to AB from point O. It cuts the dotted line
at M and join M with I. Line MI cuts the optical axis at focus (F) of
Figure 16.73
the lens.
Illustration 24: Find the distance of an object from a convex lens if image is magnified two times the actual size.
The focal length of the lens is 10 cm. (JEE MAIN)
1 1 1
Sol: For the convex lens, the position of the object from the lens is given by − =.
v u ƒ
A convex lens forms both type of images, i.e. real and virtual. Since the type of the image is not mentioned here,
we have to consider both the cases.
When the image is real: In this case, v is positive and u is negative with v = 2 u .
1 1 1
Substituting in − =,
v u ƒ
P hysi cs | 16.29
1 1 1 3 1
We get + = or =
2x x 10 2x 10
∴ x=15cm
x =15 cm; it implies that the object lies between F and 2F.
When the image is virtual: In this case, v and u both are negative. So let, u = − y then v = −2y and ƒ = 10cm .
1 1 1 1 1 1
Substituting in − = We get, + =
v u ƒ −2y y 10
1 1
or = ; ∴ y=5cm.
2y 10
y=5 cm; it implies that the object lies between F and P.
1 1 1
We have − = ⇒ u2 − du + df =
0
d − u −u ƒ
d ± d ( d − 4f )
∴ u=
2
Now, there are following possibilities:
(i) If d<4 ƒ , then u is imaginary.
d
(ii) If d=4 ƒ , then u= = 2ƒ . Hence, there is only one possible position and the minimum distance between an
2
object and its real image in case of a convex lens is 4 f .
d + d ( d − 4ƒ ) d − d ( d − 4ƒ )
(iii) If d > 4ƒ , there are two possible positions of lens at distances and , for which
an real image is formed on the screen. 2 2
(iv) If I1 is the image length in the first position of the object and I2 is the image length in the second position, then
d − d ( d − 4ƒ ) d + d ( d − 4ƒ )
u2 = ∴ v1 =d − u2 =
2 2
I1 I2 v1 v2
Now m=
1m2 =x x
O O u1 u2
I1 I2
Substituting the values, we=
get 1=or O I1 I2
O2
When two lenses of focal lengths ƒ1 and ƒ 2 are kept distance d apart from each other, the focal length of this
combination is given by 1 = 1 + 1 − d
F ƒl ƒ2 ƒl ƒ 2
1 1 1 d/µ
If there is a medium of refractive index µ between the lenses, the equivalent focal length F is = + − .
F ƒl ƒ 2 ƒl ƒ 2
1 n 1
Note: When more than two lenses in contact, the equivalent focal length is given by the formula, = ∑
F i=1 ƒ i
Here, ƒ1, ƒ 2 , … should be substituted with their respective signs.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
A lens made of three different materials has three focal lengths. Thus, for a given object, there are three
images.
1
R R f 2
or 2f 2f
3
f
Figure 16.76
P hysi cs | 16.31
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Memory zone
f f f f
In contact In contact
(A) (B)
Figure 16.77
f
(A) The resultant focal length in this case is .
2
(B) The resultant focal length in this case is ∞. This is because the optical axes of both parts have been
inverted.
Anurag Saraf (JEE 2011 AIR 226)
Illustration 25: A double concave lens made up of glass of refractive index 1.6 has radii of curvature of 40 cm and
60 cm. Calculate its focal length in air. (JEE MAIN)
1 1
of glass with respect to air.
1
Sol: For double concave lens, the focal length is given by =
ƒ
( α
)
µg − 1 − where aµg = n is refractive index
R1 R 2
11 11 11
Using the relation (n
=
=(n−−1)
1) −− .HereR
.HereR11 =
−−40cm,
= 40cm,RR22 =
++60cm
= 60cmand 1.6 .
and xx =
1.6
=
ƒƒ RR11 RR22
1 1 1 60 + 40 1
We get (1.6 1)
=− − =− 0.6 =−
ƒ −40 60 60x40 40
i.e. ƒ = −40 cm .
2
Illustration 26: A biconvex lens has a focal length times the radius of curvature of either surface. Calculate
refractive index of lens material. 3 (JEE MAIN)
1 1 1
Sol: The biconvex or double convex lens, we can find the refractive index of material using (n − 1)
= − .
ƒ R1 R 2
2
Here,=
ƒ R= R1 R = and R 2 R .
3
1 1 1 3 1 1 2(n − 1)
Using =(n − 1) − , we get =(n − 1) + =
ƒ R
1 R 2 2R R R R
3 3 7
⇒ (n − 1 ) = 4
or n = + 1 = = 1.75 .
4 4
Illustration 27: A glass convex lens has a power of 10.0 D. When this lens is fully immersed in a liquid, it acts a
concave lens of focal length 50 cm. Calculate the refractive index of the liquid (Assume aµg =1.5 ).
(JEE ADVANCED)
1 6 . 3 2 | Geometrical Optics
1 1
Sol: Power of convex lens is given by P =
100
f
1
where =
ƒ
( a
)
µg − 1 − . When lens is immersed inside the
R1 R 2
1 µg 1
a
1
liquid, it now behaves as concave lens thus the focal length of the lens is given as = a − 1 −
f µ R1 R 2
l
100 100
P
= f
∴= = 10 cm .
ƒ(in cm) 10
1 1
Now
1
ƒ
= ( µ − 1) R1 − R1 ;
a
g
1 2
1
10
= 0.5 −
R1 R 2
1 1 1
∴ − = ... (i)
R1 R 2 5
When fully immersed in a liquid, ƒ = −50 cm
1 µg 1 1 µg 1
a a
∴ −= − 1 − = − 1 x
50 a µ R1 R 2 a µ 5
l l
a a
µg 1 µg 1 9 a 10 a 10
∴ − 1 =− ; or =− + 1 = or µl = × µg = ×1.5 =1.67
a
µl 10 a
µl 10 10 9 9
Illustration 28: A thin plano-convex lens of focal length ƒ is split into two halves. One
of the halves is shifted along the optical axis as shown in the Fig. 16.78. The separation
between the object and image planes is 1.8 m. The magnification of the image formed
by one of the half lens is 2. Find the focal length of the lens and the distance between
the two halves. Draw the ray diagram of image formation. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: When the lens is cut in two halves along principle axis, the focal length of both the
halves is equal as the original len.
1.8 m
For both the halves, the position of the object and the image is same. There is difference
Figure 16.78
only in magnification. Magnification for one of the halves is given as 2 (>1). This is the
=v / u 2=
or v 2u
Let u =
− x, then v=
+2x
and u + v =
1.8m .
d
=i.e. 3x 1.8m
= or x 0.6m
B1
Hence, u=−0.6m and v= +1.2m f=0.4m
1 f=0.4m
1 1 1 1 1 1 B2
Using = − = − = ƒ =0.4m A (A1,A2)
ƒ v u 1.2 −0.6 0.4
1 1 1 2
For the second half,
= −
ƒ 1.2 − d −(0.6 + d) B
1 1 1
or = + .
0.4 1.2 − d (0.6 + d)
0.6 m 0.6 m 0.6 m
By solving this, we get d = 0.6m Figure 16.79
P hysi cs | 16.33
v 0.6 1
Magnification for the second half will be m2 = = = − ,
u −(1.2) 2
v 1.2
and for the first half is m1 = = = −2
u −(0.6)
Illustration 29: A converging lens of focal length 5.0 cm is placed in contact with a diverging lens of focal length
10.0 cm. Find the combined focal length of the system. (JEE MAIN)
1
Sol: The focal length of the combination of lenses is given by = 1 1
+
F ƒ1 ƒ 2
Here, ƒ1 =+5.0cm and ƒ 2 =−10.0cm
i.e. this combination behaves as a converging lens of focal length 10.0 cm.
f1 f2
Figure 16.80
The shorter the focal length of a lens (or a mirror), the more it converges or diverges light. As shown in the Fig.
16.80, ƒ1 < ƒ 2 , and hence, the power P1 > P2, because bending of the light ray in case 1 is more than that in case
2. For a lens,
1 −1
P ( in dioptre) = , and for a mirror, P ( in dioptre) =
ƒ (metre) ƒ (metre)
At a glance:
Figure 16.81
1 6 . 3 4 | Geometrical Optics
Figure 16.82
Diverging
Concave lens −ve −ve
Figure 16.83
Figure 16.84
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Both convex lens and concave mirror have positive power and are converging in nature, whereas both
concave lens and convex mirror have negative power and are diverging in nature.
Vaibhav Krishnan (JEE 2009 AIR 22)
4
Illustration 30: A spherical convex surface separates an object and an image space of refractive index 1.0 and .
3
If the radius of curvature of the surface is 10 cm, find its power. (JEE ADVANCED)
1
Sol: For the convex lens power of magnification is given by P = 40 cm
f
1 µ2 1 1
where = − 1
−
f µ1 R1 R 2
We have to find where do the parallel rays converge (or diverge) on
the principal axis and call it the focus and the corresponding length F
is the focal length.
1 2
µ2 µ1
µ2 − µ1
Using − = .
v u R Figure 16.85
P hysi cs | 16.35
4 / 3 1.0 4 / 3 − 1.0
With proper values and signs, we have −= ; or
= ƒ 40cm
= 0.4m
ƒ ∞ +10
Since, the rays are converging, its power should be positive. Hence,
+1 1
P ( in=
dioptre) = ; or P 2.5 dioptre
=
ƒ (metre) 0.4
Illustration 31: Two lenses of focal length 20 cm and −25cm are placed in contact. Find the total power of this
combination. (JEE MAIN)
100 100
ƒ=
1 20cm, ƒ=
2 −25cm ; ∴ P=
1 = = 5D
ƒ1 20
100
P2 = =−4D ; ∴ P =P1 + P2 =5 − 4 =1.0 D
−25
8. PRISM
The figure shows the cross section of a prism. AB and AC represent the refracting surfaces. The angle BAC is
the angle of the prism. Assume that the prism is placed in air. A ray PQ, incident on a refracting surface AB,
gets refracted along QR. The angle of incidence and A
the angle of refraction are i and r, respectively. The ray
QR is incident on the surface AC. Here, the light travels U
from an optically denser medium to an optically rarer T
medium. If the angle of incidence r’ is not greater than
the critical angle, then the ray is refracted in air along I r r’ I’
RS. The angle of refraction is i’. The angle i’ is also called Q R
the angle of emergence. If the prism were not present, V
the incident ray would have passed un-deviated along P S
PQTU. Due to the presence of the prism, the final ray B C
travels along RS. The angle UTS= δ is called angle of Figure 16.86
deviation. From triangle TQR,
I I’ m
Q R
S
i₁=i₂ i1
R₁=R₂
Figure 16.87
8.2 Relation between the Refractive index and the Angle of Minimum Deviation
Let the angle of minimum deviation be δm . For a minimum deviation, i=i’ and r=r’.
We have δm = i + i'− A = 2i − A
A + δm
or i = ... (i)
2
Also r + r' =A; or r = A/2 ... (ii)
sin i
The refractive index is µ= .
sin r
A + δm
sin
µ= 2
Using (i) and (ii) .
A
sin
2
If the angle of prism A is small, δm is also small. Then, the equation becomes
A + δm
µ =
2
A
⇒ δm = ( µ − 1) A .
2
Illustration 32: The angle of minimum deviation from a prism is 37°. If the angle of prism is 53°, find the refractive
index of the material of the prism. (JEE MAIN)
A + δm
sin
Sol: For prism, the refractive angle is given by µ = 2
A
sin
2
A + δm 530 + 370
sin sin
2 2 sin 450
= µ = = = 1.58 .
A 53 0
sin 26.50
sin sin
2 2
P hysi cs | 16.37
Illustration 33: A ray of light passes through a glass prism such that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of emergence. If the angle of emergence is ¾ times the angle of the prism, then calculate the angle of deviation
when the angle of prism is 30°. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: For prism, we have relation i + e= A + δ, where i and e are angle of incidence and emergence respectively. A
is angle of prism and δ is angle of minimum deviation
3
Given that i=e, e = 30° .
= A and A
4
Using the relation i + e= A + δ, we get δ =i + e − A =e + e − A =2e − A
3
= 2 x A − A
= 0.5A 0
= 0.5 X 30= 150 .
4
Now, r1 will be maximum when iI is maximum, and the maximum value of iI is 90°
sin ( iI ) sin900
Hence,
= µ = max
sin (rI ) sin (r1 )
max max
max
1
sir (rI ) = = sin θc ; ∴
µ
(rI )max = θc .
Now, if the minimum value of r2 is greater than θC, then obviously all the values of r2 will be greater than θC and TIR
will take place under all the conditions. Thus, the condition of no emergence is,
(r2 )min > θc or A − θc > θc …. (xii)
or A > 2θc .
A
K
M i2
i1 r1 r2 N
B C
Figure 16.88
1 6 . 3 8 | Geometrical Optics
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Equation r1 + r2 =
A can be applied at any of the three vertices. For example in the Fig. 16.89, r1 + r2 =
B.
r1
r2
B C
Figure 16.89
Anand K (JEE 2011 AIR 47)
9. DISPERSION OF LIGHT
When a beam of white light that consists of spectrum of various wavelengths D
ranging from long wavelengths in red color to short wavelengths in violet color
passes through a prism, it is split into its constituent colors. This phenomenon
is called dispersion. The dispersion of light takes place because the refractive
R
O
Y
G
index µ of a medium depends upon the wavelength λ of light according to the B C B
I
V
B
Cauchy’s relation µ A + 2 , where µ is maximum for violet and minimum for Figure 16.90
λ
red color.
Voilet
9.2 Dispersive Powers Figure 16.91
The ratio of the angle of dispersion to the angle of deviation of the mean yellow color, δ, of the ray produced by
any prism is called the dispersive power ω of the material of the prism
δ − δR
Dispersive power = ω = v .
δ
µ − µR
Also, = ω = v , where µ v , µR and µ are the refractive indices of violet, red and mean yellow colors respectively.
µ −1
For the two prisms of angle A and A’ and refractive indices for violet and red colors µv , µR and µv ' µR ', respectively,
( ) (
the net dispersion = µ v − µR A + µ v '− µR ' A' = 0 )
P hysi cs | 16.39
A' = −
( µ v − µR ) A
( µ 'v − µ 'R )
If ω and ω’ are dispersive powers of these prisms, and δ and δ ' are their mean deviations, then
ωδ+ω’δ’=0.
Illustration 34: The angle of a prism is A, and its one surface is coated with silver.
A light ray falling at an angle of incidence 2A on the first surface returns back A
A
through the same path after suffering reflection at the second silvered surface. 90-
2A
Find the refractive index of material. (JEE MAIN) A
sin i
Sol: According to Snell’s law we have µ = . And the angle of refraction r
=90-i sin r
Figure 16.92
Illustration 35: A crown glass prism of angle 5° is to be combined with a glass prism in such a way that the mean
ray passes undeviated. Find (i) the angle of the flint glass prism needed and (ii) the angular dispersion produced
by the combination when white light passes through it. Refractive indices for red, yellow and violet color light are
1.514, 1.523, respectively, for crown glass and 1.613, 1.620 and 1.632, respectively, for flint glass.
(JEE ADVANCED)
( )
Sol: For the angle of minimum deviation, we have the relation δ = µ − 1 A . As prism of two different materials are
δ'
joined together, the ratio gives the angle of minimum deviation for flint glass is obtained.
δ
The deviation produced by the crown prism is δ = ( µ − 1) A , and by the flint prism is δ ' = ( µ '− 1) A' .
The prisms are placed at their inverted angles with respect to each other. The deviations are also in opposite
directions. Thus, the net deviation is
D = δ − δ ' = ( µ − 1 ) A − ( µ '− 1 ) A' … (i)
(
(i) If the net deviation for the mean ray is zero, µ − 1 A = ) (µ '− 1) A'
or A'
=
(µ −= 1)
A
1.517 − 1 0
= x5 4.20 .
( µ '− 1 ) 1.620 − 1
1 6 . 4 0 | Geometrical Optics
(ii) The angular dispersion produced by the crown prism is δ v − δr = (µv − µr ) A , and that by the flint prism is
δ 'v − δ 'r = ( µ 'v − µ 'r ) A' .
Illustration 36: An isosceles glass prism has one of its faces coated with silver. A
A ray of light is incident normally on the other face (which has an equal size to
the silvered face). The ray of light is reflected twice on the same-sized faces and 180-20
then emerges through the base of the prism perpendicularly. Find the angles
of prism. D
(JEE ADVANCED) r₂ E
Sol: The angles of prism add up to 180o. r₂
(c) Either using a lens of large focal length or using a specially designed aplanatic lens, crossed lens or parabolic
reflectors.
ω1 ω2 ω1 ƒ
+ 0
= or − 1 ,
=
ƒ1 ƒ2 ω2 ƒ2
µ v − µr
where dispersive=
power ω and µ v , µr and µ are respective indices for wavelengths of violet, red and
µ −1
mean yellow colors of white light.
The nearest point at which the image can be formed on the retina is called the near point of the eye. The distance
of the near point from the eye is called the least distance for clear vision. This varies from person to person and
with age. At a young age (say below 10 years), the muscles are strong and flexible and can bear more strain. The
near point may be as close as 7−8 cm at this age. In old age, the muscles cannot bear more strain and the near
point shifts to large values, say 1 to 2 m or even more. We shall discuss about these defects of vision and use
of glasses in a later section. The average value of the least distance for clear vision for a normal eye is generally
25 cm.
Illustration 37: Two boys, the one is 52 inches tall and the other 55 inches tall, are standing at distances 4.0 m and
5.0 m, respectively, from an human eye. Which boy will appear taller? (JEE MAIN)
height of object
Sol: The angle subtended by any object is given by α = .
Dis tance of object from observer
The boy which subtends the larger angle will appear taller.
52inch
The angle subtended by the first boy on the eye is=
α1 = 13inch / m .
4.0m
52inch
And the angle subtended by the second boy is =
α2 = 11inch / m .
5.0m
As α1 > α2 , the first boy will look taller when seen through the eye.
This angle can further be increased if a converging lens of short focal length that is called a simple microscope or
a magnifier is placed just in front of the eye.
h o h
F F uo
D
f D
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 16.97
Suppose, the lens has a focal length ƒ that is lesser than D and let us move the object to the first focal point F. The
eye receives the rays that come from infinity. The actual size of the image is infinite, but the angle subtended on
the lens (and hence on the eye) is
h
θ = … (ii)
ƒ
As ƒ < D, Eqs (i) and (ii) show that θ > θ0 . Hence, the eye perceives a larger image than it could have had without
the microscope. Because the image is occurred at infinity, the ciliary muscles are least strained to focus the final
image on the retina. This is called normal adjustment. The magnifying power of a microscope is θ / θ0 , where θ
is the angle subtended by the image on the eye when the microscope is used, and θ0 is the angle subtended on
the naked eye when the object is placed at the near point. This is also known as the angular magnification. Thus,
the magnifying power is a factor by which the image on the retina can be enlarged by using the microscope.
In the normal adjustment, the magnifying power of a simple microscope is by Eqs. (i) and (ii),
θ h/ƒ D
m
= = or m
=
θ0 h / D ƒ
The angle subtended by the image on the lens (and hence on the eye) is θ ' =h
u0
In this case, the angular magnification or magnifying power is
θ ' h / u0 D D
m= = = = 1+
θ0 h / D u0 ƒ
The above equations show that the magnification is high when the focal length ƒ is small. However, due to
several other aberrations, the image becomes too defective at a large magnification with simple microscope.
Approximately, a magnification up to 4 is trouble-free.
The magnifying power is measured in a unit X; therefore, if a magnifier produces an angular magnification of 10,
it is called as 10 X magnifier.
1 6 . 4 4 | Geometrical Optics
Eyepiece
Vo Uo
uo fo
h F
’
h’
Objective
Image
Figure 16.98
The object is placed at a distance u0 from the objective which is slightly greater than its focal length ƒ 0 . A real
image and an inverted image are formed at a distance v0 on the other side of the objective. This image becomes
the object for the eyepiece. For normal adjustment, the position of the eyepiece is adjusted such that the image
formed by the objective falls in the focal plane of the eyepiece. Then, the final image is formed at infinity. It is
erect with respect to the first image and, hence, inverted with respect to the object. The eye is least strained in this
adjustment as it has to focus the parallel rays coming toward it. The position of the eyepiece can also be adjusted
in such a way that the final virtual image is formed at the near point. The angular magnification is increased in this
case. The ray diagram in the Fig. 16.98 refers to this case.
The eyepiece acts as a simple microscope effectively used to view the first image. Thus, the magnification by a
compound microscope is a two-step process. In the first step, the objective produces a magnified image of the
given object. In the second step, the eyepiece produces an angular magnification. The overall angular magnification
is the product of the two.
Magnifying power
Refer to the figure, if an object of height h is seen by the naked eye and placed at the near point, the largest image
h
is formed on the retina. The angle formed by the object on the eye in this situation is θ0 = . … (i)
D
When a compound microscope is used, the final image subtends an angle θ’ on the eyepiece (and hence on the
h'
eye) given by θ ' = (ii)
ue '
Where h’ is the height of the first image, and ue is the distance between the first image and the eyepiece.
The magnifying power of the compound microscope is, therefore,
h' v v
Also from the figure − 0 =
= … (iv)
h u0 u
Now, D/ue is the magnifying power of the eyepiece that acts as a simple microscope. Using the equations given
above, in normal adjustment, this value becomes D / ƒ e when the image is formed at infinity and 1 + D / ƒ e
when the image is formed at the least distance for clear vision, i.e. at D. Thus, for the normal adjustment, the
v D
magnifying power of the compound microscope is, by Eq. (iii), m = when the image is formed at infinity
u ƒ e
v D
and is=
m 1 + when the final image is formed at the least distance for clear vision.
u ƒ e
Illustration 38: A compound microscope has an objective of focal length 1 cm and an eyepiece of focal length 2.5
cm. An object has to be placed at a distance of 1.2 cm away from the objective for normal adjustment.
(i) Find the angular magnification.
(ii) Find the length of the microscope tube. (JEE ADVANCED)
1 1 1
Sol: As the objective lens of microscope is convex lens, the focal length is obtained as = − and magnification
f v u
v
is m = . The length of microscopic tube is given as L = v + ƒ e where v is the distance of image formed by objective.
u
(i) If the first image is formed at a distance v from the objective, we get
1 1 1
− = or,
= v 6 cm.
v ( −1.2cm) 1cm
v D 6cm 25cm
The angular magnification in normal adjustment is m =
=− . −50 .
=
u ƒe 1.2cm 2.5cm
(ii) For normal adjustment, the first image must be in the focal plane of the eyepiece. The length of the tube is,
therefore, L = v + ƒ e =6 cm + 2.5 cm = 8.5 cm.
14. TELESCOPES
A microscope is used to view the object placed close to it, i.e. within few centimeters. To look at the distant objects
such as stars, planets and a distant tree, we use telescope. There are three types of telescopes that are used.
1 6 . 4 6 | Geometrical Optics
’
P’ E
P P’’ O ’
Q’
Figure 16.99
The telescope consists of two converging lenses placed coaxially. The one that faces the distant object is called the
objective, and it has larger aperture and focal length. The other is called the eyepiece, as it is placed closer to the
eye and has smaller aperture and focal length. The lenses are fixed in tubes. The eyepiece tube can slide within the
objective tube so that the distance between the objective and the eyepiece can be changed.
When the telescope is directed toward a distant object PQ, the objective forms a real image of that object in its
focal plane. If the point P is on the principal axis, the image point P’ is at the second focus of the objective. The
rays from Q are focused at Q’. The eyepiece forms a magnified virtual image P”Q” of P’Q’. This image is finally seen
by the eye. In normal adjustment, the position is adjusted such that the final image is formed at infinity. In such a
case, the first image P’Q’ is formed in the first focal plane of the eyepiece. The eye is least strained to focus this final
image. The image can be brought closer by pushing the eyepiece closer to the first image. A maximum angular
magnification is produced when the final image is formed at the near point.
Magnifying Power
Let the objective and the eyepiece have focal lengths ƒ 0 and ƒ e , respectively, and the object is placed at a large
distance u0 from the objective. The object PQ in the Fig. 16.99 subtends an angle α on the objective. Since the
object is at infinity, the angle it would subtend on the eye, if there were no telescope, is α’.
As u0 is very large, the first image P’Q’ is formed in the focal plane of the objective.
P'Q' P'Q'
From the figure α = α ' ≈ tan α ' = = ... (i)
OP' ƒ0
The final image P”Q” subtends an angle β on the eyepiece (and hence on the eye). From the triangle P’Q’E,,
P'Q' β ƒ0
β ≈ tan β= ⇒ = ... (ii)
EP' α EP'
If the telescope is adjusted for normal adjustment so that the final image is formed at infinity, the first image P’Q’
must be in the focal plane of the eyepiece.
Then ΕΡ ' = ƒ e .
β ƒ
Thus, Eq. (ii) becomes = 0 . … (iii)
α ƒe
The angles β and α are formed on the opposite sides of the axis. Hence, the signs of these angles are opposite,
β β
and β / α is negative. Hence, m = = − .
α α
ƒ
Using Eq. (iii), m = − 0 .
ƒe
If the telescope is adjusted so that the final image is formed at the near point of the eye, the angular magnification
is further increased. Let us apply the lens equation to the eyepiece in this case.
Here, u = −EP’ and v =−EP” = −D.
1 1 1
The lens equation is − =
v u ƒ
1 1 1 1 1 1 ƒe + D
⇒ − = ⇒ = + = . ... (iv)
−D −EP' ƒ e −EP' ƒ e D ƒeD
β ƒ0 ( ƒe + D )
By Eq. (ii), =
α ƒeD
β β ƒ0 ( ƒe + D ) ƒ ƒ
The magnification is m = =
− =
− − 0 1 + e
=
α α ƒeD ƒe D
For normal adjustment, Ρ ' Ε = ƒ e so that L = ƒ 0 + ƒ e . For adjustment for the near-point vision, we get, by Eq. (iv),
ƒe ƒeD
Ρ'Ε = , so that the length is L =ƒ 0 + .
ƒe + D ƒe + D
muscles are strained, the curvature of the lens increases and the focal length decreases. For clear vision, the image
must be formed on the retina. The image distance is, therefore, fixed for clear vision, and it equals the distance of
the retina from the eye lens. It is about 2.5 cm for a grown-up person. If we apply the lens formula to the eye, the
magnitudes of the object distance, the image distance and the effective focal length satisfy
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = or = − ... (i)
v 0 u0 ƒ u0 ƒ v 0
Here, v0 is fixed, and hence by changing ƒ , the eye is focused on the objects placed at different values of u0. We
see from Eq. (i) that when ƒ increases, u0 increases, and when ƒ decreases, u0 decreases. The maximum distance
one can see is
1 1 1
= − , ... (ii)
umax ƒmax v 0
where ƒmax is the maximum focal length possible for the eye lens.
The focal length is maximum when the ciliary muscles are fully relaxed. In a normal eye, this focal length equals the
distance v0 from the lens to the retina. Thus,
v0 =
ƒmax by (ii) , umax =
∞.
Theoretically, a person can have clear vision of the objects placed at any large distance from the eye. For the closer
objects, u is smaller, and hence, f should be smaller. The smallest distance at which a person can have a clear vision
is related to the minimum possible focal length ƒ . The ciliary muscles are most strained in this position. By Eq. (ii),
the closest distance for clear vision is given by
1 1 1
= − . ... (iii)
umin ƒmin v 0
For an average grown-up person, umin should be around 25 cm or
less. This is a convenient distance at which one can hold an object in
his/her hand and can see. Thus, a normal eye can clearly see objects
placed in the range from about 25 cm from the eye to a large distance
of the order of several kilometers. The nearest point and the farthest
point up to which an eye can clearly see are called the near point and
the far point. For a normal eye, the distance of the near point should
be around 25 cm or less, and the far point should be at infinity. We (A) Defective-eye
now describe some common defects of vision.
Figure 16.100
By the eye lens, real, inverted and diminished image is formed
at retina.
The common defects of vision are as follows:
(a) Myopia or short sightedness: The distant objects are not
clearly visible in this defect. The image of a distant object
is formed before the retina.
The defect can be remedied by using a concave lens. (B) Defective-eye
Figure 16.101
Illustration 39: A nearsighted man can clearly see the objects up to a distance of 1.5 m. Calculate the power of the
lens of the spectacles necessary for the remedy of this defect. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: As the man has near sighted vision, he need to wear concave lens which can form virtual and erect images.
1
The power of magnification of lens is P = .
ƒ
P hysi cs | 16.49
The lens should form a virtual image of a distant object at 1.5 m from the lens. Thus, it should be a divergent
(b) Hypermetropia or far sightedness: The near objects are not clearly visible in this defect. The image of a near
object is formed behind the retina.
I
O
Figure 16.102
(c) Presbyopia: In this defect, both near and far objects are not clearly visible. This is remedied either by using
two separate lenses or by using a single spectacle having bifocal lenses.
(d) Astigmatism: In this defect, the eye cannot see objects in two orthogonal (perpendicular) directions clearly
simultaneously. This defect is remedied by using a cylindrical lens.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
While testing your eye by reading a chart, if doctor finds it to 6/12, it implies that you can read a letter
from 6 m which the normal eye can read from 12 m. Thus, 6/6 is the normal eye sight.
1
Worth Knowing: The persistence of vision is s, i.e. if the time interval between two consecutive light
10
rays is less than 0.1 s, the eye cannot distinguish them separately. Hence, the fps (frames per second) of
a video should be more than 10.
Anurag Saraf (JEE 2011 AIR 226)
1 6 . 5 0 | Geometrical Optics
PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS
1. Of u, v and f, any two values will be known to us and we will be asked to find the third. In such type of
problems, two cases are possible.
Case 1: When signs of all the three will be known to us from the given information, substitute all the three with the
known sign; then, we can get only the numerical value of the unknown (i.e. the third quantity) without sign.
Case 2: When the sign of the third unknown quantity is not known to us, substitute only the known quantities with
sign. Then, the numerical value of the unknown with its respective sign can be obtained.
2. The experiments show that if the boundaries of the media are parallel, the emergent ray CD, although
laterally displaced, is parallel to the incident ray AB if µ1 =µ5 . We can also directly apply the Snell’s law
( µ sini =
cons tant ) in media 1 and 5, i.e. µ1 sini1 =
µ5 sini5 µ1 sini1 =
µ2 sini2 =
µ3 sini3 =
.... =
µi sinii
i5
C
B
i1
A
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 16.103
Notice that an apparent depth is multiple of either µ or 1/ µ . It can be find out by knowing whether the medium
through which light is entering is a denser or rarer medium.
3. Sometimes only a part of a prism will be given. To solve such problems, first complete the prism and then
solve the problems.
o
50
o o o o
60 70 60 70
Figure 16.104
P hysi cs | 16.51
FORMULAE SHEET
i r
S N’ S’
B
Figure 16.105
3 Image The image is decided by the reflected or refracted rays only. The point image for
a mirror is that point
(i) Toward which the rays reflected from the mirror actually converge (real image),
OR
(ii) From which the reflected rays appear to diverge (virtual image).
4 Characteristics (a) The size of the image is the same as that of the object.
of reflection by
(b) For a real object, the image is virtual, and for a virtual object, the image is real.
a plane mirror
(c) For a fixed incident light ray, if the mirror is rotated through an angle θ , the
reflected ray turns through an angle of 2 θ .
5 Spherical
mirrors A
A
C F P
C F P
B B
Concave Convex
Figure 16.106
6 Paraxial rays Rays that form very small angle with principal axis are called paraxial rays.
1 6 . 5 2 | Geometrical Optics
1 1 1
= + , where v=x-coordinate of the image;
f v u
sin i n2 v1 λ1
This is the Snell’s law. = 1 n=
2 = =
sin r n1 v 2 λ2
r
Figure 16.107
P hysi cs | 16.53
o
90
C X
i
D
Figure 16.108
Note: Emerged ray is not parallel to the incident ray if the media on both the sides
are different.
4 Apparent depth At near normal incidence,
of a submerged
object µ2
h' = h
µ1 II
I
h’
h
x
O
Figure 16.109
Q R
When δ = δm then i = i' & r = r ' , Figure 16.111
the ray passes symmetrically through the prism,
and then (where n=absolute RI of glass),
A + δm
sin
2 .
n
A
min
sin
2
min
o
min i=i’ 90
Figure 16.112
Note: When the prism is dipped in a medium, then (where n=RI of glass w.r.t.
medium).
( )
5. For a thin prism, A < 100 ; δ= (n − 1)A .
6. Dispersion of light: The angular splitting of a ray of white light into a
number of components when it is refracted in a medium other than air is called
dispersion of light.
7. Angle of dispersion: An angle between the rays of the extreme colors in the
refracted (dispersed) light is called angle of dispersion. θ = δ v − δr .
8. Dispersive power ( ω) of the medium of the material of prism.
Angular dispersion
( ω) =Derivation of mean ray ( yellow )
v
i n r
For a small-angled prism, (A<10°)
Mean ray
δ v − δR nv − nR nv + nR v
=ω = = ;n ,
δy n−1 2
n + nR n' + n'R
Net mean Deviation= v − 1 A − v − 1 A'.
2 2
Or ωδ= + ω ' δ ' 0 where ω, ω ' are dispersive powers for the two prisms and δ, δ '
are the mean deviations.
(ii) Direct vision combination: It is used to produce dispersion without deviation;
n + nR n'v + n'R
condition for this is v − 1=
A − 1 A'.
2 2
Net angle of dispersion (nv − n) A − (n'v − n'r ) A'.
u = −PO
R = PC 1 2
(Note radius is with sign).
+ve x
O P C I
µ1 v
(b) m =
µ2u
Figure 16.114
2 Lens formula
1 1 1
(a) − =
v u f
1 1
1
( µ − 1) R1 − R1
(b) =
f 1 2
+ve
v
(c) m =
u
Figure 16.115
1 6 . 5 6 | Geometrical Optics
Solved Examples
1 µ (µ − 1) 1 − µ R (2 − µ )
= 1.5 D
i ∴ − = or v
=
h v R (2 − µ) −R 2 (µ − 1)
R 2R 2 R 2 + h2
µ×
= = ⇒ µ . Q
R 2 + h2 h2 + ( 2R ) h2 + ( 2R )
2 2 P
R
µ2 − 1
( ) ( )
A C B I I’
4R 2 µ2 −=
1 h2 4 − µ2 ⇒=h 2R
2
4 − µ
(1.5)2 − 1 5
=h 10 = 10 = 8.45cm . Example 3: A rectangular glass block of thickness
4 − (1.5)2 7
10 cm and refractive index 1.5 is placed over a small
coin. A beaker is filled with water of refractive index 4/3
Example 2: A parallel beam of light rays is incident on to a height of 10 cm and is placed over the block.
a transparent sphere of radius R and a refractive index
P hysi cs | 16.57
c
c
1 −1 8
= sin−1 .= sin
= 62.70 Sol: Total internal reflection of light occurs inside body
3 3 9
x when the angle of incidence is greater than critical
4 2
1
The critical angle for water–air interface angle θC and according to Snell’s law θC = sin−1
µ
Applying the Snell’s law at the top surface,
1 6 . 5 8 | Geometrical Optics
sini .
µ sin r = ... (i)
For TIR, the vertical face A
µ sin θc =
1 i
Using geometry, θc= 90° − r i
µ sin(90 − r)= 1 r 1
⇒ µ cos = ... (ii)
On squaring and adding Eqs (i) and (ii), we get
∴ µ2 sin2 r + µ2 cos2 r = 1 + sin2 i
2
⇒ µ= 1 + sin i.
c c
Example 8: A lens has a power of +5 dioptre in air.
h
What will be its power if completely immersed in water?
3 4
Given µ=
g ; µ=
w
.
2 3
S
Sol: According to the lens maker’s formula the focal
Rays coming out of the source and incident at an angle
greater than θc will be reflected back into the liquid; 1 µ1 1 1
length 1/f is = − 1 −
therefore, the corresponding region on the surface will f µ2 R1 R 2
appear dark. As it is obvious from the figure, the radius
of the bright spot is given by Let fa and fw be the focal lengths of the lens in air and
water, respectively, then,
h sin θc hsin θ 1 µw
R h tan =
= θc R
⇒= =Pa = and Pw .
cos θc 1 − sin θc2
fa fw
1 h = = 20cm .
fa 0.2m
Since
= sin θc ; =∴R .
µ 2
µ −1 Using the lens maker’s formula,
Example 7: The cross section of the glass prism has the
1
form of an isosceles triangle. One of the equal faces is Pa =
fa
(
= µg − 1 ) R1 − R1 ... (i)
coated with silver. A ray of light incident normally on 1 2
the other equal face and after getting reflected twice
1 µg 1 1
emerges through the base of prism along the normal. = − 1 −
Find the angle of the prism. fw µ w R1 R 2
P hysi cs | 16.59
=
Pw
=
(
µg − µ w 1 1
.
) Find the position of the image of a luminous point
object placed on the axis of the combination lens at a
Pa µ µ − 1
w g (
3 µw ) distance of 90 cm from it.
1 3 +5
⇒ Pw Pa =
= D Sol: This system is combination of three lenses. Two
3 4 4 lenses of glass one lens of liquid. Add the powers to
get total power.
Example 9: The distance between two point sources
of light is 24 cm. Find out where you would place a
R1 = R 2 = f1= 30cm (As µ= 1.5) .
converging lens of focal length 9 cm, so that the images
of both the sources are formed at the same point. Similarly, R 3= R 4= f2= 70cm .
Sol: For lens the distance of the image formed from The focal length of the liquid lens (in air),
1 1 1
the lens is given by − = where u, v and f are
1 1
v u f
distance of object, distance of image and focal length f3
= ( µ − 1) R1 −
R 3
2
respectively.
(1.3 − 1) −130 − 70
1
1 1 1 1
For S1 : − = = = −
ν1 −x 9 70 1 2 3 4
1 1 1 ν
∴ = − … (i) (b) m =
ν1 9 x u
1 1 1
For S2 : − =
ν2 − ( 24 − x ) 9
… (ii)
∴m1 =
(5.0 − 4.0 ) =
−0.25 ,
1 1 1
( −4.0 )
∴ = − .
ν2 9 24 − x
and m2 =
(5.0 − 1.0 ) = −4.00 .
f=9 cm ( −1.0 )
Hence, both the images are real and inverted, the first
S1 S2 is magnification −0.25, and the second is −4.00.
JEE Advanced/Boards
x 24-x
Since, the sign convention for S1 and S2 is just opposite. Example 1: A 4-cm-thick layer of water covers a 6-cm-
Hence, thick glass slab. A coin is placed at the bottom of the
slab and is being observed from the air side along the
ν1 = −ν2 . normal to the surface. Find the apparent position of the
1 1 coin from the surface.
⇒ =
−
ν1 ν2 Air
1 1 1 1 Water
∴ −= − 4cm h1
9 x 24 − x 9
Solving this equation, we get x = 6 cm. Therefore, the Glass
lens should be kept at a distance of 6 cm from either 6cm h2
of the object. Coin
appear to shift upwards due to both glass and water by focal length for crown glass f ω
distance s. This apparent shift is thus given by = = −
focal length for flint glass f '
ω'
1 1 9 325 5 1 5
s = s1 + s2 = 1 − × h1 + 1 − ×h =
− × − ;
= = − … (i)
µ2 2 520 9 8 8f
'
µ1 f
The total apparent shift is As the focal length of the combination is 100 cm,
1 1 1 1 1 1 5 3 1
s = h1 1 − + h2 1 − = + = − = = .
F f f ' f 8f 8f 100
µ1 µ2
3
37.5cm .
f = × 100 =
1 1 8
s = 4 1 − + 6 1 − = 3 cm.
4 / 3 3 /2 −8 −8 75
f' = × f= × = −60 cm .
5 5 2
Air The achromatic doublet requires a convex lens of focal
length 37.5 cm made of crown glass and a concave lens
4cm h1 Water of focal length 60 cm made of flint glass.
h
Example 4: The convex surface of a thin concavo– For the image to be informed at the same point as the
convex lens of glass of refractive index 1.5 has a radius object
of curvature 20 cm. The concave surface has a radius
u=2F =2 × 7.5 =15cm.
of curvature of 60 cm. The convex side is coated with
silver and placed at a horizontal surface as shown in The object should be placed at a distance of 15 cm
the figure. from the lens on the optical axis.
(b) If fw is the focal length of lens in water, the focal
length F’ of this combination is given by
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + +
F' fw fg fm fg fw
1 2 2 1
(a) Where a pin should be placed on the optical axis = + + ... (ii)
F ' fw fg fm
such that its image is formed at the same place?
=
(b) If the concave part is filled with water of refractive fg 60 = cm, fm 10 cm .
index 4/3, find the distance through which the pin
The value of fw is calculated by using the relation,
should be moved, so that the image of the pin again
coincides with pin. 1 1
1
fw
= ( a
)
µ w − 1 −
R1 R 2
Sol: When the convex side of the concavo–convex lens
is coated with silver, the combination becomes a mirror.
This combination consist two lenses and one mirror 1 4 1 1
⇒ = − 1 =
placed close to each other. The powers of all the three fw 3 60
180
will be added. When the water is filled on concave side,
fw = 180 cm.
we get plano-convex water lens whose focal length
is found by lens makers formula. This combination Substituting these values in Eq. (ii), we get
consists of four lenses (two lenses of glass and two
1 2 2 1 90
lenses of water) and one mirror. = + + ; F =
F' 180 60 10 13
(a) The refraction takes place from the first surface, 2 × 90 180
reflection from the lower surface and finally refraction
'
u= 2F
= = cm.
13 13
from the first surface of focal lengths fg , fm and fg ,
respectively. The combined focal length F is given by Displacement of the pin
1 1 1 1 2 1 180 15
= + + = + … (i) =u − u' =15 − = =1.14 cm.
F fg fm fg fg fm 13 13
=fm R=
2 /2 20
= / 2 10 cm. . Example 5: The radius of curvature of the convex face
of plano-convex lens is 12 cm, and its µ =1.5.
The value of fg can be obtained by using the formula
(a) Find the focal length of the lens.
1 1
1
fg
= ( a
)
µg − 1 −
R1 R 2
The plane surface of the lens is coated with silver.
(b) At what distance from the lens, will the parallel rays
incident on the convex surface converge?
1 1
=(1.5 − 1) 20 −
60 (c) Sketch the ray diagram to locate the image, when a
point object is placed on the axis at a distance of 20 cm
fg = 60 cm. from the lens.
Substituting these values in Eq. (i), (d) Calculate the image distance when the object is
placed as in (c).
1 2 1 2
= + =
F 60 10 15 Sol: Use the lens maker’s formula to find the focal
15 length of the plane-convex lens. When the plane side of
F
= = 7.5cm. the lens is coated with silver, the combination becomes
2
1 6 . 6 2 | Geometrical Optics
A B
P Q I1 I2
12 cm
15 cm 15 cm 15 cm 10 cm
(c) The figure shows the ray diagram of the image
formed by this lens when the object is placed at a 1 1 1 1 1 3−2 1
= + = + = =
distance of 20 cm from the lens. The light is incident ν1 f u 10 −15 30 30
from the right to the left.
⇒ ν1 = 30 cm .
I1 serves as a virtual object for lens B. For refraction
through lens B,
I
u2 =
QI1 =
PI1 − 15 =
30 − 15 =
+15cm,
O
ν2 =15 + 10 =+25cm .
1 1 1 1 1 3−5 2
=− = − = =−
f ν u 25 15 75 75
(d) For a lens, 75
f=
− −37.5cm,
=
2
P hysi cs | 16.63
f = 6.0 cm f = 12 cm
=
I2 P1
P2
= (4/3)
0.6 cm 4 cm 12 cm D
5 cm
Sol: The concave lens forms the image of the object at
Sol: The image of the object formed by the first point say I1. This image acts as the object for convex
refraction by the water-glass surface acts as the object lens and the final image is formed at say I1’.
for the second refraction at glass-water surface. 1 1 1
Applying lens formula − = twice, we have
(a) For the refraction from a single spherical surface, ν u f
we have 1 1 1
− = ... (i)
µ2
−
µ1 ( µ2 − µ1 ) .
=
ν1 −12 −6
ν u R 1 1 1
− = ... (ii)
Let P1 be pole at the first surface and P2 to be pole at ∞ ν1 − d 12
the second surface. At P, Solving Eqs (i) and (ii), we have
µ1 =( 4 / 3) ; µ2 =1; R = +0.2cm, u1 = ∞ . ν1 =− 4cm .
1 ( 4 / 3) 1 − ( 4 / 3) And d = 8cm .
So − = .
ν1 ∞ +0.2
Example 9: A solid glass sphere with a radius R and
∴ ν1 =−0.6 cm .
a refractive index of 1.5 is coated with silver over a
The first surface will form a virtual image I1 at a distance hemisphere. A small object is located on the axis of the
0.6 cm to the left of P1 as shown in the figure. sphere at a distance 2R to the left of the vertex of the
un-silvered hemisphere. Find the position of the final
This image acts as an object for the second surface. So image after all refractions and reflections have taken
for the second surface at P2 , place.
µ1 =1, µ2 =( 4 / 3 ) , R =−0.2cm
1 6 . 6 4 | Geometrical Optics
I2
I3
O O
R R
2R
1.5 R R/2
µ2 µ1 µ2 − µ1
First refraction: Using − = with proper 1.0 1.5 1.0 − 1.5
ν u R − =
ν3 −1.5R −R
sign conventions, we have
⇒ ν3 =−2R ;
1.5 1.0 1.5 − 1.0 i.e. final image is formed on the vertex of the silvered
− = ∴ ν1 =∞ .
ν1 −2R +R face.
JEE Main/Boards
Exercise 1 Q.4 State the conditions for TIR of light to take place.
Calculate the speed of light in a medium, whose critical
angle is 45o.
Q.1 A ray of light incident on an equilateral glass prism
shows a minimum deviation of 30°. Calculate the speed
Q.5 An object is placed at the focus of concave lens.
of light through the glass prism.
Where will its image be formed?
Q.12 A double convex lens of glass of refractive index Q.21 (a) (i) Draw a neat labeled ray diagram of an
1.6 has its both surfaces of equal radii of curvature of astronomical telescope in the normal adjustment.
30 cm each. An object of height 5 cm is placed at a Explain briefly its working.
distance of 12.5 cm from the lens. Calculate the size of
(ii) An astronomical telescope uses two lenses of power
the image found.
10 D and 1 D. What is its magnifying power in the
normal adjustment?
Q.13 Why does the bluish color predominate in a clear
(b) (i) Draw a neat labeled ray diagram of a compound
sky?
microscope. Explain briefly its working.
Q.14 How does the angle of minimum deviation of (ii) Why must both the objective and the eyepiece of a
a glass prism of a refractive index 1.5 change, if it is compound microscope have short focal lengths?
immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.3?
Q.22 Draw a labeled ray diagram of a reflecting
Q.15 Draw a labeled ray diagram, showing the image telescope. Mention its two advantages over the
formation of an astronomical telescope in the normal refracting telescope.
adjustment position. Write the expression for its
magnifying power.
1 6 . 6 6 | Geometrical Optics
Q.23 (i) An object is placed between two plane mirrors (C) The boy cannot see his feet.
inclined at 60o to each other. How many images do
(D) The boy cannot see neither his hair nor his feet.
you expect to see?
(ii) An object is placed between two plane parallel Q.5 A point source of light S is placed in front of
mirrors. Why do the distant images get fainter and two large mirrors as shown. Which of the following
fainter? observers will see only one image of S?
Q.2 There are two plane mirror with reflecting surfaces Q.7 A point source of light is 60 cm away from a screen
facing each other. Both the mirrors are moving with and is kept at the focus of a concave mirror that reflects
the speed of ν away from each other. A point object is light on the screen. The focal length of the mirror is 20
placed between the mirrors. The velocity of the image cm. The ratio of average intensities of the illumination
formed due to the nth reflection will be on the screen when the mirror is present and when the
(A) nv (B) 2nv mirror is removed is:
mirror. The light rays starting from the source are Q.13 When the object is at distances u1 and u2 , the
reflected from the mirror such that a circular area A on images formed by the same lens are real and virtual,
the ground receives light. Now, a glass slab is placed respectively, and of same size. Then, the focal length of
between the mirror and the source O. What will be the the lens is:
magnitude of the new area on the ground receiving
1 1
light? (A) uu
2 1 2
(B) (u + u2 )
2 1
Circular plane mirror Circular plane mirror
(C) u1u2 (D) 2 (u1 + u2 )
mirror is
l
n
n
A C D
o
37 (A) (B)
o
53
O u (cm) O u (cm)
v (cm) v (cm)
(A) 35° (B) 42° (C) 40° (D) 38° (C) (D)
3
Q.19 A prism has a refractive index and a refracting O u (cm) O u (cm)
2
angle 90°. Find the minimum deviation produced by Q.2 An experiment is performed to find the refractive
the prism. index of glass using a travelling microscope. In this
experiment, distances are measured by (2003)
(A) 40° (B) 45° (C) 30° (D) 49°
(A) A vernier scale provided on the microscope
Q.20 A certain prism is found to produce a minimum (B) A standard laboratory scale
deviation of 38° . It produces a deviation of 44° when
(C) A meter scale provided on the microscope
the angle of incidence is either 42° or 62° . What is the
angle of incidence when it is undergoing a minimum (D) A screw gauge provided on the microscope
deviation?
(A) 45° (B) 49° (C) 40° (D) 55° Q.3 Two transparent media of refractive indices
µ1 and µ3 have a solid lens shaped transparent
material of refractive index µ2 between them as shown
Q.21 A thin prism of angle 5° is placed at a distance
in the figures in Column II. A ray traversing these media
of 10 cm from the object. What is the distance of the
is also shown in the figures. In Column I, the different
image from the object? (Given µ of prism = 1.5)
P hysi cs | 16.69
relationships between µ1 , µ2and µ3 are given. Match (A) The ray gets totally internally reflected at face CD.
them to the ray diagram shown in Column II. (2007) (B) The ray comes out through face AD.
(C) The angle between the incident ray and the
Column I Column II emergent ray is 90o.
(D) The angle between the incident ray and the
(A) µ1 < µ2 (p) emergent ray is 120o.
2 1
3 Q.5 The focal length of a thin biconvex lens is 20cm.
When an object is moved from a distance of 25 cm
in front of it to 50 cm, the magnification of its image
(B) µ1 > µ2 m
(q) changes from m25 to m50 . The ratio 25 is (2005)
m50
(A)
(B)
A
O i O i B C
1
(C) (D) (A) θ − sin−1 µ sin A − sin−1
µ
O O
i i 1
(B) θ > cos−1 µ sin A + sin−1
µ
Q.12 Diameter of plano-convex lens is 6 cm and
thickness at the centre is 3 mm. If speed of light in 1
material of lens is 2 × 108 m / s , the focal length of the (C) θ < cos−1 µ sin A + sin−1
µ
lens is: (2013)
(A) 20 cm (B) 30 cm (C) 10 cm (D) 15 cm 1
(D) θ > sin−1 µ sin A − sin−1
µ
3
Q.13 A thin convex lens made from crown glass µ =
2
has focal length f. When it is measured in two different Q.16 Assuming human pupil to have a radius of 0.25
cm and a comfortable viewing distance of 25 cm, the
4 5
liquids having refractive indices and , it has the minimum separation between two objects that human
3 3 eye can resolve at 500 nm wavelength is: (2015)
focal lengths f1 and f2 respectively. The correct relation
between the focal lengths is: (2014) (A) 30 µm (B) 100 µm
JEE Advanced/Boards
A
1 cm
B
(i) Obtain a relation between the slope (dy/dx) of the
O 1 cm trajectory of the ray at a point B (x, y) in the medium
and the incident angle at that point.
(ii) Find the value of n sin i.
M2
(iii) Obtain an equation for the trajectory y(x) of the ray
in the medium.
1 6 . 7 2 | Geometrical Optics
2 4
R X 1 3 5
C x
b Glass R
Air
Q.16 A room contains air in which the speed of sound
Q.12 A parallel beam of light falls normally on the first is 340m/s. The walls of the room are made of concrete,
face of a prism of a small angle. At the second face, it is in which the speed of sound is 1700m/s. (a) Find the
partly transmitted and partly reflected, and the reflected critical angle for the TIR of sound at the concrete–air
beam strikes at the first face again and emerges from boundary. (b) In which medium must the sound be
it in a direction by making an angle 6°30' with the undergone the TIR?
reversed direction of the incident beam. The refracted
beam has undergone a deviation of 1°15' from the
Q.17 A rod made of glass ( µ =1.5 ) and of square cross
original direction. Find the refractive index of the glass
section is bent as shown in the figure. A parallel beam
and the angle of the prism.
of light falls perpendicularly on the plane flat surface A.
Referring to the diagram, d is the width of a side, and
Q.13 A light ray I is incident on a plane mirror M. The R is the radius of inner semicircle. Find the maximum
mirror is rotated in the direction as shown in the figure d
by an arrow at a frequency 9 / π rev / sec . The light value of ratio so that all the light rays entering the
R
reflected by the mirror is received on the wall W at a glass through surface A emerge from the glass through
distance 10 m from the axis of rotation. When the angle surface B.
of incidence becomes 37o, find the speed of the spot (a
point) on the wall?
P hysi cs | 16.73
A 3
Q.23 A thin plano-convex lens fits exactly into a plano-
concave lens with their plane surface parallel to each
other as shown in the figure. The radius of curvature
Q.18 A prism of refractive index 2 has a refracting of the curved surface R = 30 cm. The lenses are
angle of 30° . One of the refracting surfaces of the made of different material having a refractive index
prism is polished. For the beam of monochromatic light =µ1 3 / 2and
= µ2 5 / 4 as shown in the Fig.
to retrace its path, find the angle of incidence on the
refracting surface.
1=3/2 1=5/4
Q.19 An equilateral prism deviates a ray by 23° for
two angles of incidence differing by 23° . Find µ of the
prism?
position (relative to the lens) of the image of the object (A) f/2, I/2 (B) f, I/4
formed by the system.
(C) 3f/4, I/2 (D) f, 3I/4
0.9 m 0.8 m
Q.5 An object is placed in front of a thin convex lens
of focal length 30 cm, and a plane mirror is placed 15
cm behind the lens. If the final image of the object
Mirror
coincides with the object, the distance of the object
from the lens is
(A) 60 cm (B) 30 cm
(C) 15 cm (D) 25 cm
Q.2 An infinitely long rod lies along the axis of a (A) 0.5 cm above XY (B) 1 cm below XY
concave mirror of a focal length f. the near end of the
rod is at a distance u>f from the mirror. Its image will (C) On XY (D) 1.5 cm below XY
have a length.
Q.7 A screen is placed 90 cm away from an object. The
(A) f 2 / (u − f ) (B) uf / (u − f) image of the object on the screen is formed by a convex
lens at two different locations separated by 20 cm. The
(C) f 2 / (u + f ) (D) uf / (u + f ) focal length of the lens is
(A) 18 cm (B) 21.4 cm
Q.3 A luminous point object is moving along the
principal axis of a concave mirror of a focal length 12 (C) 60 cm (D) 85.6 cm
cm toward it. When its distance from mirror is 20 cm,
its velocity is 4 cm/s. The velocity of the image in cm/s Q.8 In the above problem, if the sizes of the images
at that instant is: formed on the screen are 6 cm and 3 cm, then the
(A) 6 toward the mirror height of the object is nearly:
Q.4 A thin lens has a focal length f, and its aperture (A) A virtual image of a virtual object
has a diameter d. It forms an image of intensity I. Now (B) A virtual image of a real object
the central part of the aperture up to diameter (d/2)
is blocked by an opaque paper. The focal length and (C) A real image of a real object
image intensity would change to (D) A real image of a virtual object
P hysi cs | 16.75
Wall O
W
S
B
l A
V
M I
(A) The spot of light will move with the speed v on the Q.19 A lens is placed in the XYZ coordinate system such
wall. that its optical center is the origin and the principal axis
is along the x-axis. The focal length of the lens is 20 cm.
(B) The spot of light will not move on the wall. A point object has been placed at the point (-40 cm, +1
(C) As the mirror comes closer, the spot of light will cm, −1 cm). Which of the following are correct about
become larger and shift away from the wall with a coordinates of the image?
speed larger than v. (A) x = 40 cm (B) y =+1 cm
(D) The size of the light spot on the wall remains the (C) z = +1 cm (D) z=−1 cm
same.
Q.20 Which of the following can form a diminished,
Q.17 Two reflecting media are separated by a spherical virtual and erect image of your face.
interface as shown in the figure. PP’ is the principal axis;
µ1 and µ2 are the medium of refraction, respectively, (A) Converging mirror (B) Diverging mirror
then, (C) Converging lens (D) Diverging lens
P P
Q.21 Statement-I: If a source of light is placed in front
of rough wall, its image is not seen.
Statement-II: The wall does not reflect light.
(A) If µ2 > µ1 , then there cannot be a real image of a
real project. (A) Statement-I is true, and statement-II is true;
statement-II is correct explanation for statement-I
(B) If µ2 > µ1 , then there cannot be a real image of a
virtual object. (B) Statement-I is true, and statement-II is true; statement
-II is NOT the correct explanation for statement-I.
(C) If µ1 > µ2 , then there cannot be a virtual image of a
virtual object. (C) Statement-I is true, and statement-II is false.
(D) If µ1 > µ2 , then there cannot be a real image of a (D) Statement-I is false, and statement-II is true.
real object.
Q.22 Statement-I: As the distance x of a parallel ray
Q.18 A luminous point object is placed at O. whose from axis increases, the focal length decreases
image is formed at I as shown in the figure. AB is the
optical axis. Which of the following statements are
correct? X
(A) If a lens is used to obtain an image, the lens must
be converging. P A C Axis
(B) Statement-I is true, and statement-II is true; (A) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true, and
statement-II is NOT the correct explanation for statement-II is the correct explanation for statement-I.
statement-I.
(B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true, and
(C) Statement-I is true, and statement-II is false. statement-II is NOT the correct explanation for
statement-I.
(D) Statement-I is false, and statement-II is true.
(C) Statement-I is true, and statement-II is false.
Q.23 Statement-I: When an object dipped in a liquid is (D) Statement-I is false, and statement-II is true.
viewed normally, the distance between the image and
the object is independent of the height of the liquid
Comprehension Type
above the object.
Statement-II: The normal shift is independent of Paragraph 1: Spherical aberration in spherical mirrors
the location of the slab between the object and the is a defect that is due to the dependence of focal length
observer. ‘f’ on the angle of incidence ' θ ' as shown in the figure
is given by
(A) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true, and
statement-II is the correct explanation for statement-I. R
f=
R− sec θ ,
2
(B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true, and
statement-II is NOT the correct explanation for where R is radius of curvature of mirror and q is the angle
statement-I. of incidence. The rays that are close to the principal axis
are called marginal rays. As a result, different rays focus
(C) Statement-I is true, and statement-II is false. at different points and the image of a point object is
(D) Statement-I is false, and statement-II is true. not a point.
Q.24 Statement-I: When two plane mirrors are kept Q.26 If fp and fm represent the focal length of paraxial
perpendicular to each other as shown in the figure (O is and marginal rays, respectively, then the correct
the point object), three images will be formed. relationship is:
(A) fp = fm (B) fp > fm
(C) fp < fm (D) none
Q.28 The total deviation suffered by the ray falling on Q.34 Match the Column
the mirror at an angle of incidence 60o is
Column I Column II
(A) 180o (B) 90o
(A) Conversing system (p) Convex lens
(C) Cannot be determined (D) None
(B) Concave lens (q) Concave lens
(C) A virtual image is formed by (r) Concave mirror
Q.29 For paraxial rays, focal length approximately is
(D) Magnification < 1 is possible (s) Convex mirror
(A) R (B) R/2
with
(C) 2R (D) none
Q.30 Which of the following statements are correct Previous Years’ Questions
regarding spherical aberration:
(A) It can be completely eliminated. Q.1 A student performed the experiment of
determination of the focal length of a concave mirror
(B) It cannot be completely eliminated, but it can be by u-v method using an optical bench of length 1.5
minimized by allowing either paraxial or marginal rays m. The focal length of the mirror used is 24 cm. The
to hit the mirror. maximum error in the location of the image can be 0.2
(C) It is reduced by taking mirrors with large aperture. cm. The five sets of (u, v) values recorded by the student
(in cm) are: (42, 56), (48, 48), (60, 40), (66, 33) and (78,
(D) None of these. 39). The data set (s) that cannot come from experiment
and is (are) incorrectly recorded, is (are) (1999)
Q.31 Initially, the distance of third minima from principal
(A) (42, 56) (B) (48, 48)
maxima will be
(C) (66, 33) (D) (78, 39)
3λD 3λD
(A) (B)
2d d
Q.2 A light beam travels from Region I to Region IV
5λD 5λD (See figure). The refractive index in Regions I, II, III and
(C) (D) n n
4d 2d IV are n0 , 0 and 0 , respectively. The angle of incidence
6 8
Q.32 A glass slab of thickness t and refractive index θ for which the beam misses entering Region IV (as in
µ is introduced before S2 . Now, P does not remain the figure): (2004)
the point of principal maximum. Suppose the principal
Region I Region II Region III Region IV
maximum forms at a point P’ on screen, then PP’ is
equal to n0 n0 n0
n0
tD ( µ − 1 ) tD ( µ − 1 ) 2 6 8
(A) (B)
d 2d
0 0.2 m 0.6 m
D (µ − 1) D (µ − 1)
(C) (D) 3 1
t d (A) sin−1 (B) sin−1
4 8
Q.33 Use the statement given in previous question. 1 1
Now, a parallel beam is incident at an angle α w.r.t. line (C) sin−1 (D) sin−1
4
3
OP, such that the principal maximum again comes at
P hysi cs | 16.79
Q.3 An optical component and an object s placed (C) The intensity of the characteristics X-rays depends
along its optical axis are given in column I. The distance on the electrical power given to the X-ray tube.
between the object and the component can be varied.
(D) Cutoff wavelength of the continuous X-rays depends
The properties of images are given in column II. Match
on the energy of the electrons in the X-ray tube.
all the properties of images from column II with the
appropriate components given in column I. Indicate
your answer by darkening the appropriate bubbles of
1 1
the 4 x 4 matrix given in the ORS. (2006) Air Air
(A) (B)
Meta-material Meta-material 2
Column I Column II 2
(A)
1 1
(B)
Air Air
S (q) Virtual image (C) (D)
Meta-material Meta-material
2 2
(C)
(r) Magnified image Paragraph: Most materials have a refractive index n >1.
S
Therefore, when a light ray from air enters a naturally
sin θ1 n2
occurring material, then by the Snell’s law, =
sin θ2 n2
(D) , it is understood that the refracted ray bends toward
S
(s) Image at infinity
the normal, but it never emerges on the same side
of the normal as the incident ray. According to the
electromagnetism, the refractive index of the medium is
c
given by the relation, n = = ± ε1µ1 , where c is the
Q.4 Two beams of red and violet colors are pass v
separately through a prism (angle of the prism is 60o). speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum, v is its speed
In the position of minimum deviation, the angle of in the medium, ε1 and µ1 are the relative permittivity
refraction will be (2007) and permeability of the medium, respectively. In a
normal material, both ε1 and µ1 are positive, implying
(A) 30o for both the colors positive n for the medium. When both ε1 and µ1 are
(B) Greater for the violet color negative, one must choose the negative root of n. Such
materials with negative refractive indices can now be
(C) Greater for the red color artificially prepared and are called meta-materials.
(D) Equal but not 30o for both the colors They exhibit a significantly different optical behavior,
without violating any physical laws. Since n is negative,
it results in a change in the direction of propagation
Q.5 Which one of the following statements is WRONG
of the refracted light. However, similar to the normal
in the context of X-rays generated from an X-ray tube?
materials, the frequency of light remains unchanged
(2001)
upon refraction even in meta-materials. (2012)
(A) The wavelength of the characteristics X-rays
decreases when the atomic number of the target
increases.
(B) The cutoff wavelength of the continuous X-rays
depends on the atomic number of the target.
1 6 . 8 0 | Geometrical Optics
Q.6 For light incident from air on a meta-material, the (B) Real and at a distance of 16 cm from the mirror
appropriate ray diagram is (C) Virtual and at a distance of 20 cm from the mirror
(D) Real and at a distance of 20 cm from the mirror
n = 1.5 n = 1.2
Q.7 Choose the correct statement.
c
(B) The speed of light in the meta-material is v= .
n
(C) The speed of light in the meta-materials is v = c. R = 14 cm
(D) The wavelength of the light in the meta-material (A) – 280.0 cm (B) 40.0 cm (C) 21.5 cm (D) 13.3 cm
( λm ) is given by λm =λair n , where λair is the
wavelength of the light in air. Q.12 A transparent slab of thickness d has a refractive
index n (z) that increases with z. Here z is the vertical
distance inside the slab, measured from the top. The slab
Q.8 A biconvex lens is formed with two thin plano- is placed between two media with uniform refractive
convex lenses as shown in the figure. Refractive index n indices n1 and n2 ( > n1 ) , as shown in the figure. A ray
of the first lens is 1.5 and that of the second lens is 1.2. of light is incident with angle θ1 from medium 1 and
Both curved surfaces are of same radius of curvature emerges in medium 2 with refraction angle θf with a
R = 14 cm. For this biconvex lens, for an object distance lateral displacement l. (2016)
of 40 cm, the image distance will be (2009)
Which of the following statement (s) is (are) true?
n = 1.5 n = 1.2
1
n1 = constant 1
n(z)
z
d
R = 14 cm
(A) n1 sin
= θi n2 sin θf Q.16 A right angled prism of refractive index µ1, is
placed in a rectangular block of refractive index µ2,
(B) n1 sin θ=
i (n2 − n1 ) sin θf which is surrounded by a medium of refractive index
(C) l is independent of n2 µ3 , as shown in the figure. A ray of light ‘e’ enters the
(D) l is dependent on n (z) rectangular block at normal incidence. Depending
upon the relationships between µ1 , µ2 and µ3 , it takes
one of the four possible paths ‘ef’, ‘eg’, ‘eh’, or ‘ei’.
Q.13 A small object is placed 50 cm to the left of a thin
convex lens of focal length 30 cm. A convex spherical f
mirror of radius of curvature 100 cm is placed to the
right of the lens at a distance of 50 cm. The mirror is 45
o
x
(-50, 0) (0, 0) Match the paths in list I with conditions of refractive
R = 100 cm indices in list II and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the lists: (2013)
50 cm
(
(A) 25, 25 3 ) (
(B) 125 / 3, 25 / 3 ) R.
e→ h
3. µ1 = µ2
is (2013) P Q R S
A 2 3 1 4
(A) 30° (B) 45° (C) 60° (D) 75°
B 1 2 4 3
Q.15 The image of an object, formed by a plano-convex C 4 1 2 3
lens at a distance of 8 m behind the lens, is real and is
D 2 3 4 1
one-third the size of the object. The wavelength of light
2
inside the lens is times the wavelength in free space.
3
The radius of the curved surface of the lens is (2013) Q.17 A transparent thin film of uniform thickness
and refractive index n1 = 1.4 is coated on the convex
(A) 1 m (B) 2 m (C) 3 m (D) 4 m
spherical surface of radius R at one end of a long solid
glass cylinder of refractive index n2 = 1.5 , as shown
in the figure. Rays of light parallel to the axis of the
cylinder traversing through the film from air to glass
1 6 . 8 2 | Geometrical Optics
n2
Air
S r
Code:
Q.18 A point source S is placed at the bottom of a (A) P-1, Q-2, R-3, S-4
transparent block of height 10 mm and refractive index
2.72. It is immersed in a lower refractive index liquid as (B) P-2, Q-4, R-3, S-1
shown in the figure. It is found that the light emerging (C) P-4, Q-1,R-2, S-3
from the block to the liquid forms a circular bright spot
(D) P-2, Q-1, R-3, S-4
of diameter 11.54 mm on the top of the block. The
refractive index of the liquid is (2014)
Q.20 Consider a concave mirror and a convex lens
Liquid (refractive index = 1.5) of focal length 10 cm each,
separated by a distance of 50 cm in air (refractive
Block index = 1) as shown in the figure. An object is placed
S at a distance of 15 cm from the mirror. Its erect image
(A) 1.21 (B) 1.30 (C) 1.36 (D) 1.42 formed by this combination has magnification M1 .
When the set-up is kept in a medium of refractive index
Q.19 Four combinations of two thin lenses are given in 7/6, the magnification becomes M2 . The magnitude
list I. The radius of curvature of all curved surfaces is r M2
is (2015)
and the refractive index of all the lenses is 1.5. Match M1
lens combinations in List I with their focal length in
list II and select the correct answer using the code given
below the lists. (2014) Q.21 Two identical glass rods S1 and S2 (refractive
index = 1.5) have one convex end of radius of curvature
10 cm. They are placed with the curved surfaces at a
List I List II
distance d as shown in the figure, with their axes (shown
P 2r by the dashed line) aligned. When a point source of
light P is placed inside rod S1 on its axis at a distance of
50 cm from the curved face, the light rays emanating
from it are found to be parallel to the axis inside S2 .
The distance d is (2015)
Q r/2
S1 P S2
50 cm d
(A) 60 cm (B) 70 cm
(C) 80 cm (D) 90 cm
P hysi cs | 16.83
Q.22 A monochromatic beam of light is incident at (C) NA of S1 placed in air is the same as that of S2
60° on one face of an equilateral prism of refractive 4
index n and emerges from the opposite face making an immersed in liquid of refractive index .
15
angle θ (n) with the normal (see the figure). For n = 3
dθ (D) NA of S1 placed in air is the same as that of S2 placed
the value of θ is 60° and = m. The value of m is in water.
dn
(2015)
Q.24 A parallel beam of light is incident from air at an
angle α on the side PQ of a right angled triangular
prism of refractive index n = 2 . Light undergoes total
internal reflection in the prism at the face PR when α
o
60
has a minimum value of 45° . The angle θ of the prism
is (2016)
P
Paragraph 1: Light guidance in an optical fiber can
be understood by considering a structure comprising
of thin solid glass cylinder of refractive index n1
n =2
surrounded by a medium of lower refractive index n2.
R
The light guidance in the structure takes place due to Q
successive total internal reflections at the interface of
the media n1 and n2 as shown in the figure. All rays (A) 15° (B) 22.5° (C) 30° (D) 45°
with the angle of incidence i less than a particular value
im are confined in the medium of refractive index n1. Q.25 A plano-convex lens is made of a material of
The numerical aperture (NA) of the structure is defined refractive index n. When a small object is placed 30
as sin im cm away in front of the curved surface of the lens, an
image of double the size of the object is produced.
n1 > n2 Due to reflection from the convex surface of the lens,
another faint image is observed at a distance of 10 cm
Air
away from the lens. Which of the following statement(s)
Cladding n2
is(are) true? (2016)
Core
i n1 (A) The refractive index of the lens is 2.5
(B) The radius of curvature of the convex surface is
45 cm
(C) The faint image is erect and real
(D) The focal length of the lens is 20 cm
Q.23 For two structures namely S1 with n1 = 45 / 4
and n2 = 3 / 2 and S2 with n1 = 8 / 5 and n2 = 7 / 5
and taking the refractive index of water to be 4/3 and
that of air to be 1, the correct option(s) is(are) (2015)
PlancEssential Questions
JEE Main/Boards JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1 Exercise 1
Q.11 Q.12 Q.24 Q.3 Q.4 Q.8
Q.13 Q.22 Q.23
Exercise 2 Exercise 2
Q. 3 Q.5 Q.7 Q.6 Q.9 Q.11
Q.8 Q.10 Q.18 Q.24 Q.25 Q.30
Q.23 Q.27 Q.37 Q.31 Q.33
Answer Key
Exercise 2
JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1
Q.1 (i) 75o (ii) 165° (iii) 195° (iv) 285° (v) 315°
Q.2 160 cm; 320 cm Q.3 75 cm Q.4 2 cm Q.5 80 m/s Q.7 16 ft
dy
(iii) y = k 2 ( x / 4 ) (iv) 4.0,1;
4
Q.8 (i) tan=
θ = cot i (ii)1
dx
(v) It will become parallels to x-axis Q.9 5 cm Q.10 h=5.95 m Q.11 Same Q.12 1.625
Q.13 1000 m/s Q.14 µ12 + µ32 + µ52 = 2 + µ22 + µ24 Q.15 9 m
1 d 1 43
Q.16 (a) sin−1 (b) air Q.17 = Q.18 45° Q.19
5 R max 2 5
Q.20 3 Q.21 15 cm toward the combination
2 2
Q.22 (a) 5000 W / m (b) 0.02 W / m (c) 0.214 cm (d) 24.56 W / m2
Q.23 +60, +4/5 Q.24 5.9 cm, 10.9 cm
Q.25 90 cm from the lens toward right
Exercise 2
Comprehension Type
Q.26 B Q.27 D Q.28 D Q.29 B Q.30 B Q.31 D
Q.32 A Q.33 A
1 6 . 8 6 | Geometrical Optics
Solutions
1 1 1
Lens Maker’s Formula: (n− 1)
= −
f R1 R 2
L1
L1=L2 As wavelength of light increases, the refractive index n
r1=r2 decreases and from the lens maker formula we see that,
as n decreases, f increases.
The variation of angle of deviation δ with the angle
of incidence i of the ray incident on the first refracting
surface of the prism is shown in figure. For one angle of Sol 9: (i) Magnifying power:
incidence it has a minimum value δmin . At this value the
ray passes symmetrically through the prism. vD
m= for normal adjustment
u fe
Sol 7: For relaxed eye, intermediate image should lie at v D
first focus of eye piece or ue = fe
m
= 1 + for final image at D, least distance for
u fe
B f0 fe clear vision.
1 2µ sin θ
(ii) Resolving Power: =
R =
∆d λ
Fo Fe
A O A’ F’e E
µ → Refractive index of the medium between the
B’ object and the objective.
λ → Wavelength of light.
f0 Eye piece
Magnification M∞ = Vo Uo
fe
uo fo
Sol 8: Reflection from a spherical surface: Here n1 < n2 . h F
Ray leaves point O and focuses at point I. Snell’s Law at ’
point P n1 sin= θ1 n2 sin θ2 or n1 θ1 = n2 θ2 (For small
h’
angles)
Objective
P
Q₁
B Q₂
O M C I Image
n₁ n₂
Here we see that
u R
(i) as µ increases, R increases.
V
θ1 = α + β, β = θ2 + γ
P’ E
n1 P P’’ O ’
Eliminating θ1and θ2 we get =
β ( α + β) + γ
n2 O’
Or n1 α + n2=
γ (n2 − n1 ) β ……….(A)
S
Now angle at C is=
β =(S arc(PM))
R
S S Q’’
Also in paraxial approximation
= α and
= γ
u v
(ii) as λ increases, R decreases.
1 6 . 8 8 | Geometrical Optics
Sol 10: Refracting astronomical telescope: It consists of Sol 14: Angle of minimum deviation δm and angle of
an objective lens of a large focal length (fo) and large
aperture, also an eye lens of small aperture and focal A + δm
sin
length. 2
prism A are related as, µ =
(i) Magnification when final image is formed at D, A
sin
fo fe 2
⇒m=− 1 + and length of telescope, Glass prism of refractive index 1.5 is immersed in a
fe D
liquid of refractive index 1.3 so the relative refractive
fe D 1.5
L = |fo| + index of the prism decreases. µ=' = 1.15
fe + D 1.3
So as per above equation as A is constant for a prism,
Sol 11: (i) Lens formula as µ decreases, δm also decreases.
1 1 1
− = Sol 15: [Refer question 7 solution]
v u f
u=+12 cm, f =
+20 cm
Sol 16: Consider an object O placed at a distance u
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8
⇒ = + = + = + = from a convex lens as shown in figure. Let its image I
v u f 12 20 4 3 5 4 × 15 after two refractions from spherical surfaces of radii R1
⇒v=+7.5 cm (positive) and R2 (negative) be formed at a distance v
from the lens. Let v1 be the distance of image formed
1 1 1 4 −3 1
(ii) f = −16 cm ⇒ = − = = by refraction from the refracting surface of radius R1.
v 12 16 48 48 This image acts as an object for the second surface.
⇒v=+48 cm Using,
µ2 µ1 µ2 − µ1
1 1 1 − =
Sol 12: = (µ − 1) − v u R
f R1 R 2 Incident light
1 1 2 1 R₂ R₁
⇒ = (0.6 ) × 2= = ⇒ f + 25 cm
f 30
50 25
O C₂ 1 1 C₁ I
1 1 1 1 1 1 2
u=12.5 cm, = + = − = −
v f u 25 12.5 25
h2 v −25
⇒v= −25 cm , m = = = = 2 +ve
h1 u −12.5
u v
⇒ h2 =2h1 =2 × 5 cm =10 cm
µ2 µ1µ2 − µ1
Image is virtual and erect, on the same side as the twice, we have − =
....(i) ... (i)
v1 u R
object.
µ1 µ2 µ1 − µ2
and − = ....(ii) ... (ii)
v v1 −R 2
Sol 13: Predominance of bluish colour in a clear sky
is due to the phenomena of scattering of light in the Adding Eqs. (i) and (ii) and then simplifying, we get
atmosphere around earth. If size of the air particles
are smaller than the wavelength, the scattering is 1 1 µ2 1 1
− = − 1 − .....(iii) ... (iii)
proportional to 1 / λ 4 . This is the Rayleigh’s law of v u
scattering. The light of short wavelengths are strongly µ1 R1 R 2
scattered by the air molecules and reach the observer. This expression relates the image distance v of the
image formed by a thin lens to the object distance u
Among the shorter wavelengths, the colour blue is
and to the thin lens properties (index of refraction and
present in large proportion in sunlight.
radii of curvature). It is valid only for paraxial rays and
P hysi cs | 16.89
only when the lens thickness is much less then R1 and Sol 19: (a) (i)
R2. The focal length f of a thin lens is the image distance Q
that corresponds to an object at infinity. So, putting
u= ∞ and v = f in the above equation, we have
P’ E
P P’’ O ’
1 µ2 1 1
= − 1
− ....(iv) O’
f µ1 R1 R 2
If the refractive index of the material of the lens is µ
and it is placed in air, µ2 =µ and µ1 =1 so that Eq. (iv)
becomes
Q’’
1 1 1 (ii) Reflector telescope advantages:
= (µ − 1) − ....(v)
f R1 R 2 1. Reflector telescopes do not suffer from chromatic
This is called the lens maker’s formula because it can aberration because all wavelengths will reflect off the
be used to determine the values of R1 and R2 that are mirror in the same way.
needed for a given refractive index and a desired focal 2. Support for the objective mirror is all along the back
length f. side so they can be made very BIG.
Combining Eqs. (iii) and (v), we get 3. Reflector telescopes are cheaper to make than
1 1 1 refractors of the same size.
− = ....(vi) which is known as the lens formula.
v u f 4. Because light is reflecting off the objective, rather
(i) P = P1 + P2 = 10D − 5D = 5D than passing through it, only one side of the reflector
telescope’s objective needs to be perfect.
1 1 v
(ii)f = = =0.2m =20 cm; m =+ 2= (b) f1 = +10 cm, f2 = -10 cm, u = -30 cm.
P 5D u
⇒v= 2u 1 1 1 1 1 2
= + = − = ⇒ v1 =15 cm
v1 f1 u1 10 30 30
For virtual image m is positive
So for the concave lens
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ⇒ − =
v f u 2u u 20 u2 =
+(15 − 5) cm =
+10 cm
1 1
⇒− = ⇒ u = −10 cm B f0 fe
2u 20
Sol 17:
Fo Fe
1 1 O A’ F’e E
P = P1 + P2 = 6 − 2 = 4D ⇒ f = = = 0.25m A
P 4D B’
⇒f= 25cm
The one facing the distant object is called the objective eyepiece. The final image is then formed at infinity.
and has a large aperture and a large focal length. The It is erect with respect to the first image and hence,
other is called the eyepiece, as the eye is placed close inverted with respect to the object. The eye is least
to it. It has a smaller aperture and a smaller focal length. strained in this adjustment as it has to focus the parallel
The lenses are fixed in tubes. The eyepiece tube can rays coming to it. The position of the eyepiece can also
slide within the objective tube so that the separation be adjusted in such a way that the final virtual image is
between the objective and the eyepiece may be formed at the near point. The angular magnification is
changed. increased in this case. The ray diagram in figure refers
to this case.
Eyeplece
vo ue
(ii) Magnifying power of a Compound microscope is
vo fo
v D
− 0 → normal adjustment and
m=
h F u0 fe
’
h’
v D
Objective − 0 1 + → final image at D.
m=
u0 fe
−fο left with speed 3v. So its second image will more away
Sol 25: Astronomical telescope =
m → normal towards right with speed 3v w.r.t mirror 2. Hence speed
fe
adjustment w.r.t O will be 3v+v=4v
fo Hence for nth image v image = 2nv
⇒ −8 = − ⇒ fo = 8fe
fe
L = fο + fe = 45 cm ⇒ 8fe + fe = 45 cm h 3h
Sol 3: (A) tan θ= = lim
⇒ fe 5cm=
= and fe 40 cm y 10 h + y x →∞
⇒ 10h + y= 3y ⇒ y = 5h
Exercise 2 For general case
L₁
Single Correct Choice Type
M₂
3h
Sol 1: (A)
L₂ M₁ h v
δ1 180o − 2θ; =
= δ2 180o − 2=
θ ' 70o + 90o − θ ' S
10h = x y
3h h
o
70 tan θ = = ⇒ 3y = x + y ⇒ 2y = x
x +y y
dy dx dy 1
N’ ⇒ 2. = ⇒ = .v
90 -’ dt dt dt 2
o
’ 2
1
o
70
N
’ Sol 4: (C) A is head and E is feet of man. C is the eye.
The mirror can be placed anywhere between the centre
line BF (of AC) and DG (of CE) to get full image from
head to feet.
So here CE=1.4 m. So DE should be 0.7 m. But mirror is
⇒ θ ' =20 ο 0.8 m from ground so feet will not be visible. The upper
edge of mirror is at height (0.8+0.75) m equal to 1.55 m
α = 180o − 70o − (90o − θ ') = 180o − 70o − 70o which is more than BE.
α 40o ⇒=
= θ 90o −=
α 50o
A
x
Sol 2: (B) With respect to mirror1 the object is going B
F
array from mirror. So first image will also more away x
C
w.r.t mirror 1 with same speed v. So with respect to (x + y)
object O the image speed is y
D
1 2 G
y
E
O Man
AC 0.1
BE = BC + CE = + CE = + 1.4
2 2
= 0.05 + 1.4 = 1.45m
Sol 5: (B) Rays from S going right from the normal will When the mirror is present
not reach the bottom horizontal mirror as they will hit
the inclined mirror and get deviated. So C will see only Pθ12 h P
Intensity = and tan θ = ⇒=
the image formed by inclined mirror. 4 πh1 2 20 4 π × (20)2
O
Sol 9: (A) The slab will cause a lateral shift in the
incident rays as well as in the reflected rays from the
circular mirror MM’. Now the angle of emergence θ1
will be equal to the angle of incidence in case of a slab.
M M’
h
C 1 1 B
s 60
h
D A
1
P Q O
h
The rays reaching the edge M of the circular mirror
F after passing through the glass slab will be leaving the
20 source O at a greater angle (θ1 ) with the normal as
compared to the angle (θ) when there is no slab. But
due to symmetry of incident and reflected rays, the
reflected rays from the edge M, after passing through
the slab will reach the some point Q on the ground
where they would have reached when there was no
slab.
P hysi cs | 16.93
h
Sol 10: (A) B E
c
90 -
o
O
Ω = 2π(1 − cos θc )
3 6
n= n=
2 5 If total intensity is I then, intensity per unit solid angle is
I
A C D .So intensity through the circular area is,
4 π.
6 /5
90 − θ ≥ θc = sin−1 ; I
3/2 I
= .2π (1 − cos θc )
4π
4
90 − θ ≥ sin−1 ;
5 I' (1 − cos 48.59 ) I
ο ο =⇒ = ⇒ 16.9 %
90 − θ ≥ 53 ⇒ θ ≤ 37 I 2 I
1 1 1 1 1 u1 − f
Sol 13: (B) = + = − =
Sol 11: (C) v1 f ( − u1 ) f u1 f u1
1 f u1 f u2
=h 4m ; θc = sin−1 =v1 = and v 2
µ u1 − f u2 − f
1 −1 3 v1
= sin−1=
sin
= 37
ο v −f
Now m1= = =
5 / 3 5 u −u1 u1 − f
r 3h 3 × 4m −f
tan θc = ⇒ r = htan 37ο = = and m2
= = .also | m1 | | m2 |
h 4 4 u2 − f
r r
Now m1 is negative (real image) and m2 is positive
(virtual image). So we have,
h f −f
= ⇒ u2 − f =−u1 + f
c u1 − f u2 − f
c
u1 + u2
⇒ u1 + u2 = 2f ⇒ f =
2
O
⇒ diameter = 6m
2r = Sol 14: (B) The image formed by first lens will lie at its
second lens focus. This image will act as an object for
the second lens. For the rays to become parallel after
−1 1 3 passing through the second lens, the object for second
Sol 12: (D)
= θc sin= sin−1=
48.59
ο
µ 4
lens should lie on its first focus. Thus the distance
between the two lenses will be equal to sum of their
Solid angle subtended at source of light O by the
focal lengths.
circular area of radius r is
D = f1 + f2 = 20 cm + 10 cm = 30 cm
1 6 . 9 4 | Geometrical Optics
Sol 15: (B) Image formed by lens be at distance v1 from Speed of image with respect to object is
1 1 1 1 1 3−2 1 v I,O
= v I,L + vL,O
lens. = + = + = =
v1 f1 u1 10 −15 30 30
dv
=v I,O + ( − v)
v1 = 30 cm from lens. dt (towards left) (towards right)
h
h
A + δm A + 38ο
Sol 20: (B) At min deviation
= im =
X 2 2
Sol 17: (D) Let as work in the frame of reference Sol 21: (C)
1 1 1 M
attached to the lens. Lens formula: − =
v u f
Differentiating w.r.t. time,
dv du
− v −2 − ( −u−2 ) =0 ; (f is constant) I
x O
dt dt P
dv v 2 du δ = (µ − 1) A; µ = 1.5
⇒ =
dt u2 dt
o 2.5 5 π
δ 0.5 × 5=
= 2.5o ⇒ =
δ =
π =
π
Initially when u=f, v → ∞ so speed image is very large 180 360 72
and finally when u → ∞ , v → f and the speed of image
OP ≈ OM ≈ IM = 10 cm; ∆x = δ × (OM) = 10 δ cm
is very low (nearly zero). With respect to lens, as object
moves left, the image also moves left.
P hysi cs | 16.95
Sol 5:
Previous Years’ Questions
1 1 1
− =
v u f
1 1 1
Sol 1: – = = constant u u u u+ f
v u f or − 1 = or =
v f v f
Sol 2: (A) An experiment is performed to find the
v f
refractive index of glass using a travelling microscope. ∴ m ==
In this experiment, distances are measured by a vernier u u+ f
scale provided on the microscope.
20
m25 −25 + 20
Sol 3: (A) → since µ1 < µ2 , the ray of light will bend = = 6
m30 20
towards normal after first refraction.
−50 + 20
(B) → µ1 > µ2 , the ray of light will bend away from the
normal after first refraction. ∴ Answer is 6.
(C) → µ2 =µ3 means in second refraction there will be
no change in the path of ray of light. Sol 6: (D) Case I: u = – 240 cm, v = 12, by lens formula
(D) → Since µ2 > µ3 , ray of light will bend away from the 1 7
=
normal after second refraction. f 80
u = 5.6
1 6 . 9 6 | Geometrical Optics
1 1 1
Sol 7: (C) L.C =
60 f
= ( µ − 1) R1 −
R 2
1
9
Total Reading = 585 + = 58.65
60 1 3 1
= − 1
f 2 15
Sol 8: (B) As intensity is maximum at axis.
f = 30 cm
\ µ will be maximum and speed will be minimum on
the axis of the beam.
Sol 13: (D)
fm
=
(µ − 1)
∴Beam will converge.
f µ
− 1
µ
m
Sol 9: (D) For a parallel cylindrical beam, wave front will
be planar. 3
f1 − 1
2
=
=
⇒ 4
Sol 10: (D) Case I: u = -240 cm, v = 12, by Lens formula f 3/2
− 1
1 7 4/3
=
f 80
⇒ f1 =
4f
1 35
Case II: v = 12 − =
3 3 3
− 1
f2 2
2 1
Normal shift = 1- = = = −5
3 3 f 3/2
− 1
5 / 3
7
f=
80 ⇒ f2 < 0
u = 5.6
2
t Sol 15: (D) At face AB,
R 2 − d2= R 2 1 −
R sin θ = µ sin r
Sol 2:
Sol 16: (A) θ =1.22 λ
D
(
Minimum separation = 25 × 10−2 =
θ 30 µm )
Sol 17: (D) δ = i + e − A ⇒ A = 74°
120 cm
A + δmin A G
sin D
2 5 sin 37° + δmin
=µ =
A 3 2 40 cm 40 cm
sin
2 F
B C
5 5
µmax can be , so µ will be less than 40 cm
40 cm
3 3
Since δmin will be less than 40° , so P
S
5 5
µ< sin 57° < sin 60° ⇒ µ < 1.446 20 cm 40 cm
3 3
By similar triangles
So the nearest possible value of µ should be 1.5
∆ BCD ∆ BFE; so EF =
3 × CD
Because BF= 3 ×BC
⇒
= EF 120 cm ⇒
= EP 160 cm
JEE Advanced/Boards
∴ Minimum height of eye is 160 cm.
Exercise 1 And similarly maximum height will be
E'P = 80 + 3 × 80 = 320cm
3 −1 3 −1
Sol
= 1: OB OP
= sin15 ο
2=
2 2 2
Sol 3: By property of similar triangles,
Number of image
M P
y 20 cm
B
O
(1, 1) x
120
o
x
3m
B S
o
60 A 20 20
P x
(0, 0) (1, 0) 3-x
c
(1, -1) D
I1
360 360
n
= − 1= − 1= 5
θ θ
x 300 cm
∆ MAB ∆MCD; =
20 cm y
y=
+ 20 100 cm;= ⇒ y 80 cm
20 × 300 cm
⇒x
= = 75cm
80
1 6 . 9 8 | Geometrical Optics
axis of M₁ 10 cm v 2 du ( −30)2
dv dv
I₂ = 2 . ⇒
= . 20m s−1 (downward)
dt u dt dt ( −15)2
1cm O 1cm
A dv
1cm 1cm (4) × 20 ms−1 =
= 80m s−1 (downward)
dt
I₁
axis of M₂
Sol 6: Refer theory
M2
1 1'
H = 15 + 20 × 4 − × 10 × 16 = 15 + 80 − 80 = 15m 4”
2 o
3
1 1 1
Mirror formula + = gives Sol 8: At any point by Snell’s law
v u f
1sin 90 =n(y). sin (90o − θ);
1 1 1 1 1 2 − 3 −1
= − = − = = (kg3/2 + 1)1/2 cos θ
1=
v −10 ( −15) 15 −10 30 30
⇒v= −30 cm
P hysi cs | 16.99
x
1 6 . 1 0 0 | Geometrical Optics
Sol 10: o
For reflection of reflected ray at first face of prism
37
A
r
h r i
r
=1 15'
o
(90-2r)
2r
3.0 m o
6 30'
ο
sin i sin 37 4 3 3/5
=µ⇒ = µ = ⇒ sin r = =
sin r sin r 3 h +9 2 4/3
1 3 400
⇒ = ⇒ 400 = 9 (h2 + 9) ⇒ h2 = −9 6.5
2
h +9 30 9 µ sin 2r =sin 6.5 = π
180 1
319
⇒
= h = 5.95 m
9 6.5π 6.5π
2rµ
⇒= rµ
⇒= … (iii)
180 360
6.5 π 90
=µ × ⇒
= µ 1.625
360 π
(C)and(D)gives
When
µ12 + µ32 = 1 + µ22 + µ24 sin2 r7 .......(E)
vref vB From (v) µ5 sinr9 =
µ 4 cos r7 ......(F)
N
B (E) and (F) gives
µ12 + µ32 + µ52 sin2 r9 = 1 + µ22 + µ24 .....(G)
i From (vi) µ5 cos r9 =
1 ....(H)
(G) and (H) gives
i i ⇒ µ12 + µ32 + µ52 = 2 + µ22 + µ24
90-i
M A Sol 15: Snell’s law at spherical surface for the first ray
O µ sin i1 = sin r1
10 m
i = 37ο , we have
OA
OB = vB
cos(90 − i) r1
OA 10 10 i2
= = = m vref h1
sin i sin 37 3 / 5 R
90-i i1
50 x1
⇒ OB =m C
3 i
⇒ speed vrefl = ωrefl × [OB]
50 i h1 h1 R2
⇒ v refl =36 × m s−1 =600m s−1 ⇒ 1.6 = ⇒ h12=
+ x12
3
R h12 + x12 2.56
v ref v ref 600
vB
= = =
cos(90 − i) sin i 3 / 5 202
⇒ 0.52 + x22= ⇒ x2= 12.49 m
= 200 × 5= 1000 m / s. 2.56
µ3 sin r6 =
µ 4 sin r7 ........(iv) 202
⇒ x22= − 122 ⇒ x2= 3.5 m
µ 4 sin r8 =
µ5 sin r9 ........(v) 2.56
µ5 sin r10 =
1 sin 90........(v i) ⇒ ∆x2= x1 − x2= 9 m
Also as all prisms are isosceles right angled prisms, we Sol 16: (a) For total internal reflection at the concrete-
have air interface we have critical angle
1 = µ1 sinr1 ; µ2 sin r3 =
µ1 cos r1 1 1
⇒ sin θc = ⇒ θc = sin−1
⇒ µ12 = 1 + µ22 2
sin r3 .....(A) 5 5
From (iii) µ3 sin r5 = µ2 cos r3 ......(B)
(b) The concrete is a rarer medium for sound because
(A) and (B) gives the speed of sound is higher in concrete, while air will
µ12 + µ32 sin2 r5 = 1 + µ22 ....(C) be denser medium for sound as the speed of sound is
lower in air. So for TIR, sound must travel in air which is
From (iv)
denser medium in this case.
µ3 cos r5 =
µ 4 sin r7 ...(D)
(C)and(D)gives
µ12 + µ32 = 1 + µ22 + µ24 sin2 r7 .......(E)
From (v) µ5 sinr9 =
µ 4 cos r7 ......(F)
1 6 . 1 0 2 | Geometrical Optics
Sol 17: The outer most ray of the beam , ray 1, will Sol 19: Angle of deviation is gives as δ= (i1 + i2 ) − A
be tangential to the circular surface of rod at point P
Hence i2 – i1 = 23°, A =60°, δ =23°
and hence angle of incidence is 90°, hence greater than
critical angle, and hence will travel tangentially at all ⇒
⇒ 23
⇒ 23°°==
23°=
ii1 + i − 60
+ ii222 −
i11 + − 60
60
points of the circular portion from P to P’. ⇒ ii1 + i == 83 ° ...(1) … (i)
⇒
⇒ i11 + + ii222 83 °
= 83° ...(1)...(1)
⇒ iii22 −
⇒ − ii11 == 23
23°°° ...(2)
...(2) … (ii)
i ⇒ 2 − i1 = 23 ...(2)
From (i) and (ii) we get i1 = 30°, i2=53°
R Snell’s law at first refracting surface.
P Q Q’ P’
o
60
d
i1 i2
A B r1 r2
ray 1 ray 2 1 2 o o
60 60
The inner most ray of the beam, ray 2, will be incident
on the inner circular surface at angle i. 1 1
sini1 =µ sinr1 ⇒ =µ sinr1 ⇒ sinr1 =
From the geometry of figure we see that, 2 2µ
CQ = R; CA= R +d Snell’s law at second refracting surface.
R=(R+d) cos (90 - i) ⇒ R = (R + d) sin i 1 4 4
µ sinr2 = sini2 ⇒ sinr2 = . =
Here angle i will be the least of all angles of incidence µ 5 5µ
of ray 2 during its path inside the critical rod. So, if i is Now r1+r2=60°
greater than critical angle then ray 2 will surfer TIR at all
point in circular rod.
1 R 1 1 1 d A
sini > ⇒ > ⇒ > ⇒1+ < µ
µ R+d µ d µ R
1+ i
R
R+d
d d
⇒ < (µ − 1) ⇒ = (µ − 1) = 1.5 − 1
R R max
d 1
⇒ =
R max 2 90-i
Q R C
Sol 18: In a prime r1+r2=A;
Here r =r, r =0o, A=30o ⇒ r =30o …..(i)
1 2 3 3
⇒ sin(r1 + r2 ) = ⇒ sinr1 cosr2 + cosr1 sinr2 = ⇒ μ
At first refracting surface 2 2
1 16 1 4 3
sin i 1 1 ⇒ . 1− + 1− . =
= µ = 2 ⇒ sin i = (sin30o ) 2 = 2 = 2µ 25µ 2
4µ 5µ
2 2
sin r 2
2
⇒ i =45
43
=
5
P hysi cs | 16.103
Sol 20: Deviation suffered by the transmitted ray is Sol 21: When air is filled between two similar glass
pieces.
δδ=
= 1 (60oo
(60 − ) + (60oo
− rr1 ) + (60 − − rr11 ))
1 1
120 − 2r1 ...........(1)
...........(1) Pe 2PL + PM
=
δδ11=
= 120 − 2r 1
… (i)
Deviation suffered by the reflected ray after emerging
1 1 µL − µm 1 1
out of sphere. = PL = where −
fL fL µm R1 R 2
o o o
δ= (60o − r1 ) + (180o − 2r1 ) + (60o − r1 )
2
δ=
2 (60 − r1 ) + (180 − 2r1 ) + (60 − r1 )
δ2 300oo − 4r1 ..........(2)
= 1 1 − 1 1 1 1
δ2 300 − 4r1 …(ii)
= ..........(2) ⇒ − ⇒ = 0
fL 1 R −R fL
1
Now δ1 = δ2 ⇒ 3δ1 =δ2 .......(3)
…(iii) air air
3
From (i), (ii) and (iii) we get = air +
1 R
30
o Then PL=0 PM = − where fM = = −
fM 2
R=40cm
o
air air
60
= w +
sin60 3 /2
=µ⇒µ= ⇒µ= 3 Again if air between the glass pieces is replaced by
sinr1 1/2 water.
Pe 2PL + PM
=
1 6 . 1 0 4 | Geometrical Optics
1 R
= − (for concave mirror) Sol 23: Focal length of Plano - concave lens
fM 2
2 2 1 1 1
PM= = = (µ1 − 1) −
R 40 f1 ∞ R
1 3 1 1
⇒ Pe = 2PL + PM = − 1 − = − ⇒ f1 =−60 cm
f1 2 30 60
1 2 5 1
2× + = = Focal length of plano-convex lens
60 40 60 12
1 1 1
1 = (µ2 − 1) −
− ⇒ fe =−12 cm f2 ∞ −R
fe
1 5 1 1
1 1 1 = − 1 = ⇒ f2 = 120 cm
Again apply + = f1 4 30
120
v u fe
v 375 / 7 1 I2
Magnification, m = = ⇒m= −
u −750 14
20 cm
P2 R
3.0 cm
M C I1
⇒ diameter of imageof bulb,d1 = = 0.214 cm
14 P1
20 cm 40 cm
X
P hysi cs | 16.105
4 3
− 1 1 1
4/3 3/2 3 2 ..............(ii) ⇒Mirror formula + = will give focal length of
− = ... (ii) v u f
v2 v1 −30 cm
mirror by putting u=-50 cm, v=+10 cm,
Add (i) and (ii)
1 1 1 4 2 25
3 4 3 So, = − = = ⇒ f=
−1 − + f 10 50 50 25 2
4 1 2 3 2
+ =
3v 2 90 30 Radius of curvature R=2f =25 cm
4 2 1
⇒ =− ⇒ v2 =
+120 cm
3v 2 90 90
near end
For mirror, image of lens acts as object. F
Image length 1 1 1
Sol 6: (D) Lens formula − =; u = -30 cm,
v u f
fu fu − uf + f 2
| v near | − | v ∞=| f
−=
u−f u−f f = 20 cm
2
f
⇒ ∆I =
u−f
2 cm
Sol 3: (C) Velocity of image
P
v du dv
2 v 2 h1 0.5 cm
dv
− ;
= =
− .4 cm s−1 . axis
dt u2 dt dt 20 2
h2
From mirror formula
1 1 1 3−2 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 −5 1 = − = = ⇒ v = 60
=− ⇒ = − = − = =− v 20 30 60 60
v f u v −12 −20 20 12 60 30 v 60
Magnification m = ⇒ m = =−2 ⇒ h2 =−2h1
dv 900 −1
u −30
⇒v=−30 cm ⇒ =− 4 cm s = −9 cm s−1
dt 400 So h2 =−2 × 0.5cm =−1cm (below axis)
So Image of P is 1.5 cm below XY.
d2
Sol 4: (D) Area of mirror, A1 = π .
4
Sol 7: (B) Distance between object and screen is D,
Area left after putting opaque, displacement of lens is d, and so focal length of lens is
d2 d2 d2 D2 − d2 902 − 202
A2 = A1 − π d2 = π d2 − π d2 =f = = 21.4 cm
A2 = A1 − π 16 = π 4 − π 16 4D 4 × 90
16 4 16
d2 1 3 πd22 3
⇒ A2 = π d2 1 − 1 =
3 πd =3 A1
⇒ A2 = π 4 1 − 4 =4 4 = 4 A1 Sol 8: (A) Object size
4 4 4 4 4
3 O= I1 × I2 = 6 cm× 3 cm
Focal length will not change and intensity become I.
4
O = 4.24 cm
dy πx πx π L
= 2cos = 1 ⇒ = ⇒x=
dx L L 3 3
L 2L π 3L
⇒ y= sin =
3 π 3 π
P hysi cs | 16.107
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 A
=− ⇒ = − = ⇒ v1 =
+30cm x
v1 f u1 v1 60 −60 30 F
B
x
Image of B in convex mirror C
(x + y)
y
1 1 1 1 1 3+2 1
= − = − = =
v 2 f u2 60 −90 180 36 D
G
⇒ v2 =
+36 cm ⇒ A'B' =
(36 − 30)cm =
6 cm y
E
th
1 Man
Second image A’B’ is virtual and of magnification
w. r. t. AB and erect. 5
Sol 16: (B, D) The distance PQ1 and PQ2 will not change
1
as the mirror MM’ moves with speed v perpendicular
2
i to its length.
P S P Q1 Wall Q2
i
i’ i’
Sol 25: (D) If a plane mirror is moved such that its Sol 33: (A) Path of rays 1 is more than path of ray 2 by
perpendicular distance from the point object does not a distance dsin α . Draw perpendicular S2M from S2 to
change, then the image will not move. ray 1.
Comprehension Type S1
O I
P
X ∠MS2S1 =
α and MS1 =
d sin α
-40
d sin α = (µ − 1)t c c
Sol 7: (B) N= = v= which is choice B
(µ − 1)t v n
⇒ α =sin−1
d v
Also frequency ν = since v remains unchanged
λ
Match the Column v air v m
=
λair λm
Sol 34: A → p, r; B → q, s; C → p, q, r, s; D → p, q, r, s
vm vm c
⇒ λm = λair × =λair × ×
v air c v air
1 1 1 λair
Sol 1: (C, D)
f
=
v
+ (mirror formula)
u n
= (
nm n=
and nair 1 )
F = – 24 cm
So choice D is wrong
n0 f = + 20 cm
n0 sin
= θ sin θC
6
1 1 1
1 13 1 – =
or sin
= θ sin=
θC = v –40 20
6 64 8
1 1 1 1
1 = – =
∴ θ =sin−1 v 20 40 40
8
\ v = 40 cm
Sol 3: (A, C, D) In case of concave mirror or convex lens
image can be real, virtual, diminished, magnified or of
same size. Sol 9: (B) Object is placed at distance 2f from the lens.
So first image I1 will be formed at distance 2f on other
(B) In case of convex mirror image is always virtual (for
side. This image I1 will behave like a virtual object for
real object).
mirror. The second image I2 will be formed at distance
20 cm in front of the mirror, or at distance 10 cm to the
Sol 4: (A) At minimum deviation ( δ = δm ) : left hand side of the lens.
A 60o
r1= r2= = = 30o (For both colours)
2 2
1 6 . 1 1 0 | Geometrical Optics
Now applying lens formula Hence, l will depend on n (z) but not on n2.
10 cm
O
I3
I1 n1 = constant 1 1
I2
6 cm
n(z)
30 cm 10 cm 20 cm
z
d
1 1 1 d
− =
v u f
1 1 1
∴ − = n2 = constant l
v +10 +15 2
or v = 6 cm
Therefore, the final image is at distance 16 cm from the
mirror. But, this image will be real.
This is because ray of light is travelling from right to Sol 13: (A) First Image I1 from the lens will be formed
left. at 75 cm to the right of the lens.
Taking the mirror to be straight, the image I1 after
50
Sol 10: (3) For v1 = m, u1 = – 25 m reflection will be formed at 50 cm to the left of the
7 mirror.
25
v2 = m, u2 = – 50 m On rotation of mirror by 30° the final image is I3.
3
25 18 So x = 50 – 50 cos 60° =25 cm.
Speed of object = × = 3 km/h.
30 5 and y = 50 sin 60° =25 3 cm.
I3
Sol 11: (B)
feq R R 30
o
feq = 20 o
30
I2 (0, 0)
Here u = - 40, f = 20
v = 40 50 cm
θi n ( d) sin=
n1 sin
= θd n2 sin θf
The deviation of ray in the slab will depend on n (z)
cos=
θ (
1 ˆ
2
i + 3 ˆj )
cos=
θ
2 (
1 ˆ 1
) (
i + 3 ˆj . ˆi + 3 ˆj
2 )
P hysi cs | 16.111
1 ∴ f1 = 3R
cos θ = −
2 For glass to air.
θ 120°
= 1 1.4 − 1.5 1 − 1.4
= +
f2 −R −R
Sol 15: (C) ∴ f2 =
2R
r 5.77
Sol 18: (C) tan θc = = ≈ 3
h 10
Liquid r
24 m 8m
C C h
λa 3
=
µ =
λm 2 µ
⇒ sin θc =
µb
1 µ −1 1
⇒= =
f R 2R 1
µ 2.72 ×= 1.36
⇒=
2
1 1 1
⇒ = −
f v u 1 1
Sol 19: (B)
f
= ( µ − 1) R1 −
R 2
1 1 1 1
⇒ − =
8 −24 2R
3+1 1
⇒ =
24 2R f=R f = 2R f = -2R
⇒R=
3m
1 1 1
Use = +
feq f1 f2
Sol 16: (D) P → (2); Q → (3); R → (4) ; S → (1)
1 1 1 2 R
P. µ2 > µ1 .... (towards normal) (P) = + = ;f =
feq R R R eq 2
µ2 > µ3 .... (away from normal)
Q. µ1 =µ2 .... (No change in path) 1 1 1 1
(Q) = + = ; feq = R
feq 2R 2R R
∠ i= 0 ⇒ ∠r = 0 on the block.
R. µ1 > µ2 .... (Away from the normal) 1 1 1 1
(R) =
− − − ; feq =
= −R
µ2 > µ3 .... (Away from the normal) feq 2R 2R R
1 µ1
µ1 × =µ2 sinr ⇒ sin r = . 1 1 1 1
(S) = − = ; f =2R
2 2 µ2 feq R 2R 2R eq
Since sin r < 1 ⇒ µ1 < 2 µ2
n sin =
r2 sin θ 1
β + θ = θc = sin−1 = 45°
Using equation (i) and (ii) 2
For reflection
1 1 2
+ = ⇒ R = 30 cm
10 −30 R
(n − 1) R1 =
1 1
=
f 20
5
∴n =
2
The faint image is erect and virtual.
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17. WAV E O P T I C S
1. INTRODUCTION
There have always been controversies over the nature of light. Some theories believe light to be a wave whereas
some believe it to be a particle. Newton, the greatest among the great, believed that light is a collection of particles.
He believed that these particles travel from a source of light in straight lines when it is not under the influence of
external forces. This was one of the strongest evidence of the particle nature of light.
A Dutch physicist named Huygens (1629 – 1695), suggested that light may have a wave nature. The apparent
rectilinear propagation of light explained by Newton may be just due to the fact that the wavelength of light may
be much smaller than the dimensions of these obstacles. This proposal remained a dump for almost a century.
Newton’s theory was then challenged by the Young’s double slit experiment in 1801. A series of experiments on
diffraction of light conducted by French scientist Fresnel were some of the activities that put an end to the particle
nature of light and established the wave nature of light.
The twist came around when the wave nature of light failed to explain the photoelectric effect in which light again
behaved as particles. This again brought up the question whether light had a wave or a particle nature and an
acceptance was eventually reached that light is of dual nature – particle and wave. In this material, we will focus on
the study of the wave nature of light.
Key point – Light waves need no material medium to travel. They can propagate in vacuum.
The frequency of visible light varies from about 3800 × 1011 Hz to about 7800 × 1011 Hz .
Colour Wave-length
Red 620-780 nm
Orange 590-620 nm
Yellow 570-590nm
1 7 . 2 | Wave Optics
Colour Wave-length
Green 500-570 nm
Blue 450-500 nm
Violet 380-450 nm
Illustration 1: The refractive index of glass is 1.5. Find the speed of light in glass. (JEE MAIN)
speed of light in vaccum
Sol: µ =
speed of light in the material
Huygens’ Construction
Huygens, the Dutch physicist and astronomer of the seventeenth century, gave a beautiful F1 F2
geometrical description of wave propagation. We can guess that, he must have seen water
waves many times in the canals of his native place Holland. A stick placed in water, oscillated
up and down, becomes a source of waves. Since the surface of water is two dimensional, the
resulting wave fronts would be circles instead of spheres. At each point on such a circle, the
water level moves up and down. Huygens’ idea is that we can think of every such oscillating A1 A2
point on a wave front as a new source of waves. According to Huygens’ principle, what we
observe is the result of adding up the waves from all these different sources. These are called B1 B2
secondary waves or wavelets. Huygens’ Principle is illustrated in (Figure) as the simple case
of a plane wave.
C1 C2
(a) At time t=0, we have a wave front F1 ,F1 separates those parts of the medium that are
undisturbed from those where the wave has already reached.
D1 D2
(b) Each point on F1 acts like a new source and sends out a spherical wave. After a time ‘t’,
each of these will have radius vt. These spheres are the secondary wavelets.
(c) After a time t, the disturbance would now have reached all points within the region
covered by all these secondary waves. The boundary of this region is the new wavefront Figure 17.1
F2 . Notice that F2 is a surface tangent to all the spheres. It is called the forward envelop
of these secondary wavelets.
(d) The secondary wavelets from the point A1 on F1 touches F2 at A2 . According to Huygens, A1 A2 is a ray. It
is perpendicular to the wavefronts F1 and F2 and has length vt. This implies that rays are perpendicular to
wavefronts. Further, the time taken for light to travel between two wavefronts is the same along any ray. In our
P hysi cs | 17.3
examples, the speed ‘v’ of the wave has been taken to be the same at all points in the medium. In this case,
we can say that the distance between two wavefronts is the same measured along any ray.
(e) This geometrical construction can be repeated starting with F2 to get the next wavefront F3 a time t later, and
so on. This is known as Huygens’ construction.
Huygens’ construction can be understood physically for waves in a material medium, like the surface of water. Each
oscillating particle can set its neighbors into oscillation, and therefore acts as a secondary source. But what if there
is no medium, such as for light travelling in vacuum? The mathematical theory, which cannot be given here, shows
that the same geometrical construction work in this case as well.
3. INTERFERENCE
When two waves of the same frequency move along the same direction in a medium, they superimpose and give
rise to a phenomena called interference. Points of constructive interference have maximum intensity while points
of destructive interference have minimum intensity.
( )
2
(=A1 + A2 )
2
φ Imax I1 + I2
If I=
1 I=
2 I0 ; I1 = 410 cos2 =;
2 Imin
( A1 − A2 ) ( )
2 2
I1 − I2
Note: Consider two coherent sources S1 and S2 . Suppose two waves emanating S1
from these two sources superimpose at point P. The phase difference between them
at P is φ (which is constant). If the amplitude due to two individual sources at P is A1 P
S2
and A2 , then resultant amplitude at P will be, A = A12 + A22 + 2A1 A2 cos φ
Figure 17.2
Illustration 2: Light from two sources, each of same frequency and in same direction, but with intensity in the
ration 4:1 interfere. Find ratio of maximum to minimum intensity. (JEE MAIN)
2
I1
2 +1
Imax I1 + I2
2
I2 2+1
= = = 9:1
Imin I − I I1 2 −1
1 2
−1
I2
Illustration 3: In a Young’s experiment, the interference pattern is found to have an intensity ratio between the
bright and dark fringes as 9:1, find out: (JEE MAIN)
(i) The ratio of intensities
(ii) Amplitude of two interfering waves.
Sol: In Interference, A2 ∝ I , =
A A1 ± A2 .
( )
2
Imax 9 I1 + I2 9 I1 + I2 3
= ; = ; = ; I1 + I2 = 3 I1 − 3 I2
Imin 1
( ) 1 1
2
I1 − I2 I1 − I2
I1 I1 a I1 a1
−2 I1 =
−4 I2 ; =
2
I2 1
; =
4
I2 1
(
; I ∝ a2 , 1 =
a2
)
I2
;
a2
4 2
==
1 1
Illustration 4: Two coherent monochromatic light beams of intensity I & 4I are superimposed. What is the max &
min possible intensities in the resulting wave? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: In Interference, A2 ∝ I , =
A A1 ± A2 .
( ) =( I + 4I ) =(3 I )
2 2 2
Imax = I1 + I2 2 =9I
( ) =( I − 4I ) =I
2 2
Imin = I1 − I2
screen depending upon whether these waves reach with a phase difference φ = (2n – 1)π producing destructive
interference or φ= 2nπ producing constructive interference respectively. If the screen is placed at a perpendicular
distance D from the middle point of the slits, the point O on the screen lies at the right bisector of S1 S2 and is
equidistant from S1 and S2. The intensity at O is maximum. Consider a point P located at a distance xn from O on
the screen as shown in the figure. The path difference of waves reaching at point P from S2 and S1 is given by Path
x d
difference = S2P − S1P = n
D
S1P = XP
S=
2P S2 X + XP
⇒ path difference =
dsin θ
xn
As θ is small sin θ ≈=
tan θ {D >> d}
D
xn d
∴ S2P − S1P =
D
The point P will be bright or of a maximum intensity when the path difference is an integral multiple of wavelength
x d
λ or φ = 2nπ = nλ ; ∴ S2P − S1P =n = nλ
D
The bright fringes are thus observed at distance
P
λD 2λD 3λD nλD
=x1 = ,x = , x3 ,......,
= xn
d 2 d d d
S1 Xn
The distance between consecutive bright fringes,
nλD λD λD
=
β − (n − 1 ) = d
d d d X
Fringe width: The spacing between any two consecutive bright or two dark fringes is equal and is called the fringe
width.
Thus, when a thin transparent plate of thickness t and refractive index µ is introduced in one of the paths of the
xd
waves, the path difference changes by .
D
xd D
∴ = ( µ − 1 ) t; x = (µ − 1) t
D d
D (µ − 1) t
∴The central maxima shifts by a distance equal to .
d
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
In Young’s double slit experiment, it is important to note that energy is just redistributed over the surface
of screen. It is still conserved! More energy is taken by points near bright fringes whereas dark fringes
have almost no energy.
B Rajiv Reddy (JEE 2012, AIR 11)
Illustration 5: S1 and S2 are two coherent sources of frequently ‘f’ each. ( θ1 =θ2 =0° ) Vsound = 330m s . Find f
(i) So that there is constructive interference at ‘P’
(ii) So that there is destructive interference at ‘P’ (JEE MAIN)
λ
Sol: Path difference for constructive and destructive interference must be λ and respectively.
2
For constructive interference,
S1 3m P
2π 2 2 330
K∆x = 2nπ ; × 2 = 2nπ ; λ = ; V =λf ⇒ V = f=
; f × n For destructive interference,
λ n n 2
4m
2π 1 ( 2n + 1) V 330 × ( 2n + 1 )
K∆x= ( 2n + 1) π ; λ
.2 = ( 2n + 1) π ; λ
=
4
;=
f =
λ 4 S2
Figure 17.4
Illustration 6: In a Young’s double slit experiment, the separation between the slits is 0.10 mm, the wavelength of
light used is 600 nm and the interference pattern is observed on a screen 1.0 m away. Find the separation between
the successive bright fringes. (JEE MAIN)
P hysi cs | 17.7
Assumptions: 2. Since d<<D, we can assume that intensities at P due to independent sources S1 and S2 are almost
equal. or I=
1 I=
2 I0 (say)
Illustration 7: When a plastic thin film of refractive index 1.45 is placed in the path of one of the interfering waves,
then the central fringe is displaced through width of five fringes. Find the thickness of the film, if the wavelength of
light is 5890 A. (JEE MAIN)
β β ( 0.45 ) t 5 × 589010−10
X 0= ( µ − 1 ) t ⇒ 5p= ∴ t=
0.45
=6.544 × 10−4 cm
λ 5890 × 10−10
Illustration 8: Laser light of wavelength 630 nm, incident on a pair of slits produces an interference pattern in
which bright fringes are separated by 8.1 mm. A second light produces an interference pattern in which the bright
fringes are separated by 7.2 mm. Find the wavelength of the second light. (JEE ADVANCED)
λ1= 630nm= 630 × 10−9 m; β1= 8.1mm= 8.1 × 10−3 m; β2= 7.2mm= 7.2 × 10−3 m
λ2 β2 β2 7.2 × 10−3 8
= ; λ2 = λ1 ; λ2 = × 630 × 10−9 =× 630 × 10−9 =
560 × 10−9 =
560nm
λ1 β1 β1 8.1 × 10 −3 9
Illustration 9: In a Young’s double slit experiment, the two slits are illuminated by light of wavelength 5890
Angstrom and the distance between the fringes obtained on the screen is 0.2° . If the whole apparatus is immersed
in water, the angular fringe width will be: (the refractive index of water is 4 3 ). (JEE ADVANCED)
1
Hence,=y D tan
= θ meter
3
(ii) Maximum path difference S1 y
∆Pmax ==
d 1mm
d
D
S2
d
⇒ Highest order maxima, nmax =
= 2
λ
Figure 17.5
d 1
And highest order minima nmin = + = 2
λ 2
Illustration 11: Monochromatic light of wavelength 5000 A° is used in a Y.D.S.E., with slit-width, d=1mm, distance
between screen and slits, D is 1m. If the intensities at the two slits are,
= I1 4I
= 0 ,I2 I0, find (JEE ADVANCED)
λD 5000 × 10−10 × 1
(i) =
β = = 0.5mm
d 1 × 10−3
λD
( 2n 1)
(ii) y =−
2d
,n =
5 ⇒y =2.25mm
1 d.y
(iii)
= At y mm, y << D Hence ∆p =
3 D
2π dy 4 π
∆φ= ∆p= 2π =
λ λD 3
Now resultant intensity
4π
I I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos ∆φ ; 4I0 + I0 + 2 4I20 cos ∆φ
= = 5I0 + 4I0 cos = 3I0
3
d 10−3
(iv)
= = 2000
λ 0.5 × 10−6
1 Maximum intensity
Y=D tan θ = meter
3 4l0
d
(v) Highest order maxima nmax
= = 2000
λ
Hence, n=5000 is not possible
Intensity variation on screen: If I0 is the intensity
of light beam coming from each slit, the resultant O
intensity at a point where they have a phase Minimum intensity
difference of φ is Fringe width
Illustration 12: When a plastic thin film of refractive index 1.45 is placed in the path of one of the interfering waves
then the central fringe is displaced through width of five fringes. Find the thickness of the film, if the wavelength of
light is 5890 Å. (JEE MAIN)
Useful tips: If two slits have unequal sizes (they correspond to intensity). The intensity of the resultant is
( I ) + ( I ) + (2 )
2 2
I= 1 2 I1 I2 cos φ
( ) (
I= I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos φ= k S1 + S2 + 2 S1S2 cos φ )
Where S1 & S2 is the size of slits
λ2 λ2 φ
Coherence length, Icoh = ; Coherence radius ρcoh = β=
∆λ φ 2
1 7 . 1 0 | Wave Optics
λ
Where λ = wavelength of light in the medium λ = 0 .
µ
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Optical path must always be linked to phase of wave, so that it’s more convincing and useful. Only
learning manually will make it confusing and annoying.
If a material of thickness t interrupts the path of light and distance measured from position of an end of
material, then the phase of wave which is found at a distance x(<t) through the material will be same to
phase at distance (mu), if there was no material.
Fringe width (w) is the distance between two successive maximas or minimas. It is given by,
λD
=w ; or w ∝ λ .Two conclusions can be drawn from this relation:-
d
(i) If a YDSE apparatus is immersed in a liquid of refractive index µ , then wavelength of light and hence,
fringe width decreases µ times.
(ii) If white light is used in place of a monochromatic light then coloured fringes are obtained on the
screen with red fringes of larger size than that of violet, because λred > λ violet .
Vaibhav Gupta (JEE 2009, AIR 54)
Illustration 13: The wavelength of light coming from a sodium source is 589 nm. What will be its wavelength in
water? Refractive index of water =1.33. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The wavelength in water is λ = λ0 µ , where λ0 is the wavelength in vacuum and µ is the refractive index of
589
water. Thu=
λ = 443nm
1.33
P hysi cs | 17.11
Illustration 14: Find the minimum thickness of a film which will strongly reflect the light of wavelength 589 nm.
The refractive index of the material of the film is 1.25. (JEE MAIN)
1
can be shown as under,
Speed of light in air = c x
c 2
Speed of light in medium = Time taken by ray 1 to cross the slab,
µ
t µt Figure 17.9
t1 =
= and time taken by ray 2 cross the same thickness t in air will
c/µ c
t
be, t2
= as t1 > t2
c
Difference in time ∆t = t1 − t2 = ( µ − 1) ct
Optical path length: Now we can show that a thickness t in a medium of refractive index µ is equivalent to a length
µt in vacuum (or air). This is called optical path length. Thus,
Optical path length= µt
1 7 . 1 2 | Wave Optics
Note: Due to the glass slab, path of ray 1 gets increased by ∆x2 . Therefore,
Figure 17.10
net path difference between the two rays is,
yd
∆x = ∆x1 − ∆x2 or, x
∆= − (µ − 1) t
D
yd
For nth maxima on upper side, or, − ( µ − 1 ) t = nλ ;
D
nλD ( µ − 1 ) tD
∴ y= +
d d
Earlier, it was
nλD
; Shift =
( µ − 1) tD
d d
These numbers are inversely proportional to λ . This is because the shift is the same for all colours but the fringe
width of the colour having smaller value of λ is small, so more number of fringes of this colour will shift.
Illustration 15: In a YDSE with d=1mm and D=1m, slabs of ( t = 1µm, µ = 3) and ( t = 0.5 µm, µ = 2 ) are introduced
in front of the upper slit and the lower slit respectively. Find the shift in the fringes pattern. (JEE MAIN)
Optical path for light coming from upper slit S1 is S1P + 1µm ( 2 − 1=
) S2P + 0.5µm
Similarly optical path for light coming from S2 is S2P + 0.5µm ( 2 − 1 ) = S2P + 0.5µm
yd
Path difference ∆=
p (S2P + 0.5µm) − (S1P + 2µm) = (S2P − S1P ) − 1.5µm = D
− 1.5µm
1.5µm
For central bright ∆p =0 ⇒=
y × 1m
= 1.5mm.
1mm
The whole pattern is shifted by 1.5mm upwards.
P hysi cs | 17.13
Illustration 17: In YDSE, find the thickness of a glass slab ( µ =1.5 ) which should be placed before the upper slit S1
so that the central maximum now lies at a point where 5th bright fringe was lying earlier (before inserting the slab).
Wavelength of light used is 5000 Å. (JEE MAIN)
∴
( µ − 1) tD =
5λD
y
∴=
5λ
=
25000
=50,000 Å
d d µ − 1 1.5 − 1
Tip: If the light reaching P is direct (not reflected) from two sources then P will be a bright fringe if the path
difference = nλ
λ
= ( 2n + 1 ) → because the
If the light reaching P after reflection forms a bright fringe (at P) then path difference
2
λ
reflection causes an additional path difference of (or phase difference = π rad.) If the interference occurs due to
2
reflected light, central fringe (or ring in Newton’s rings) will be dark. If the interference occurs due to transmitted
light, central fringe (or ring in Newton’s rings) will be bright.
⇒∆
=p dsin θ0 + dsin θ1 (if d<<D)
P1
S1
and for points below O on the screen, (say for P2 )
∆p
= ( dsin θ0 + S2P2 ) − S1P2= dsin θ0 − ( S1P2 − S2P2 )
0
3
1
2 O
P2
dsin4
∆p dsin θ0 − dsin θ2 (if d<<D)
⇒= S2
O’
We obtain central maxima at a point where, ∆p =0.
( d sin θ0 − d sin θ2 ) =0 or, θ2 =θ0 .
Figure 17.12
1 7 . 1 4 | Wave Optics
This corresponds to the point O’ in the diagram. Hence, we finally have the path difference as
d ( sin θ0 + sin θ ) − for points above O
∆p d ( sin θ0 − sin θ ) − for points between O & O'
=
d ( sin θ − sin θο ) − for points below O'
Illustration 18: In a YDSE with D=1m, d=1mm, light of wavelength 500 nm is incident at an angle of 0.57° w.r.t.
the axis of symmetry of the experimental set up. If the centre of symmetry of screen is O as shown, find:
(i) The position of central maxima.
(ii) Intensity at point O in terms of intensity of central maxima I0 .
S1 P
(iii) Number of maxima lying between O and the central maxima. (JEE MAIN) 0.57
o y
S2 O
Hence, ∆=
p dsin θ0 dθ=
0 ( )= 20 × (500nm)
1mm × 10−2 rad = 10,000nm
(iii) 19 maxima lie between central maxima and O, excluding maxima at O and central maxima.
4. DIFFRACTION
The phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of an obstacle or Light A’
an aperture into the region of the geometrical shadow of the obstacle is
called diffraction of light. The diffraction of light is more pronounced when
A
the dimension of the obstacle/aperture is comparable to the wavelength of
Screen
the wave. S Obstacle
L2
L1
W A
P
x
d
S Q
C
N B
W’ B
DL Screen
2
Figure 17.15
BN
From ∆BAN,
AB
sin θ
= Or, =
BN AB sin θ ∴Path difference, BN=d sinθ dθ ( θ is small)
(a) For Minima: If the path difference is equal to one wavelength i.e., BN= d sinθ = λ , position P will be of
minimum intensity. Hence, for first minima, d sinθ1 =λ
Or sinθ1 =λ d …(i)
Or θ1 =λ d ( θ1 is very small) …(ii)
Similarly, if BN= 2λ ,
Thus, for second minima, dsin θ2 = 2λ Or sin θ2 = 2λ d ; sinθ2 =θ2 Or θ2 = 2λ d
Note: Condition for minima → Path difference between two waves should be mλ , where m is an integer.
(b) For secondary maxima: If path difference, BN= d sin θ is an odd multiple of λ 2 ,
2m + 1 2m + 1 λ
i.e. dsin
= θm λ or sin θm =
2 2 d
2m + 1 λ
Since θm is small, so sinθm =θm ; ∴ θm = …(iv)
2 d
M=1 ,2, 3, …. Is an integer
Let f be the focal length of lens L2 and the distance of first minima -3 -2 - - 2 3
x
on either side of the central maxima be x. Then, tan θ = -3
f -2 - 2 3
Since the lens L2 is very close to the slit, so f=D d d d d d d
x x
∴ tan θ = Since θ is very small, so tan θ ≈ sin θ ∴ sin θ = …(i)
d d Figure 17.16
y
Also, for first minima, dsin θ = λ or sin θ = …(ii)
d
1 7 . 1 6 | Wave Optics
x λ λD
From eqns. (i) and (ii), we have = or x = …(iii)
D d d
This is the distance of first minima on either side from the centre of the central maximum. Width of central maximum
2λD
is given by: ∴ 2x =
d
Diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a central maximum flanked by alternate minima and secondary
maxima is shown in figure.
Note: That sin θ =0 corresponds to central maxima while sinθ = π , corresponds to first minima.
Diffraction grating: It consists of a large number of equally spaced parallel slits. If light is incident normally on a
transmission grating, the direction of principal maxima is given by dsin θ = nλ
Here d is the distance between two consecutive slits and is called the grating element.
N=1, 2, 3,…. is the order of principal maximas.
Resolving power of the diffraction grating: The diffraction grating is most useful for measuring wavelengths
accurately. Like the prism, the diffraction grating can be used to disperse a spectrum into its wavelength components.
Of the two devices, the grating is the more precise if one wants to distinguish two closely spaced wavelengths.
For two nearly equal wavelengths λ1 and λ2 , between which a diffraction grating can just barely distinguish, the
resolving power R of the grating is defined as
λ λ
=R =
λ2 − λ1 ∆λ
where, λ = ( λ1 + λ2 ) 2 and ∆λ = λ2 − λ1 .
Illustration 19: A parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 450 nm passes through a long slit of width
0.2 mm. Find the angular divergence in which most of the light is diffracted. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Most of the light is diffracted between the two first order minima. These minima occur at angles given by
bsinθ = ±λ
450 × 10−9 m
Or, sin θ = ± λ b =
± ±2.25 × 10 −3 Or, θ = ±2.25 × 10−3 rad
=
0.2 × 10 −3 m
(a)
(b)
b
D P hysi cs | 17.17
(a)
(b)
Figure 17.17
If the light transmitted by the hole is converged by a converging lens at the screen placed at the focal plane of this
λf
lens, the radius of the first dark ring is R = 1.22
b
As most of the light coming from the hole is concentrated within the first dark ring, this radius is also called the
radius of the diffraction disc.
Illustration 20: A beam of light of wavelength 590nm is focused by a converging lens of diameter 10.0 cm at a
distance of 20 cm from it. Find the diameter of the disc image formed. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The angular radius of the central bright disc in a diffraction pattern from circular aperture is given by
1.22λ 1.22 × 590 × 10−9 m
sin θ = = = 0.7 × 10 −5 rad.
b −2
10.0 × 10 m
The radius of the bright disc is 0.7 × 10−5 × 20cm =1.4 × 10−4 cm
= 2.8 × 10 −4 cm
The diameter of the disc image
Important Points:
(a) Types of diffraction: The diffraction phenomenon is divided into two types viz. Fresnel diffraction and
Fraunhofer diffraction. In the first type, either the source or the screen or both are at a finite distance from
the diffracting device (obstacle of aperture). In the second type, both the source and screen are effectively at
an infinite distance from the diffracting device. Fraunhofer diffraction is a particular limiting case of Fresnel
diffraction.
(b) Difference between interference and diffraction: Both interference and diffraction are the results of
superposition of waves, so they are often present simultaneously, as in Young’s double slit experiment.
However interference is the result of superposition of waves from two different wave fronts while diffraction
results due to superposition of wavelets from different points of the same wave front.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
X-ray diffraction is used in crystals to find inter-atomic distance owing to the fact that wavelengths of
x-rays are of order of inter-atomic distance, the required condition for diffraction.
Nivvedan (JEE 2009, AIR 113)
D
(a)
Figure 17.20
Rayleigh Criterion: According to Rayleigh, two objects or points are just resolved if the position of the central
maximum of the image of one object coincides with the first minimum of the image of the other object as shown
in figure (a).
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Resolving Power: The ability of an optical instrument to form distinctly separate images of the two
closely placed points or objects is called its resolving power. Resolving power is also defined as reciprocal
of the limit of resolution,
1
R.P. =
Limit of resolution
Smaller the limit of resolution of an optical instrument, larger is its resolving power and vice-versa.
Resolving Power of Eyes: Since eye lens is a converging lens, the limit of resolution of the human eye
1.22γ
is that of the objective lens of a telescope i.e. limit of resolution of the eye, α =
D
Where, D= diameter of the pupil of the eye.
1 D
Resolving power of the eye= =
α 1.22λ
Resolving power of an astronomical telescope: Resolving power of a telescope,
1 D
R.P. = or R.P. =
Limit of resolution 1.22λ
Illustration 21: A star is seen through a telescope having objective lens diameter as 203.2cm. If the wavelength of
light coming from a star is 6600 Å, find (i) the limit of resolution of the telescope and (ii) the resolving power of the
telescope. (JEE MAIN)
1 D
Sol: Resolving power of the eye= = 6600 × 10−8 cm =
Here, D=203.2cm and λ = 6600 Å = 6.6 × 10 −5 cm
α 1.22λ
1.22λ 1.22 × 6.6 × 10−5
(i) Limit of resolution of telescope, α = = = 3.96 × 10−7 rad
D 203.2
1 D 1
(ii) Resolving power of telescope,= = = 2.53 × 106
α 1.22λ 3.96 × 10−7
1
Resolving power of a microscope: Resolving power of a microscope= i.e.
dmin
2nsin β
R.P.microscope =
1.22λ
6. SCATTERING OF LIGHT
Scattering of light is a phenomenon in which a part of a parallel beam of light appears in directions other than the
incident radiation when passed through a gas.
Process: Absorption of light by gas molecules followed by its re-radiation in different directions.
The strength of scattering depends on the following:
(a) Loss of energy in the light beam as it passes through the gas
(b) Wavelength of light
(c) Size of the particles that cause scattering
1 7 . 2 0 | Wave Optics
Key point: If these particles are smaller than the wavelength, the scattering is proportional to 1 λ 4 . This is known
as Rayleigh’s law of scattering. Thus, red is scattered the least and violet is scattered the most. This is why, red
signals are used to indicate dangers. Such a signal transmit to large distance without an appreciable loss due to
scattering.
Practical example of scattering: The blue color of the sky is caused by the scattering of sunlight by the molecules
in the atmosphere. This scattering, called Rayleigh scattering, is more effective at short wavelengths (the blue
end of the visible spectrum). Therefore, the light scattered down to the earth at a large angle with respect to the
direction of the sun’s light, is predominantly in the blue end of the spectrum.
7. POLARIZATION OF LIGHT
The process of splitting of light into two directions is known as polarization.
y
Direction of
propagation of light
Figure 17.21
Phenomenon of polarization: The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of a light vector of the electric field
vector in a particular direction in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light is called polarization
of light. Tourmaline crystal is used to polarize the light and hence it is called polarizer.
y
P
y
x
x
z
Source Unpolarised Polarised
light z light
Q
(A) (B)
Figure 17.22
P hysi cs | 17.21
Partially polarized light: If in case of unpolarised light, electric field vector in some plane is either more or less
than in its perpendicular plane, the light is said to be partially polarized.
7.3 Polaroids
Polaroid
A polaroid is a device used to produce plane polarized light. The direction
perpendicular to the direction of the alignment of the molecules of the
Polaroid is known as pass-axis or the polarizing direction of the Polaroid.
Note: A Polaroid used to examine the polarized light is known as analyzer.
Plane polarised
light
This law states that the intensity of the polarised light transmitted through Q
the analyser varies as the square of the cosine of the angle between the plane
of transmission of the analyser and the plane of the polariser. Resolve E into
E
two components: We know, intensity ∝ ( Amplitude )
2 P
V
∴ Intensity of the transmitted light through the analyser is given by E sin E cos
Iα (Ecos θ ) or=
2 2 2
I kE cos θ ; O
Figure 17.24
But kE2 = I0 (intensity of the incident polarised light)
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Plane polarized light is used for chemical purposes in measuring optical rotations of various chemical
compounds. It can also be used for stating the difference in enantiomeric compounds.
Nitin Chandrol (JEE 2012, AIR 134)
1 7 . 2 2 | Wave Optics
Illustration 22: What is the polarizing angle of a medium of refractive index 1.732? (JEE MAIN)
PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS
1. Most of the questions in JEE are related to Young’s Double slit experiment with minor variations. For any such
problem, drawing a rough figure and writing down the given parameters is a good idea before solving the
question.
2. Wave optics has a lot of derivations. It is advisable to remember the end results for faster problem solving.
3. Use the concept of optical path carefully and check for phase relations.
4. Only direct formulae related questions are asked from sections of diffraction, polarizations and scattering so
these formulae must be learnt.
FORMULAE SHEET
12 Fringe width Dλ
β=
d
the width of the slit and q is the angle of diffraction. Condition for bright
( 2n + 1) λ
fringes is sin θ =
2a
3 Width of central maximum is 2λD
θ0 = , where D is the distance between the slit and the screen.
a
4 Diffraction grating The arrangement of large number of narrow rectangular slits of equal
width placed side by side parallel to each other. The condition for maxima
in the interference pattern at the angle θ is dsin θ = nλ where n=0, 1, 2,
3, 4…..
6 Resolving power of the grating For nearly two equal wavelengths λ1 and λ 2 between which a diffraction
λ λ
grating can just barely distinguish, resolving power
= is R =
λ1 − λ2 ∆λ
where λ = ( λ1 + λ2 ) 2
10 Law of Malus
= I I0 cos2 θ where I is the intensity of emergent light from analyser, I0 is
the intensity of incident plane polarised light and θ is the angle between
planes of transmission of the analyser and the polarizer.
1 7 . 2 4 | Wave Optics
Solved Examples
JEE Main/Boards β=
D
( )
λ=
1 × 5896 × 10−10
= 2.948 × 10−4 m
= 0.3mm
d 2 × 10 −3
Example 1: In a YDSE, if the source consists of two Now if the system is immersed in water
wavelengths λ1 =4000Å and λ2 =4000 Å, find the
distance from the centre where the fringes disappear, ( β )w λw v
= = as v =
fλ andf =
const.
if d 1cm;D
= = 1m . β λ c
c
Sol: The fringes disappear when the maxima of λ1 Or ( β ) = ( β µ ) as µ =
w
v
p p 1
fall over the minima of λ2 . That is − =
λ1 λ2 2 ∴ ( β=
) ( 0.3) × (3 =
4) 0.225mm
w
where p is the optical path difference at the point or
λ1 λ2 Example 4: A beam of light consisting of two
p=
2 ( λ1 − λ2 ) wavelengths 6500 Å and 5200 Å is used to obtain
interference fringes in a Young’s double slit experiment.
Here,
= λ1 4000Å,
= λ2 4002Å
(a) Find the distance of the third bright fringe on the
∴p =0.04cm screen from central maxima for 6500 Å wavelength.
In YDSE (b) What is the least distance from the central maxima
where the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths
dy D (1000 )
p=
D
∴ y=
d
p=
10
( 0.4 ) = 40mm coincide? The distance between slits is 2 mm and
distance between slits and screen is 120 cm.
given=
by y =
−6
(
4λ1D 4 0.65 × 10 ( 2 )
= 0.8mm
) or = = =
n2 λ1 6500Å 5
d 6.5 × 10 −3
min. value of n1 = 4 and n2 = 5
Example 3: In Young’s experiment for interference of Distance of a point at fringes coincide
light, two narrow slits 0.2 cm apart are illuminated by
yellow light ( λ =5896Å ) . What would be the fringe n1 λ1D 4 × 6500 × 10−10 × 1.2
= = 1.56mm
width on a screen placed 1m from the plane of slits. d 2 × 10−3
What will be the fringes width if the whole system is
immersed in water ( µ =4 3) ? Example 5: What is the effect on the interference fringes
in a YDSE due to each of the following operations.
Sol: Wavelength changes inside water, hence
(a) The screen is moved away from the plane of the slits
d = 2 × 10−3 m, λ = 5896 × 10−10 m andD = 1m ,
P hysi cs | 17.25
here I
=
3
= ( 4I0 ) 3I0
φ
∴ cos =
3 For first minima of λ1, we have dsin θ1 = (1) λ1
4 2 2
φ π π λ
Thus, = nπ ± or φ= 2nπ ± or sin θ1 = 1 …(i)
2 6 3 d
The first maxima approximately lies between first and
2π 2π d.yn second maxima. For wavelength λ2, its position will be,
Since=φ = p
λ λ D
3 3λ
dsin θ2 = λ2 ∴ sin θ2 = 2 …(ii)
2π dyn π 1 λD 2 2d
∴ = 2nπ ± or y=
n n ±
λ D 3 6 d
The two will coincide if θ1 =θ2 or sin θ1 = sin θ2
For the point lying between third minima and third λ1 3λ2 2 2
maxima, = or λ2 = λ1 = × 660nm =440nm
d 2d 3 3
1 λD 17 λD
N=3 and y=
3 3 − or y 3 =
6 d 6 d
y3
(
= 5.67mm
−6
)
17 0.6 × 10 m ( 2 )
Example 1: Two monochromatic coherent sources of
wavelength 5000 Å are placed along the line normal to
6 6 × 10−3 the screen as shown in the figure.
d D λ4 =5714 Å for n = 7
λ5 = 6666Å for n = 6
θ2
Since cos θ = 1 − when θ is small, Therefore,
2 Example 3: A monochromatic beam of λ =5000Å is
θ2 y2 incident on two narrow slits separated by a distance of
p = d 1 − = d 1 −
Where D + d ≈ D 7.5 × 10−4 m to produce interference pattern on a screen
2 2D
2
placed at a distance of 1.5 m from the slits in Young’s
nλ double slit experiment. A thin uniform glass plate of
For nth maxima, p = nλ =
∴ y D 2 1 − µ =1.5 and 2.5 × 10−6 m thickness is placed normal to
d
the beam between one of the slits and the screen.
(b) At the central maxima, θ =0 (a) Find the internal shift of the central maxima.
d 0.5 (b) If the intensity at the central maxima is I0 , find the
∴ p = d = nλ or n= = = 1000
λ 0.5 × 10−3 intensity at this point after the glass plate is introduced.
(c) If the glass plate is removed and the slits are also
Example 2: In a YDSE conducted with white light (4000
illuminated by an additional light of 4000 Å , find the
Å-7000 Å), consider two points P1 and P2 on the screen
least distance from the central maxima wavelengths
at y1 =0.2mm and y 2 =1.6mm, respectively. Determine
will coincides.
the wavelength which forms maxima at these points.
Sol: Consider the theory of path difference on
Sol: Start from the formulas maxima where, the optical introducing the plate as,
path difference at P1 is
d 7.5 × 10−4 m, µ
(a) D=1.5m, = = 2.5 × 10−6 m
= 1.5,t
Lateral shift of central maxima
P2
S2
(b) Path difference caused by sheet at
P
S1
d O
O
S2
Sol: First get the intensities and then apply Power= of the power received by each aperture goes in the
IxArea original direction and is brought to the focal spot.
If E is the energy incident in time t for surface area a,
E Sol: As intensity and power are defined as
then intensity I =
at E E
I= , P= and P=IS
E St t
Power = or Power = Ia
t So power received at A and B is respectively,
10
× π × ( 0.001 )= 10−5 W
2
Power received at A
= P= 10 2
A
π PA= × π(0.001)= 10−5 W and
π
10
× π × ( 0.002 ) = 4 × 10−5 W
2
Power received at B= PB = 10
π PB = × π(0.002)2 = 4 × 10−5 W
As only 10% of the power goes in the original direction, π
and as only 10% of the incident power passes,
10
PA′ = × 10−5 =10−6 W 10
100 PA′ = × 10−5 =10−6 W and
10 100
PB′ = × 4 × 10−5 = 4 × 10−6 W
100 10
Pa′ = × 4 × 10−5 = 4 × 10−6 W
Path difference due to film of thickness t and refractive 100
index µ = ∆x = ( µ − 1 ) t
Now due to 10% of the introduction of film the path
2π difference produced
Phase difference produced = φ =
λ
(µ − 1) t
L
2π
φ ) × 2000 × 10−10 3π
(1.5 − 1= A
6000 × 10 −10
F
If I1 is intensity of A and I2 is intensity of B, the
resultant intensity I due to interference is given by, B
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos φ
∆x = ( µ − 1) t = (1.5 − 1) × 2000 = 1000Å
function of θ, where θ is defined as shown in figure. If Sol: Path difference at O, S1O − S2O =2λ i.e., maximum
I0 is maximum intensity, calculate I( 0 ) for (a) θ = 0° (b) intensity is obtained at O. Next maxima will be obtained
θ= 30° and (c) θ= 90° at point P where,
λ=
c 3 × 108
= = 300m
Or ( 2λ ) cos θ = λ
f 106 1
Or cos θ =
2
And as ∆=
x dsin θ
∴ θ= 60°
2π 2π
φ= (dsin θ) = (150 sin θ) =π sin θ
λ 300
P
So, I = I1 + I2 + 2 ( )
I1 I2 cos φ X
O
S1 S2
P
S1 d
y D
d PO
Now in ∆S1PO , = tan θ or
{
S1O
S2 x
x
D = tan60
= ° 3 ; ∴ x=
3D
d
With I1 = I2 and φ = π sin θ reduced to Note: At point O, the path difference is 2λ , i.e., we
obtain second order maxima. At point P, where path
IR= 2I1 1 + cos ( π sin θ )=
4I1 cos2 ( π sin θ 2 )
difference is λ (i.e., x = 3D ), we get first order maxima.
(
and as IR will be max. when cos2 π ( sin θ ) 2 = max = 1
The next, i.e., zero order maxima will be obtained where
path difference, i.e., dcos θ =0 or θ= 90° , x = ∞ . So,
So that, ( IR ) = 4I
= 1 I0 (given) our answer i.e., finite distance of x should be x = 3D ,
max
corresponding to first order maxima.
And hence,
= I I0 cos2 ( π sin θ ) 2 …(i)
0 cos ( 0 )
θ =0 I I=
So (a) If = 2
I0 Example 9: An interference is observed due to two
coherent sources S1 placed at origin and S2 placed
(b) If θ= 30°=I I0 cos2 ( π =
4) ( I0 2 ) at ( 0,3λ ,0 ) . Here λ is the wavelength of the sources.
(c) If θ= 90° s =I I0 cos2 ( π =
2) 0 A detector D is moved along the positive x-axis. Find
x-coordinates on the x-axis (excluding x=0 and x = ∞ )
where maximum intensity is observed.
Example 8: Two coherent narrow slits emitting lights
of wavelength λ in the same phase are placed parallel
Sol: At x = 0, path difference is 3λ . Hence, third order
to each other at a small separation of 2λ . The light is
maxima will be obtained. At x = ∞ , path difference is
collected on a screen S which is placed at a distance
zero. Hence, zero order maxima is obtained in between
(D>> λ ) from the slit S1 as shown in figure. Find the
first and second order maximas.
finite distance x such that the intensity at P is equal to
intensity at O. Y
P
X S2
S1 S2
O 3
2
D S1 X
P
S X
P hysi cs | 17.31
Sol: wavelength changes inside the liquid, (a) The optical path difference between the beams
λ1D λD
arriving at P, ∆x = (l2 − l1 ) + dsin θ The condition for
(a) Fringe width=
w = maximum intensity is,
d µ1d
∆x = nλ n = 0 ± 1, ±2,...
1 7 . 3 2 | Wave Optics
n n
= 2 Hence, θ sin−1 2
− 1 ;= − 1 Hence, maximum intensity will appear at C. For
40 40 λ
minimum intensity at C, ( µ − 1 ) t =
2
(b) sin θ ≤ 1
λ 500 × 10−9
Or t
= = = 500mm
2 (µ − 1) 2 × 0.5
n
∴ −1 ≤ 2 − 1 ≤ 1 Or −20 ≤ (n − 40 ) ≤ 20
40
Or 20 ≤ n ≤ 60
JEE Main/Boards
Q.5 Explain with reason, how the resolving power of a Q.9 Using Huygens’s Principle, draw a diagram to
compound microscope will change when (i) frequency show propagation of a wave-front originating from
of the incident light on the objective lens in increased, a monochromatic point source. Describe diffraction
(ii) focal length of the objective lens is increased, and of light due to a single slit. Explain formation of a
(iii) aperture of the objective lens is increased. pattern of fringes obtained on the screen and plot
showing variation of intensity with angle θ in single slit
diffraction.
P hysi cs | 17.33
Q.10 What are coherent sources of light? State two Q.17 When light travels from a rarer to a denser
conditions for two light sources to be coherent. Derive medium, the speed decreases. Does this decrease in
a mathematical expression for the width of interference speed imply a decrease in the energy carried by the
fringes obtained in Young’s double slit. light wave? Justify your answer.
Q.11 Define resolving power of a compound Q.18 In Young’s double slit experiment, the two slits
microscope. How does the resolving power of a 0.12 mm apart are illuminated by monochromatic light
compound microscope change when of wavelength 420 nm. The screen is 1.0 m away from
the slits.
(i) refractive index of the medium between the object
and objective lens increases? (a) Find the distance of the second (i) bright fringes, (ii)
dark fringes from the central maximum.
(ii) wavelength of the radiation used in increased?
(b) How will the fringes pattern change if the screen is
Q.12 State one feature by which the phenomenon moved away from the slits?
of interference can be distinguished from that of
diffraction. A parallel beam of light of wavelength Q.19 How does an unpolarised light get polarized
600nm is incident normally on a slit of width ‘a’. If the when passes through a polaroid?
distance between the slits and the screen is 0.8 m and
Two polaroids are set in crossed position. A third
the distance of 2nd order minimum from the centre of
Polaroid is placed between the two making an angle
the screen is 15 mm. Calculate the width of the slit.
θ with the pass axis of the first Polaroid. Write the
expression for the intensity of light transmitted from
Q.13 How would the angular separation of interference the second Polaroid. In what orientations will the
fringes in Young’s double slit experiment change when transmitted intensity be (i) minimum and (ii) maximum?
the distance between the slits and screen is doubled?
Q.20 How does the angular separation between fringes
Q.14 Define the term ‘linearly polarized light’. When in single-slit diffraction experiment change when the
does the intensity of transmitted light become distance of separation between the slit and screen is
maximum, when a polaroid sheet is rotated between doubled?
two crossed polaroids?
Q.21 For the same value of angle of incidence, the
Q.15 In Young’s double slit experiment, monochromatic angle of refraction in three media A, B and C are 15° ,
light of wave length 630nm illuminates the pair of slits 25° and 35° respectively. In which medium would the
and produce an interference pattern in which two velocity of light be minimum?
consecutive bright fringes are separated by 8.1mm.
Another source of monochromatic light produces the
Q.22 (a) In Young’s double slit experiment, derive
interference pattern in which the two consecutive bright
the condition for (i) constructive interference and (ii)
fringes are separated by 7.2 mm. Find the wavelength
destructive interference at a point in the screen.
of light from the second source. What is the effect on
the interference fringes if the monochromatic source is (b) A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths,
replaces by a source of white light? 800nm and 600nm is used to obtain in the interference
fringes in a Young’s double slit experiment on a screen
placed 1.4 m away. If the two slits are separated by
Q.16 (a) In a single slit diffraction experiment, a slit
0.28 mm, calculate the least distance from the central
of width ‘d’ is illuminated by red light of wavelength
bright maximum where the bright fringes of the two
650nm. For what value of ‘d’ will
wavelengths coincide.
(i) the first minimum fall at an angle of diffraction of
30° , and
Q.23 (a) How does an unpolarized light incident on
(ii) the first maximum fall at an angle of diffraction of light on polaroid get polarized?
30° ?
Describe briefly, with the help of a necessary diagram,
(b) Why does the intensity of the secondary maximum the polarization of light by reflecting from a transparent
becomes less as compared to the central maximum? medium.
1 7 . 3 4 | Wave Optics
(b) Two polaroids ‘A’ and ‘B’ are kept in crossed position. Q.4 In Young’s double slit experiment, the wavelength
How should a third polaroid ‘C’ be placed between them of red light is 7800Å and that of blue is 5200 Å. The
so that the intensity of polarized light transmitted by value of n for which nth bright band due to red light
polaroid B reduce to 1/8th of the intensity of unpolarized
coincides with (n + 1 ) bright band due to blue light is:
th
light incident on A?
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
Q.24 Two sources of intensity I1 and I2 undergo
interference in Young’s double slit experiment. Show Q.5 Two identical narrow slits S1 and S2 are illuminated
2 by light of wavelength λ from a point source P. If, as
Imax a + a2
that = 1 shown in the diagram above, the light is then allowed
Imin a1 − a2 to fall on a screen, and if n is a positive integer, the
Where a1 and a2 are the amplitudes of disturbance for condition for destructive interference at Q is
two sources S1 and S2 .
l1 S1
Q.25 Two coherent waves of equal amplitude produce l3
P
interference pattern in Young’s double slit experiment.
l2
What is the ratio of intensity at a point where phase S2 l4 Q
different is π 2 to intensity at centre.
(A) (l1 − l2 ) = ( 2n + 1) λ 2
(B) (l3 − l4 ) = ( 2n + 1 ) λ 2
Exercise 2
(C) (l1 + l2 ) − (l3 + l4 ) =nλ
Single Correct Choice Type
(D) (l1 + l3 ) − (l2 + l4 ) = ( 2n + 1 ) λ 2
Q.2 When light is refracted into a denser medium, Q.7 In a Young’s double slit experiment D equals the
(A) Its wavelength and frequency both increase distance of screen and d is the separation between the
slit. The distance of the nearest point to the central
(B) Its wavelength increase but frequency remains maximum where the intensity is same as that due to a
unchanged single slit, is equal to
(C) Its wavelength decreases but frequency remain Dλ Dλ
unchanged (A) (B)
d 2d
(D) It wavelength and frequency both decrease. Dλ 2Dλ
(C) (D)
3d d
Q.3 In YDSE how many maxima can be obtained on
the screen if wavelength of light used is 200nm and Q.8 A plane wavefront AB is incident on a concave
d=700nm: mirror as shown.
(A) 12 (B) 7
A
(C) 18 (D) None of these
B
Then, the wavefront just after reflection is
P hysi cs | 17.35
S2
(A) Remains constant (A) The fringe width will remain and fringe pattern will
shift down
(B) Keeps on decreasing
(B) The fringe width will remain same but fringe pattern
(C) First decrease and then increases will shift up
(D) First decreases and then becomes constant (C) The fringe width will decrease and fringe pattern will
shift down
Q.10 In the figure shown if a parallel beam of white light (D) The fringe width will remain same but fringe pattern
is incident on the plane of the slits then the distance of will shift down
the white spot on the screen from O is [Assumed d<<D
λ <<d]
Q.14 In a YDSE with two identical slits, when the upper
slit is covered with a thin, perfectly transparent sheet
d 2d/3 of mica, the intensity at the centre of screen recs to
O 75% of the initial value. Second minima is observed to
the above this point and third maxima below it. Which
of the following can not be a possible value of phase
D
difference caused by the mica sheet.
(A) 0 (B) d/2 π 13π
(A) (B)
(C) d/3 (D) d/6 3 3
17π 11π
(C) (D)
Q.11 In Young’s double slit arrangement, water is filled 3 3
in the space between screen and slits. Then:
(A) Fringe pattern shifts upwards but fringes width Q.15 Two monochromatic and coherent point sources
remain unchanged. of light are placed at a certain distance from each
other in the horizontal plane. The locus of all those
(B) Fringe width decreases and central bright fringe points in the horizontal plane which have constructive
shift upwards. interference will be:
(C) Fringe width increases and central bright fringe (A) A hyperbola
does not shift.
(B) Family of hyperbolas
(D) Fringe width decreases and central bright fringe
does not shift. (C) Family of straight lines
(D) Family of parabolas
1 7 . 3 6 | Wave Optics
Q.16 A circular planar wire loop is dipped in a soap Q.19 In a Young’s double slit experiment, green light
solution and after taking it out, held with its plane is incident on the two slits. The interference pattern is
vertical in air. Assuming thickness of film at the top observed on a screen. Which of the following changes
to be very small, as sunlight falls on the soap film, & would cause the observed fringes to be more closely
observer receive reflected light spaced?
(A) The top portion appears dark while the first colour
Fringes
to be observed as one moves down is red
(B) The top portion appears violet while the first colour
to be observed as one moves down is indigo
(C) The top portion appears dark while the first colour
to be observed as one moves down is violet
(D) The top portion appears dark while the first colour
to be observed as one moves down is depends on the Incoming
refractive index of the soap solution. light waves
Q.17 A thin film of thickness t and index of refraction (A) Reducing the separation between the slits
1.33 coats a glass with index of refraction 1.50. What is (B) Using blue light instead of green light
the least thickness t that will strongly reflect light with
(C) Used red light instead of green light
wavelength 600nm incident normally?
(D) Moving the light source further away from the slits.
(A) 225nm (B) 300nm
(C) 400nm (D) 450nm
Q.20 In the previous question, films of thickness t A
and tB and refractive indices µ A and µB , are placed in
Q.18 Spherical wave fronts shown in figure, strike a front of A and B respectively. If µ A t A =
µB tB , the central
plane mirror. Reflected wavefronts will be as shown in maximum will:
(A) Not shift
(B) Shift towards A
(C) Shift towards B
(D) Option (B), if tB > t A ; option (C) if tB < t A
d S1
S
d O
(A) (B)
S2 D>>d
(C)
(D) (C) The thickness of sheet is 2 2 in front of S1
( )
(D) The thickness of sheet is 2 2 − 1 d in front of S1 .
P hysi cs | 17.37
Q.11 A beam of unpolarised light of intensity I0 is a rotation of Polaroid through 30° makes the two
passed through a polaroid A and then through another beams appear equally bright. If the initial intensities of
polaroid B which is oriented so that its principal plane the two beams are I A and IB respectively, then I A / IB
makes an angle of 45° relative to that of A. The intensity equals: (2014)
of the emergent light is: (2013)
(A) 1 (B) 1/3
(A) I0 / 2 (B) I0 / 4
(C) 3 (D) 3/2
(C) I0 / 8 (D) I0
Q.14 The box of pin hole camera, of length L, has a
Q.12 Two coherent point sources S1 and S2 are hole of radius a. It is assumed that when the hole is
separated by a small distance ‘d’ as shown. The fringes illuminated by a parallel beam of light of wavelength λ
obtained on the screen will be: (2013) the spread of the spot (obtained on the opposite wall
of the camera) is the sum of its geometrical spread and
d
the spread due to diffraction. The spot would then have
S1 S2 Screen its minimum size ( say bmin ) when: (2016)
D 2 λ2
(A) a= λ L and bmin =
L
(A) Straight lines (B) Semi-circles
(B) a= λ L and bmin
= 4 λL
(C) Concentric circles (D) Points
λ2
(C) a = and bmin
= 4 λL
Q.13 Two beams, A and B, of plane polarized light with L
mutually perpendicular planes of polarization are seen λ2 2 λ2
through a polaroid. From the position when the beam A (D) a = and bmin =
L L
has maximum intensity (and beam B has zero intensity),
JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1 Q.3 In young’s double slit experiment the slits are 0.5
mm apart and the interference is observed on a screen
at a distance of 100cm from the slit. It is found that
Q.1 Two coherent waves are described by the the 9th bright fringe is at a distance of 7.5mm from the
expressions. second dark fringe from the centre of the fringe pattern
2πx1 π on same side. Find the wavelength of the light used.
=E1 E0 sin − 2πft +
λ 6
Q.4 Light of wavelength 520nm passing through a
2πx2 π double slit, produce interference pattern of relative
=E1 E0 sin − 2πft +
λ 8 intensity versus deflection angle θ as shown in the
figure. Find the separation d between the slits.
Determine the relationship between x1 and x2 that
produces constructive interference when the two waves
Relative intensity
are superposed.
Q.5 In a YDSE apparatus, d=1mm, λ =600nm and Considering λ as 4mm, calculate the position of
D=1m. The slits individually produce same intensity maxima and draw shape of interference pattern. Take
on the screen. Find the minimum distance between initial phase difference between the two sources to be
two points on the screen having 75% intensity of the zero.
maximum intensity.
Q.11 Two radio antennas radiating wave in phase
Q.6 The distance between two slits is a YDSE apparatus are located at points A and B , 200m apart (Figure).
is 3mm. The distance of the screen from the slits is 1 The radio waves have a frequency of 5.80MHz. A
m. Microwaves of wavelength 1mm are incident on the radio receiver is moved out from point B along a line
plane of the slits normally. Find the distance of the first perpendicular to the line connecting A and B (line BC
maxima on the screen from the central maxima. Also shown in figure). At what distance from B will there be
find the total number of maxima on the screen. destructive interference?
A
Q.7 One slit of a double slit experiment is covered by
a thin glass plate of refractive index 1.4 and the other
by a thin glass plate of refractive index 1.7. The point 200m
on the screen, where central bright fringe was formed
before the introduction of the glass sheets, is now
occupied by the 5th bright fringe. Assuming that both B
C
the glass plates have same thickness and wavelength of
light used is 4800Å, find their thickness.
Q.12 A ray of light of intensity I is incident on a parallel
Q.8 A monochromatic light of λ =5000Å is incident glass-slab at a point A as shown in figure. It undergoes
on two slits separated by a distance of 5 × 10−4 m. partial reflection and refraction. At each reflection 20%
The interference pattern is seen on a screen placed of incident energy is reflected. The rays AB and A′ B′
at a distance of 1m from the slits. A thin glass plate undergo interference. Find the ratio Imax Imin .
of thickness 1.5 × 10−6 m & refractive index µ =1.5
is placed between one of the slits & the screen. Find B
B’
the intensity at the centre of the screen, if the intensity
there is I0 in the absence of the plate. Also find the A A’
internal shift of the central maximum.
refractive index 1.5 at this wavelength is put in the path while that from L1 and L2 to O is 1.30m. The screen at
of one of the interfering beams, the central bright fringe O is normal SO.
shifts by 10−3 m to the position previously occupied by
the 5th bright fringe. Find the thickness of the plate. (i) If the third intensity maximum occurs at the point A
When the source is now changed to green light of on the screen, find the distance OA.
wavelength 5 × 10−7 m, the central fringe shift to a
position initially occupied by the 6th bright fringe due
to red light without the plate. Find the refractive index A
of glass for the green light. Also estimate the change in S
fringe width due to the change in wavelength. L1
S 0.5mm
Q.16 In a Young’s experiment, the upper slit is covered O
by a thin glass plate of refractive index 1.4 while the
lower slit is covered by another glass plate having the L2
Screen
same thickness as the first one but having refractive
index 1.7. Interference pattern is observed using light
of wavelength 5400 Å . It is found that the point P on
the screen where the central maximum (n=0) fell before 0.15m 1.30m
the glass plates were inserted now has ¾ the original (ii) If the gap between L1 & L2 is reduced from its
intensity. It is further observed that what used to be the original value of 0.5 mm, will the distance OA increase,
5th maximum earlier, lies below (Absorption of light by decrease or remain the same?
glass plate may be neglected).
Q.19 A coherent parallel beam of microwave of
Q.17 A screen is at a distance D=80cm from a wavelength λ =0.5 mm falls on a Young’s double slit
diaphragm having two narrow slits S1 is and S2 which apparatus. The separation between the slits is 1.0 mm.
are d=2 mm apart. Slit S1 is covered by a transparent The intensity of microwaves in measured on screen
sheet of thickness t1 =2.5 µm and S2 by another sheet placed parallel to the plane of the slits at a distance of
of thickness t2 =1.25 µm as shown in figure. Both 1.0m from it, as shown in the figure.
sheets are made of same material having refractive
index µ =1.40. Water is filled in space between (a) If the incident beam falls normally on the double slit
diaphragm and screen. A monochromatic light beam apparatus, find the y-coordinates of all the interference
of wavelength λ =5000 Å is incident normally on the minima on the screen.
diaphragm. Assuming intensity of beam to be uniform y
and slits of equal width, calculate ratio of intensity at C
to maximum intensity of interference pattern obtained
on the screen, where C is foot of perpendicular bisector
of S1 S2 . (Refractive index of water, µ w =4/3) 30
o
d-1.0m
x
t1
S1 D-1.0m
C
S2
(b) if the incident beam makes an angle of 30° with the
t2 x-axis (as in the dotted arrow shown in the figure), find
the y-coordinates of the first minima on either side of
Q.18 In the figure shown S is a monochromatic point the central maximum.
source emitting light of wavelength=500nm. A thin
lens of circular shape and focal length 0.10 m is cut into Q.20 In a YDSE with visible monochromatic light two
identical halves L1 and L2 by a plane passing through thin transparent sheets are used in front of the slits
a diameter. The two halves are placed symmetrically S1 and S2 with µ1 =1.6 and µ2 =1.4 respectively. If
about the central axis SO with a gap of 0.5 mm. The both sheets have thickness t, the central maximum is
distance along the axis from the S to L1 and L2 is 0.15m, observed at a distance of 5mm from centre O. Now
P hysi cs | 17.41
the sheets are replaced by two sheets of same material Q.3 In Young’s double slit experiment, the two slits act as
µ + µ2 coherent sources of equal amplitude A and wavelength
refractive index 1 but having thickness t1 & t2 λ . In another experiment with the same setup the two
2
t +t slits are sources of equal amplitude A and wavelength
such that t = 1 2 . Now central maximum is observed
2 λ but are incoherent. The ratio of the average intensity
at distance of 8mm from centre O on the same side as of light at the midpoint of the screen in the first case to
before. Find the thickness t1 (in µm ) [Given: d=1mm. that in the second case is
D=1m].
(A) 1:1 (B) 2:1
(1,t,t1)
P (C) 4:1 (D) None of these
S1
d
S2
P hysi cs | 17.43
Q.21 If the distance D is varied, then choose the correct maximum occurred previously remain unchanged. The
statement(s) minimum thickness of the glass-plate is (2002)
(A) The angular fringe width does not change 2λ
(A) 2λ (B)
(B) The fringe width change in direct proportion 3
λ
(C) The change in fringe width is same for all wavelengths (C) (D) λ
3
(D) The position of central maxima remains unhanged
Q.5 The phases of the light wave at c, d, e and f are
Q.22 If the distance d is varied, then identify the correct φc , φd , φe and φf respectively. It is given that φc ≠ φf
statement (2007)
(A) The angular width does not change (A) φc cannot be equal to φd
(B) The fringe width changes in inverse proportion (B) φd cannot be equal to φe
(C) The positions of all maxima change (C) ( φd − φf ) is equal to ( φc − φe )
(D) The positions of all minima change (D) ( φd − φc ) is not equal to ( φf − φe )
(A) 12 (B) 18
(C) 24 (D) 30
3λ
S2 P2 (s) I(P0 ) > I(P1 )
Q.7 In the Young’s double slit experiment, the in one plane. The radiant powers of sources A and B
interference pattern is found to have an intensity ratio are 90 W and 180 W respectively. The beam from C is
between the bright and dark fringes as 9. This implies of intensity 20 W m2 . Calculate intensity at P on the
that (1982) screen.
C
(A) The intensities at the screen due to the two slits are
5 units and 4 units respectively.
o
60
(B) The intensities at the screen due to the two slits are A P
4 units and 1 unit respectively 60
o
S1
d/2
Q.12 In Young’s experiment, the source is red light
of wavelength 7 × 10−7 m. When a thin glass plate
of refractive index 1.5 at this wavelength is put in
d/2 the path of one of the interfering beams, the central
bright fringe shift by 10−3 m to the position previously
S2 occupied by the 5th bright fringe. Find the thickness of
the plate. When the sources is now changed to green
light of wavelength 5 × 10−7 m, the central fringe shifts
( θ ) for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 90° is given by (1995)
to a position initially occupied by the 6th bright fringe
due to red light. Find the refractive index of glass for
(A) I ( θ )= I0 2 for θ= 30°
green light. Also estimate the change in fringe width
(B) I ( θ )= I0 4 for θ= 90° due to change in wavelength. (1997)
(C) I ( θ )= I0 for θ = 0°
Q.13 In a Young’s experiment, the upper slit is covered by
(D) I ( θ )= is constant for all values of θ
a thin glass plate of refractive index 1.4 while the lower
slit is covered by another glass plate, having the same
Q.10 Screen S is illuminated by two point sources A thickness as the first one but having refractive index 1.7.
and B. Another source C sends a parallel beam of light Interference pattern is observed using light of wavelength
towards point P on the screen (see figure). Line AP is 5400 Å . It is found that the point P on the screen, where
normal to the screen and the lines AP, BP and CP are
1 7 . 4 6 | Wave Optics
the central maximum (n=0) fall before the glass plates (C) From the central maximum, 3rd maximum of λ2
3 overlaps with 5th minimum of λ1
were inserted, now has the original intensity. It is
4 (D) The angular separation of fringes for λ1 is greater
further observed that what used to be the fifth maximum than λ2
earlier lies below the point P while the sixth minima lies
above P. Calculate the thickness of glass plate. (Absorption
of light by glass plate may be neglected). (1997) Q.16 A Young’s double slit interference arrangement
with slits S1 and S2 is immersed in water (refractive
index = 4/3) as shown in the figure. The positions
Q.14 In the Young’s double slit experiment using of maxima on the surface of water are given by
a monochromatic light of wavelength λ , the path 2
x= p2m2 λ2 − d2 , where λ is the wavelength of light in
difference (in terms of an integer n) corresponding to air (refractive index = 1), 2d is the separation between
any point having half the peak intensity is (2013)
the slits and m is an integer. The value of p is (2015)
λ λ
(A) ( 2n + 1 ) (B) ( 2n + 1 )
2 4
λ λ
(C) ( 2n + 1 ) (D) ( 2n + 1 )
8 16
S1
Q.15 A light source, which emits two wavelengths d
λ1 =400 mm and λ2 = 600 nm, is used in a Young’s x Air
double slit experiment. If recorded fringe widths for d
λ1 and λ2 are β1 and β2 and the number of fringes S2 Water
for them within a distance y on one side of the central
maximum are m1 and m2 , respectively, then (2014)
(A) β2 > β1
(B) m1 > m2
PlancEssential Questions
JEE Main/Boards JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1 Exercise 1
Q. 12 Q.15 Q.16 Q.2 Q.3 Q.8
Q.18 Q.22 Q.23 Q.12 Q.15
Exercise 2 Exercise 2
Q.4 Q.5 Q.8 Q.4 Q.7
Q.15 Q.16
Answer Key
Exercise 2
JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1
1
Q.1 n − λ= x1 − x2 Q.2 0.225mm
48
Q.3 5000 Å Q.4 1.99 × 10−2 mm
Q.5 0.2 mm Q.6 35.35 cm app., 5
Q.7 8 µm Q.8 0, 1.5mm
32 9
Q.9 1.25m Q.10 48, 21, , ,0 m.m
3 2
Q.11 760m, 21.8m, 89.4m, 19.6m
1 7 . 4 8 | Wave Optics
x
Q.12 81:1 Q.13 v
λy
π (µ − 1) t 400
Q.14 I0 = I sec2 Q.15 7 µm , 1.6, µm (decrease)
λ 7
Q.16 9.3 µm Q.17 3/4
1 3
Q.18 (i) 1 mm (ii) increase Q.19 (a) ,; (b) No shift
15 4
Q.20 33
Exercise 2
Comprehension Type
Q.10 13.97 W m2 Q.11 7 × 10−6 W Q.12 (a) 7 × 10−6 m ; (b) 1.6; (c) −5.71 × 10−5 m
Q.13 9.3 µm Q.14 B Q.15 A, B, C Q.16 3
P hysi cs | 17.49
Solutions
n
DM = i DG
nt
ni sin θt
⇒ =
nt sin θi
D
Sol 5: R. P. =
1.22 λ
(ii) (i) If f increases, λ decreases
R. P. increases
(ii) R. P. doesn’t depend on f.
(iii) If D increases, R. P increases
λ
Sol 3: θ ∝
d
(i) If d decrease, θ increases
1 7 . 5 0 | Wave Optics
Sol 7: If the wavelength of both the sources is same, Sol 10: Two sources are said to be coherent if their
then interference may not be possible as even phase frequencies are equal and they have a constant phase
difference must be constant difference. Two independent sources of light cannot be
coherent
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos θ
(i) θ = 0; I1 = 4I0;
I1
(ii) θ = 90° = 2 ; I2 = 2I0
I2
xn d
S 2P – S 1 P =
D
δ xn
=
d D
With 1 slit → diffraction pattern xn d
If = nλ
D
we will observe maximum intensity
xn d λ
If = (2n + 1)
λ 2
we will observe minimum intensity.
In first case, the maximum intensity is constant as we Sol 11: Resolving power of an instrument is its capacity
go from centre. to resolve 2 points which are close together
In second case, the intensities at maximum decrease as (i) It doesn’t depend on μ of the medium
we go from centre.
(ii) It’s inversely proportional to λ of light.
In first case, the fringe length is fixed. In second case,
the fringe angle is fixed.
Sol 12: Difference between interference and diffraction:
Interference is due to superposition of two distinct waves
Sol 9: coming from two coherent sources. Diffraction is produced
as a result of superposition of the secondary wavelets
coming from different parts of the same wavefront.
Numerical: Here, λ = 600nm = 600 × 10−19 = 6 × 10−7 m
D
= 0.8m, = = 15 × 10−3 m
x 15mm
n 2,a
= = ?
In diffraction pattern x
a = nλ
D
nλD 2 × 6 ×10−7 × 0.8
a
= = = 6.4 ×10−5 m
x 15 × 10 −3
3λ
Sol 16: First maxima → θ =
2d
λ
First minima → θ =
d
λ1D
(b) b1 =
hc d
Sol 17: E = hν = . c value decrease & λ also decreases
λ
8 × 10−7 × 1.4
maintaining the frequency constant. So E is constant. = = 4 × 10–3 m = 4 mm
−4
2.8 × 10
λD
Sol 18: β = λ2D 6 × 10−7 × 1.4
d b2 = = = 3 mm.
d 2.8 × 10−4
(a) (i) 2nd bright : y = 2b
3b1 = 4b2
β
(ii) 1st dark : y = 3rd bright of 1st light = 4th bright of 2nd light
2
(b) If D increases Sol 23: (a) The transparent medium allows components
of E only in 1 direction & reflects all its perpendicular
β decreases, so fringe width increases.
components.
I0
Sol 19: The centre reflects the components perpendicular (b) As A & B are crossed, I0 = →
to the direction 2
I0 I0
I = I0 cos2q & cos2θ =
2 8
Sol 20: In single slit diffraction angular fringe width Sol 24: Imin = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 .cos φ & I = a2
depends only of λ, d but not on D.
Imax = a12 + a22 + 2a1a2 (1) = (a1 + a2)2
Sol 21:
Imin = a12 + a22 + 2a1a2 ( −1) = (a1 − a2 )2
I = 9I
Sol 8: (C)
Imin → cos φ = –1
Imin = I
c
Sol 2: (C) γ =
λ
In denser medium, c decreases but frequency remains
the same. Sol 9: (C)
∴ λ also decreases
(2n + 1) λ
Sol 5: (D) (l1 + l3) – (l2 + l4) =
2
↓ ↓
path by path by
S1
S2
λ
Sol 17: (A) = 1.33 t
2
300
⇒t= = 225 nm
1.33
Fringe width will not change it depends only on λ, d, D. Sol 18: (C) Image will coincide with S but on opposite
side.
To get Pd = 0, S1O > S2O.
So O will be below O1 pattern will shift downwards.
3π 6π P2 = tA + µBtB
Pd = tA.tB
↓ ↓
If tA > tB → towards B
2nd minima 3rd maxima
[same as in previous question]
π
only is not possible in the options If tB < tA → towards A
3
⇒ t = 2( 2 – 1)d
In front of S2
Note: Equation (i) for resultant intensity can be applied Incident beam has an intensity I. This beam undergoes
only when the sources are coherent. In the question multiple reflections and refractions. The corresponding
it is given that the rays interfere. Interference takes intensity after each reflection and refraction
place only when the sources are coherent. That is why (transmission) are shown in figure.
we applied equation number (i). When the sources are
3
incoherent, the resultant intensity is given by I = I2 + I2
9 64 3
64 16
Sol 5: (D) Let nth minima of 400 nm coincides with mth
minima of 560 nm, then 9
16
400 560
(2n – 1) = (2m – 1) 4
3
2 2 4
P hysi cs | 17.55
P0 ⇒ λ = 5 × 10–7 m = 5000 Å.
S1 S2
Sol 4: Pd = d sin q
Note that S1 and S2 are point sources and (not slit
sources as in Young’s experiment). d sin θ =
λ
2
π
Sol 13: (B) d × 0. 75 = 2. 6 × 10–7
180°
I A cos2 30 = IB cos2 60
⇒ d = 2 × 10–2 mm.
IA 1
=
IB 3 Sol 5: Imax = 4I0
75% of Imax = 3I0
Sol 14: (B) We know that
Geometrical spread = a 3I0 = I0 + I0 + 2 I0 I0 cos φ
λL
and diffraction spread = 1
a ⇒ cos φ =
2
λL
So spot size(b) = a + φ = 60° , – 60°, 120°
a
λD
λL 360 →
For minimum spot size a = ⇒ a = λL d
a
λD
120° → = 0.2 mm.
and bmin = λL + λL = 4λL 3d
Exercise 1 ⇒ 3 sin θ = 1
1
sin θ =
Sol 1: For constructing interference 3
φ = 2xp 1
⇒ tan θ =
8
2π(x1 − x2 ) π π
= − + 2nπ
λ 8 6 y = tan θ = 0. 353 m.
1
⇒ (x1 – x2) = n − λ .
48
P hysi cs | 17.57
= 0. 5 × 1. 5 × 10–6
Sol 14: Let intensity of individual slit be I1
= 7.5 × 10–7 m
I0 = 4I1
λ = 5 × 10–7 m
with glass plate
Pd = 1. 5 l
(µ − 1)t
∴ I0 = 0 φ = 2π ×
λ
λD I = 2I1 + 2I1 cos f
Shift = 1.5 = 1.5 mm
d
I0
I= (1 + cos φ)
c 3 × 108 2
Sol 9: =
λ= = 5m
ν 6 × 107 2I
⇒ I0 =
λ φ
Dp must be 2cos2
2 2
λ
10 – x – x = (2n + 1)
2 (µ − 1)t 5λrD
Sol 15: f1 = × 2π ; 10–3 = 5b1 =
10 – 2x = 2.5 or 7.5 λr d
4 4 16
Sol 12: I A 'B' = × I = I
5 5 25
16 16
1+ +2
Imax 25 25
= = 81 : 1
Imin 16 16
1+ −2
2 5 25
1 7 . 5 8 | Wave Optics
Sol 17: φ =
(µ2 − µ1 ) (t2 − t1 )
× 2π
Exercise 2
λ0
Single Correct Choice Type
Ic = 2I0 + 2I0 cos f
Imax = 4I0. b d
Sol 1: (C) =
Vair Vwater
Sol 18: S will have 2 images which will act as sources Vair µ
b
and is similar to YDSE ⇒ = = water
d Vwater µair
1 1 1
− =
v u f
Sol 2: (D) For monochromatic light, Imax and fringe
f = 10 cm width is constant.
u = – 15 cm so, we use white light to determine central maximum.
1 1 1 1
= − =
v 10 15 30 Sol 3: (B) Case-I → I1 = I0+I0+2 I0 I0 cos(0º) = 4I0
v
d = 0. 5 × = 1mm Case-II → I2 = I0+I0+2 I0 I0 cos(90º) = 2I0
u
I1
Sol 19: Minima possible when =2
I2
λ
(a) Pd = (2n + 1)
2
Sol 4: (C) At O, Pd = S1S2 = d
i. e. – 0.75, – 0.25, 0.25, 0.75
(2n + 1)λ
d sin θ = pd if d = → 0 → minima
2
y = D tan q d = nλ → 0 → maxima
0.25 0.75 1 3 if d = 4.3 λ,
sin θ = , ⇒ ,
1 1 4 4
Possible minima
1 3
⇒ tan θ = , → –3.5λ, –2.5λ, …. 3.5λ.
15 4
i.e. 8 points.
(b) We need to find the initial Pd
Sol 5: (C)
D/ 3
D/ 3
d
Pd = d sin 30° = = 0.5 mm = l
2
So, there will be no shift.
λD
Sol 20: Let β =
d
5 Pd
= Pd = (m1 – m2)t
β λ
8 (µ − 1) (t2 − t1 )
=
β λ
P hysi cs | 17.59
Multiple Correct Choice Type Sol 15: (A, C) Central maxima will shift towards A as
(µ – 1)t is added before A.
Sol 10: (B, C, D) Central fringe will white as phase Dx = (µ – 1)t
difference = 0 for all colours.
We can’t get completely dark fringe as all colours will (µ − 1)t
Dy = × β.
not have phase difference = 0 at a single point. λ
1 7 . 6 0 | Wave Optics
90 180
= 2
+ cos60º + 20 cos 60º
4 π(3) 4 π(1.5)2
= 0.79 + 3.18 + 10
b
= 13.97 W/m2
2
Sol 11: Power received by aperture A,
10
PA = I( πrA2 ) = (π) (0.001)2 = 10–5 W
π
Those wavelengths will be missing for which Power received by aperture B,
λ1 3λ2 5λ3 10
DX = , , … PB = I( πrB2 ) = (π) (0.002)2 = 4×10–5 W
2 2 2 π
Only 10% of PA and PB goes to the original direction
b2 2∆x b2
\l1 = 2Dx = l2 = =
d 3 3d Hence, 10% of PA = 10–6 = P1 (say)
Sol 13: m1 = 1.4 and m2 = 1.7 and let t be the thickness Imax φ
of each glass plates. Sol 14: (B) = Im cos2
2 2
Path difference at O, due to insertion of glass plates φ 1
will be ⇒ cos =
2
2
φ π
⇒ =
2 4
π
⇒
= φ
2
( 2n + 1)
λ λ π λ
x
⇒ ∆= =
φ × ( 2n + 1=
) ( 2n + 1 )
2π 2π 2 4
Dλ
Dx = (m2 – m1)t = (1.7 – 1.4)t = 0.3t …(i) Sol 15: (A, B, C) β =
d
Now, since 5th maxima (earlier) lies below O and 6th
minima lies above O.
λ2 > λ1 ⇒ β2 > β1
PHYSICS
FOR JEE MAIN & ADVANCED
SECOND
EDITION
Exhaustive Theory
(Now Revised)
Formula Sheet
9000+ Problems
based on latest JEE pattern
1. INTRODUCTION
You must have felt the attraction of hair of your hand when you bring it near to your Television screen. Did you ever
think of cause behind it? These all are the electric charges and their properties. Now we will extend our concept to
electric charges and their effects.
2. TYPES OF CHARGES
Depending upon whether electrons are removed or added to a body, there are two types of charges viz
(i) Positive charge (ii) Negative charge
If a glass rod is rubbed with silk, some electrons pass from glass rod to silk. As a result,
the glass rod becomes positively charged and silk attains an equal negative charge as
+
- - +
shown in Fig. 18.1. It is because silk gains as many electrons as lost by the glass rod. It - - +
can be shown experimentally that like charges repel each other while unlike charges
+
attract each other. In other words, if the two charges are of the same nature (i.e., both Silk Glass rod
positive or both negative), the force between them is of repulsion. On the other hand, if
one charge is positive and the other is negative, the force between them is of attraction.
Figure 18.1
The following points may be noted:
(a) The charges are not created by the rubbing action. There is merely transfer of electrons from one body to
another.
(b) Electrons are transferred from glass rod to silk due to rubbing because we have done external work. Thus law
of conservation of energy holds.
(c) The mass of negatively charged silk will increase and that of glass rod will decrease. It is because silk has
gained electrons while glass rod has lost electrons.
1 8 . 2 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
3. PROPERTIES OF CHARGE
(a) Charge is a scalar quantity
(b) Charge is transferable
(c) Charge is conserved
(d) Charge is quantized
(e) Like point charges repel each other while unlike point charges attract each other.
(f) A charged body may attract a neutral body or an oppositely charged body but it always repels a similarly
charged body
(g) Note: Repulsion is a sure test of electrification whereas attraction may not be.
(h) Charge is always associated with mass, i.e. charges cannot exist without mass though mass can exist without
charge.
(i) Charge is relatively invariant: This means that charge is independent of frame of reference, i.e, charge on a
body does not change whatever be its speed. This property is worth mentioning as in contrast to charge, the
mass of a body depends on its speed and increases with increase in speed.
( j) A charge at rest produces only electric field around itself; a charge having uniform motion produces electric
as well as magnetic field around itself while a charge having acceleration emits electromagnetic radiation also
in addition to producing electric and magnetic fields.
4. ELECTROSTATICS
The branch of physics which deals with charges at rest is called electrostatics. When a glass rod is rubbed with
silk and then separated, the former becomes positively charged and the latter attains equal negative charge. It is
because during rubbing, some electrons are transferred from glass to silk. Since glass rod and silk are separated by
an insulating medium (i.e. air), they retain the charges. In other words, the charges on them are static or stationary.
Note that the word ‘electrostatic’ means charges at rest.
6. CHARGING OF A BODY
A body can be charged by means of (a) friction, (b) conduction, (c) induction, (d) thermionic ionization, (e)
photoelectric effect and (f) field emission.
P hysi cs | 18.3
(d) Thermo-ionic emission: When the metal is heated at a high temperature then some electrons of metals are
ejected and the metal gets ionized. It becomes positively charged.
e- e- e-
e- + + + + + + e-
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
Heat
Figure 18.7
1 8 . 4 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
(e) Photoelectric effect: When light of sufficiently high frequency is incident on Light
metal surface then some electrons come out and metal gets ionized.
e- e- e-
+ + + + e-
+ + + +
+ + + +
Figure 18.8
(f) Field emission: When electric field of large magnitude is applied near the
metal surface then some electrons come out from the metal surface and hence e-
the metal gets positively charged. E
e-
e-
Figure 18.9
7. UNIT OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
We know that a positively charged body has deficit of electrons and a negatively charged body has excess of
electrons from normal due share. Since the charge on an electron is very small, it is not convenient to select it as the
unit of charge. In practice, coulomb is used as the unit of charge, i.e., SI unit of charge is coulomb abbreviated as C.
The charge on one electron in coulomb is =-1.6×10-19C
Note that charge on an electron has been found experimentally.
The fact that all free charges are integral multiple of electronic charge (e=1.6×10-19C) is known as quantization of
electric charge.
∴ Charge on a body, q = ±ne
(ii) Since the charge on an electron is so small (e=1.6×10-19C), we normally do not notice its discreteness in
macroscopic charge (1µC charge requires about 1013 electrons) which thus seems continuous.
r
F₂₁ F₁₂
+ F₂₁ F₁₂
+
q₁ q₂
Like charges repel.
+ F₁₂
-
F₂₁
q₁ q₂
Figure 18.10
F21 is the force on charge 1 due to 2 and r12 =
r1 − r 2 =−r 21
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
In few problems of electrostatics, Lami’s theorem is very useful. F2
According to this theorem, “if three concurrent forces
F1
F1 ,F2 and F3 as shown in Fig. 18.11 are in equilibrium or if
F1 + F2 + F3 = 0 , then
F1 F2 F3
F3
= =
sin α sin β sin γ
Nivvedan (JEE 2009 AIR 113) Figure 18.11
Force between the same two charges held same distance apart in a medium of absolute permittivity ε is
1 8 . 6 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
1 q1q2 1 q1q2
=Fm = [see Fig. 18.12]
4 πε r 2 4 πε0K r 2
q1 0 q2 q1 K q2
r r
(i) (ii)
Figure 18.12
Fair ε
∴ = = K =Relative permittivity of the medium
Fm ε0
Hence, relative permittivity (or dielectric constant) of a medium may be defined as the ratio of force between two
charges separated by a certain distance in air (or vacuum) to the force between the same charges separated by the
same distance in the medium.
Fm = Fair / K . This implies that force between two charges is decreased when air is replaced by other insulating
(b)
medium. For example, K for water is 80. It means that for the same charges ( q1 ,q2 ) and same distance (r), the
force between two charges in water is 1/80th of that in air.
Fair ε
(c) K is number; being the ratio of two absolute permitivities. K = K=
Fmed ε0
Illustration 1: Two identical balls each having a density ρ are suspended from a common point by two insulating
strings of equal length. Both the balls have equal mass and charge. In equilibrium, each string makes an angle θ
with vertical. Now, both the balls are immersed in a liquid. As a result, the angle θ does not change. The density of
the liquid is σ . Find the dielectric constant of the liquid. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: Inside the liquid, up thrust would act but simultaneously, electric force would also weaken due to dielectric of
the liquid.
P hysi cs | 18.7
W Fe W F
= or = e … (i)
( ο
sin 90 + θ ) (
sin 180 − θ ο
) cos θ sin θ
W' F'
Similarly in liquid = e ... (ii)
cos θ sin θ
W Fe W F
Dividing Eq.(i) by Eq.(ii), we get = or K = as e = k
W' F' W − upthrust Fe'
e
Vρg ρ
(V=volume of ball) Or K =
Vρg − Vσg ρ−σ
Note: In the liquid Fe and W have been changed. Therefore, T will also change.
Illustration 2: A non-conducting rod of length L with a uniform positive charge density λ and a total charge Q is
lying along the x-axis, as illustrated in Fig. 18.14. (JEE ADVANCED)
Calculate the force at a point P located along the axis of the rod and a distant x0 from one end of the rod.
1 Q2 xο + L dx' 1 Q2 1 1 ˆ 1 Q2
ˆi = ˆi
F=∫ dF =
−
4 πεο L ∫xο x' 2
− −
4 πεο L x ο x ο + L
i=
−
4 πεο x ο (L + x ο )
1 Q2 ˆ
Notice that when P is very far away from the rod, xo >> L and the above expression becomes F ≈ − i
4 πεο x2
ο
The result is to be expected since at sufficiently far distance away, the distinction between a continuous charge
distribution and a point charge diminishes.
1 8 . 8 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
12.1 Electric Field Strength (E)
Like its gravitational counterpart, the
electric field strength (often called electric field) at a point in an electric field is
defined as the electrostatic force Fe per unit positive charge. Thus, if the electrostatic
force experienced by a small
Fe
test charge q0 is Fe , then field strength at that point is defined as, E = lim
q0 →0 q
0
( q0 → 0 so that it doesn’t interfere with the electrical field)
The electric field is a vector quantity and its direction is the same as the direction of the force Fe on a positive test
charge. The SI unit of electric
field is N/C. Here it should be noted that the test charge q0 does not disturb other
charges which produces E . With the concept of electric field, our description of electric interactions has two parts.
First, a given charge distribution acts as a source of electric field. Second, the electric field exerts a force on any
charge that is present in this field.
Illustration 3: A uniform electric field E is created between two parallel charged plates as shown in Fig. 18.15. An
electron enters the field symmetrically between the plates with a speed v ο . The length of each plate is l. Find the
angle of deviation of the path of the electron as it comes out of the field. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Electron gains velocity in the vertical direction due to field between the plates.
eE
The acceleration of the electron is a = in the upward direction. The horizontal velocity remains v ο as there is
m
l
no acceleration in this direction. Thus, the time taken in crossing the field is t = . … (i)
vο
The upward component of the velocity of the electron as it emerges
from the field region is
+ + + + + +
eEl
v=
y at
=
mv ο V₀ E
- - - - - -
The horizontal component of the velocity remains v x = v ο .
Figure 18.15
P hysi cs | 18.9
The angle θ made by the resultant velocity with the original direction is given by
vy eEl eEl
tan=
θ = . Thus, the electron deviates by an angle θ =tan−1 .
v x mv 2 mv ο2
ο
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Charge Densities
It is of three types:
(i) Linear charge density: It is defined as charge per unit length, i.e.
q
λ = its S.I. unit is coulomb/ metre and dimensional formula is ATL−1
l
(ii) Surface charge density: It is defined as charge per unit area, i.e.
q
σ= its S.I. unit is coulomb / metre2 and dimensional formula is ATL−2
A
(iii) Volume charge density: It is defined as charge per unit volume i.e.
q
ρ= its S.I. unit is coulomb / metre3 and dimensional formula is ATL−3
V
Nitin Chandrol (JEE 2012 AIR 134)
Where r is the distance from dq to P and r̂ is the corresponding unit vector. Using the superposition principle, the
1 dq
total electric field E is the vector sum (integral) of all these infinitesimal contributions: E =
4 πεο ∫v r 2
rˆ
This is an example of a vector integral which consists of three separate integrations, one for each component of
the electric field.
Let dE be the electric field from one such segment; the net
y
dl,dq
electric field at p is then the sum of all contributions dE
from all the segments that make up the ring. If we r
consider two ring segments at top and bottom of the R
r = X² +R²
ring, we see that the contributions dE to the field at P
from these segments have the same x-component but 90⁰
opposite y-components. Hence, the total y-component dE x
of field due to this pair of segments is zero. When we add O x P
up the contributions
from all such pairs of segments, the
dE
total field E will have only a component along the ring’s q dEy
symmetry axis (the x-axis) with no component
perpendicular to that axis (i.e. no y or z component). So Figure 18.17
the field at P is described completely by its x component
Ex .
q 1 dq
Calculation of Ex dq = .dl ; dE = .
2πR 4 πεο r 2
dEx dEcos
1 dq x
1 ( dq) x
∴= = θ
4 πε 2
2
=
4 πε .
( )
32
ο x + R x2 + R 2 ο x2 + R 2
x 1 qx
∫ dE=x dq ; or Ex =
32 ∫
∴ E=
( )
x
( ) 4 πε 32
4 πεο x2 + R 2 ο x2 + R 2
To an observer far from the ring, the ring would appear like a R X
2
point, and the electric field reflects this.
Figure 18.18
dEx
(c) Ex will be maximum where = 0 . Differentiating Ex w.r.t. x
dx
R 2 1 q
and putting it equal to zero we get x = and Emax comes out to be, . .
2 3
3 4 πεο R 2
q q 1 dq q dy
λ =charge per unit length= λdy = dy ; dE =
dq = . =
2a 2a 4 πεο r 2 4 πεο 2a x2 + y 2 ( )
q xdy
dEx dEcos
= = θ .
4 πεο
( )
3/2
2a x2 + y 2
P hysi cs | 18.11
q ydy
dEy = −dEsin θ = .
4 πεο
( )
3/2 r = X² +R²
2a x2 + y 2
dy
1 qx a dy q 1
∴ Ex =. ∫ .
4 πεο 2a
( )
4 πεο x x2 + a2
− a 3/2 r
x2 + y 2 y
P dE x
1 q a ydy
and Ey = . ∫ 0 O
x
4 πεο 2a −a 2
( )
3/2 x
2
x +y
dEy
Thus, electric field is along x-axis only and which has a
magnitude,
q
Ex = … (i) Figure 18.19
4 πεο x x2 + a2
1 q
(a) If x >> a, Ex = . , i.e., if point P is very far from the line charge, the field at P is the same as that of a
4 πεο x2
point charge.
(b) Now assume that, we make the line of charge longer and longer, adding charge in proportion to the total
length so that λ , the charge per unit length remains constant. In this case Eq(i) can be written as,
1 q 1 λ
Ex = . . =
2πεο 2a x x2 / a2 + 1 2πεο x x2 / a2 + 1
λ
= x2 / a2 → 0 asaa
Now, >>x,x, Ex =
2πεο x
Properties
(a) Electric lines of force start at a positive and terminate at a negative charge.
(b) A tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of the force on positive charge and hence direction
of electric field at that point.
(c) No two lines of force can intersect one another.
(d) The lines of force are crowded in the region of larger intensity and further apart in the region of weak field.
(e) Lines of force leave the surface of a conductor normally.
(f) Electric lines of force do not pass through a closed conductor.
1 8 . 1 2 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
Illustration 4: Consider the situation shown in Fig. 18.22. What are the signs of
q1 and q2 ? If the lines are drawn in proportion to the charge, what is the ratio
q1 / q2 ? (JEE MAIN)
∆ A2 .rˆ ∆A2 cos θ ∆A2n
=
∆Ω = =
r22 r22 r22
Illustration 5: A non - uniform electric field given by
= E 3.0xiˆ + 4.0ˆj pierces the Gaussian cube shown in Fig. 18.28
(E is in newton per coulomb and x is in meters.) What is the electric flux through the right face, the left face, and
the top face? (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: We can find the flux through the surface by integrating the scalar product E.dA over each face.
Right face: An area vector A is always perpendicular to its surface and always points away from the interior of a
Gaussian surface. Thus, the vector dA for the right face of the cube must point in the positive direction of the x
axis. In unit-vector notation,
dA = dAi. ˆ The flux Φ , through the right face is then
(
= ∫ 3.0xiˆ + =
Φ ∫ E.dA
= )( )
4.0ˆj . dA ˆi ∫ (3.0x )( dA ) ˆi ⋅ ˆi + ( 4.0 )( dA )= ∫ ( 3.0xdA=
ˆj ⋅ ˆi + 0 ) 3.0 ∫ xdA.
We are about to integrate over the right face, but we note that x has the same value everywhere on that face-
namely, x=3.0m. This means we can substitute that constant value for x. Then
= ∫ (3.0 ) dA 9.0∫ dA.
Φr 3.0=
The integral ∫ dA merely gives us the area A=4.0 m2 of the right face; so
=Φr ( 9.0N
= / C ) ( 4.0m2 ) 36N.m2 / C .
y
Left face: The procedure for finding the flux through the left face
is the same as that for the rightface. However, two factors change. Gaussian
(i) The differential areavector dA points in the negative direction of surface
the x axis, and thus dA = −dAi. ˆ (ii) The term x again appears in our
integration, and it is again constant over the face being considered. X
However, on the left face, x=1.0m. With these two changes, we find
that the flux Φl through the left face is
z x=1.0m x=3.0m
Φ1 =−12N ⋅ m2 / C.
Figure 18.27
Top face: The differential area vector
dA points in the positive
ˆ The flux Φ through the
direction of the y axis, and thus dA = +dAj. l
top face is then
=
Φ1 ∫ (3.0xiˆ + =
4.0ˆj ) ⋅ ( dAjˆ ) ∫ ( 3.0x )( dA ) ˆi ⋅ ˆj + ( 4.0 )( dA ) ˆj.ˆj =
∫ ( 0 + 4.0dA ) =
4.0 ∫=
dA 16 N ⋅ m2 / C .
Figure 18.28
P hysi cs | 18.15
1 Q 2 Q rd
dΦE = E ⋅dA = EdA =
4 πε r 2
ο
(
r sin θd=
θdφ
4 πεο) sin θdθdφ a2 + b2
Q y
=The totalsinflux dφ a2 +the
θdθthrough b2 entire surface is
4 πεο
Q z 2π Q
Φ=
E ∫∫ ⋅dA
E =
4 πεο ∫ο sin θdθ∫ο d=
φ
εο
s x
Figure 18.29
The same result can also be obtained by noting that a sphere of radius r has
a surface area A= 4 πr 2 , and since the magnitude of the electric field at any
E
point on the spherical surface =is E Q / 4 πεοr 2 , the electric flux through the
surface is
1 Q Q
2
ΦE = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA= E
∫∫ dA= EA= 4πε r2 4πr = ε S₃ S₂ S₁
s s ο ο + Q
Illustration 6: Fig. 18.31 shows five charged lumps of plastic and an electrically
neutral coin. The cross section of a Gaussian surface S is indicated. What is the s
net electric flux through the surface if q1 = q4 = +3.1nC, q2 = q5 = −5.9nC, +
and q3 = −3.1nC? Five plastic objects, each with an electric charge, and a coin, q¹
which has no net charge. A Gaussian surface, shown in cross section, encloses -
three of the charged objects and the coin. (JEE MAIN) q³
+ q²
- -
Sol: In Gauss’s law, only enclosed charges used to calculate the flux. q⁴
q⁵
The net flux Φ through the surface depends on the net charge qenc enclosed
by surface S. Figure 18.31
The coin does not contribute to Φ because it is neutral and thus contains equal amounts of positive and negative
charge. Charges q4 and q5 do not contribute because they are outside surface S. Thus, qenc is q1 + q2 + q3 and
gives us
qenc q1 + q2 + q3 +3.1 × 10−9 C − 5.9 × 10−9 C − 3.1 × 10−9 C
=
Φ = = = −670N.m2 / C.
εο εο 8.85 × 10−12 C2 / N ⋅ m2
1 8 . 1 6 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
Conclude: The minus sign shows that the net flux through the surface is inward and thus that the net charge within
the surface is negative.
Illustration 7: Find the flux through the disk shown in Fig. 18.32. The line joining the charge to the center of the
disk is perpendicular to the disk. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The electric flux through the disk cannot be found by the equation
φ = E ⋅ A = EA cos θ If we wish to use the basic formula, we can divide the x
disk into small rings as shown in Fig. 18.33 and find the electric field due q 4
to charge at all the rings: R
3
φ = ∫ E.ds. Here we divide the entire disk into thin ring and find the flux
due to the charge through the thin ring. Figure 18.32
the electric field due to the point charge at the location of the ring shown is given by
kq
E=
(16 / 9 ) R2 + x2 .
E
As we discussed before, the area of the ring is 2πxdx . But dx
the electric field is not normal to the ring. The angle can be
found as shown:
x
4R / 3
cos θ = , φ= ∫ E ⋅ds ,
( )
16R 2 / 9 + x2
q 4
3
R
0.75R kq × ( 4R / 3) × 2πxdx q
φ ∫0= .
2
(
2
)2 2
x + 16R / 9 × x + 16R / 9 ( ) 10εο Figure 18.33
Sol: We shall solve the problem by following the steps outlined above.
E=O
(a) An infinitely long rod possesses cylindrical symmetry. a
(b) The charge density is uniformly distributed throughout the length,
and the electric field E must point radially away from the symmetry
axis of the rod (Fig. 18.34). The magnitude of the electric field is Figure 18.34
constant on cylindrical surface of radius r. Therefore, we choose a
coaxial cylinder as our Gaussian surface.
E3
(c) Field lines for an infinite uniformly charged rod (the symmetry axis
dA3 E2
of the rod and the Gaussian cylinder are perpendicular to plane of
the page.)
s3
(d) The amount of charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, a cylinder r dA2
of radius r and length (Fig. 18.35), is qenc = λ . +++ +++
(e) As indicated in Fig. 18.36, the Gaussian surface consists of three
dA1 s1 s2
parts: a two ends S1 and S2 plus the curved side wall S3. The flux
through the Gaussian surface is
Gaussian
E1 ⋅ dA1 + E2 ⋅ dA2 + E3 ⋅ dA3 = 0 + 0 + E3 A3 = E ( 2π r ) E1 surface
Φ=E ∫∫
E.dA
= ∫∫ ∫∫ ∫∫
S S1 S2 S3 Figure 18.35
P hysi cs | 18.17
Illustration 9: Consider an infinitely large non-conduction plane in the xy-plane with uniform surface charge
density σ . Determine the electric field everywhere in space. (JEE MAIN)
z
E y
(iv) The total flux through the Gaussian pillbox flux is Gaussian pillbox
s1
s3 dA3
Φ=E ∫∫ E ⋅ dA=
∫∫ E1 ⋅ dA1 +
∫∫ E2 ⋅ dA2 +
∫∫ E3 ⋅ dA3 + + + + + + + +
S S1 S2 S3 + + + + + + + + + +
= E1 A1 + E2 A2 + =
0 (E1 + E2 ) A + + + + + + + + + + +
Since the two ends are at the same distance from the plane, by symmetry,
s2
− σ k̂, z < 0
2o
2εο
Thus, we see that the electric field due to an infinite large non-conducting
z
plane is uniform in space. The result, plotted in Fig. 18.39, is the same
as that obtained using Coulomb’s law. Note again the discontinuity in -
2o
electric field as we cross the plane:
Figure 18.39
σ σ σ
∆Ez= Ez + − Ez −= − − =
2εο 2εο εο
1 8 . 1 8 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
density
= σ Q /= As Q / 4 πa2 , where As = 4 πa2 is the surface area of
the sphere. The electric field E must be radially symmetric and directed
a
outward (Fig. 18.40). We treat the regions r ≤ a and r ≥ a separately.
Electric field for uniform spherical shell of charge
Since the flux through the Gaussian surface is ΦE = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA=
S
(
EA= E 4 πr 2 )
Q Q
By applying Gauss’s law, we obtain
= E = ke , r ≥ a a
2
4 πεοr r2 Gaussian
Note that the field outside the sphere is the same as if all the charges r sufface
An electric charge +Q is uniformly distributed throughout a non-conducting solid sphere of radius a. Determine
the electric field everywhere inside and outside the sphere. (JEE MAIN)
Case 1: r ≤ a
P hysi cs | 18.19
4 r3
∫ dV =
charge distribution, the charge enclosed is qenc =ρ ρ πr3 =
ρV = Q
2 a3 Gaussian suface
V
Figure 18.43
Which is proportional to the volume enclosed by the Gaussian surface. Applying
Gauss’s law
= (
ΦE qenc / εο , we obtain E 4 πr 2= ) ρ 4 3
πr or=
εο 3
E =
ρr Qr
3εο 4 πε a3
r≤a
ο
Case 2: r ≥ a E
In this case, our Gaussian surface is a sphere of radius r ≥ a , as shown in Fig. 18.44
. Since the radius of the Gaussian surface is greater than the radius of the sphere
all the charge is enclosed in our Gaussian surface: qenc = Q . With the electric flux Gaussian surface
through the Gaussian surface given by ΦE= E 4 πr ( 2
) , upon applying Gauss’s law, Figure 18.44
we obtain
E
( )
E 4 πr 2 = Q / εο=
, or E
Q
= ke ,
4 πεοr 2
Q
r2
r>a
E=
keQ
2
r
The field outside the sphere is the same as if all the charges were concentrated
at the center of the sphere. The qualitative behavior of E as a function of r is
r
plotted in Fig. 18.45. a
Figure 18.45
PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS
The following steps may be useful when applying Gauss’s law:
(a) Identify the symmetry associated with the charge distribution.
(b) Determine the direction of the electric field, and a “Gaussian surface” on which the magnitude of the electric
field is constant over portions of the surface.
(c) Divide the space into different regions associated with the charge distribution. For each region, calculate qenc
, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface.
(d) Calculate the electric flux ΦE through the Gaussian surface for each region.
(e) Equate ΦE with qenc / εο , and deduce the magnitude of the electric field.
In this chapter, we have discussed how electric field can be calculated for both the discrete and continuous charge
1 qi
distributions. For the former, we apply the superposition principle: E = ∑ rˆ
4 πεο i r 2 i
i
1 dq
For the latter, we must evaluate the vector integral E = ∫ rˆ
4 πεο r 2
1 8 . 2 0 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
Where r is the distance from dq to the field point P and r̂ is the corresponding unit vector. To complete the
integration, we shall follow the procedure outlined below:
1 dq
(a) Start with dE = rˆ
4 πεο r 2
λd (length)
(b) Rewrite the charge element dq as dq= σdA ( area)
ρdV ( volume )
Cartesian (x,y,z) (
Cylindrical ρ, φ, z ) (
Spherical r, θ, φ )
Dl dx, dy, dz
dρ, ρdφ, dz dr,rdθ,r sin θdφ
dA dxdy, dydz, dzdx
dρ dz, ρdφdz, ρdφdρ rdrdθ,r sin θdrdφ,r 2 sin θdθdφ
dV dxdydz
ρd ρdφdz r 2 sin θ dr d θ d φ
y z
dE dE
P dE P
P
r dp
dq
z r z
y
(1) Figure r’ y
R y
‘ R r’
x’ dr’
x dq
x
o dx’
L
Figure 18.46 Figure 18.47 x
Figure 18.48
(2) Express dq in
terms of charge dq = λdx' dq = λd dq = σdA
density
(3) write down dE λdx' λdl σdA
dE = k e dE = k e dE = k e
'2 2
r r r2
P hysi cs | 18.21
(6) Integrate to
get E
+ /2 dx Rλz R r 'dr '
Ey= k e λy ∫ = Ez k e ∫ dφ ' Ez = 2πσk e z ∫
( ) ( ) (r )
− /2 3/2 3/2 0 3/2
x2 + y 2 R 2 + z2 '2
+ z2
2k e λ /2 == k e
( 2πRλ ) z z
= 2πσk e −
z
= z
(R )
3/2
y 2
+ z2 z + R2
2
( / 2)
2
+ y2
Qz
ke
(R )
3/2
2
+ z2
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+++++++++++++ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + a
Figure Figure 18.49 + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
Figure 18.50
Figure 18.51
+++++++++++++
x
E
Choose Gaussian
E1
surface E3
dA1
dA3 E2 E3
s1 r
s3 Gaussian pillbox
r dA2
s3 dA3 Gaussian
+++ +++ + + + + + + + + shere
+ + + + + + + + + + a
dA1 s1 s2 + + + + + + + + + + +
Gaussian s2 Concentric shpere
E1 surface
dA2 Figure 18.57
Figure 18.55 E2
Figure 18.56
FORMULAE SHEET
S. No Term Description
∑q
2. Additive: −qnet =
3. Conservation: - total charge of an isolated system is constant
3 Coulomb’s law
The mutual electrostatic force between the charges q1 and q2 separated by a
distance r is given by Force on the charge q1 F = Kq q r / r 2
1 1 2 12
Where r12 is the unit vector in the direction from q2 and q1 .
For more than two charges in the system, the force acting on any charge is
vector sum of the coulomb force from each of the other charges. This is called
principle of superposition for q1 , q2 , q3 ….. qn Charges are present in the system.
P hysi cs | 18.23
S. No Term Description
4 Electric Field -The region around a particular charge in which its electrical effects can be
observed is called the electric field of the charge
-Electric field has its own existence and is present even if there is no charge to
experience the electric force.
5 Electric field
Intensity E=F/ q0 Where F is the electric force experienced by the test charge q0 at this
point. It is a vector quantity.
Some points to note on this
1. Electric field lines extend away from the positive charge and towards the
negative charge.
2. Electric field produces the force so if a charge q is placed in the electric field
E, the force experienced by the charge is F=qE
3. Principle of superposition also applies to electric field so
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + .....
KQ r
Electric field intensity due to point charge E =
r2
Where r is the distance from the point charge and r is the unit vector along the
direction from source to point.
Note: (i) Net charge on a conductor remains only on the outer surface of a conductor.
(ii) On the surface of spherical conductors charge is uniformly distributed.
P hysi cs | 18.25
Solved Examples
uncharged is successively brought in contact with the Let the charges divided on the two objects be q and Q-q
two spheres. What is the new force of repulsion between q(Q − q)
so that the force between them is f = K
P and Q? r2
dF
For maximum force, =0
Sol: Charge on two spheres will be equally divided on dq
two sphere each times on touching. d q(Q − q)
K =0
When R is kept in contact with R, charge q is equally dq r2
distributed between P and R.
q K d
Charge on P = ⇒ [q(Q − q)] =
0
2 r 2 dq
q
Charge on R = d
2 ⇒ [qQ − q2 ] =
0
dq
When R is kept in contact with Q, total charge will again
Q
be equally distributed. ⇒ Q − 2q = 0 ⇒ q =
2
q + (q / 2) 3q
Charge
= on Q =
2 4 i.e, the charge must be equally divided.
3q
Charge on R =
4 Example 9: Two identical point charges of magnitude
Initial force of repulsion between P and Q Q are kept at a distance r from each other. A third
point charge q is placed on the line joining the above
1 qxq two charges, such that all the three charges are in
F(say)
4 πε0 r 2 equilibrium. What is the sign, magnitude and position
of the third charge?
Final force of repulsion between P and Q
Sol: For equilibrium, net F on each charge = 0
q 3q
x Let identical charges Q be placed at A and B and
1 1 2 4 3
=F = 2 F another charge q is at a distance x from A so that it is in
4 πε0 r 8
equilibrium.
Y
Example 10: A charge Q is uniformly distributed on
the circumference of a circular ring of radius a. Find the rd
intensity of electric field at a point at a distance x from
the center on the axis of ring. d
X
Sol: Consider a small part of the ring. All points on the
r
dE
ring are symmetrical to any point on the axis of the ring.
Given situation is depicted in the figure. Consider an Sol: Consider small element on the arc as point charge
infinitesimal element at point A on the circumference of and then proceed by integrating for all such points.
the ring. Let charge on this element be dq. The The electric charge distributed on the portion of the
magnitude of the intensity of electric field dE at a point arc making an angle d φ is dQ= λrdφ . The electric field
P situated at a distance x from the center on its axis is,
produced due to this portion at the origin will be,
1 dq dq kλr.dφ
= dE = k . dE = The electric field vector dE of this portion
4 πε0 AP2 (a + x2 )
2
r2
of the arc is indicated in the diagram.
A
dE has two components
kλrdφ kλr.dφ
a
dE cos dEx = − cos φ i and dEy =− cos φ j
2 2
p r r
X kλ 0 kλ
0
dE ∴ Ex = ∫ cos φdφ i =− [sin φ]0 iθ
dE sin r 0 r
kλ
Its direction is from A to P. Now consider two ∴ Ex = − sin φ i (θ not φ)
r
components of dE (i) dE sin θ , parallel to the axis of kλ kλ
Now, Ey= ∫ sin φdφ j= [cos φ]00 jθ
the ring and (ii) dE cos θ , parallel to the axis. r r
Here it is clear that in the vector sum of intensities due kλ
∴ Ey = [ (cos θ − 1) j ]
to all such elements taken all over the circumference, r
the dE sin θ components of the diametrically opposite kλ
elements will cancel each other as they are mutually ∴
= Ey [(1 − sin θ) i + (cos θ − 1) j]
r
opposite. Hence only dEcos θ components should be
considered for integration. ( î component is just - sin θ)
∴ The total intensity of electric field at point P, Example 2: Two small spheres each having mass m kg
and charge q coulomb are suspended from a point by
dq
OP dq x insulating threads each 1 metre long but of negligible
= ∫ dEcos θ = ∫ k E= k ∫
(a + x ) AP
2 2
(a + x2 )
2 1
mass. If θ is the angle each string makes with the
(a2 + x2 ) 2
x dxQ vertical when equilibrium has been attained, show that
=∴E k = ∫ dq
3 surface 3 =q2 (4mgl2 sin2 θ tan θ) 4 πε0.
(a2 + x2 )2 (a2 + x2 )2
Sol: Gravitational as well as electrostatic force act on
1 xQ each sphere.
=
4 πε0 3
(a2 + x2 ) 2 Consider two small spheres A and B each of mass
1 8 . 2 8 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
x
T T O
qA qB
F A B F
0.16m
q O q
Consider that the charge q is at a distance of 5cm
mg mg from the square ABCD of each side 10 cm [figure]. The
square ABCD can be considered as one of the six faces
Each of the two spheres is acted upon by the following
of a cube of each side 10cm. Then, according to Gauss’s
three forces:
theorem, total electric flux through all the six faces of
q
(i) The electrostatic force of repulsion f directed away the cube, φ =
ε0
from each other.
(ii) The weight mg of the sphere acting vertically
downwards.
(iii) The tension T in the string directed towards point S.
I x III - II
Since the two spheres are in equilibrium, the three
forces acting on a sphere can be represented by the
three sides of the ∆ AOS taken in order. For sphere A,
we have at equilibrium by Lami’s theorem
Obviously, the flux through the square ABCD will be
F mg T
= = … (i) 1 1 q
OA SO AS =
φ x=
φ x
6 6 ε0
Here, OA =lsin θ ; SO =lcos θ And AB =2AO =2lsin θ
1 10−5
= = x 1.88 x105 N m2 C−1
1 qxq 1 q2 6 8.854x10−12
and F = ⋅ = ⋅
4 πε0 AB2 4 πε0 4l2 sin2 θ
Example 4: Two large thin metal plates are parallel and
OA
From equation (i), we have F = mgx close to each other as shown in the figure. On their
SO inner faces, the plates have surface charge densities
1 q2
lsin θ of opposite signs and of magnitude 17.0 × 10–22 Cm–2.
or ⋅ =mgx What is E (i) to the left of the plates, (ii) to the right of
4 πε0 4l2 sin2 θ lcos θ
the plates and (iii) between the plates?
or q2 (4mgl2 sin2 θ tan θ)4 πε0
=
Sol: Apply formula for Electric field intensity due to
Example 3: A point charge + 10 µ C is at a distance 5 charged plate.
cm directly above the center of a square of side 10 cm Here σ =17.0 x10−22 Cm−2
as shown in Fig. What is the magnitude of the electric
flux through the square? (i) To the left of plates: The region I is to the left of the
plates. Therefore, the electric field to the left of plates
is zero.
P hysi cs | 18.29
(ii) To the right of plates: The region II is to the right Example 7: Electric field in the above figure is directed
of the plates. Again, the electric field in the region II is along + x direction and given by =Ex 5Ax + 2B , where E
zero. is in NC−1 and x is in meter. A and B are constants with
dimensions.
(iii) Between the two plates, the electric field given by
Y
σ 17.0x10−22
E =
= = 1.92x10−10 NC−1
ε0 8.854x10−12
M N
Example 5: A parallel plate capacitor is to be designed
X
(Dielectric strength is the maximum electric field a Taking A= 10NC−1 m−1 and B = 5 NC−1 , Calculate
material can tolerate without breakdown, i.e., without
(i) The electric flux through the cube.
starting to conduct electricity through partial ionization.)
For safety, we should like the field never to exceed, say (ii) Net charge enclosed within the cube.
10% of the dielectric strength. What minimum area of
the plates is required to have a capacitance of 50 pF? Sol: Vector rotation of area and Gauss’s Law for net
enclosed charged is applied.
Sol: Maximum field strength should be 10% of the
Ex 5Ax + 2B . The electric field at face
(i) Given =
dielectric strength of the material,.
M where x=0 is E1 = 2B The electric field at face N where
10% of the given field i.e. 107 Cm−1 x = 10cm=0.010m is E2 =5A x 0.10+ 2B= 0.5A+2B
Given E = 0.1 x107 Cm−1 The electric flux through face M is
dV V φ1 = E1 .S1 = E1S1 cos π = −E1S1
Using E = − i.e. E = , we get
dr r = −2Bxl2 where 1=10 cm= 0.01 m
V 1000
r
= = = 10−3 m The electric flux through face N
E 0.1 x107
φ2 = E2 ⋅ S2 = E2S1 cos 0 = (0.5 A + 2B)l2
∈0 ∈r A
Using C = , we get Net electric flux φ = φ1 + φ2
d
−12 −3
Cd Cr (450 x10 )(10 )
=
=A = = 19 cm2 . = −2Bl2 + (0.5A + 2B)l2 = 0.5Al2
−12
∈0 ∈r ∈0 ∈r 8.854 x10 x 3
= 0.5
= x10 x (0.10)2 5 x10−2 Vm
Example 6: The electrostatic force on a small sphere (ii) If θ is net charge enclosed within the cube, then by
of charge 0.4 µ C due to another small sphere of 1
Gauss’s theorem φ = q
charge-0.8 µ C in air is 0.2 N. ε0
(i) What is the distance between the two spheres? φ = ε0 φ = 8.85 x10−12 x5 x10−2 C = 4.425 x10−13 C
(ii) What is the force on the second sphere due to the
first? Example 8: Four electric charges, +q,+q, -q and –q are
respectively placed on the vertices A, B, C and D of
Sol: Consider each sphere as a point change and apply square. The length of the square is a. Calculate the
Coulomb’s law. intensity of the resultant electric field at the center.
(i) Force on charge 1 due to charge 2 is given by the +q +q
relation
A B
qq O
F12 = 9 x109 1 2 EB+ED EA+EC
r2
F 0.2
E
⇒ r 2 = 12 = D C
(9 x10 )q1q2 (9 x10 )(0.8 x10−6 )(0.4 x10−6 )
9 9
-q -q
Sol: Apply Superposition of electrostatic forces.
i.e. r=0.12m
All the electric charges are equidistant from the center
(ii) F12 = 0.2 N, Attractive F21=F12.
= F12
1 8 . 3 0 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
O. If r is the distance of vertices from the center, we E is the resultant of E’ and E’’. It is evident from the
kq geometry of the figure that,
have, E=A E=
B E=C E=
D
r2 8k 2q2
The directions of these electric fields are as shown in E2 =E'2 + E''2 = Using
figure. r4
a q
If E’ is the resultant field of EB and ED r= ,E = 4 2k
2 a2
kq
E' = EB + ED = 2
r2
JEE Main/Boards
Q.4 Dielectric constant of water is 80. What is its Q.13 Calculate the Coulomb’s force between a proton
permittivity? and electron separated by 0.8 x 10−15 m.
Q.5 State the principle of superposition of forces in Q.14 If the distance between two equal point charges is
electrostatics. doubled and their individual charges are also doubled,
what would happen to the force between them?
Q.6 How many electrons must be removed from a
conductor, so that it acquires a charge of 3.5nC? Q.15 Which is bigger, a coulomb or charge on an
electron? How many electronic charge form one
Q.7 A point charge of 10−7 coulomb is situated at the coulomb of charge?
center of a cube of 1 m side. Calculate the electric flux
through its surface. Q.16 What is the amount of charge possessed by 1kg
of electrons? Given that mass of an electron is 9.1 x
Q.8 Find the electric flux through each face of a hollow 10−31 kg.
cube of side 10 cm, if a charge of 8.854 µ C is placed at
its center. Q.17 Four charges +q, ..+q,-q,-q are placed respectively
at the four corners of a square of side a. Find the
Q.9 What is the force between two small charged magnitude and direction of the electric field at the
spheres having charges of 2 x 10−7 C and 3 x 10−7 C center of the square.
placed 30 cm apart in air?
Q.18 Four point charges qA = 2 µC, qB
Q.10 A polythene piece rubbed with wool is found to =−5µC, qC = 2µC and qD =5µC are located at corners
have a negative charge of 3 x 10−7 C. of a square ABCD of side 10 cm. What is the force on a
charge of 1 µ C placed at the center of the square?
(i) Estimate the number of electrons transferred (from
P hysi cs | 18.31
magnitude of the electric flux electric field at the point of position vector= r 8i +5 j .
through the square? (A) 1200V/m (B) 0.04V/m
10 cm
(C) 900V/m (D) 4500V/m
Q.22 Show that the electric field at the surface of a
σ Q.2 A point charge q is placed at origin. Let EA, EB and EC
charged conductor is given by E = n , where σ is the
ε 0 be the electric field at three points A (1, 2, 3), B (1, 1,-1)
surface charge density and n is a unit vector normal to and C (2, 2, 2) due to charge q Then
the surface in the outward direction. [i] EA ⊥ EB [ii] EB |= 4 | EC | Select the correct alternative
(A) Only [i] is correct
Q.23 A copper atom consists of copper nucleus
surrounded by 29 electrons. The atomic weight of (B) (B) only [ii] is correct
copper is 63.5 g Let us now take two pieces of copper (C) Both [i] and [ii] are correct
weighing 10 g. Let us transfer one electron from one
piece. What will be the Coulomb force between the two (D) (D) both [i] and [ii] are wrong
pieces after the transfer of electrons, if they are 1 cm
apart? Avogadro number = 6 × 1023 C mol–1, charge on Q.3 Two identical point charges are placed at a
an electron = 1.6 × 10–19 C. separation of l. P is a point on the line joining the
charges, at a distance x from any one charge, The field
Q.24 Two fixed point charged 4Q and 2Q are separated at P is E. E is plotted against x for values of x from close
by a distance x. Where a third point charge q should be to zero to slightly less than l. Which of the following
placed for it to be in equilibrium? best represents the resulting curve?
E E
Q.25 It is required to hold four equal point charges +q (A) (B)
in equilibrium at the corners of a square. Find the point
charge that will do this, if placed at the center of the O L
x
O L
x
square.
E E
Q.26 Four point charges, each having a charge q are
(C)
placed on the four corners A, B, C and D of a regular L (D) L
pentagon ABCEDE. The distance of each corner from O
x
O
x
the center is a. Find the electric field at the center of
the pentagon.
1 8 . 3 2 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
Q.4 Four charges are arranged at the corners of a equilibrium of the particle will be stable
square ABCD, as shown. The force on a +ve charge kept R
at the center of the square is (A) for all values of H (B) only if H>
A B 2
(A) Zero
+q -q
R R
(C) only if H < (D) only if H=
(B) Along diagonal AC 2 2
(C) Along diagonal BD
Q.9 Point P lies on the axis of a dipole. If the dipole is
-2q +2q
(D) Perpendicular to the side AB
rotated by 90o anti-clock wise, the electric field vector
C D
E at P will rotate by
(A) 90o Clock wise (B) 180o
Q.5 Two free positive charges 4q and q are a distance l
apart. What charge Q is needed to achieve equilibrium (C) 90o Anti clock wise (D) no ne
for the entire system and where should it be placed
from charge q ? Q.10 The Fig. shows
4 l the electric field lines in
(A) Q =
9
q(negative)at
3 the vicinity of two point q₁
charges. Which one of q₂
4 l l
(B) Q = q(positive)at (C) Q = q(positive)at the following statements
9 3 3 concerning this situation
l is true?
(D) Q = q(negative)at
3 (A) q1 is negative and q2 is positive
Q.6 A small particle of mass m and charge –q is placed (B) The magnitude of the ratio ( q2 / q1 ) is less than one
at point P on the axis of uniformly charged ring and (C) Both q1 and q2 have the same sign of charge
released. If R >> x, the particle will undergo oscillation
(D) The electric field is strongest midway between the
along the axis of symmetry with an angular frequency
charges.
that is equal to
Q
Q.11 Electric flux through a surface of area 100 m2
R
P lying in the xy plane is (in V-m) if E =
ˆi + 2ˆj + 3kˆ
X (A) 100 (B) 141.4
(C) 173.2 (D) 200
qQ qQx
(B)
(A)
4 πε0mR 3 4 πε0mR 4 Q.12 An infinite, uniformly
charged sheet with surface
qQ qQx charge density σ cuts through
(C) (D)
a spherical Gaussian surface of
3
R
4 πε0mR 4 πε0mR 4
radius R at a distance x from its X
center, as shown in the Fig.
Q.7 Which of the following is a volt: 18.80. The electric flux Φ
(A) Erg per cm through the Gaussian surface is
are connected by a conducting wire, which is then electric field. The lines of force follow the path(s) shown
removed, and thereafter, they repel each other with a in figure as (1996)
force of 0.036 N. The initial charges on the spheres are 1 1
(A) ± 5 x10 −6
C and 15 x10 −6
C 2 2
Q.2 Two equal negative charges – q are fixed at points Q.7 A non-conducting ring of radius 0.5 m carries a total
(0,-a) and (0,a) on y-axis. A positive charge Q is released charge of 1.11×10-10 C distributed non-uniformly on its
from rest at the point (2a, 0) on the x-axis. The charge Q
circumference producing an electric field E everywhere
will (1984)
in space. The value of the integral ∫ tt ==∞
0
−E ⋅ dl (l=0 being
(A) Execute simple harmonic motion about the origin
center of the ring) in volt is (1997)
(B) Move to the origin and remain at rest
(A) +2 (B) -1 (C) -2 (D) zero
(C) Move to infinity
(D) Execute oscillatory but not simple harmonic motion Q.8 Three charges Q, +q and +q are placed at the
vertices of a right angle triangle (isosceles triangle) as
Q.3 A charge q is placed at the centre of the line joining shown. The net electrostatic energy of the configuration
two equal charges Q. The system of the three charges is zero, if Q is equal to (2000)
will be in equilibrium if q is equal to (1987) −q −2q
(A) (B) (C)-2q (D) +q
Q Q Q Q 1+ 2 2+ 2
(A) − (B) − (C) + (D) +
2 4 4 2
Q.9 Three positive charges of equal value q are placed
Q.4 The at the vertices of an equilateral triangle. The resulting
magnitude of electric
Q
field E in the annular region of a lines of force should be sketched as in (2001)
charged cylindrical capacitor
(1996)
(B)
(A) Is same throughout (A)
-q1
(A) (B)
(A) Negative and distributed uniformly over the surface
of the sphere
(B) Negative and appears only at the point on the
sphere closest to the point charge
Q.11 Six charges, three positive and three negative Q.15 A spherical portion has been
of equal magnitude are to be placed at the vertices removed from a solid sphere having a
of a regular hexagon such that the electric field at charge distributed uniformly in its
O is double the electric field when only one positive volume as shown in the figure. The
charge of same magnitude is placed at R. Which of the electric field inside the emptied space
following arrangements of charge is possible for, P, Q, is (2007)
R, S, T and U respectively? (2004)
(A) Zero everywhere (B) Non-zero and uniform
(A) +, -, +, -, -,+ (B) +, -, +, -, +, -
(C) Non-uniform (D) Zero only at its center
(C) +, +, -, +, -, - (D) -, +, +, -, +, -
a
Q.12 Consider the charge configur- P Q Q.16 A disk of radius having a uniformly distributed
4
ation and a spherical Gaussian charge 6C and 6C is placed in the x-y plane with its
surface as shown in the figure. U O R
When calculating the flux of the −a
center at ,0,0 . A rod of length a carrying a
electric field over the spherical 2
surface, the electric field will be due
S
uniformly distributed charge 8C is placed on the x-axis
T
to (2004)
a 5a
(A) q2 (B) Only the positive charges from x = to x = . Two point charges -7C and 3C
4 4
(C) All the charges (D) + q1 and − q1 a −a −3a 3a
are placed at , ,0 and , ,0 . Respectively.
4 4 4 4
Q.13 Three infinitely long charge sheets are placed as
Consider a cubical surface formed by six surfaces
shown in figure. The electric field at point P is (2005)
a a a
z x=
± ,y= ± . The electric flux through this
± ,z=
2 2 2
cubical surface is
z =3a
P (2009)
-2 z =0
x y
- z =-a
2σ 2σ 4σ 4σ
(A) k (B) − k (C) k (D) − k x
ε0 ε0 ε0 ε0
Q.17 Three concentric metallic spherical shells of Q.21 In a uniformly charged sphere of total charge Q
radii R, 2R and 3R are given charges Q1 , Q2 and Q3 and radius R, the electric field E is plotted as a function
respectively. It is found that the surface charge densities of distance from the centre. The graph which would
on the outer surfaces of the shells are equal. Then the correspond to the above will be (2012)
ratio of the charges given to the shells, Q1 :Q2 : Q3 is E E
(2009)
(A) (B)
(A) 1:2:3 (B) 1:3:5 (C) 1:4:9 (D) 1:8:18
y
(0,0,0) (0,a,0)
x
E0 a2
(A) 2E0 a2 (B) 2E0 a2 (C) E0 a2 (D)
2
1 8 . 3 6 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
JEE Advanced/Boards
Q.12 The length of each side of a cubical closed surface Find the smallest value of the speed v such that the
is l. If charge q is situated on one of the vertices of the particle does not return to P.
cube, then find the flux passing through shaded face of
the cube. Q.18 2 small balls having the same mass & charge &
located on the same vertical at heights h1 & h2 are
thrown in the same direction along the horizontal at
the same velocity v. The 1st ball touches the ground
at a distance l from the initial vertical. At what height
q will the 2nd ball be at this instant? The air drag & the
charges induced should be neglected.
Q.13 A point charge Q is located on the axis of a disc
of radius R at a distance a from the plane of the disc. Q.19 Two identical balls of charges q1 & q2 initially have
If one fourth (1/4th) of the flux from the charge passes equal velocity of the same magnitude and direction.
through the disc, then find the relation between a & R. After a uniform electric field is applied for some time,
the direction of the velocity of the first ball changes
by 60o and the magnitude is reduced by half. The
Q.14 Two thin conducting shells of radii R and 3R are
direction of the velocity of the second ball changes by
shown in figure. The outer shell carries a charge +Q
90o . In what proportion will the velocity of the second
and the inner shell is neutral. The inner shell is earthed
ball changes?
with the help of switch S. find the charge attained by
the inner shell.
+Q Q.20 Small identical balls with equal charges are fixed
3R
at vertices of regular 2008- g on with side a. At a certain
R S instant, one of the balls is released & a sufficiently long
time interval later, the ball adjacent to the first released
ball is freed. The kinetic energies of the released balls
are found to differ by K at a sufficiently long distance
from the polygon. Determine the charge q of each part.
Q.15 Consider three identical metal spheres A, B and
C. spheres A carries charge + 6q and sphere B carries
Q.21 A non - conducting ring of mass m and radius R
charge -3q. Sphere C carries no charge. Spheres A and
is charged as shown. The charged density i.e. charge
B are touched together and then separated. Sphere C is
per unit length is λ . It is then placed on a rough non
then touched to sphere A and separated from it. Finally
- conducting horizontal surface plane. At time t=0, a
the sphere C is touched to sphere B and separated from
uniform electric field E = E0i is switched on and the ring
it. Find the final charge on the sphere C.
start rolling without sliding. Determine the frictional
force (magnitude and direction) acting on the ring,
Q.16 Six charges are placed at the vertices of a regular when it starts moving.
hexagon as shown in the figure. Find the electric field y
on the line passing through O and perpendicular to
the plane of the figure as a function of distance x from +
+
point O. +
+Q -Q + x
-
-
-
-
-Q +Q
O
Q.23 Two concentric rings, one of radius ‘a’ and the Q.2 Select the correct statement: (Only force on a
other of radius ‘b’ have the charges +q and −(2 / 5)−3/2 particle is due to electric field)
q respectively as shown in the figure. Find the ratio
(A) A charged particle always moves along the electric
b/a if a charge particle placed on the axis at z=a is in
lines of force.
equilibrium.
qB=-(2/5)
-3/2
q (B) A charged particle may move along the line of force.
b
(C) A charged particle never moves along the line of
force.
a z=a
(D) A charged particle moves along the line of force
qA=+q
only if released from rest.
Q.24 A positive charge Q is uniformly distributed Q.3 A conducting sphere of radius r has a charge. Then
throughout the volume of a non - conducting sphere
of radius R. A point mass having charge +q and mass (A) The charge is uniformly distributed over its surface,
m is fired towards the center of the sphere with velocity if there is an external electric field.
v from a point at distance r(r > R) from the center of (B) Distribution of charge over its surface will be non-
the sphere. Find the minimum velocity v so that it can uniform if no external electric field exists in space.
penetrate R/2 distance of the sphere. Neglect any
resistance other than electric interaction. Charge on the (C) Electric field strength inside the sphere will be equal
small mass remain constant throughout the motion. to zero only when no external electric field exists.
(D) Potential at every point of the sphere must be same.
Q.25 A cavity of radius r is present inside a solid
dielectric sphere of radius R, having a volume charge Multiple Correct Choice Type
density of ρ . The distance between the centers of the
sphere and the cavity is a. An electron e is kept inside Q.4 Two fixed charges 4Q (positive) and Q (negative)
the cavity at an angle θ = 45o as shown. How long will are located at A and B, the distance AB being 3 m.
it take to touch the sphere again?
+ 4Q -Q
A 3m B
Q.3 The electric field within the nucleus is generally Q.8 A spherical metal shell A of radius R A and a solid
observed to be linearly dependent on r. This implies metal sphere B of radius RB ( < R A ) are kept for apart
(2008) and each is given charge +Q. Now they are connected
R 2R by a thin mental wire. Then (2011)
(A) a=0 (B) a = (C) a = R (D) a =
2 3
(A) Einside
A = 0 (B) Q A > QB
Q.4 Under the influence of the coulomb field of charge σA RB
(C) = (D) Eonsurface < EBonsurface
+Q, a charge –q is moving around it in an elliptical σB RA A
Q. 12 Two non-conducting spheres of radii R1 and R2 Q.15 Four charges Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4 of same magnitude
and carrying uniform volume charge densities + ρ and are fixed along the x axis at x = -2a, - a, +a and +2a,
− ρ , respectively, are placed such that they partially respectively. A positive charge q is placed on the
overlap, as shown in the figure. At all points in the positive y axis at a distance b > 0. Four options of the
overlapping region, (2013) signs of these charges are given in List I. The direction
of the forces on the charge q is given in List II. Match
List I with List II and select the correct answer using the
- code given below the lists. (2014)
R2
R1
List I List II
P. Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 all positive 1. +x
(A) The electrostatic field is zero
Q. Q1, Q2 positive , Q3, Q4 negative 2. -x
(B) The electrostatic potential is constant
R. Q1, Q4 positive , Q2, Q3 negative 3. +y
(C) The electrostatic field is constant in magnitude
S. Q1, Q3 positive , Q2, Q4 negative 4. -y
(D) The electrostatic field has same direction
Codes:
Q.13 Let E1 (r ) , E2 (r ) and E3 (r ) be the respective (A) P-3, Q-1, R-4, S-2 (B) P-4, Q-2, R-3, S-1
electric fields at a distance r from a point charge Q, an
(C) P-3, Q-1, R-2, S-4 (D) P-4, Q-2, R-1, S-3
infinitely long wire with constant linear charge density
λ , and an infinite plane with uniform surface charge
1 ( r0 ) E=
2 ( r0 ) E3 ( r0 ) at a given distance
(+0, b)
density σ . If E=
q
r0 , then (2014)
λ
(A) Q= 4 σ πr02 (B) r0 =
2πσ
(C) E1 (r0 / 2 ) = 2E2 (r0 / 2 ) (D) E2 (r0 / 2 ) = 4E3 (r0 / 2 ) Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
(-2a, 0) (-a, 0) (+a, 0) (-2a, 0)
Q.14 Charges Q, 2Q and 4Q are uniformly distributed Q.16 The figures below depict two situations in which
in three dielectric solid spheres 1, 2 and 3 of radii R/2, two infinitely long static line charges of constant
R and 2R respectively, as shown in figure. If magnitudes positive line charge density λ are kept parallel to each
of the electric fields at point P at a distance R from other. In their resulting electric field, point charges
the centre of spheres 1, 2 and 3 are E1 ,E2 and E3 q and -q are kept in equilibrium between them. The
respectively, then (2014) point charges are confined to move in the x direction
(A) E1 > E2 > E3 (B) E3 > E1 > E2 only. If they are given a small displacement about their
equilibrium positions, then the correct statement(s) is
(C) E2 > E1 > E3 (D) E3 > E2 > E1 (are) (2015)
P
P (A) Both charges execute simple harmonic motion.
R R
(B) Both charges will continue moving in the direction
2Q
Q
of their displacement.
R/2
(C) Charge +q executes simple harmonic motion while
charge - q continues moving in the direction of its
Sphere 1 Sphere 2
displacement.
(D) Charge -q executes simple harmonic motion while
charge +q continues moving in the direction of its
P
R
displacement.
4Q
Q.17 Consider a uniform spherical charge distribution
of radius R1 centred at the origin O. In this distribution,
2R
a spherical cavity of radius R2, centred at P with distance
OP= a= R1 − R 2 (see figure) is made. If the electric field
Sphere 3
1 8 . 4 2 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
inside the cavity at position r is E ( r ) , then the correct (C) E is uniform, its magnitude is independent of a but
statement(s) is(are) (2015) its direction depends on a
(D) E is uniform and both its magnitude and direction
depend on a
x x
+q -q
R1
O
(A) E is uniform, its magnitude is independent of R 2
but its direction depends on r (B) E is uniform, its
magnitude depends on R 2 and its direction depends
on r
PlancEssential Questions
JEE Main/Boards JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1 Exercise 1
Q. 17 Q.18 Q.19 Q.4 Q.20 Q.23
Q.23 Q.24 Q.25
Exercise 2 Exercise 2
Q. 1 Q.3 Q.6
Answer Key
JEE Main/Boards 5 2 −1
Q.8 1.67 ×10 Nm C
Q.9 6 ×10−3 N(repulsive)
Exercise 1
Q.10 (i) 2 × 1012, from wool to polythene,
Q.2 System of Units and nature of medium
(ii) Yes, but of a negligible amount (=2 ×1018 kg in the
10
Q.6 2.1875 ×10 example).
Q.7 1.13 ×10 4 Nm2C−1 Q.12 0.1 µC/m
P hysi cs | 18.43
Q.13 -360 N
Q.21 22 × 105 Nm2 / C
Q.14 No change
Q.23 2.06 × 1018 N (attractive)
18
Q.15 One coulomb, 6.25 ×10
Q.24 At a distance 2a/3 from the charge +4 q; Q=4q/9
Q.16 1.76 ×1011 C (negative)
Q.17 4 2kq / a2 1+2 2
Q.25 q (negative)
Q.18 Zero N 4
Q.26 kq / a2 along OE
Q.19 (i) 5.4 × 106 Nm−1 alongOB
Q.27 No change
(ii) 8.1 × 10−3 N alongOA
Q.28 (i) dV=4E, (ii) Vc > VA
Q.20 (i) 30Nm2 / C , (ii) 15Nm2 / C
Exercise 2
Q.1 D Q.2 C Q.3 D Q.4 D Q.5 A Q.6 A
Q.7 B Q.8 B Q.9 A Q.10 B Q.11 C Q.12 D
Q.13 B
JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1
Q.1 =
a (1 + 2) , the equilibrium will be stable
E E E E
br br br br
3
3
Q.3 9:30 Q.4 −3 × 10−9 C , No field along y-axis
11
σq0 1 qQ
Q.5 2 tan−1 Q.6
2ε mg 2π 4 πε mR3
0 0
2kQ2
Q.7 Q.8 20 ln2
mR
kq2 4KQ2
Q.9 −
a
(
3− 2 )
Q.10 r =
mV 2
1 8 . 4 4 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
2ε0u2m q
Q.11 Q.12
qσ 24 ∈0
R
Q.13 a = Q.14 -Q/3
3
2
λq
Q.17 Q.18 H2 = h1 + h2 − g
2ε0m V
v
Q.19 Q.20 4 πε0Ka
3
4kq
Q.21 λ RE0 ˆi Q.22 − î
πR 2
2kQq −1 11
Q.23 2 Q.24 +
m r 8R
6 2mr ε0
Q.25
epa
Exercise 2
Solutions
= charge enclosed
+q +q
0 a 0
εo
⇒ E(2prl) = λ a
εo
0 0
1 λ
⇒E= .
2π ε o r -q -q
Sol 20: z
electric field as in direction of n̂
>
3
E=3x10 iN/c
σ
10 cm ⇒E= ⋅ nˆ
ε0
x
cm
Sol 23: No. of copper molecules
10
109
= × 6.023 × 1023 = 0.95 × 1023 atoms
y 63.59
(i) Flux= E.A =3×103 î × (10-2) î =30 Nm2/C No. of electrons transferred
ˆi 3 ˆj 0.95 × 1023
= = 0.95 × 1021 electrons
(ii) Flux= E.A = 3×103 î (10-2) + 100
2 2
Charge of the pieces = n.e.
= 15 Nm2/C
= 1.52 × 102 = 152 C
10 Sol 24:
5cm
10
10 n
10 9Q Q
10
region (1) region (2) region (3)
Construct a Gaussian surface as shown
The electric flux through the surfaces of cube = Charge q should be negative to achieve equilibrium
charge enclosed Also if charge is placed in region (1) or (3) the charge
εo will attract the charge in the middle while the other
positive charge pushes the middle charge towards q.
= 10µC = 4π × 9 × 109 × 10 × 10-6 = 36π × 104 Nm2 C-1 So only region (2) is appropriate
εo
Let distance between 4Q and q be ‘d’ then for
Flux through one plate (bottom plate) equilibrium
1 ∴
= × (total/flux) ( Symmetry) k(4Q)(Q) (k)(4Q)(q)
6 =
2
1 x d2
= × 10µC = 6π × 104 Nm2 C-1 = 2 × 105 Nm2 C–1
6 εo q d2
=
Q x2
Sol 22:
k(4Q)(Q) (k)(Q)(q)
Also =
2
x (x − d)2
q 4(x − d)2
>
n
dA ⇒ =
Q x2
d
⇒ d2 = 4(x – d)2 ⇒ x = d ±
2
qenclosed 2x q 4 4Q
⇒d= or d = 2x and = ⇒q=
flux = E. πr 2 = (gauss law) 3 Q 9 9
∈0
−4Q
∴ q ∴q= (negative charge)
⇒E= σ ( σ= ) 9
ε0 πr 2
1 8 . 4 8 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
Sol 25: kq
2 2 Sol 27: Electric flux is the rate of flow of the electric
kq
2 2 field through a given area
2a a
q
φ = E.A
2
kq q
2
a SI units of flux is Volt-meter
Electric flux is independent of the radius of spherical
qenclosed
surface since flux = (Gauss law)
q q εo
∴ No change will be observed.
The force on one charge due to others is
2 2 Sol 28: - -
kq2 kq2 kq2 1 kq2
= 2 + 2 + = 2+
a a 2a2 2 q2 - -
- -
The charge to be placed at the center should be
O - -
negative and let value be Q
tq - -
2
kQ(q) kq 1 - -
2
= 2+
a
2
a 2 - -
2 For derivation of the expression, please refer the theory.
1 + 2 2
⇒Q= q
4
(1 + 2 2) Exercise 2
∴Q=– q
4
Sol 1: (D)
Sol 26: B C
Q Q 3 (2,3)
(50
Eq
c
)
A Ea
Q a 0
2
Ea Ea QO
E (8,-5)
kq
E=
a2 (
Direction of field = 6iˆ − 8ˆj m )
The system will be stable if a force Eq is placed at O distance = 10 m
∴
along EO ( symmetric and equal forces are acting)
kq 9 × 109 × (90µc)
Magnitude of field = = = 4500 V/m
∴ By adding a force Eq along EO and OE we get r2 102
Eq
Sol 2: (C)
Eq=Ea
Eq C
Eq
B
A
Eq O
Eq
Eq
∴ˆ
⇒ OA ⊥ OB ⇒ EA ⊥ EB ( j components get cancelled while integration)
OB = 3 OC = 2 3 kQx
⇒E=
(R + x2 )3/2
2
1 1 E 1
⇒ EB ∝ , EC ∝ ⇒ C = kQx
OB
2
OC
2 EB 4 ⇒E= if R ≫> x
R3
⇒ F = moa = - Eq
P kQq
Sol 3: (D) ⇒a=− .x
q x q m0R 3
kQq
at x=0 w2 =
E=- m0R 3
Qq
E ⇒ω=
4 π ε0m0R 3
x /2 at x = 1
at x = 1/2
E =- Sol 7: (B) Volt = joule/coulomb
E=0
(Since volt is S.I. unit of electric potential =W/q)
kq kq
E= − kQx( +q)
p
x 2
( − x)2 Sol 8: (B) F = -mg
(R 2 + x2 )3/2
Sol 4: (D) dF
A D if < 0 then the particle is in stable equilibrium
+q -q dx
3
2E (due to =2q) (R 2 + x2 )3/2 − (R 2 + x2 )1/2 (2x2 )
E (due to -q) ⇒ 2 <0
(R + x2 )3
2
R +X
R - + P
P
x P E -
E
The field vector is rotated by 90° clockwise
Electric field due to ring at x is Sol 10: (B) q1 is positive, (emission of field lines), q2 is
negative, (termination of field lines).
=E= ∫ dE = ∫ dEcos θ ˆi + ∫ dEsin θ ˆj q2
= =
7 number of linesabsorbed
<1
Q Q q1 10 number of linesemitted
K cos θ dq ˆ K sin θ dq ˆ
⇒E= ∫ 2 2
i+ ∫
2 2
j Electric field is strongest at some point closer to q2.
0 (x + R ) 0 (x + R )
Q
x
⇒E= ∫ (x2 + R2 )3/2 dq + 0
0
1 8 . 5 0 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
>
>
>
E = i+ 2j + 3k
y ⇒ q1 = ±3 × 10-6 C and q2 = ±1 × 10-6 C
x
A = 100 m
2
Previous Years’ Questions
Only z-component of field is responsible for flux Sol 1: (C) From conservation of mechanical energy
through plate
Decrease in kinetic energy = increase in potential
⇒ Flux= E.A = (iˆ + 2ˆj + 3k)
ˆ . (100 k̂ ) = 173.2 V-m energy
1 (Ze)(2e)
or =5MeV=5×1.6×10–13 J
Sol 12: (D) 4πε0 rmin
2Ze2
R
∴ rmin = 1
x 4πε0 5 × 1.6 × 10 –13
qenclosed = σ. Aenclosed
+Ze +2e
Aenclosed = pr2 = π(R2 – x2)
qenclosed π(R 2 − x2 ) σ rmin
∴ Flux through sphere = =
∈o ∈0
= 5.3 × 10–14 m
Sol 13: (B) q1 q2 = 5.3 × 10–12 cm
Sol 4: (C) The magnitude of electric field at a distance Sol 11: (D) According to option (d) the electric field
r from the axis is given as: due to P and S and due to Q and T add to zero. While
λ
due to U and R will be added up.
E=
2πε0r
1 Sol. 12: (C) At any point over the spherical Gaussian
i.e., E ∝ surface, net electric field is the vector sum of electric
r
fields due to +q1, –q1 and q2. Don’t confuse with the
Here, λ is the charge per unit length of the capacitor. electric flux which is zero (net) passing over the Gaussian
surface as the net charge enclosing the surface is zero.
Sol 5: (B) Electric Field lines never enter a metallic
conductor (E = 0, inside a conductor) and they fall Sol 13: (B) All the three plates will produce electric field
normally on the surface of a metallic conductor at P along negative z-axis, Hence,
(because whole surface is at same potential and lines
are perpendicular to equipotential surface) → σ 2σ σ 2σ
Ep = + + (– k̂ )= – k̂
2ε
0 2ε 0 2ε
0 ε0
Sol 6: (B) Electrostatic force, Fe = eE (for both the
∴ Correct answer is (b)
particles)
But acceleration of electron, ae = Fe/me and acceleration
Sol 14: (D) Charge will be induced in the conducting
of proton, ap = Fe/mp
sphere, but net charge on it will be zero.
1 1
S= ae t2 = ap t22 ∴ Option (d) is correct.
2 1 2
t2 ae mp Sol 15: (B) Inside the cavity, field at any point is uniform
∴ = =
t1 ap me and non-zero.
=0 → → =0
Therefore, correct option is (b).
Sol 7: (A) − ∫ E .d = ∫ dV = V (centre) – V (infinity)
=∞ =∞ Sol 16: (A) Total enclosed charge as already shown is
But V(infinity) = 0 6C 8C
=0 → →
qnet = + – 7C = – 2C
2 4
∴ − ∫ E .d corresponds to potential at centre of ring. qnet –2C
=∞
From Gauss theorem, net flux, φnet = =
ε0 ε0
1 q (9 × 109 )(1.11 × 10 –10 )
And V(centre) = . = =2 volt
4πε0 R 0.5 Sol 17: (B) (36R )
2
2
-16R 2
Sol 8: (B) Net electrostatic energy of the configuration S=(16R )
will be -Q1
–2q
Putting U = 0 we get, Q =
2+ 2
Sol 9: (C) Electric lines of force never form closed loops. Q1 = σ(4pR2) = 4psR2
Q2 = 16psR2 – Q1 = 12psR2
Sol 10: (C) Electric field is zero everywhere inside a
∴ Q3 = 36psR2 – 16psR2 = 20psR2
metal (conductor) i.e., field lines do not enter a metal.
Simultaneously these are perpendicular to a metal Q1 : Q2 : Q3 = 1 : 3 : 5
surface (equipotential surface).
1 8 . 5 2 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
4 πρg
r
1/2 R
3
or qE = (6phv)3/2 Sol 22: (D)
4 πρg
k.q.q / 2 y kq2 y
1 3
1/2 Fnet 2 Fcos θ = 2
= . = ( y << a)
∴q= (6phv)3/2 a2 + y 2
a2 + y 2 a3
E 4 πρg
F F
Substituting the values we get
q/2
7 3
q= × 216π3 y
81π × 105 4 π × 900 × 9.8
q a a q
× (1.8 × 10 –5 × 2 × 10 –3 )3
= 8.0 × 10–19 C Sol 23: (D) It originates from +Ve charge and terminates
at - Ve charge. It can not form close loop.
1 2
Sol 19: (A) Electrical force per unit area = eE
2 0
1 σ 2 σ2 JEE Advanced/Boards
= e0 =
2 ε 2ε0
0
Exercise 1
Projected area = pR2
x
σ2 Sol 1:
∴ Net electrical force = (pR2)
2ε -2q Q q
0
In equilibrium, this force should be equal to the applied
force. For equilibrium x > and Q should be positive
balancing force equations,
πσ2R 2 σ2R 2
∴F= or F ∝ k(2q)(Q) kq(Q)
2ε0 ε0 =
2
(x) (x − )2
→ →
Sol 20: (C) Electric flux, φ = E . S 2
1 1
⇒ 1 − = ⇒1- =±
or φ = ES cos q x 2 x 2
P hysi cs | 18.53
2 ±1 ⇒ θ = 15°
⇒ = ⇒x=2± 2
x 2 The hour hand should be midway of between 9 and 10
∴ Time =
9 : 30
x > ⇒ x = (2 + 2)
(1 + 2 ) from q Sol 4: )
1,1
(3,
It is in stable equilibrium w.r.t. longitudinal motion q Q
(0,0,0) (2,0,0)
Sol 2:
kQ 3iˆ + ˆj + kˆ
Eq =
(32 + 12 + 12 ) 11
E
kQ ˆi − ˆj − kˆ
r EQ =
12 + 12 + 12 3
(i) (ii) At P x-Component of field is zero
3kq −QK
⇒ (EP + EQ )x = 0 ⇒ =
( 11 ) ( 3)
3 3
3
3
⇒ Q = -3 × 10-9 C
11
y-component has zero field.
(iii) (iv)
σ
Sol 3: -12q Sol 5: Electric field due to plate =
2∈0
-q
(Non-conducting plate)
-2q
The force that is being applied on bob = Eq
Q T
Direction of electric field at center is
Eq
Eq
mg
12E 6E mg
6E
9E 3E
6E Change in gravitational potential = mg (1 – cosθ)
6E
Change in electrical potential = Eq sin q
6E 6E
6E
mg (2 sin2 θ /2) = Eq (2 sin θ /2 cos θ/2)
Eq
ER ⇒ tan θ/2 =
mg
ER σq
6E 6 ⇒ θ = 2 tan-1
≡ ≡ 0.1 2 ε0mg
6+6+6 3 6(2+ 3 )
1
tan θ =
2+ 3
tan θ = 2 - 3
1 8 . 5 4 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
+
+ + -q
+
+ + ++ +
++
+ ++
+ + + +
Q
+ ++ + + +
+++
.Q
+ + + +++ +
+ ++ +++
++ +
+
+ +
++ E=
+ + 2r
Sol 7: +Q +q
+q
-Q Initial configuration
-Q kq2 kq2
t>t Initial potential energy = ×4+ ×2
t>0 a 2a
=(4 + 2 ) kq2 /a
kQ
Electric potential at center of ring = +q
R
By energy conservation, 2a
1 kQ(Q) +q +q
mv2 =
2 R 2a
+q
2kQ2
⇒v= Final configuration
mR
Final potential energy
kq2 kq2
= ×4+ × 2 = (2 2 + 1) kq2 /a
2a 2a
work done = Uf − Ui
P hysi cs | 18.55
Sol 10: Q Q
← V Initial
Q Q
← ←
V′ V′
1
r such that the original is th
of it
8
At closest distance of approach qenclosed
Flux =
By momentum conservation V ′ = V/2 ε0
flux through one forth of one surface
By energy conservation,
1 1 q
1 1 V′ kQ2
2 = . = q (By symmetry)
mV2 = m ×2+ 4 6 ε0 24 ε0
2 2 2 r
1 1 Sol 13: R
⇒ kQ2 = mV2
r 4
4KQ2 a
⇒r=
2
mV
Q
Sol 11: +
+ Take an elemental part with thickness dr as below
+ E cos
+ a E
+ r dx
+
4
a
Eq
a=
m
Q
u2 sin2θ
⇒ Maximum horizontal distance = The electric field at the elemental part is
a
u 2 kQ
⇒ Hmax = E=
a a + r2
2
a Sol 16: y
⇒ φ = 2pkQ 1 − 2 2 1/2
(a + R ) +Q
Given -Q x
a
-Q
φ= Q x
4 ε0 +Q
+Q a
a
⇒ Q 1 − 2 =
2 1/2
Q
z
Q/2 -Q
2 ε0 (a + R ) 4 ε0
Consider electric field due to +Q charges,
a 1 R
⇒ = ⇒ 3a2 = R2 ⇒ a = We will get,
(a2 + R 2 )1/2 2 3
kQ2 x
E+ Q = ( +ˆj)
2 2
a +x a + x2
2
Sol 14:
+ 3R + + while due to negative charges,
E+q EQ-q
+
kQ2 x
R q E−Q = ( −ˆj)
2 2
q a +x 2
a +x 2
C
+6q –3q Initial electric potential energy = q.VP
A B
kQ kQq kλ (2πR)q
= q. = = = λq
R 2 + ( 3R)2 2R 2R 4 ε0
kQ
q = λq
+ 1.5q + 1.5q O
Final potential energy =
I. A B C R 2 ε0
for minimum velocity, final kinetic energy = 0
By conservation of Energy,
K.E.i + P.Ei = K.E.f + P.E.f
+0.75q +1.5q +0.75q
1
A +B C ⇒ mv2 + λq = 0 + λq
II. 2 4 ε0 2 ε0
λq
⇒v=
2 ε 0m
+0.75q
1.5 + 0.75
2
q
1.125q Sol 18: Consider the two balls of system, the only
external force is gravitational force. Initial position of
III. A +B C
h1 + h2
COM is at . The vertical distance moved by
2
∴ Charge on C = 1.125 q
P hysi cs | 18.57
1
2 Sol 20: +q
+q
COM during time t = is h = g
v 2 v
+q
+q
Final height of COM is
2
h1 + h2 − g
H= V
2 2008-Gm
If the COM is at H, and one particle is on ground then the The potential energy of the system be U = U12 + U13 +
2(HCOM ) − H1 …… U20062007
height of the other will be at height H2 =
2 −1 The K.E. of the first ball after being released for a long
2
time
⇒ H2 = h1 + h2 – g
v By energy conservation
3V Sol 21:
Similarly (a1 )y = ( −ˆj) ++
4t
>
E0 i +
T
−V ˆ +
(a2)x = (i)
t
−V' ˆ f
(a2)y = ( j)
t Friction acts in forward direction decreases angular
acceleration and increasing linear acceleration
E.q1 3v 3v ˆ
a1 = =- î - j
m 4t 4t ⇒ f = ma
π /2
2
Sol 23: -3/2q
⇒ Te = 2 × ∫ E0 λ.R
0
cos θ dθ
-
2
5
(2 is multiplied considering –ve changes also) a
π /2
= 2 × E0 λ R2 sin θ b O z=a
0
⇒ Te = 2E0 lR2
+q
⇒ f = E0 lR î
kQ(a)
dq
EA = ˆ
(i)
E0dq (a + a2 )3/2
2
kQ'(a)
EB = ( −ˆi)
(b + a2 )3/2
2
Rcos
d
E = EA + EB = 0 (given)
Q −Q'
⇒ =
Sol 22: 2 3/2
(2a ) (b + a2 )3/2
2
- ++ +
-q
---- ++ q 5
- - ++ ⇒ b2 + a2 = 2a2
-
---- + 2
---
E +
---
E + b
+ ⇒ b = 2a ⇒ =2
a
ER
E+1
E+ Sol 24: ++
++++
+
++ R ++
dw +++
+ + ++ + + vq
+++ +++ +
+ ++
k r
d
+ + dq
dEtsin + + +
++ +++ +
+ +
r
+
dEt + +++ +R/2 + dr
dEtcos ++ ++
R
The x-component of field = ∫ dE sin θ
+
∴ potential at R/2 is
π /2
k.dq k Q1
= ∫ sinθ = λ ∫ sin θ dθ k.dq
Q
kdq
R 2 R 0 V= ∫ dV = ∫ R
+ ∫ r
0 Q'
kλ π /2 kλ kq 2kq 2
= − cos θ = (1) = =
R 0 R πR πR 2 (element part is a hollow sphere of rad radius r)
R
2
R /2 R
The y-component of positive charges’ field cancels the k.ρ.4 πr 2dr kρ4 π r 2dr Q
y-component field of negative charges’ field.
= ⇒V ∫ R
+ ∫
r
= ρ
3
(4 / 3)πR
0 R /2
∴ The total electric field will be 2
R
4kQ R
Etotal = E+ + E− = ( −ˆi) 2kρ r3 2 r2
πR 2 ⇒V= × 4π + 4pρk
R 3 2 R
0
2
2k Q 9 kQ 11 kQ
⇒V= + =
R 8 8 R 8 R
P hysi cs | 18.59
2kQq −1 11
⇒V= + Exercise 2
m r 8R
Single Correct Choice Type
Sol 25:
The electric field inside the cavity will be Sol 1: (B)
kQ
E= along OO’ (proof next page)
a2
+q +q +q
e
r
--- The charge in the middle experiences force along the
line.
1
Oa 0E
P Sol 4: (A, D)
= 1
0
P
+4Q -Q
O
1
0 A B
The resultant electric field will be zero at point closer to
= OP - O'P = OO' B and outside AB (by analysing directions of field and
kq 4 magnitudes)
Field at center of cavity = where q = ρpa3
2
a 3
1 8 . 6 0 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields
⇒ x = d/3 or x = -d
Sol 10: (D) Drawing Gaussian surface won’t change
9 electric field.
⇒ x= = 3cm.
3
Field at Q is Sol 11: (C) Statement-I is true, since Qenclosed is same but
k(4Q) k(16Q) E at that site changes depending on external charge.
= - =0 But Gauss law is still valid since the flux by the external
2
(3cm) (6cm)2
change is zero.
Sol 6: (A, C) Q+ -
+ - Sol 12: (C) Statement-I is true by Gauss law.
t -
+
- Statement-II is false since distance between the point
+
+ - charge and the site decreases which changes electric
+ - field.
+ -
+ -
Previous Years’ Questions
qenclosed
flux = E (2πr 2 ) = = 0 =0
ε0 ε0 Sol 1: (A) At r = R. From Gauss’s law
∴E=0 qnet Ze
E (4pR2) = =
Also for any point between plates ε0 ε0
+ -
1 Ze
+ - or E =
+ - 4πε0 R 2
+ -
O
+ E
- E is independent of a.
+ -
+ -
+ -
P hysi cs | 18.61
QA QB 1 Q
or = V=
RA RB 4 πε0 R
Since, RA > RB ∴ QA > QB P2 P1
1
σR
Potential is also equal to, V = , VA = VB 2R 2
ε0
σA RA
∴ σARA = σBRB or = or σA < σB
σB RB
Sol 12: (C, D) In triangle PC1 C2
σ
Electric field on surface, E = or E ∝ s
ε0 r2= d + r1
Since σA < σB ∴ EA < EB
The electrostatic field at point P is
qin q
Sol 9: (A, C, D) φout = = 4 4
ε0 ε0 K ρ π R13 r2 K ρ π R32 ( − r1 )
By symmetry
=E 3 + 3
3 3
R1 R2
Sol 10: (1) + (2) = Complete cylinder 4
E=K ρ π ( r2 − r1 )
E1 + E2 =
E 3
ρ
ρ × πR 2 ρR E= d
=E = 3 ε0
2πε0 (2R) 4ε0
3 r2 r1 -
4π R 1 ρR P
E2 = ρ × × = C2
( )
C1
3 2
4 π ε0 4R 2 24 × 4 ε0 R1 R2
ρR 1 ρ R 23 23 ρ R
E1 =E − E2 ⇒ 1 − = = d
4 ε0 24 4 ε0 4 × 6 16 ε0 × 6
Q λ σ
1 Sol 13: (C) = =
2
4 π ε0r0 2 π ε0 r0 2 ε0
2 r Q r λ r σ
E1 0
= = , E2 0 = ,E3 0
2 π ε0r0 2 π ε0r0 2 2 ε0
2
r r
∴ E1 0 =
2E2 0
2 2
Sol 11: (B, D)
1 ρ1 ( 4 / 3) π R
3
ρ R Sol 14: (C)
At point P1 , = 2
4 π ε0 4R 2 3 ε0 Q
For point outside dielectric sphere E =
4 π ε0 r 2
ρ1 R ρ2 R r
= For point inside dielectric sphere E = Es
12 3 R
ρ1 Exact Ratio E1 : E2 : E3 = 2 : 4 : 1
=4
ρ2
ρ1 ( 4 / 3) πR3 ρ2 ( 4 / 3) π 8R3
At point P2 , + 0
= Sol 15: (A)
( 2R ) (5R )
2 2
P: By Q1 and Q4, Q3 and Q2 F is in +y
ρ1 32
∴ =
−
ρ2 25 Q: By Q1 and Q4, Q2 and Q3 F is in + ve x.
R: By Q1 and Q4, F is in + ve y
P hysi cs | 18.63
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
(-2a, 0) (-a, 0) (+a, 0) (-2a, 0)
λq λq
F=
2 π ε0 ( r + x )
ˆi + = ( )
2 π ε0 ( r − x )
−ˆi λq
( )
x −ˆi
π ε0 r 2
π r 2 ε0 m
T= 2 π
λq
ρ
Sol 17: (D) E = CC
3 ε0 1 2
C1 ⇒ Centre of sphere and C2 ⇒ centre of cavity.
2017-18 100 &
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PHYSICS
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SECOND
EDITION
Exhaustive Theory
(Now Revised)
Formula Sheet
9000+ Problems
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2. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
An electric field at any point can be defined in two different ways:
(i) by the field strength E , and
(ii) by the electric potential V at the point under consideration.
Both E and V are functions of position and there is a fixed relationship between these two. Of these the field
strength E is a vector quantity while the electric potential V is a scalar quantity. The electric potential at any point
in an electric field is defined as the potential energy per unit charge, and similarly, the field strength is defined as
the force per unit charge. Thus,
U
V= or U = q0 V
q0
The SI unit of potential is volt (V) which is equal to joule per coulomb. So,
1V 1volt
= = 1J=/ C 1 joule / coulomb
According to the definition of potential energy, the work done by the electrostatic force in displacing a test charge
q0 from point a to point b in an electric field is defined as the negative of change in potential energy between them,
or ∆U =−Wa−b ∴ Ub − Ua = −Wa−b
Dividing this equation by qο ,
Ub Ua W W U
− − a−b or Va − Vb =a−b since V =
=
qο qο qο qο qο
Thus, the work done per unit charge by the electric force when a charge body moves from point a to point b is equal
to the potential at point a minus the potential at point b. We sometimes abbreviate this difference as Vab
= Va − Vb .
1 9 . 2 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
Another way to interpret the potential difference Vab is that it is , equal to the work that must be done by an external
force to move a unit positive charge from point b to point a against the electric force. Thus,
( Wb−a )externalforce
Va − Vb =
qο
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
1 1 q dq
In the equation V =
4 πεο
∑ ri
4 πε ∫ r
or V =
, if the whole charge is at equal distance ro from the
i i ο
1 qnet
point where V is to be evaluated, then we can write, V = . , where qnet is the algebraic sum of
4 πεο rο
all the charges of which the system is made.
Vaibhav Gupta (JEE 2009 AIR 54)
Sol: The potential due to the small length element dx of the rod at a point p ’
dq 1
at distance r apart is given by=
dV × where dq is the charge on dx. y
4 πεo r r’
∂V
The electric field due to the rod is given by E = − .
∂r x’
x
Consider a differential element of length dx’ which carries a charge dq = λdx' O dx’
. As shown in Fig.19.1, the source element is located at (x’, 0), while the field L
point P is located on the y-axis at (0,y).
Figure 19.1
(x )
1/2
'2 2
The distance from dx’ to P =
is r +y .
1 dq 1 λdx'
Its contribution to the potential is given=
by dV =
4 πεο r 4 πεο
(x )
1/2
'2
+ y2
Taking V to be zero at infinity, the total potential due to the entire rod is
/2 V(y)/VO
λ /2 dx' λ
=V ∫− /2 = ln x'+ x' 2 + y 2
4 πεο '2
x +y 2 4 πε ο − /2 4
3
( / 2) + ( / 2) + y
2 2
λ
= ln 2
4 πεο
(
− / 2) + ( / 2) + y2
2
1
dx'
∫ = In x' + x' 2 + y 2 Figure 19.2
'2
x +y 2
A plot of V ( y ) / Vο , where Vο = λ / 4 πεο , as a function of y / is shown in Fig. 19.2. (Electric potential along the axis
that passes through the midpoint of a non-conducting rod.)
P hysi cs | 19.3
λ 2 λ 2 λ
≈ ln = ln = ln
4 πεο 2y 2 / 2 4 πεο y 2 2πεο y
∂V λ /2
The corresponding electric field can be obtained as Ey =
− =
∂y 2πεο y
( / 2)
2
+ y2
Where we have substituted Q = 2πRλ for the total charge on the ring. In the limit z R,
1 Q
The potential approaches its “point-charge” limit: V≈
4 πεο z
∂V ∂ 1 Q 1 Qz
The z-component of the electric field may be obtained as E2 =
− −
= =
∂z 4 πεο 2
∂z 4
( )
2 πε 3/2
R +z ο R 2 + z2
lying in the xy-plane. What is the electric potential at a distance z from the P
central axis? (JEE ADVANCED)
dq
r z
Sol: The disc can be assumed to be composed of many co-centric rings. Thus
dq
the potential due to small ring is dV = where r is the distance from the R
r’
y
4 πεor dr’
surface of ring. As the point lie on the z axis the field due to ring is given by
∂V
EZ = − . x
∂z Figure 19.4
1 9 . 4 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
Consider a small differential circular ring element of radius r’ and width dr’. The charge on the ring is
dq' =σdA' =σ ( 2πr 'dr ' ) . The field at point P located along the z-axis a distance z from the plane of the disk is to
(r )
1/2
'2
be calculated. From the Fig. 19.4, we also see that the distance from a point on the ring to P is=r + z2 .
By summing over all the rings that make up the disk, we have
R
σ R 2πr 'dr ' σ '2 2 σ 2
=V ∫ο = r + z= R + z2 − z
4 πεο '2 2 2ε
ο 2ε
r +z ο ο
1/2
2 2
R2 R2
In the limit z R , R +Z = z 1 + = z 1 + + .... ,
z 2 2z 2
And the potential simplifies to the point-charge limit:
V≈
σ R2
. =
1 σ πR
=
2
( )
1 Q
2εο 2 z 4 πεο z 4 πεο z
As expected, at large distance, the potential due to a non-conducting charged disk is the same as that of a point
charge Q. A comparison of the electric potentials of the disk and a point charge is shown in Fig. 19.5.
V/VO
6
5
4
3 Point charge
2 Disk
1
Z/R’
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Figure 19.5
This is the amount of work that needs to be done to bring a unit charge from infinity and place it at the center of
the disk.
The corresponding electric field at P can be obtained as:
∂V σ z z
Ez =
− = −
∂Z 2εο z R 2 + z2
In the limit R z, the above equation becomes E2 =
σ / 2εο , which is the electric field for an infinitely large non-
conducting sheet.
Illustration 4: Consider a metallic spherical shell of radius ‘a’ and charge Q, as shown in Fig. 19.6.
(a) Find the electric potential everywhere.
(b) Calculate the potential energy of the system. (JEE MAIN)
P hysi cs | 19.5
Sol: The sphere is symmetrical body. Thus the potential at the surface is constant while ++++++
the potential changes outside of the sphere at a distance a < r < ∞ . ++ +
+ +
Q + E=0 +
r̂, r > a + +
E = 4 πεοr 2 + +
+ +
0, r<a + +
+ +
B
++ +
The electric potential may be calculated by V − V =− ∫ E.ds ++ ++
B A A ++++
r Q 1 Q Q Figure 19.6
For r>a, we have V (r ) − V ( ∞ ) =− ∫ dr ' = =k e
∞
4 πεοr '2 4 πεο r r
We have chosen V ( ∞ ) =0 as our reference point. On the other hand, for r<a, V
the potential becomes KeQ
KeQ r
a r
V (r ) − V ( ∞ ) =− ∫ drE (r > a) − ∫ drE(r < a)
a
∞ a
a Q 1 Q Q r
− ∫ dr
= = ke
= a
∞
4 πεοr 2 4 πεο a a
A plot of the electric potential is shown in Fig. 19.7. Note that potential V is Figure 19.7
constant inside a conductor.
Illustration 5: An insulated solid sphere of radius a has a uniform charge density ρ . Compute the electric potential
everywhere. (JEE MAIN)
Sol:
Q
r̂, r > a a
4 πε r 2
E= ο
P2
Qr r̂, r < a
4 πε r 3 r
ο
P1
For r > a,
Figure 19.8
r Q 1 Q Q
V1 (r ) − V ( ∞ ) =− ∫ dr ' = =k e
∞
4 πεοr '2 4 πεο r r
On the other hand, the electric potential at P2 inside the sphere is given by V
a r a Q r Qr 3keQ
V2 (r ) − V ( ∞ ) =− ∫ drE (r > a) − ∫ E (r < a) =− ∫ dr − ∫ dr ' r' 2a
∞ a ∞ 2 a 3
4 πεοr 4 πεο a
ke Q
1 Q r 2 a
=
1 Q
−
1 Q1 2
4 πεο a 4 πεο a 2
3
2
r − a= (
8πεο a
)
3 − 2
a
a r
Q r2 Figure 19.9
= ke 3 −
2a a2
A plot of electric potential as a function of r is given in Fig. 19.9.
1 9 . 6 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex =
− ,E =
− ,E =
−
∂x y ∂y z ∂z
3. EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
The equipotential surfaces in an electric field have the same basic idea as topographic maps used by civil engineers
or mountain climbers. On a topographic map, contour lines are drawn passing through the points having the
same elevation. The potential energy of a mass m does not change along a contour line as the elevation is same
everywhere.
By analogy to contour lines on a topographic map, an equipotential surface is a three dimensional surface on which
the electric potential V is the same at every point on it. An equipotential surface has the following characteristics.
(a) Potential difference between any two points in an equipotential surface is zero.
(b) If a test charge q0 is moved from one point to the other on such a surface, the electric potential energy q0V
remains constant.
(c) No work is done by the electric force when the test charge is moved along this surface.
(d) Two equipotential surfaces can never intersect each other because otherwise the point of intersection will
have two potentials which is of course not acceptable.
(e) As the work done by electric force is zero when a test charge is moved along the equipotential surface, it
follows that E must be perpendicular to the surface at every point so that the electric force qο E will always
be perpendicular to the displacement of a charge moving on the surface, causing the work done to be 0.
Thus, field lines and equipotential surfaces are always mutually perpendicular. Some equipotential surfaces
are shown in Fig. 19.10.
The equipotential surfaces are a family of concentric spheres for a point charge or a sphere of charge and are a
family of concentric cylinders for a line of charge or cylinder of charge. For a special case of a uniform field, where
the field lines are straight, parallel and equally spaced the equipotential are parallel planes perpendicular to the
field lines.
P hysi cs | 19.7
10V 10V
20V 20V
30V 30V
40V 40V
E
+ -
Figure 19.10
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
While drawing the equipotential surfaces we should keep in mind the two main points.
• These are perpendicular to field lines at all places.
• Field lines always flow from higher potential to lower potential.
Anurag Saraf (JEE 2011 AIR 226)
Illustration 6: Suppose the electric potential due to a certain charge distribution can be written in Cartesian
Coordinates as V ( x,=
y, z ) Ax2 y 2 + Bxyz where A,B and C are constants. What is the associated electric field?
(JEE MAIN)
∂V
Sol: The field is given by Er = − where r is the respective Cartesian co-ordinate.
∂r
∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − = −2Axy 2 − Byz ; Ey = − =−2Ax2 y − Bxz ; Ez = − = −Bxy
∂x ∂y ∂z
Therefore, the electric field is E = ( ) ( )
−2Axy 2 − Byz ˆi − 2Ax2 y + Bxz ˆj − Bxykˆ
Here Wa→b is the work done in displacing the particle from a to b by the conservative force (here electrostatic)
not by us. Moreover we can see from Eq. (i) that if Wa→b is positive, the change in potential energy ∆U is negative
and the potential energy decreases. So, whenever the work done by a conservative force is positive, the potential
energy of the system decreases and vice-versa. That’s what happens when a particle is thrown upwards, the work
done by gravity is negative, and the potential energy increases.
1 9 . 8 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
The work W2 done by an agent in bringing the second charge q2 from infinity to P q1
is then W2 = q2 V1 . (No work is required to set up the first charge and W1 = 0). Since
V1 q1 / 4 πε0r12 , where q1 and r12 is the distance measured from q1 to P, we have
= Figure 19.11
1 q1q2
U=
12 W
=2
4 πε0 r12
If q1 and q2 have the same sign, positive work must be done to overcome P
the electrostatic repulsion and the potential energy of the system is
positive, U12 > 0. On the other hand, if the signs are opposite, then r23
U12 < 0 due to the attractive force between the charges. To add a q2
r12
third charge q 3 to the system, the work required is
q3 q1 q2
W3= q3 ( V1 + V2 )=
q2
+
4 πεο r13 r23
r13
The potential energy of this configuration is then q1
The equation shows that the total potential energy is simply the sum of the contributions from distinct pairs.
1 N N qiq j
Generalizing to a system of N charges, we have U = ∑∑
4 πεο =i 1=j 1 rij
j >i
Where the constraint j>i is placed to avoid double counting each pair. Alternatively, one may count each pair twice
and divide the result by 2. This leads to
1 N N qiq j 1 N 1 N q j 1 N
=U = ∑∑
8πεο =i 1=j 1 rij
∑ q= ∑ ∑ q V (r )i
2=i 1 i 4 πεο =j 1 rij 2=i 1 i
j≠i j≠i
Where V (ri ) , the quantity in the parenthesis is the potential at ri (location of qi) due to all the other charges.
r
over the contributions from individual differential elements of charge dq.
Consider the charge distribution shown in Fig. 19.13. Taking infinity as our reference point with
1 dq r
zero potential, the electric potential at P due to dq is dV =
4 πεο r
P
1 dq
Summing over contributions from all differential elements, we have V = ∫ E
4 πεο r
Figure 19.13
P hysi cs | 19.9
Illustration 7: Find the potential due to a uniformly charged sphere of radius R and charge
per unit volume ρ at different points in space. (JEE MAIN)
R
q ρR3
Sol: The field due to uniformly charged solid sphere
= is E = . The potential
4 πεor 2 3εor 2
inside the sphere is always constant while outside sphere at a distance R < r < ∞ is given
r r Figure 19.14
by V1 =
R ∫R Edl
For a point outside the sphere, we can integrate the electric field outside to obtain an expression for the electric
field outside.
r
3
r ρR ρR 3
∫ V= − ∫ E.dl =
∞
−∫
∞
3εο x2
dx =
3εοr
Vin r r ρx (
ρ R2 − r2 ) ;V = ρR 2 (
ρ 3R 2 − r 2)
∫VR
dV − ∫ E.dl =
=
R
−∫
R 3ε
dx =
6ε ο R
3εο
⇒ Vr =
6ε ο
.
r
ο -R R
This potential is plotted in Fig. 19.15. Figure 19.15
Illustration 8: A non-conducting disc of radius a and uniform positive surface charge density σ is placed on the
ground with its axis vertical. A particle of mass m and positive charge q is dropped, along the axis of the disc from
a height H with zero initial velocity. The particle has q / m =ε
4 οg / σ
(a) Find the value of H if the particle just reaches the disc.
(b) Sketch the potential energy of the particle as a function of its height and find its equilibrium position.
(JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: It is known that, for non conducting disc the potential at a point situated at height H above P qm
σ 2
the disc is given by=
Vp a + H2 − H where a is the radius of the disc. When the charge of
2εο H
the particle of mass m falls along the axis of the disc, the change in the gravitational portential
energy is equal to gain in its electric potential energy. As we required minimum H, the kinetic a O
energy, will be zero.
σ 2 Figure 19.16
As we have derived in the theory,=
Vp a + H2 − H
2εο
σa
Potential at centre, (O) will be Vο = (H=0)
2εο
(a) Particle is released from P and it just reaches point O. Therefore, from observation of mechanical energy
0 because K=
Decrease in gravitational potential energy = increase in electrostatic potential energy ( ∆KE = i K=
f 0)
q σ 2 2
or gH
∴ mgH = q Vο − Vρ = a − a + H + H … (i)
m 2εο
1 9 . 1 0 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
q 4εο g qσ
= ∴ 2g
=
m σ 2εοm
Substituting in Eq. (i), we get
H H
= 2g a + H − a2 + H2 or = ( a + H) − a2 + H2 or
gH a2 + H2 =a +
2 2
H2 3 4
or a2 + H2 = a2 +
4
+ aH or H2 = aH or H = a and H = 0 ∴ H =
4 3
( 4 / 3) a
(b) Potential energy of the particle at height H = Electrostatic potential energy + gravitational potential energy
U qV + mgH
=
Here V=potential at height H
σq 2
=U a + H2 − H + mgH … (ii)
2εο
−dU
At equilibrium position,
= F = 0
dH
Differentiating E.q. (ii) w.r.t.H
σq 1 1 σq
or mg + ( 2H) − 1 =0 = 2mg
2εο 2 a2 + H2 2εο
H 2H
∴ mg + 2mg − 1 =0 or 1 + −2 =0
a2 + H2 a2 + H2
2H H2 1 a
= 1 or = or 3H2 = a2 or H =
2
a +H 2 2
a +H 2 4 3
U
From Eq. (ii), we can see that,
a
U = 2mga at H = 0 and
= U U=
min 3mga at H = 2mga
3
Therefore, U-H graph will be as shown. 3mga
a
Note that at H = , U is minimum.
3 O aA 3 H
a
Therefore, H = is stable equilibrium position. Figure 19.17
3
5. ELECTRIC DIPOLE
An electric dipole is a system of equal and opposite charges separated
by a fixed distance. Every electric dipole is
characterized by its electric dipole moment which is a vector P directed from the negative to the positive charge.
The magnitude of dipole moment is, P=(2a)q; Here, 2a is the distance between the two charges.
∂V q y − a y + a
E= = −
y
∂y 4 πεο 2 3/2 3/2
2 x2 + y + a + z2
x + ( y − a) + z ( )
2 2
∂V q z x
Ez
= = −
∂z 4 πεο 2 2
3/2
2
3/2
x + ( y − a) + z x + ( y + a) + z
2 2 2
Special Cases
(i) On the axis of the dipole (say, along y-axis) X=0, z=0
q 1 1 2aq
∴V
= =
−
4 πεο y − a y + a 4 πεο y 2 − a2 ( )
p
or V= (as 2aq = p) i.e., at a distance r from the Centre of the dipole(y=r)
4 πεο y 2 − a2( )
p p
V≈ or Vaxis = (for r a )
( 2
4 πεο r − a 2
) 4 πεοr 2
V is positive when the point under consideration is towards positive charge and negative if it is towards negative charge.
Moreover the components of electric field are as under,
Ex 0,E
= = z 0 (as x = 0, z = 0)
q 1 1 4ayq 1 2py
and Ey
= − = or Ey =
4 πεο y − a
( ) ( y + a) 4πεο y 2 − a2 ( ) 4 πεο
(y )
2 2 2 2
2
− a2
Note that Ey is along positive y-direction or parallel to P . Further, at a distance r from the centre of the dipole (y=r).
1 2pr 1 2p
Ey = or Eaxis ≈ . for r a
4 πεο
(r ) 4 πεο r3
2
2
− a2
1 q q
=∴V =
− 0 or V⊥ bi sector = 0
4 πεο x2 + a2 x2 + a2
1 P 1 P
E= or E⊥ bisector ≈ . (for r a )
4 πεο
(r ) 4 πεο r3
3/2
2
+ a2
Thus, net force on a dipole in uniform electric field is zero. Figure 19.20
While in non-uniform electric field it may or may not be zero.
Thus, the magnitude of torque= is τ PEsin θ . The direction of torque is perpendicular to the plane of
paper inwards.
Further this torque is zero at θ =0 or θ =180 , i.e., when the dipole is parallel or antiparallel to E and maximum
ο ο
at θ =90ο .
Now, at angle θ = 90°, the electric potential energy of the dipole may be assumed to be zero as net work done by
the electric forces in bringing the dipole from infinity to this position will be zero.
Integrating, =
dU PEsin θdθ
= PE ( cos θ1 − cos θ2 ) and work done by electric forces, Welectric force =− Wext.force =PE ( cos θ2 − cos θ1 )
Or Wext.forces
Illustration 9: Figure 19.22 is a graph of Ex, the x component of the electric field, EX(V/m)
versus position along the x axis. Find and graph V(x). Assume V = 0; V at x = 0m. 2000
(JEE MAIN)
1000 V=-Area
Sol: The potential V(x) is given by V=E•dx=Area of the shaded region of the graph.
The potential difference is the negative of the area under the curve. 0 x(m)
0 1 x
Ex is positive throughout this region of space, meaning that E points in the positive
x direction. Figure 19.22
If we integrate from x-0, then Vi = V(x − 0) − 0 . The potential for x>0 is the negative of the triangular area under the
Ex curve. We can see that Ex = 1000xV / m , where x is in meters(m). Thus,
Vt= V ( x )= 0 − (Area under the Ex curve) v(v)
x
1 1
− ( x )(1000x ) =
1 2
× base × height = −500x2 V.
2 2
Figure 19.23 shows that the electric potential in this region of space is parabolic, 1000
decreasing from 0 V at x=0 m to -2000V at x=2m. v(x) = -500x V
2
2000
The electric field points in the direction in which V is decreasing. We’ll soon see that
as this is a general rule.
Figure 19.23
Illustration 10: The electric potential at any point on the central axis of a uniformly charged disk is given by
σ 2 2
= V z + R − z .
2εο
Starting with this expression, derive an expression for the electric field at any point on the axis of the disk.
(JEE MAIN)
∂V
Sol: As the point lie on the z axis the field due to ring is given by EZ = − .
∂z
Conceptualize/Classify: We want the electric field E as a function of distance z along the axis of the disk. For
any value of z, the direction of E must be along that axis because the disk has circular symmetry about that axis.
Thus, we want the component Ez of E in the direction of z. This component is the negative of the rate at which the
electric potential changes with distance z.
Compute: Thus, from the previous equations, we can write
∂V σ d 2 σ z
Ez =
− =
− 2
z +R =− z ; 1 − .
∂z 2εο dz
2εο
z + R2
2
1 9 . 1 4 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
6. CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a combination of two conductors placed close to each other. It is used to store energy electrostatically
in an electric field. The ‘non-conducting’ dielectric acts to increase the capacitor’s charge capacity. Capacitors are
widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not
dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.
The physics of capacitors can be utilized to any scenario involving electric fields. For example, Earth’s atmospheric
electric field is analyzed by meterologists as being produced by a huge spherical capacitor that partially discharges
via lightning. The charge that is collected as they slide along snow can be modeled as being stored in a capacitor
that frequently discharges as sparks.
7. CAPACITANCE
There are 2 conductors in a capacitor. One conductor has positive charge (positive plate)
and the other has an equal and opposite negative charge (negative plate). The charge
on the positive plate is called the charge on the capacitor and the potential difference
between the plates is called the potential of the capacitor. For a given capacitor, the
charge Q on the capacitor is proportional to the potential difference V between the Figure 19.24
plates Thus, Q∝V or, Q=CV.
The proportionality constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor. It depends on the shape, size and
geometrical placing of the conductors and the medium between them.
The SI unit of capacitance is coulomb per volt which is written as Farad. The symbol F is used for it.
Illustration 12: A Capacitor gets a charge of 60µC when it is connected to a battery of emf 12V. Calculate the
capacitance of the capacitor. (JEE MAIN)
Q
Sol: The capacitance is given by C =
V
The potential difference between the plates is the same as the emf of the battery which is 12V.
Q 60µC
Thus, the capacitance is C = = = 5µF.
V 12V
8. CALCULATING CAPACITANCE
To calcutate the capacitance of a capacitor once we know its geometry:-
(a) Assume a charges q and –q on the plates ;
(b) Calculate the electric field E between the plates in terms of this charge, using Gauss’ law;
(c) Knowing E , calculate the potential difference V between the plates.
(d) Calculate C.
9. TYPES OF CAPACITORS
Q
The magnitude of charge density on each of these surfaces is given by σ =
A
B
Let us draw a small area A parallel to the plates and in between them, V+ A’ +Q
draw a cylinder with A as a cross-section and terminate it by another + + + + + + + +
symmetrically situated area A’ inside the positive plate. The flux through d A
A’ and through the curved part inside the plate is zero as the electric E
- - - - - - - -
field is zero inside a conductor. The flux through the curved part outside V- A -Q
the plates is also zero as the direction of the field E is parallel to this
surface. Figure 19.26
Q
The flux through A is φ = E. ∆ A = E∆A . The only charge inside the Gaussian surface is ∆Q = σ∆A = ∆A.
A
Q Q
From Gauss’s law, ∫ E.dS
= Qin / ε0 or, E∆A= ∆A ; or, E = .
ε0 A ε0 A
B
The potential difference between the plates is V = V+ − V− =− ∫ E.dr.
A
B
Qd
E.dr = ∫ E dr =
−Edr and V = Ed =
ε0 A
A
Q Qε0 A ε0 A
The capacitance of the parallel-plate capacitor is =
C = = .
V Qd d
Illustration 13: Calculate the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor having 20cm x 20cm square plates separated
by a distance of 1.0mm. (JEE MAIN)
ε0 A
Sol: The capacitance is given by C = .
d
ε A 8.85 × 10−12 Fm−1 × 400 × 10−4 m2
The capacitance is C =0 = 3.54 × 10−10 F =
= 350pF.
d 1 × 10−3 m
To calculate the electric field at the point P, at a distance r, draw a coaxial cylinder
Q
of length x through the point. A Gaussian surface is made by the cylinder and its
two cross sections. The flux through the cross sections is zero as the electric field
is radial wherever it exists and hence is parallel to the cross sections. -Q
The flux through the curved part is φ= E∫ dS= E2πrx = ⇒ φ ∫= E .dS ∫ EdS . Figure 19.27
Q Q Q
The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is =
Qin x. , E2=
πrx x / ε0 or,
= E
l l 2 πε 0rl
B R1
Q Q R
The potential difference between the cylinders is V = − ∫ E.dr =
V+ − V− = − ∫ dr = ln 2 .
A R2
2πε0rl 2πε0l R1
Q 2πε0l
The capacitance is =
C =
V ln R / R
2 ( 1
)
1 9 . 1 6 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
ab
C= 4 πε0 (Spherical capacitor).
b−a
Isolated Sphere
We can assign a capacitance to a single isolated spherical conductor of radius R by assuming that the “missing
a
plate” is a conducting sphere of infinite radius. C= 4 πε0 .
1−a/b
If we then let b ∞ and substitute R for a, we find C= 4 πε0R (isolated sphere)
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Illustration 14: Three identical metallic plates are kept parallel to one another at a separation of a and b. The outer
plates are connected by a thin conducting wire and a charge Q is placed on the central plate. Find final charges on
all the six surfaces. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: The charge on any plate is computed using q = CV where C is the capacitance 1 2 3 4 5 6
of the plate and V is the potential difference applied on it. The chrge induced in
plates A and C are such that total q(A) + q(C) =0. Plates A and C are at the same
potential.
Let the charge distribution in all the six faces be as shown in Fig. 19.28. While a b
distributing the charge on different faces, we have used the fact that opposite faces
have equal and opposite charges on them.
Figure 19.28
Net charge on plates A and C is zero.
0 Or q2 + q3 =
Hence, q2 − q1 + q3 + q1 − Q = Q ….. (i)
(Q-q1)
q2 -q2 -q1 q3
Further A anc C at same potentials. Hence, VB − VA = VB − VC or E1a = E2b
(q-Q1)
q1 Q − q1 Qb
.a = .b (A= Area of plates); q1a = ( Q − q1 ) b ∴ q1 = ….. (ii)
Aε0 Aε0 a+b
E1
Electric field inside any conducting plate (say inside C) is zero. Therefore, E2
q2 q1 q1 Q − q1 q1 − Q q3 a b
− + + + − 0
=
2Aε0 2Aε0 2Aε0 2Aε0 2Aε0 2Aε0
Figure 19.29
P hysi cs | 19.17
Qb Q
Solving these three equations, we get q=
1 , q=
2 q=
3
a+b 2
V 1 1 1 1 1 1
In series then = ; ∴ = + + + ..... +
Q C C C1 C2 C3 Cn
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The value of C is smaller than the smallest of the values of the capacitors which are connected in series.
B Rajiv Reddy (JEE 2012 AIR 111)
Illustration 15: Three capacitors each of capacitance 9pF are connected in series.
(a) What is the total capacitance of the combination?
(b) What is the potential difference across each capacitor if the combination is connected to a 120V supply?
(JEE MAIN)
−1
1 1 1
Sol: The equivalent capacitance in series combination is given by Ceq =
C
+ + .
1 C2 C3
q
The potential difference applied across each capacitor is given by V = where C is the capacitance of the capacitor.
C
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) Here, = + + = + + = 3x
Ceq C1 C2 C3 C C C C
1 1 1 −12
i.e. = 3x = =
or Ceq 3x10
= F 3pF.
Ceq 9x10 −12 3x10 −12
q q q q q
(b) Here V1 + V2 + V3 =
120 i.e. + += 120 ∴C
= or
= V
C1 C2 C3 V C
3q 3xq
i.e. = 120 i.e. = 120 or q = 360x10−12 F
C 9x10 −12
q 360x10−12
∴ P.D. across a capacitor= = = 40V
C 9x10−12
Short cut
120
Since three equal capacitors are across 120V, so p.d. across each capacitor
= = 40V
3
10 F 20 F
Illustration 16: Calculate the charge on each capacitor shown in Fig. 19.31. (JEE MAIN)
C1C2
Sol: The equivalent capccitance is given by C =
C1 + C2
The two capacitors are joined in series. Their equivalent capacitance
1
Is given by =
1
+
1
or, =
C
C1C2
=
(10µF )( 20µF=) 20
µF.
30 V
Figure 19.31
C C1 C2 C1 + C2 30µF 3
The 10µF and 20µF capacitors are connected in parallel. Their equivalent capacitance is 10µF +20µF = 30µF.
We can replace the 10µF and the 20µF capacitors by a single capacitor of capacitance 30µF between P and Q.
This is connected in series with the given 30µF capacitor. The equivalent capacitance C of this combination is given
1 1 1
by = + or,C = 15µF .
C 30µF 30µF
q2
This work is stored as potential energy U in the capacitor, so that we can also write this as U = (Potential energy).
2C
•• The potential energy of a charged capacitor may be viewed as being stored in the electrc field between its
plates.
Illustration 18: A parallel plate air capacitor is made using two plates
+ - + -
0.2 m square, spaced 1 cm apart. It is connected to a 50V battery.
(JEE ADVANCED)
+ - + -
(a) What is the capacitance? E E
(b) What is the charge on each plate? + - + -
d1 d2
(c) What is the energy stored in the capacitor?
(d) What is the electric field between the plates? Figure 19.33
(e) If the battery is disconnected and then the plates are pulled apart to a separation of 2cm, what are the
answers to the above parts?
Sol: The capacitance, charge on capacitor, energy stored in capacitor, the electric field between plates of capacitor,
εo A 1 2 V
are given=by C = ; Q CV;
= U CV and = E respectively.
d 2 d
ε0 A 8.85X10−12 X0.2X0.2
(a) =
C0 = = ; C0 3.54X10−5 µF
d0 0.01
(b) Q=
0 C0 V
=0 (3.54X10 −5 X50)µ=
C 1.77X10 −3 µC
1
(c) U0
= = C V 2 1 / 2(3.54X10−11 )(50)2 ; U0 = 4.42X10−8 J.
2 0 0
V0 50
(d) E=
0 = = 5000V / m.
d0 0.01
1 9 . 2 0 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
(e) If the battery is disconnected, the charge on the capacitor plates remain constant while the potential difference
between plates can change.
Aε0 Q Q0
C
= = : 1.77X10−5 µF ; =
Q Q= 1.77X10 −3 µC ; V
= = = 2V= 100Volts. ;
2d0 0
C C0 / 2 0
2
1 Q2 1 Q0 2V0
U
= = = 2U = 8.84X10−8 J , =
E = E= 5000V / m.
2 C 2 ( C0 / 2 ) 0
2d0 0
Work has to be against the attraction of plates when they are separated. This gets stored in the energy of the
capacitor.
Illustration 19: Find the energy stored in a capacitor of capacitance 100 µF when it is charged to a potential
difference of 20V. (JEE MAIN)
1 2
Sol: The energy stored in the capacitor is given by U = CV .
2
1 1
The energy stored in the capacitor is U =CV 2 =(100µF )( 20V ) =
2
0.02J
2 2
C C
Illustration 20: Prove that in charging a capacitor half of the + -
S S
energy supplied by the battery is dissipated in the form of q
heat. (JEE ADVANCED)
V
Sol: When the swich S is closed, q=CV charge is stored in the
V +
capacitor. Charge transferred from the battery is also q. Hence, q
Figure 19.34
energy supplied by the battery = qV = (CV)(V) = CV 2 Half, of
1 1
its Energy, i.e., CV 2 is stored in the capacitor and the remaining 50% or CV 2 is dissipated as heat.
2 2
13. DIELECTRICS
If the medium between the plates of a capacitor is filled with an insulating substance (dielectric), the electric field
due to the charges plates induces a net dipole moment in
the dielectric. This effect called polarization, gives rise to + -
+ - +- + -
a field in the opposite direction. Due to this, the potential +
+
-
-
+ -
+- + -
difference between the plates is reduced. Consequently, the +
+
-
-
+ -
+- + -
capacitance C increases from its value C0 when there is no + - +- + -
+ - + -
medium (vacuum). The dielectric constant K is defined by + - +- + -
+ - + -
Cdielectric + - +- + -
C + -
the relation
= K = + -
+ -
+- + -
C vacuum C0 + -
(a) (b)
Where C vacuum = capacity of a capacitor when there is Electric field lines with The induced charges on
vacuum between the plates. Thus, the dielectric constant of vacuum between the the faces of the dielectric
a substance is the factor by which the capacitance increases plates reduce the electric field
from its vacuum value, when dielectric is inserted fully Figure 19.36
between the plates.
(b) Nonpolar moments: Even nonpolar molecules acquire dipole moments by induction when placed in an
external electric field. This occurs because the external field tends to “stretch” the molecules, slightly separating
the centres of negative and positive charge.
1 9 . 2 2 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
(a) (b)
Figure 19.37
Molecules with a permanent electric dipole An electric field is applied producing partial
moment, showing their random orientation in alignment of the dipoles. Thermal agitation
the absence of an external electric field. prevents complete alignment
+ - + -
+ -+ -+ -+ -+ - + + -
+ - + -
+ - + -
-+ -+ -+ -+ E0 E +
+ - + -
E0=0 + - + -
E0
+ -+ -+ -+ -+ - + E0 + -
+ - + -
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 19.38
(i) A nonpolar dielectric slab. The circles represent the electrically neutral atoms within the slab.
(ii) An electric field is applied via charged capacitor plates; the field slightly stretches the atoms, separating the
centres of positive and negative charge.
(iii) The separation produces surface charges on the slab faces. These charges set up a field E ’, which opposes
the applied field E0 . The resultant field E inside the dielectric (the vector sum of E0 and E ’) has the same
direction as E0 but a smaller magnitude.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Real Capacitors
• Real capacitors used in circuits are parallel plate capacitors with a dielectric material inserted in
between the plates and rolled into a cylinder.
• This model reduces the size to get maximum capacitance.
Nitin Chandrol (JEE 2012 AIR 134)
P hysi cs | 19.23
Illustration 21: A parallel plate capacitor is to be designed with a voltage rating 1kV, using a material of dielectric
constant 3 and dielectric strength about 107 Vm-1. (Dielectric strength is the maximum electric field a material
can tolerate without breakdown, i.e. without starting to conduct electricity through partial ionization.) For safety,
we should like the field never to exceed, say 10% of the dielectric strength. What minimum area of the plates is
required to have a capacitance of 50pF? (JEE ADVANCED)
C ⋅D
Sol: The area of the capacitor is given by A = where ε = ε0 ⋅ εr lim is the permittivity of the medium.
ε x →∞
10% of the given field i.e. 107 Vm-1. Given E=0.1x107 Cm-1.
−dV V V 1000
Using E = ; i.e. E = , weget r =
we get; = = 10−3 m
dr r E 0.1x107
Using C =
ε0 εr A
, we get;
= A =
Cd Cr
=
( 450x10 )
−12
(10 =)
−13
19cm2
d ε0 εr ε0 εr 8.854x10 −3
×3
Illustration 22: A parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates has a capacitance of 8pF (1pF = 10−12 F.) What
will be the capacitance if the distance between the plates is reduced by half, and the space between them is filled
with a substance of dielectric constant 6? (JEE MAIN)
kεA
Sol: The capacitance is C = where k is the dielectric constant. If d reduces to ½ and k changes to 6 then new
d
capacitance is 12 times the original capacitance.
ε0 εr A
Using C’ = C = , C' ∈r C = 12(8 × 10‒12) = 96 × 10‒12F = 96pF
d
Illustration 23: Two parallel-plate capacitors, each of capacitance 40 µF , are connected in series. The space
between the plates of one capacitor is filled with a dielectric material of dielectric constant K=4. Find the equivalent
capacitance of the system. (JEE ADVANCED)
C1C2
Sol: The equivalent capacitance of series connection is Ceq = .
C1 + C2
The capacitance of the capacitor with the dielectric is C1 = KC0 = 4 × 40 µF = 160 µF.
The other capacitor has capacitance C2 = 40 µF.
(i) Charge remains unchanged, i.e., q = q0, as in an isolated system, charge is conserved.
(ii)
Capacity increases, i.e. C = KC0, as by presence of a dielectric capacity becomes K times.
q q0
(iii)
P.D. between the plate decreases, i.e., V=(V0/ K) V= = as q c KC0 as,
= q0 and =
C KC
1 9 . 2 4 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
q q0
V= = as q
= q0 and =
c KC0
C KC
V V E V V0
E between the plates decreases, i.e., E = (E0 / K ) , as, =
(iv) E = 0= 0 = 0 and E=
as V 0
d Kd K K d
Energy stored in the capacitor decreases, i.e. U = (U0 / K ) .
(v)
2
q2 q 0 U0
=U = = as=
q q0 and =
C KC0
2C Kd K
q0 q
+++++ +++++ +++++ +++++
C0 , V0 , E0 , U0 C, V, E, U K
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(a) (b)
Figure 19.39
(b) If potential is held constant, i.e., battery remains attached and dielectric in inserted between plates.
(i) PD remains constant, i.e. V = V0, as battery is a source of constant potential difference.
(ii)
Capacity increases, i.e., C = KC0, as by presence of a dielectric capacity becomes K times.
(iii)
Charge on capacitor increases, i.e., q = Kq0 as=
q CV
= (KC0 )=
V Kq0 as q
=0 C0 V
V V0 V0
(iv)
Electric field remains unchanged, i.e., E = E0,=
E = = E0 as =
V V0 and = E0
d d d
(v)
Energy stored in the capacitor increases, i.e., U = KU0
1 2 1
((KC0 )( V0 ) ; 1=
2
As,
= U = CV 1
2 2 = KU as C KC
= 0 and U0 C V 2
2 0 2 0 0
a
Figure 19.40
Sol: As the distance between the plates is filled with dielectric material upto a distance x<d, this system represent
CC
two capacitors connected in series. Thus equivalent capacitance is Ceq = 1 2 where each capacitance depends
C1 + C2
on the dielectric constant K and distance from the plate of capacitor.
The situation is shown in Fig. 19.40. The given system is equivalent to the series combination of two capacitors, one
between a and c and the other between c and b.
Here c represents the upper surface of the dielectric. This is because the potential at the upper surface of the
dielectric is constant and we can imagine a thin metal plate being placed there.
P hysi cs | 19.25
Kε0 A ε0 A
The capacitance of the capacitor between a and c is C1 = and that between c and b is C2 = .
x d−x
C1C2 Kε0 A
The equivalent capacitance
= is C =
C1 + C2 Kd − x (K − 1 )
Illustration 25: In the situation shown in Fig. 19.41 the area of the
plates is A. The dielectric slab is released from rest. Prove that the
slab will execute periodic motion and find its time period. Mass of
the slab is m. (JEE ADVANCED) V K d
x x
(a) (b) (c)
x
(d) (e)
Figure 19.42
T
= time taken to reach from position (a) to position (b) = t (say) ; using Sx = 1 at2
using
4 (d) 2(e)
1
using S = at2 2s
2
2 (l − x )
we ha ve t =
4 (l − x ) mdl a
; (S = l − x )
2s
Wehahave
we ve t = ; = (S = l − x ) = 2 (l − x ) 4 (l − x ) mdl
a
ε (A/l)V2 (K − 1)
ε0 AV 2 (K − 1 )
= =
2 (l − x ) 4 (l − x ) mdl ε0 AV 2 (K − 1 )
0
ε
2md 0( A/l) V2 (K −1 )
= =
ε
0( A/l) V2 (K −1 )
ε0 AV (K − 1 )
2
2md
TheThe desired
desired time
time
2md
period
period is, is, =
T 4t
= 8
(L − x ) mdl
ε0 AV 2 (K − 1 )
1 9 . 2 6 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
Illustration 26: Three concentric conducting shells A, B and C of radii a, b and c are C
B
a shown in Fig. 19.43. A dielectric of dielectric constant K is filled between A and B,
find the capacitance between A and C. (JEE ADVANCED) A
Sol: The potential difference in the region dr between the shells is given by a
∆V = ∫ E ⋅ dr where E is the electric field. Capacitance is the ratio of charge and
b
potential difference. Let the sphere A have a charge q. When the dielectric is filled
between A and B, the electric field will change in this region. Therefore the potential c
difference and hence the capacitance of the system will change. So, first find the
electric field E(r) in the region a ≤ r ≤ c . Then find the potential difference (V) Figure 19.43
q q
between A and C and finally the capacitance of the system is C == , E(r) for a≤r ≤b
V 4 πε r 2
q q 0
) forfor =
a≤r ≤b for b ≤ r ≤ c . Using, dv = − ∫ E.dr
2
4 πε0r 4 πε0r 2
b q b q
Here potential difference between A and C is, V = VA − VC = ∫ .dr − ∫ dr
2
a
4 πε0Kr a
4 πε0r 2
q 1 1 1 1 1 q (b − a ) ( c − b ) q
= − + = − =
+ c (b − a) + Ka ( c − b )
4 πε0 K a b b c 4 πε0 Kab bc 4 πε0kabc
q 4 πε0Kabc
The desired capacitance is C
= =
V Ka ( c − b ) + c (b − a)
S V V
Figure 19.44
Consider a capacitor connected to a battery of emf V through a switch S. When we close the q
switch, the capacitor gets charged immediately. Charging takes no time. A charge q0 = CV
q0
comes in the capacitor as soon as switch is closed and the q-t graph in this case is a straight
line parallel to t-axis as shown.
Figure 19.45
But if there is some resistance in the circuit charging takes some time. Because resistance C
opposes the charging (or current flow in the circuit).
Final charge (called steady state charge) is still q0 but it is acquired after a long period of
time.
( )
S V
− t/ τc
The q-t equation in this case is,=
q q0 l − e
Figure 19.46
P hysi cs | 19.27
14.1 Charging
When a capacitor C is connected to a battery through a resistance R, the plates of a capacitor will acquire equal and
opposite charge and the potential difference across it becomes equal to the emf of the battery. The process (called
charging) takes sometime and during this time there is an electric current through the resistance. If at any time t,
I is the current through the resistance R and q is the charge on capacitor C, the equation of emf for the circuit will
be VC= + VR E, i.e., V=+ IR E
dq q q dq t dt
so, R + =E or ∫0 ( CE − q) = − ∫0 CR
dt C
q q0 l − e− t/CR
Which on solving for q gives= ( ) with q 0 = CE ( for t = ∞ ) …..(i)
dq d
I ==
dt dt
(
q0 l − e− t/CR =
) E
I0 e− t/CR with I0 =
R
( at t =
0)
i.e., initially it acts as short circuit or as a simple conducting wire. If t → ∞ , I → 0 , i.e., it acts as open circuit or
as a broken wire.
14.2 Discharging
If a charged capacitor C having charge q0 is discharged through a resistance R, then at any time t,
V = IR ( −dq / dt ) and q =
but as I = CV
dq q q dq t dt
R + =
dt C
0 i,e., ∫q0 dt = −∫
0 CR
or q = q0 e− t/CR
I I=
dq
dq
−− =
=
dt
dt
=
dd
dt
dt
((
−− qq00ee−−t/CR
t/CR
=
= ))
I0I0ee−−t/CR
t/CR
with
EE
= and its direction is opposite to that of charging.
withI0I0 =
RR
1 9 . 2 8 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
+
Metal brush
++
++
difference of a few million volts. The highly intense electric field
++ +++
+ ++++
produced in this matching is used to accelerate charged particles, Insulating belt
which can then be used to study the composition of matter at the
+
+ to carry and
+
microscopic level. + +
+
+ deliver charge
+
+
+ Insulating
Principle: let us presume (See Fig. 19.48) that charge Q is +
+ supporting
+
residing on an isolated conducting shell, having radius R. + column
+
+ Motor driven
+
There is another conducting sphere having charge q and radius Metal brush
+++ pulley
equal to r at the centre of the above mentioned spherical shell (r<R)
delivering Grounded
charge from metal base
The electric potential on the spherical shell of radius R is equal to source Principle of construction of
Van de Graaff generation
kQ kq
V
=R +
R R Figure 19.48
kQ kq
The electric potential on the surface of the sphere of radius r is, =
Vr +
R r
kQ kq kQ kq 1 1
Therefore, the potential difference between the surfaces of the two sphere is, Vr − VR =+ − − = kq −
R r R R r R
The above equation shows that the smaller sphere is at a higher electric potential in comparison to the larger
spherical shell. If the smaller sphere is brought in contact with the larger spherical shell then electric charge will
flow from the smaller sphere towards the larger spherical shell. Note if charge can be continuously transferred to
the smaller sphere in some way, it will keep getting accumulated on the larger shell, thereby increasing its electric
potential to a very high value.
Construction: S is a large spherical conducting shell with a radius of a few meters. This is erected to suitable
height over the insulating pillars, C1 and C2. A long narrow belt of insulating material moves continuously between
2 pulleys P1 and P2 as shown in the Fig. 19.48. B1 and B2 are two sharply pointed brushes fixed near pulleys, P1 and
P2 respectively, such that B2 touches the belt near the pulley P2. B1 is called the spray brush and B2 is called the
collector brush.
Working: The spray brush is given a positive potential w.r.t. the earth by high tension source known as E.H.T.
around the sharp points of B1, the high potential causes the air to ionize and this sprays positive charges on the
belt. As the belt moves, and reaches the sphere S, the collecting brush B2, which touches the belt near pulley P2,
collects the positive charge, which spreads on the outer surface of S. the uncharged belt returns down and again
collects the positive charge from B1. As the belt moves continuously between P1 and P2 the positive charge starts
accumulating on sphere S and the charge due to ionization is minimized by enclosing the metallic shell in an earth
connected steel tank filled with air at high pressure. The charge particles may accelerate in this large potential to
high kinetic energies of the order of more than 2 MeV.
P hysi cs | 19.29
PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS
Below we illustrate how the above methodologies can be employed to compute the electric potential for a line of
charge, a ring of charge and a uniformly charged disk.
(2πRλ )
=
λ
ln = ke = 2k e πσ z 2 + R 2 − z
4 πε0 R 2 + z2
( / 2) + ( / 2)2 + y 2 Q 2k eQ 2 2
= ke = z +R − z
R2
−( / 2) + ( / 2)2 + y 2 R + z2
2
Derive E from V ∂V k Q ∂V
∂V
Ey = − Ez =
− = e Z Ez = −
∂y ∂z
∂z
( )
3/2
R + z2
2
λ /2 2k eQ z z
= = −
2πε0 y R 2 z
( / 2)
2
+ y2 z + R2
2
FORMULAE SHEET
S. No FORMULA
1. q = CV
2. ε0 ∫ E.dA =
q.
f
3. ∫ E.dS.
V1 − V2 =
i
+ d
4. =V ∫=
− ∫0 ds
Eds E= Ed
5. q = ε0EA.
ε0 A
6. C= (parallel-plate capacitor)
d
L
7. C= 2πε0 (cylindrical capacitor)
ln (b / a)
8.
ab
C= 4 πε0 (spherical capacitor)
b−a
n
10. Ceq = ∑ C J (n capacitors in parallel)
j=1
n
1 1
11. =∑ (n capacitors in series)
Ceq j=1 C J
P hysi cs | 19.31
S. No FORMULA
1
14. u= ε E2 (energy density)
2 0
q
15. E=
4 πKε0r 2
16. ε0 ∫ KE.dA =
q (Gauss’ law with dielectric).
ε0bV 2 (K − 1 )
17. Force on a Dielectric Slab inside a Capacitor F =
2d
S. No Term Description
1 Electric Potential ∆U = -W Where ∆U = Change in potential energy and W= Work done by the electric lines of
energy force.
S. No Term Description
4. Some points 1. It is scalar quantity
about Electric
2. Potential at a point due to system of charges will be obtained by the summation of potential
potential
of each charge at that point
V = V 1 + V2 + V3 + V4
3. Electric forces are conservative forcew so work done by the electric force between two points
is independent of the path taken
4. V2 − V1 =
− E.dr ∫
5. In Cartesian coordinates system
dV =
−E.dr; dV =
−(Ex dx + Ey dy + Ez dz)
So Ex =
∂V / ∂x, Ey =
∂V / ∂y and Ez =
∂V / ∂z,
( ) ( ) (
Also E = ∂V / ∂x i + ∂V / ∂y i + ∂V / ∂z k )
6. Surface where electric potential is same everywhere is called equipotential surface.
2. Electric potential in the spherical charge conductor is Q / 4πεR where R is the radius of the
shell and the potential is same everywhere in the conductor.
d
Electric dipole moment: p = qdzˆ , where two charges of charge ±q are placed along the z axis at z = ±
2
1 p
Electric dipole field: Along the z axis (z>>d): E = zˆ , in the +z direction.
2πε0 z 3
1 p
Along the x axis(x>>d): E = xˆ in the +x direction.
2πε0 x 3
1 p
Along the x axis(y>>d): E = yˆ in the +y direction.
2πε0 y 3
1 9 . 3 4 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
Solved Examples
200pF 200pF
Example 2: The connection shown in figure are
+ established with the switch S open. How much charge
C2 100pF C3 300V will flow through the switch if it is closed?
-
C4 1 2
Sol: The circuit is made up of series and parallel + 24V 1F S 2F
combinations of the capacitors. The charge on the -
capacitor is given by q = CV. 2F 1F
100pF
4 3
100pF C1 (a)
C4 C2 C3
-Q1 Q1 Q2 -Q2
200pF 200pF 1 2
1F 2F
+ 24V S
300 V
- 0
2F V0 1F
4 3
Q2 Q2
The equivalent circuit is as shown below: (b)
100pF
Sol: Find the initial charge on capacitors. After the
100pF switch is closed, 1 and 2 become parallel and 3 and 4
become parallel.
C4
When the switch is open, capacitors (2) and (3) are in
100pF 2
µF. The charge appering on
series. Their equivalent capacitance is
3
300 V The charge appering on each of these capacitors is,
2
The situation when the switch S is closed is shown in The equivalent capacitance between A being equivalent
figure. Let the charges be distributed as shown in the to the original ladder, the equivalent capacitance is
figure. Q1 and Q2 are arbitrarily chosen for the positive also C
plate of (1) and (2). CC1
Thus, C1= C + or C1C + C12 = C2 + 2CC1
Take the potential at the negative terminal to the zero C + C1
and at the switch to be V0
Or C12 − CC1 − C2 =
0,
Writing equations for the capacitors (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv).
Q1 = (24V ‒ V0) × 1µF … (i) C + C2 + 4C2 1 + 5
Giving C1
= = C
Q2 = (24V ‒ V0) × 2µF … (ii) 2 2
Q1 = V0 × 1µF ... (iii) Negative value of C1 is rejected.
Q2 = V0 × 2µF … (iv)
Example 4: A parallel-plate capacitor has plates of area
From (i) and (iii), V0 =12V, Thus, from (iii) and (iv), 200 cm2 and separation between the plates 1.00 mm.
What potential difference will be developed if a charge
Q1= 12µC and Q= 24µC .
2 of 1.00 nC (i.e., 1.00 × 10‒9C) is given to the capacitor? If
The charge on the two plates of (1) and (4) which are the plate separation is now increased to 2.00 mm, what
connected to the switch is, therefore Q2 − Q1 =12µC . will be the new potential difference?
When the switch was open, this charge was zero. Thus, ε A
12µC of charge has passed through the switch after it Sol: Capacitance is given by C = 0 and the potential
d
was closed. Q
difference is given by V =
C
Example 3: Find the capacitance of the infinite ladder The capacitance of the capacitor is
shown in figure.
ε0 A 200x10−4 m2
C P C C C= = 8.85x10−12 Fm−1 x
A d 1x10−3 m
−9
= 0.177x10
= F 0.177nF.
C C C C The potential difference between the plates is
B
Q Q 1nC
V
= = = 5.65 Volts.
C 0.177nF
Sol: Capacitance between points P and Q is same as If the separation is increased from 1.00 mm to 2.00 mm,
that between A and B. The equivalent capacitance of the capacitance is decreased by a factor of 2. Thus, the
the circuit is deduced by reducing it to simple network. new potential difference will be 5.65 volts × 2 = 11.3 volts.
The simplified circuit is a parallel combination of the
capacitors whose capacitance is given by
Example 5: An isolated sphere has a capacitance of 50pF.
CC1
Ceq= C + . (a) Calculate its radius.
C + C1
(b) How much charge should be placed on it to raise its
As the ladder is infinitely long, the capacitance of the potential to 104 V?
ladder to the right of the points P, Q is the same as
that of the ladder to the right of the points A, B. If the Sol: For sphere, radius R is given by C= 4 πε0R . To
equivalent capacitance of the ladder is C, the given raise the potential to 104 V, the charge to be placed on
ladder may be replaced by the connections shown in sphere is given by Q = CV.
figure.
C P (a) The capacitance of an isolated sphere is
A
R
C= 4 πε0R. Thus, 50x10−12 F =
9x109 mF−1
−12
C C1 =or R 50x10
= x9x109 m 45cm.
B
Q (b) Q = 50X10−12 FX10 4 =
= CV V 0.5µC
1 9 . 3 6 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
Example 6: A parallel-plate capacitor of capacitance of charge induced in other plates. The capacitance is
100 µF if connected to a power supply of 200V. A Aε
dielectric slab of dielectric constant 5 is now inserted between any two surfaces is given by C = 0 .
d
into the gap between the plates. Suppose the negative terminal of the battery gives a
(a) Find the extra charge flown through the power charge – Q to the plate B. As the situation is symmetric
supply and the work done by the supply. on the two sides of B, the two faces of the plate B
will share equal charge – Q/2 each. From Gauss’s law,
(b) Find the charge in the electrostatic energy of the
the facing surfaces will have charge Q/2 each. As the
electric field in the capacitor.
positive terminal of the battery has supplied just this
much charge (+Q) to A and C, the outer surfaces of A
Sol: After inserting the dielectric the capacitance is
and C will have no charge. The distribution will be as
changed, thus the charge stored in the capacitor is
shown in figure. The capacitance between the plates A
given by Q = CV and work done by supply is CV2 = qV.
and B is
1 2
The energy stored in the capacitor is given by U = CV Aε0 200 × 10−4 m−2
2 C ==× 8.85 10−12 F / m×
d 2 × 10−4 m
(a) The original capacitance was 100µF. The charge on
= 8.85 = X10−10 F 0.885nF
the capacitor before the insertion of the dielectric was,
therefore, Q1 = 1000F × 200V = 20mC Thus, Q 8.85nF
= = x 20V 17.7nC
After the dielectric slab is introduced, the capacitance is The distribution of charge on various surfaces may be
increased to 500µF. The new charge on the capacitor is, written from figure.
100mC .
Therefore, 500µ F x 200v = Q
The equivalent capacitance is = 1.77nF
The charge flown through the power supply is, 20V
80 mC .
therefore, 100 mC − 20 mC =
Example 8: The emf of the cell in the circuit is 12 volts and
The work done by the power supply is 200V × 80mC = 16J. the capacitors are: C1 = 1µF, C2 = 3µF, C3 = 2µF, C4 = 4µF
(b) the electrostatic field energy of the capacitor without Calculate the charge on each capacitor and the total
the dielectric slab is charge drawn from the cell when
1 2 1
U1 =
2
CV =
2
(100µF ) X ( 200V ) =
2J (a) The switch s is closed
(b) The switch s is open.
And that after the slab is inserted is
1 C1 C2
(500µF ) X ( 200V ) =
2
U2 = 10J thus, the energy is
2
increased by 8J.
C3 C4
Example 7: Each of the three plates shown in figure has
an area of 200cm2 on one side and the gap between
the adjacent plates is 0.2mm. The emf of the battery is Cell
+ -
20V. Find the distribution of charge on various surfaces
of the plates. What is the equivalent capacitance of the 12 V
system between the terminal points?
Sol: When the switch is closed the equivalent
+
-
+
- 20V
capacitance is given by C=
( C1 + C3 )( C2 + C4 )
( C1 + C3 ) + ( C2 + C4 )
and the charge stored in the circuit is given by Q=CV.
Q/2
Q/2
-Q/2
-Q/2
C
=
( C1 + C3 )( C2 + C4 ) ; C
=
3×7
= 2.1µF ;
C1= charge on C2
( C1 + C3 ) + ( C2 + C4 ) 3+7 CC
= 3 4
8
C +C V = × 12 =16µC
3 6
Total charge drawn from the cell is: 4
Q = CV = 2.1µF × 12 volts = 25.2µC C3 & C4 are in series and the potential difference across
combination is 12 volts charge on
C1 , C3 are in parallel and C2, C4 are in parallel.
C3= charge on C4
C1 C2
Q CC 8
= 3 4 V = × 12 =16µC
C +C 6
3 4
C3 C4
Example 9: Two capacitors A and B with capacities 3 µF
and 2 µF are changed to a potential difference of 100V
+ -12V and 180V respectively. The plates of the capacitors are
connected as shown in the figure with one wire of each
Charge on C1 capacitor free. The upper plate of A is positive and that
of B is negative. An uncharged 2 µF capacitor C with
C1 1
Q1 = Q= × 25.2µC = 8.4µC lead wires falls on the free ends to complete the circuit.
C1 + C3 1+2 Calculate:
Charge on C3 q2
B + - C
C3 2 3 4
Q3= Q= × 25.2µC= 16.8µC
C1 + C3 1+2
+ 2 5 -
3F q1 2F
Charge on C2 -
1 6 q +
3
C2 3
Q2= Q= × 25.2µC= 10.8µC
C2 + C 4 3+ 4 A D
Net charge on plates 2 and 3 before joining (c) The total electrical energy stored after joining
= Net charge after joining 200V
+ -
∴300 =q1 + q2 …… (i)
6F
Similarly, net charge on plates 4 and 5 before
S
Joining = Net charge after joining
100V
−360 =−q2 − q3 ; 360
= q2 + q3 ...…(ii) + -
= 90x10−4 J = 90mJ 1
U2 =
2
1
C2 V22 =
2
(
× 6X10−6 × ( 200 ) =
2
)
12X10−2 J
30V
+ A = 120µC Initially it had a charge-q and finally −q2 .
q 2F 30V 2F
- Hence, qc =q − q2 =108 − 180 =−72µC
B
+ B
q 3F 3F Example 12: If 100 volts of potential difference is
60V - 60V
C applied between a and b in the circuit of figure, find the
potential difference between c & d.
(30 + 60 ) 56 µC=
q= 108µC Sol: The charge stored in each capacitor is given by
Q = CV. To find the potential difference at point’s c and
Refer figure (b), when switch is closed: let q1 and q2 be d we apply Kirchoff’s law to the circuit.
the charges (in µC ) on two capacitors. Then applying The charge distribution on different plates is shown in
Kirchoff’s 2nd law in upper and lower loop, we have figure. Suppose charge Q1 + Q2 is given by the positive
q1 terminal of the battery, out of which Q1 resides on the
30 − 0 Or q1 = 60µC;
=
2 positive plate of capacitor (1) and Q2 on that of (2). The
q2 remaining plates will have charges as shown in the
60 − 0 Or q2 = 180µC
= figure. Take the potential at the point b to be zero. The
3
potential at a will be 100V. Let the potentials at points
Charges q1 and q2 can be calculated alternatively by c and d be Vc and Vd respectively. Writing the equation
seeing that upper plate of 2 µF capacitor is connected Q=CV for the four capacitors, we get,
with positive terminal of 30V battery. Therefore, they
are at the same potential. Similarly, the lower plate of Q1 = 6µF × 100V = 600µC …..(i)
this capacitor is at the same potential as that of the Q2 = 6µF × (100V − Vc ) …..(ii)
negative terminal of 30V battery. So, we can say that
Q2 = 6µF × (Vc − Vd ) …..(iii)
P.D. across 2 µF capacitor is also 30V.
Q2 = 6µF × Vd− …..(iv)
1 9 . 4 0 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
From( ii(ii)
From ) andand((iii)
iii) 100V − Vc = Vc − Vd JEE Advanced/Boards
or 2Vc − Vd =
100V (v)
…..…..(v)
Example 1: Two capacitors C1 = 1 µF and C2 = 4µF
And from ( iii ) and ( iv ) Vc − Vd =
Vd
are charged to a potential difference of 100 volts and
or Vc = 2Vd− .. ( vi )
……..(vi) 200 volts respectively. The charged capacitors are now
connected to each other with terminals of opposite
From (v) and (vi)
sign connected together. What is the
100 200
Fro m ( v(v)
From )= and ((vi)
and vi) Vd = V and Vc V V
3 3 V1
100
So that
So that Vc − Vd = V
3
+ + -- -- --
C1 C2 C1 C2
Example.13 A regular hexagon of side 10 cm has + + + + + + + +
a charge 5 µ C at each of its vertices. Calculate the
potential at the center of the hexagon.
q q V1
Loss of energy
Example 3: A 10 µF condenser C is charged through
1 1 1 1 resistance R of 0.1 MΩ from a battery of 1.5V. Find the
= C1 V12 + C2 V22 − C1 V 2 − C2 V 2
2 2 2 2 time required for the capacitor to get charged upto
0.75V for the circuits shown below.
1 1 1
1 (100 ) + 4 ( 200 ) − (1 + 4 )(140 )
2 2 2
=
2 2 2 R S
= 36000
=µJ 0.036J
E C C R
Note: the energy is lost as heat in the connected wires S
due to the temporary currents that flow while the
charge is being redistributed.
Sol: For RC circuit, the charge stored in the capacitor is
Example 2: Four identical metal plates are located in
given by
= q q0 1 − e− t/RC . Taking log on both sides
the air at equal separation d as shown. The area of each
plate is a. Calculate the effective capacitance of the we can get the value of time t.
arrangement across A and B.
(a) In the case of charging of a capacitor C through the
A
resistance R,
q
=q q0 1 − e− t/RC ; e− t/RC= 1 −
q0
B
q V 0.75 1
For a capacitor, q = CV = = =
q0 V0 1.5 2
Sol: The plates are connected in parallel combination
with each other. The equivalent capacitance is given =
by t RClog
= e2 (0.1 x106 )x(10x10−6 )loge 2
C = C1 +C2 +C3. The capacitance between A and B= is t RClog
= e 2 0.693 second.
2C
given by CAB = (b) In the case of the capacitor C being connected
3
directly to the battery initially, it acts like short circuit.
A
The capacitor will get charged instantaneously at t = 0
1 secs.
2
P
3 Hence, time cannot be calculated as per the requirement
4 of the question.
5 B
6 Example 4: Twelve capacitors, each having a capacitance
C, are connected to form a cube. Find the equivalent
capacitance between the diagonally opposite corners
such as A and B.
2 1 P 5 6 f
B B
A B
e
d
3 4 h Q/3
c b
F
have three capacitor formed by the pairs (1,2), (3,4) and Sol: Applying the Kirchoff’s second law across diagonal
(5,6). The surface 2 and 3 are at same potential as that points A and B to find the charge distribution across
of A. The arrangement can be redrawn as a network of the branch of the circuit, and find the equivalent
three capacitors. capacitance.
2C 2ε A0 Suppose the points A and B are connected to a battey.
C=
AB =
3 3 d The charges appearing on some of the capacitors are
1 9 . 4 2 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
shown in figure suppose the positive terminal of the Let length and breadth of the capacitor be l and b
battery supplies a charge +Q through the point A. respectively and d be the distance between the plates
This charge is divided on the three plates connected as shown in figure then consider a strip at a distance x
to A. Looking from A, the three sides of the cube of width dx.
have identical properties and hence, the charge will
Now QR=x tan θ
be equally distributed on the three plates. Each of the
capacitors a, b and c will receive a charge Q/3. The And PQ = d-x tan θ ; where
negative terminal of the battey supplies a charge –Q tan θ =d/l,Capacitance of PQ
through the point B. This is again divided equally on
L
the three plates connected to B. Each of the capacitors
d, e and f gets equal charge Q/3.
A b
Now consider the capacitors g and h. As the three
plates connected to the point E form an isolated
system, their total charge must be zero. The negative
plate of the capacitor has a charge -Q/3. The two plates k1 ε0 (b dx) k1 ε0 (b dx)
= dC1 =
of g and h connected to E should have a total charge d − x tan θ xd
d−
Q/3. By symmetry, these two plates should have equal l
charges and hence each of these has a charge Q/6. The k1 ε0b / dx k1 ε0 A
capacitors a, g and d have charges Q/3, Q/6 and Q/3 = dC1 =
d (l − x ) d (l − x )
respectively.
k 2 ε0b ( dx )
And dC2 = capacitance of QR dC2 = ;
We have, VA − VB = ( VA − VE ) + ( VE − VF ) + ( VF − VB ) d tan θ
k 2 ε0 A ( dx ) d
Q / 3 Q / 6 Q / 3 5Q dC2 = … ∴tan θ =
= + + = Xd l
C C C 6C
Q 6 Now dC1 and dC2 are in series. Therefore, their
Ceq =
= C.
VA − VB 5 resulatant capacity dC will be given by
1 1 1 1 d (l − x ) X.d
Example 5: The Capacitance of a parallel plate = + , =then +
1 0 ( ) 1 0 A ( dx )
capacitor with plate area A and separation d is C. The dc dC 1 dC 2 dC K ε A dx K ε
space between the plates is filled with two wedges of
dielectric constants K1 and K 2 respectively (figure).=
Find 1 d l − x X d K 2 (l − x ) + K1 X
+ =
the capacitance of the resulting capacitor. dc ε0 A ( dx ) K1 K 2 ε0 AK1K 2 ( dx )
A
ε0 AK1K 2 ε0 AK1K 2
dC = dx , dC = dx
d K 2 (l − x ) + K1 X d K 2l + (K1 − K1 ) X
K2
L
ε0 AK1K 2 KK11KK22εε00AA KK connected to a battery which supplies a positive charge
= ∫ d K l + (K dx ; CC == In 22
In
ln of magnitude Q to the upper plate. Find the rise in the
0 2 1 − K 2 ) X (KK11 −−KK22) dd KK11 level of the liquid in the space between the plates.
Example 6: Figure (a) shows a parallel-plate capacitor Sol: The dielectric liquid experiences a electric force due
having square plates of edge a and plate-separtion d. to which it rises to the height h. This force is balanced
The gap between the plates is filled with a dielectric by weight of liquid.
medium of dielectric constant K which varies parallel to
an edge as =
K K 0 + ax 1
The situation is shown in figure. A charge −Q 1 − is
K
a a
1
induced on the upper surface of the liquid and Q 1 −
K
d K
at the surface in contact with the lower plate. The net
1 Q
(x)
dx charge on the lower plate is −Q + Q 1 − =− .
(a)
K K
Consider the equilibrium of the liquid in the volume
(b)
dC =
(K0 + αx ) ε0adx . These strips are connected
(c) The force due to atmospheric pressure and
d (d) The force due to the pressure of the liquid below AB.
in parallel so the equivalent capacitance is given by As AB is in the same horizontal level as the outside
a surface, the pressure here is the same as the atmospheric
C = ∫ dC where a is the length of plates. pressure. The forces in (c) and (d), therefore, balance
0
each other. Hence, for equilibrium, the forces in (a) and
Consider a small strip of width dx at a separation x from
(b) should balance each other.
the left end. This strip forms a small capacitor of plate
Q
area adx. Its capacitance is dC =
(K0 + αx ) ε0adx The electric field at CD due to the charge Q is E1 =
2Aε0
d
The given capacitor may be divided into such strips with In the downward direction.
x varying from 0 to A. All these strips are connected in Q
parallel. The capacitance of the given capacitor is, The field at CD due to the charge –Q/K is E2 =
2Aε0K
Q Also in the downward direction.
D+ - + + + + + + +
- - -Q(1-1/K) (K + 1 ) Q .
The net field at CD is E1 + E2 =
h
A B 2Aε0K
1
The force on the charge −Q 1 − at CD is
-Q/K
K
=
1 (K + 1 ) Q
F Q 1 − ; =
(K 2
)
− 1 Q2
a
(K0 + αx ) ε0adx ; 2
ε0 a aα K 2Aε0K 2Aε0K 2
C= ∫ d
= K +
d 0 2
0 In the upward direction. The weight of the liquid
considered is hAρg.
Example 7: A parallel-plate capacitor is placed in such
a way that its plates are horizontal and the lower plate
thus, hAρg =
(K 2
)
− 1 Q2
; or h=
(K 2
)
− 1 Q2
is dipped into a liquid of dielectric constant K and 2 2 2
2Aε0K 2A K ε0 ρg
density ρ . Each plate has an area A. the plates are now
1 9 . 4 4 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
JEE Main/Boards
4.5F A B A B
d
Q. 3 Find the equivalent capacitance between A and B
in the given figure. Take C2= 10µF and B in the given (A) d/4 d/2 d/4
(B)
figure. Take C2= 10µF and C1 ,C3 ,C 4 ,C5 each equal to
4µF
C4 Q.9 Two metal plates separated by a distance d
constitute a parallel plate capacitor. A metal slab of
thickness (d/2) and same area as the plate is inserted
A B
between the plates. What is the ratio of the capacitances
C1 C2 C3 in the two cases?
C5
K1 C1 d/2
d
K2 C2 d/2
Q.4 Find the value of C if the equivalent capacitance
between the points A and B in the given figure is 1µF
(A)
1F
A C
A/2 A/2
4F
6F d K1 K2
8F
C3 C4
12F
2F (B)
2F Q.10 Keeping the voltage of the charging source
B
constant, what would be the percentage change in
the energy stored in a parallel plate capacitor if the
separation between its plates were to be decreased by
Q.5 A 4x10-6F capacitor is charged by a 200V supply. It 10%?
is then disconnected from the supply and is connected
across another uncharged 2x10-6F capacitor. How much
Q.11 A parallel plate air capacitor with its plates spaced
energy of the first capacitor is lost?
2cm apart is charged to a potential of 300 volts. What
will be the electric field intensity inside the capacitor,
Q.6 The plates of a parallel plate capacitor of area if the plates are moved apart to a distance of 5cm
100cm2 each and are separated by 2.0mm. The capacitor without disconnecting the power source? Calculate the
is charged by a 100V supply. Find energy store by the change in energy of the capacitor. Area of the plates is
capacitor. equal to A = 100cm2. Also solve the problem assuming
P hysi cs | 19.45
the entire operation was done after disconnecting the Q.16 Two charge particulars one is electron and other is
power source. Account for the change in energy in both negatively charged ion have a velocity directed parallel
(
the cases. ∈0 =9x10−12 SI units ) to the plates. They are sent separately into the field.
Both the electron and the ion have reveived their initial
kinetic energy by passing the same potential difference.
Q.12 Find the charge on the capacitor C in the following Which of the two particles will travel a greater distance
circuit in steady state. (parallel to plates shown by ‘I’) before hitting the
12V 2 positively charged plate, if both fly into the capacitor
at a point that is exactly in the middle of the distance
4
between the plates?
2C
6
L
+
V
Q.13 Three uncharged capacitors of capacitance C1,C2
and C3 are connected as shown in figure to one another _
and to points A, B and D potentials (φA), (φB) and (φD).
Determine the potential (φO) at point O. Q.17 A 3 µF capacitor is charged to a potential of 300
volt and 2 µF is charged to 200 volt. The capacitor
A are connected so that the plates of same polarity
C1 are connected together. What is the final potential
O difference between the plates of the capacitor after they
C2 C3 are connected? If instead of this the plates of opposite
B D polarity were joined together, what amount of charge
will flow and from which capacitor does it come?
C1 C1 R=2 C3
R1 C2 C2 C4
A B
R2 R=3
R3 E
R=1
(i) Immediately after the key K is closed and
(ii) In a long time interval, assuming that the parameters E = 4V, C1 = 8µF , C2 = 2µF , C3 = 6µF , C 4 = 4µF .
of the circuit are known.
Find the charge on plate of each capacitor.
Rigid road
1 9 . 4 6 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
Q.20 In the figure shown here, each capacitance C1 in Q.26 A capacitor of capacitance C1=1.0µF withstands
the network is 3 µF and each capacitance C2 is 2µF the maximum voltage V1=6.0 kV while a capacitor of
capacitance C2 = 2.0µF withstands maximum voltage
(i) Compute the equivalent capacitance of the network
V2 = 4.0 kV. What voltage will the system of these two
between the points a and b.
capacitors withstand, if they are connected in series?
(ii) Calculate charge on each capacitors nearest to a and
b when Vab =900volt.
Q.27 Two identical parallel plate air capacitors are
(iii) With 900 volt across a and b, compute Vcd connected in one case in parallel and in the other in
series. In each case the plates of one capacitor are
C1 C1 C C1
a brought closer together by a distance a and the plates
of the other are moved apart by the same distance a.
C2 C2 C1
How will the total capacitance of each system change
b as result of such manipulation ?
C1 C1 D C1
Q.23 Two condensers are in parallel and the energy (i) When the key is switched on at time t=0, find;
of the combination is 103 J, when the difference of (a) The time constant for the circuit.
potential between their terminals is 2 volts. With the
(b) The charge on the capacitor at steady state.
same two condensers in series, the energy is 1.6x102 J
for the same differences of potential across the series (c) Time taken to deposit charge equaling half that at
combination. What are their capacities? steady state.
(ii) If after fully charging the capacitor, the cell is shorted
Q.24 A capacitor of capacitance C1=1.0 µF charged by zero resistance at time t=0, find the charge on the
upto a voltage V = 110V is connected in a parallel to capacitor at t = 50s.
the terminals of a circuit consisting of two uncharged
capacitor connected in series and possessing the
Q.30 An electric dipole, when held at 30o with respect
capacitance C2 = 2.0 µF and C3 = 3.0 µF . What charge
to a uniform electric field of 30 × 10 4 NC−1 experiences
will flow through the connecting wires?
a torque of 27 × 1026 N m. Calculate the dipole moment
of the dipole.
Q.25 Two capacitors A and B are connected in series
across a 100V supply and it is observed that the potential
Q.31 A regular hexagon of side 10 cm has a charge 5 µ
difference across them are 60V and 40V. A capacitor
C at each of its vertices. Calculate the potential at the
of 2 µF capacitance is now connected in parallel with
center of the hexagon.
A and the potential difference across with A and the
potential difference acorss B rise to 90V. Determine the
capacitance of A and B. Q.32 What is the work done in moving a 2 µ C point
charge from corner A to B of a square ABCD, when a 10
µ C charge exists at the center of the square?
P hysi cs | 19.47
Q.33 The potential at a point 0.1 m from an isolated Q.2 In the circuit shown, a potential difference of 60V
point charge is +100 volt. Find the nature and is applied across AB. The potential difference between
magnitude of the point charge. the point the point M and N is
A 2C
Q.34 Two charges equal to +20 µ C and -10 µ C are M
placed at points 6 cm apart. Find the value of the
60V
potential at a point distant 4 cm on the right bisector C C
of the line joining the two charges.
B N
2C
Q.35 A system has two charges qA = 2.5 × 10‒9 C and qB
= ‒2.5 × 10‒7C located at points A: (0, 0,-15) cm and B: (A) 10V (B) 15V (C) 20V (D) 30V
(0, 0, +15) cm, respectively. What are the total charge
and electric dipole moment of the system? Q.3 In the circuit shown in figure, the ratio of charges
on 5 µF and 4 µF capacitor:
Q.36 A test charge ‘q’ is moved without acceleration
2F
from A to C along the path from A to B and then from 3F
B to C in electric field E as shown in the figure. (i) 5F
Calculate the potential difference between A and C. (ii)
At which point (of the two) is the electric potential more
and why? 4F
(2, 3)
B E 6V
(A) 4/5 (B) 3/5 (C) 3/8 (D) ½
Q.37 An electric dipole is held in a uniform electric field. (A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 16 (D) 32
(i) Show that the net force acting on it is zero.
Q.5 In the circuit shown, the energy stored in 1 µF
(ii) The dipole is aligned parallel to the field. capacitor is
3F 5F
Find the work done in rotating it through an angle of
180°.
1F
4F
Exercise 2
24V
Q Q
(C) V+ (D) V- , if V< CV 4F
2C C
(A) +8.57 µC (B) -8.57 µC
(C) +11.42 µC (D) -11.42 µC
1 9 . 4 8 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
d
Q.11 A parallel plate capacitor is
make as shown in figure. Find Q.2 A parallel combination of 0.1MΩ resistor and
capacirance and equivalent dielectric k1 k2
a 10 µF capacitor is connected across a 1.5V source
constant. of negligible resistance. The time required for the
capacitor to get charged upto 0.75V is approximately
d/2 d/2
(in second) (1997)
2 ε0 A(k1k 2 ) 4 ε0 A(k1k 2 )
(A) (B) (A) Infinite (B) loge2 (C) log102 (D) Zero
k1 + k 2 k1 + k 2
Q.3 For the circuit shown, which of the following
5 ε0 A(k1k 2 ) 3 ε0 A(k1k 2 )
(C) (D) statement is true? (1999)
k1k 2 k1 + k 2
V1 = 30 V V2 = 20 V
+ - + -
Q.4 Consider the situation shown in the figure. The Q.8 4 charges are placed each at distance ‘a’ from
capacitor A has a charge q on it whereas B is uncharged. origin. The dipole moment of configuration is (1983)
The charge appearing on the capacitor B after a long y
time after the switch is closed is (2001)
3q
q
+ -
+ - x
+ - -2q -2q
+ - S
+ - q
+ -
A B
(A) Zero (B) q/2 (C) q (D) 2q (A) 2 q a ˆj (B) 3 q a ˆj
(C) 2 a q [iˆ + ˆj] (D) None
Q.5 A parallel plate capacitor C with plates of unit are
and separation d is filled with a liquid of dielectric Q.9 n small drops of same size are charged to V volts
d each. If they coalesce to form a single large drop, then
constant K=2. The level of liquid is initially. Suppose
3 its potential will be (1985)
the liquid level decreases at a constant speed V, the (A) V/n (B) Vn (C) Vn1/3 (D) Vn2/3
time constant as a function of time t is (2008)
Q.10 A hollow metal sphere of radius 5 cm is charged
such that the potential on its surface is 10 V. The
potential at the center of the sphere is (1998)
C
(A) 0 V
d R
d (B) 10 V
3
(C) Same as at point 5 cm away from the surface outside
sphere.
(D) Same as a point 25 cm away from the surface.
(A)
6ε0R
(B)
(15d + 9vt ) ε0R Q.11 If the electric potential of the inner metal sphere
5d + 3vt 2d2 − 3dvt − 9v 2 t2 is 10 volt & that of the outer shell is 5 volt, then the
potential at the center will be: (1999)
(C)
6ε0R
(D)
(15d − 9vt ) ε0R (A) 10 volt (B) 5 volt (C) 15 volt (D) 0
5d − 3vt 2
2d + 3dvt − 9v t 2 2
Q.14 A solid conducting sphere having a charge Q is Then the potential at the origin due to the above
surrounded by an uncharged concentric conducting system of charges is (1998)
hollow spherical shell. Let the potential difference q
between the surface of the solid sphere and that of the (A) Zero (B) 8πε x ln2
0 0
outer surface of the hollow shell be V. If the shell is now
given a change of -3Q, the new potential difference q ln(2)
between the same two surfaces is (1989) (C) Infinite (D)
4 πε0 x0
(A) V (B) 2 V (C) 4 V (D) -2 V
Q.19 Two identical metal plates are given positive
Q.15 Two identical thin rings, each of radius R, are charges Q1 and Q2 (< Q1 ) respectively. If they are
coaxially placed a distance R apart. If Q1 and Q2 are now brought close together to form a parallel plate
respectively the charges uniformly spread on the two capacitor with capacitance C, the potential difference
rings, the work done in moving a charge q from the between them is (1999)
center of one ring to that of the other is (1992)
(A) (Q1 + Q2 ) / 2C (B) (Q1 + Q2 ) / C
(A) Zero
(C) (Q1 − Q2 ) / C (D) (Q1 − Q2 ) / 2C
(B) q(Q1 − Q2 )( 2 − 1) / 2(4 πε0R)
Q.18 A charge +q is fixed at each of the points Q.22 Two equal point charges are fixed at x=-a and
=x x= 0, x 3x=
0 , x 5x 0 .....∞ on the x-axis x=+a on the x-axis. Another point charge Q is placed at
and a charge –q is fixed at each of the points the origin. The change in the electrical potential energy
=x 2x= 0, x 4x=0, x 6x0 .....∞ . Here, x0 is a positive of Q, when it is displaced by a small distance x along
constant. Take the electric potential at a point due to a the x-axis, is approximately proportional to (2002)
charge Q at a distance r from it to be Q/ 4 πε0r .
(A) x (B) x2 (C) x3 (D) 1/x
P hysi cs | 19.51
Q.28 A 2µF capacitor is charged as shown in the figure. Q.33 A uniformly charged solid sphere of radius R
The percentage of its stored energy dissipated after the has potential V0 (measured with respect to ∞ ) on
switch S is turned to potion 2 is (2011)
its surface. For this sphere the equipotential surfaces
1 2 3V0 5 V0 3 V0 V
with potentials , , and 0 have radius
2 4 4 4
R1 ,R 2 ,R3 and R 4 respectively. Then (2015)
(A) 0% (B) 20% (C) 75% (D) 80% (D) R1 = 0 and R 2 > (R 4 − R 3 )
Q.29 Two capacitors C1 and C2 are charged to 120 V Q.34 In the given circuit, charge Q2 on the 2 µ F
and 200 V respectively. It isfound that by connecting capacitor changes as C is varied from 1 µ F to 3 µ F . Q2
them together the potential on each one can be as a function of ‘C’ is given properly by : (figures are
madezero. Then: (2013) drawn schematically and are not to scale) (2015)
Charge Charge
O A B
(A) Q2 (B) Q2
L L
C C
1F 3F 1F 3F
3Q Q
(A) (B)
4 π ε0 L 4 π ε0 L ln 2 Charge Charge
Q ln 2 Q
(C) (D) (C) Q2 (D) Q2
4 π ε0 L 8 π ε0 L
C C
1F 3F 1F 3F
Q.31 A parallel plate capacitor is made of two circular
plates separated by a distance of 5 mm and with a
dielectric of dielectric constant 2.2 between them. When
the electric field in the dielectric is 3 × 104 V/m, the charge Q.35 A combination of capacitors is set up as shown in
density of the positive plate will be close to: (2014) the figure. The magnitude of the electric field, due to
a point charge Q (having a charge equal to the sum of
(A) 3 × 10 4 C / m2 (B) 6 × 10 4 C / m2 the charges on the 4 µF and 9 µF capacitors), at a point
(C) 6 × 10−7 C / m2 (D) 3 × 10−7 C / m2 distant 30 m from it, would equal: (2016)
JEE Advanced/Boards
Q.2 In the given network (See figure) if Potential 2F 2F 12F
difference between p and q is 2V and C2=3C1. Then find
difference between a & b.
Q.6 The figure shows a circuit consisting of four capacitors.
+ -
Find the effective capacitance between X and Y
b 1F 1F
a C2 1F
C1 X Y
p 2F
q
C1 C2
Q.7 Five identical capacitor plates, each of area A are
Q.3 Find field produced in the circuit shown in figure on
arranged such that adjacent plates are at a distance‘d’
closing the switch S.
apart, the plates are connected to a source of emf V as
2F
shown in figure. The charge on plate 1 is ------ and that
+20C -20C on plate 4 is ----
S
+50C -50C
1 2 3 4 5 -
5F V
+
3.5r
q
2.5r I
II
III
1 9 . 5 4 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
Q.10 Find the ratio between the erergy stored in 5µF (a) Charge on capacitor as a function of time.
capacitor to the 4 µF capacitor in the given circuit in
(b) Energy of the capacitor at t=20s.
stedy state.
5 5F Q.15 In the circuit shown in figure the capacitance of
each capacitor is equal to C and resistance R. One of
the capacitor was charged to a voltage V and then at
the moment t=0 was shorted by means of the switch
4F 4
S. find: R
2V
C C
Q.11 A solid conducting sphere of radius 10cm is S
enclosed by a thin metallic shell of radius 20cm. a W
charge q=20 µC is given to the inner sphere. Find
the heat generated in the process, the inner sphere is (a) The current in the circuit as a function of time t.
connected to the shell by a conducting wire. (b) The amount of generated heat.
Q.12 In the circuit shown here, At the steady state, the Q.16 The two identical parallel plates are given charges
charge on the capacitor is ------------. as shown in figure. If the plate area of either face of each
R1 plate is A and separation between plates is d, then find
the amount of heat liberated after closing the switch.
C
E R3 +3q +q
R2
30 C2
E C
P hysi cs | 19.55
Q.18 Find the charge flown through the switch from A dielectric of dielectric S
to B when it is closed. constant (or relative
permittivity) 3. Find
V A C B C
3F 3F 10V 6F the ratio of the total
5V 3F electrostatic enegry
6F A B stored in both capacitors
10V 5V 6F before and after the introduction of the dielectric.
(a) The potential of the junction A. Q.25 Two parallel plate capacitors A & B have the same
separation d=8.85+104m between the plates. The plate
(b) Final charge on all four capacitros. areas of A & B are 0.04 m2 & 0.02m2 respectively. A
slab of di-electric constant (relative permittivity) K=9
Q.20 In the circuit shown in figure, find the amount of has dimensions such that it can exactly fill the space
heat generated when switch s is closed. between the plates of capacitor B.
2F S
A B A B
5V 10V 3F
10V
4F
(i) The di-electric slab is placed inside A and A is then
Q.21 the connection shown in figure are established charged to a potential difference of 110volt. Calculate
with the switch S open. How much charge will flow the capacitance of A and the energy stored in it.
through the switch if it is closed? (ii) The battery is disconnectd & then the di-electric slab
is removed from A. find the work done by the external
1F 2F agency in removing the slab from A.
24V
S (iii) The same di-electric slab is now placed inside B,
filling it completely. The two capacitors A & B are then
2F 1F
connected. Calculate the energy stored in the system.
to a battery of e.m.f. 500 volt. The plates are then lowered Q.32 A dipole is placed at origin of coordinate system
vertically into the oil at a speed of 0.001 m/s. calculate the as shown in figure, find the electric field at point P (0, y).
current drawn from the battery during the process. y
[Di-electric constant of oil= ε0 =8.85x10 C / N m ]
12 2 2 2
P (0,y)
R S
V R C C Q.34 A cone made of insulating material has a total
charge Q spread uniformly over its sloping surface.
Calculate the energy required to take a test charge q
from infinity to apex A of cone.
Q.30 Two capacitors A and B with capacitor are connected
as shown in figure with one wire from each capacitor
free. The upper plate of A is positive and that of B is A
negative. An uncharged 2 µF capacitor C with lead wires
falls on the free ends to complete the circuit. Calculate: AB=L
B
C 2F
The slant length is L.
+ -
3F 2F
A 100V B 180V Q.35 A non-conducting disc of radius a and uniform
positive surface charge density σ is placed on the
(i) The final charges on the three capacitors (ii) The ground, with its axis vertical. A particle of mass m &
amount of electrostatic energy stored in the system positive charge q is dropped, along the axis of the disc,
before and after the completion of the circuit. from a height H with zero initial velocity. The particle
q 4 ε0 g
has = .
m σ
Q.31 Three charges 0.1 coulomb each are placed on
the comers of an equilateral triangle of side 1 m. If the (a) Find the value of H if the particle just reaches the
energy is supplied to this system at the rate of 1 kW, disc.
how much time would be required to move one of the (b) Sketch the potential energy of the particle as a
charges onto the midpoint of the line joining the other function of its height and find its equilibrium position.
two?
P hysi cs | 19.57
Q.2 Three plate A, B and C each of area Q.7 Find the equivalent capacitance across A and B
0.1m2 are separated by 0.885mm from A B
each other as shown in the figure. A C 10V
d
10V battery is used to charge the d
A B
system. The energy stored in the system is d
(A) 1µ J (B) 10-1µ J (C) 10-2µ J (D) 10-3µ J
ε0 A 2ε0 A 3ε0 A 4 ε0 A
(A) (B) (C) (D)
d d d d
Q.3 A capacitor of capacitance C is initially charge to a
potential difference of V. Now it is connected to battery
Q.8 The diagram shows four capacitors with
of 2V with opposite polarity. The ratio of heat generated
capacitances and break down voltage as mentioned.
to the final erergy stored in the capacitor will be
What should be the maximum value of the external emf
(A) 1.75 (B) 2.25 (C) 2.5 (D) ½ source such that no capacitor breaks down? [Hint: First
of all find out the break down voltage of each branch.
Q.4 Five conducting parallel plates having E After that compare them.]
area A and separation between them A B
123 45 3C; 1kV 2C; 2kV
being d, are placed as shown in the figure.
Plate number 2 and 4 are connected with 1 2
a wire and between point A and B, a cell
of emf E is connected. The charge flown 7C; 1kV 3C; 2kV
E
3 ε0 AE 2 ε0 AE 4ε0 AE ε0 AE
(A) (B) (C) (D)
4 d 3 d d 2d (A) 2.5kV (B) 10/3kV (C) 3kV (D) 1kV
Q.5 The plates S and T of an uncharged parallel plate Q.9 A conducting body 1 has some initial charge Q, and
capacitor are connected acorss a battey. The battery is its capacitance is C. There are two other conducting
then disconnected in a system as shown in the figure. bodies, 2 and 3, having capacitances: C2=2C and C3→ ∞.
The system shown is in equilibrium. All the strings are Bodies 2 and 3 are initially uncharged. “Body 2 is touched
insulating and massless. The magnitude of charge on with body 1 and touched with body 3, and the removed.”
one of the capacitor plates is: [Area of plates = A] This process is repeated N times. Then, the charge on
k S T body 1 at the end must be
KCE
(A) Q/3n (B) Q/3n-1
K +1
m (C) Q/2n (D) None
4mgAε0
(A) 2mgAε0 (B) Q.10 In the adjoining figure, capacitor (1) and (2) have
k a capacitance ‘C’ each. When the dielectric of dielectric
2mgAε0 constant K is inserted between the plates of one of the
(C) mgAε0 (D) capacitor, the total charge flowing through battery is
k
1 9 . 5 8 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
(A) From B to C; n
n
KCE
(B) From C to B
K +1 n
S
(K − 1)CE 9V
(C) From B to C;
2(K + 1) (A) 400V (B) 800V
Q1′ k +1 Q′ k + 1
(A) (B) (A) = (B) 2 =
Q1 k Q2 2
x x Q2′ k +1 Q′ k
(C) = (D) 1 =
v v Q2 2k Q1 2
Q.16 A charged capacitor is allowed to discharge Q.20 A charged capacitor is allowed to discharge
through a resistance 2Ω by closing the switch S at through a resistor by closing the key at the instant t=0.
the instant t = 0. At time t = ln2 µs , the reading of the At the instant t=(ln 4) µS , the reading of the ammeter
ammeter falls half of its initial value. The resistance of falls half the initial value. The resistance of the ammeter
the ammeter is equal to is equal to
0.5F (A) 1 MΩ (B) 1 Ω (C) 2 Ω (D) 2 MΩ
+ -
S
Multiple Correct Choice Type
A
2 Q.21 Two capacitors of 2 µF and 3 µF are charged to 150
(A) 0 (B) 2Ω (C) 2KΩ (D) 2MΩ volt and 120 volt respectively. The plates of capacitor
are connected as shown in the figure. A discharged
capacitor of capacity 1.5 µF falls to the free ends of the
Q.17 A capacitor C = 100 µF is connected to three wire. Then
resistor each of resistance 1k Ω and a battery of emf 1.5F
9V. The switch S has been closed for long time so as
to charge the capacitor. When switch S is opened, the
capacitor discharges with time constant +
2F
-
3F
150V 120V
C-0.5F - +
A
+ -
(A) Charge on the 1.5 µF capacitors is 180 µC
(A) Charge on capacitor C1 is equal to charge on Q.27 A parallel plate air-core capacitor is connected
capacitor C2 across a source of constant potential difference. When a
dielectric plate is introduced between the two plates then:
(B) Voltage across capacitor C1 is 5V
(A) Some charge from the capacitor will flow back into
(C) Voltage across capacitor C2 is 10V
the source.
(D) Energy stored in capacitor C1 is two times the energy
(B) Some extra charge from the sourch will flow back
stored in capacitor C2.
into the capacitor.
Q.24 If Q is the charge on the plates of a capacitor of (C) The electric field intensity between the two plates
capacitance C, V the potential difference between the does not charge.
plates, A the area of each plate and d the distance (D) The electric field intensity between the two plates
between the plates, The force of attraction between the will decrease.
plates is
V ε0 AV 2 1
E (C) E = (D)
= W 1 −
7F Kd 2d K
3.9F
3F Q.29 A parallel plate capacitor has a parallel slab
of copper inserted between and parallel to the two
(A) Potential difference across the 3 µF capacitor is 10V plates, without touching the plates. The capacity of the
capacitor after the introduction of the copper sheet is:
(B) Charge on the 3 µF capacitor is 42 µC
(A) minimum when the copper slab touches one of the
(C) Emf on the battery is 30V plates.
(D) Potential difference across the 12 µF capacitor is 10V (B) Maximum when the copper slab touches one of the
plates.
Q.26 The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is C
(C) Invariant for all positions of the slab between the
when the region between the plates has air. This region
plates.
is now filled with a dielectric slab of dielectric constant
k. the capacitor is connected to a cell of emf E, and the (D) Greater than that before introducing the slab.
slab is taken out
(A) Charge CE (k-1) flows through the cell Q.30 The plates of a parallel plate capacitor with no
dielectric are connected to a voltage source. Now a
(B) Energy E2C (k-1) is absorbed by the cell. dielectric of dielectric constant K is inserted to fill the
(C) The energy stored in the capacitor is reduced by whole space between the plates with voltage source
E2C (k-1) remaining connected to the capacitor.
1 (A) The energy stored in the capacitor will become
(D) The external agent has to do E2C(k − 1) amount of
work to take the slab out. 2 K-times
(B) The electric field inside the capacitor will decrease
to K-times
P hysi cs | 19.61
(C) The force of attraction between the plates will Assertion Reasoning Type
increase to K2 times.
(A) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true and
(D) The charge on the capacitor will increase to K-times statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-I.
(B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true and
Q.31 A parallel-plate capacitor is connected to a cell. Its statement-II is not the correct explatnation for
positive plate A and its negative palte B have charges +Q statement-I.
and –Q respectively. A third plate C, identical to A and
(C) Statement-I is true, statement-II is false.
B, with charge+Q, is now introduced midway between
A and B, parallel to them, which of the following are (D) Statement-I is false, statement-II is true.
correct?
3Q Q.34 Statement-I: The electrostatic force between the
(A) The charge on the inner face of B is now −
2 plates of a charged isolated capacitor decreases when
dielectric fills whole space between plates.
(B) There is no change in the potential difference
between A and B. Statement-II: The electric field between the plates of a
(C) The potential difference between A and C is one- charged isolated capacitance decreases when dielectric
third of the potential difference between B and C. fills whole space between plates.
(A) (B)
Q.32 The circuit shown in the figure consists of a battery
of emf ε =10V; a capacitor of capacitance C=1.0 µF and (d,0) (3d,0)
x x
(d,0) (3d,0)
three resistor of values R1=2 Ω , R2=2 Ω and R3=1 Ω .
Initially the capacitor is completely uncharged and the y
y
switch S is open. The switch S is closed at t=0.
R1 (C)
(D)
S x
(d,0) (3d,0) x
(d, 0) (3d,0)
R2 R3
2 1 3
120V
Q 02 d Q 02 d Q20 Q 02 d
(A) (B) (C) (D) Q.41 Choose the correct statement (S) related to the
3 Aε0 12 Aε0 2 Aε0 6 Aε0
two circuits.
(A) Both the capacitors are charged to the same charge.
Q.38 At this position the potential difference across the
capacitors is given by (B) The emf’s of cells in both the circuit are equal.
Q0 xd Q0 d
(C) (D) Q.42 Identify the correct statement (s) related to the R1,
4Aε0 (x + d) 2Aε0 x
R2, C1 and C2 of the two RC circuits.
3 2 25 2 9 2
(A) Zero (B) CV (C) CV (D) CV
2 6 2
P hysi cs | 19.63
Q.2 Two identical metal plates are given positive charges Q.6 A parallel plate air capacitor is connected to a
Q1 and Q2(<Q1) respectively. If they are now brought battery. The quantities charge, voltage, electric field
close together to form a parallel plate capacitor with and energy associated with this capacitor are given by
capacitance C, the potential difference between them Q0, V0, E0 and U0 respectively. A dielectric slab is now
is (1999) introduced to fill the space between the plates with the
battery still in connection. The corresponding quantities
(A) (Q1+Q2)/2C (B) (Q1+Q2)/C
now given by Q, V, E and U are related to the previous
(C) (Q1-Q2)/C (D) (Q1-Q2)/2C one as (1985)
(A) Q>Q0 (B) V>V0
Q.3 A parallel plate capacitor of area A, plate separation
d and capacitance C is filled with three different (C) E>E0 (D) U> U0
dielectric materials having dielectric constants K1, K2
and K3 as shown. If a single dielectric material is to be Q.7 A parallel plate capacitor is charged and the
used to have the same capacitance C in this capacitor charging battery is then disconnected. If the plates
then its dielectric constant K is given by (2000) of the capacitor are moved farther apart by means of
insulating handles (1987)
A/2 A/2
(A) The charge on the capacitor increases
d
K1 K2 2 (B) The voltage across the plates increases
d (C) The capacitance increases
K3
(D) The electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor
increases.
A = Area of plates Q.8 A parallel plate capacitor of plate area A and plate
separation d is charged to potential difference V and
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 then the battery is disconnected. A slab of dielectric
(A) = + + (B)
= + constant K is then inserted between the plates of the
K K1 K 2 2K 3 K K1 + K 2 2K 3
capacitor so as to fill the space between the plates. If Q,
E and W denote respectively, the magnitude of charge
1 K1K 2 K1K 3 K K on each plate, the electric field between the plates (after
(C)
= + 2K 3 (D)
= K + 2 3
K K1 + K 2 K1 + K 3 K 2 + K 3 the slab in inserted), and work done on the system, in
question, in the process of inserting the slab, then
Q.4 Two identical capacitors, have the same capacitance (1991)
ε0 AV ε0KAV
C. One to them is charged to potential V1 and the other (A) Q = (B) Q =
to V2. Likely charged plates are then connected. Then, d d
the decrease in energy of the combined system is
V ε0 AV 2 1
(2002) (c) E = (D)
= W 1 −
Kd 2d K
1
( )
(A) C V1 − V2 (B) C V1 + V2
4
2 2 1
4
2
( 2
)
Q.9 A dielectric slab of thickness d is inserted in a
1 1
C ( V1 − V2 ) (D) C ( V1 + V2 )
2 2
(C) parallel plate capacitor whose negative plate is at X=0
4 4 and positive plate is at X=3d. the slab is equidistant
from the plates. The capacitor is given some charge. As
1 2 X goes from 0 to 3d (1998)
Q.5 A 2 µF capacitor is charged as
shown in the figure. The percentage
(A) The magnitude of the electric field remains the same
of its stored energy dissipated after
the switch S is turned to position 2 is 2F 8F (B) The direction of the electric field remains the same
(2011) (C) The electric potential increases continuously
(A) 0% (B) 20% (D) The electric potential increases at first, then
(C) 75% (D) 80% decreases and again increases
1 9 . 6 4 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
Q.10 Two point charges Q and –Q/4 are separated by a (C) The direction of electric field at all points on the axis
distance x. Then (2001) will be along the axis.
Q x -Q/4 (D) If the ring is placed inside a uniform external electric
field then net torque and force acting on the ring would
(A) Potential is zero at a point on the axis which is x/3 be zero.
on the right side of the charge –Q/4.
Q.14 An electric dipole is placed at the center of a
(B) Potential is zero at a point on the axis which is x/5
sphere. Mark the correct answer (2003)
on the left side of the charge –Q/4.
(A) The flux of the electric field through the sphere is zero
(C) Electric field is zero at a point on the axis which is at
a distance x on the right side of the charge –Q/4. (B) The electric field is zero at every point of the sphere.
(D) There exists two points on the axis where electric (C) The electric potential is zero everywhere on the
field is zero. sphere.
(D) The electric potential is zero on a circle on the surface.
Q.11 An electric charge 10−8 C is placed at the point
(4m, 7m, 2m). At the point (1m, 3m, 2m), the electric
Q.15 For the situation shown in the figure below
(2000)
(assume r>> length of dipole) mark out the correct
(A) Potential will be 18 V statement (s) (2002)
(B) Field has no Y-component p
Q (small dipole)
(C) Field will be along Z-axis r
(D) Potential will be 1.8 V (A) Force acting on the dipole is zero
pQ
Q.12 Potential at a point A is 3 volt and at a point B is (B) Force acting on the dipole is approximately
7 volt, an electron is moving towards A from B. (2004) and is acting upward 4 πε0r 3
Paragraph for Question No. 17 to 19 Q.18 The charge appearing on right side of plate 4 is
(2009)
Four metallic plates are placed as shown in the figure.
Plate 2 is given a charge Q whereas all other plates are (A) Zero (B) Q/4 (C) -3Q/4 (D)+Q/2
uncharged. Plates 1 and 4 are jointed together. The
area of each plate is same. Q.19 The potential difference between plates 1 and 2 is
1 2 3 4 (2009)
Q
3 Qd Qd 3 Qd 3Qd
(A) (B) (C) (D)
2 ε0 A ε0 A 4 ε0 A ε0 A
Q.21 Six point charges, each of the same magnitude q, are arranged in different manners as shown in column
II. In each case, a point M and line PQ passing through M (potential at infinity is zero) due to the given charge
distribution when it is at rest. Now, the whole system is set into rotation with a constant angular velocity about the
line PQ. Let B be the magnetic field at M and µ be the magnetic moment of the system in this condition. Assume
each rotating charge to be equivalent to a steady current. (2009)
Column I Column II
(A) E = 0 (p) + - Q Charges are at the comers of a regular hexagon. M is at the centre
of the hexagon. PQ is perpendicular to the hexagon.
- +
M
P+ -
(B) V ≠ 0 (q) P Charges are on a line perpendicular to PQ at equal intervals. M is
the mid-point between the two innermost charges.
- + - + - +
M
(C) B = 0 (r) Q Charges are placed on two coplanar insulation rings at equal
+ - + intervals. M is the common centre of the rings. PQ is perpendicular
to the plane of the rings.
- M -
P +
1 9 . 6 6 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
Column I Column II
(D) µ ≠ 0 P Charges are placed at the corners of a rectangle of the sides a and
(s) + - 2a and at the mid points of the longer sides. M is at the centre of
the rectangle. PQ is parallel to the longer sides.
M
+ + - -
Q
Q.22 A parallel plate air capacitor is connected to a Q.25 A dielectric slab of thickness d is inserted in a
battery. The quantities charge, voltage, electric field parallel plate capacitor whose negative plate is at x=0
and energy associated with this capacitor are given and positive plate is at x=3d. The slab is equidistant
by Q0 , V0 ,E0 and U0 respectively. A dielectric slab is from the plates. The capacitor is given some charge. As
now introduced to fill the space between the plates x goes from 0 to 3d (1998)
with the battery still in connection. The corresponding
(A) The magnitude of the electric field remains the same
quantities now given by Q, V,Eand U are related to the
previous one as (1985) (B) The direction of the electric field remains the same
(A) Q > Q0 (B) V > V0 (C) E > E0 (D) U > U0 (C) The electric potential increases continuously
(D) The electric potential increases at first, then
Q.23 A parallel plate capacitor is charged and the decreases and again increases
charging battery is then disconnected. If the plates
of the capacitor are moved farther apart by means of Q.26 An elliptical cavity is carved within a perfect
insulating handles (1987) conductor. A positive charge q is placed at the center of
(A) The charge on the capacitor increases. the cavity. The points A and B are on the cavity surface
as shown in the figure. Then (1999)
(B) The voltage across the plates increases.
(C) The capacitance increases.
A
(D) The electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor
increases. q B
V ε0 AV 2 1
(C) E = (D)
= W 1 −
Kd 2d K
P hysi cs | 19.67
Q.27 For spherical symmetrical charge distribution, Q.30 Six point charges are kept at the vertices of a
variation of electric potential with distance from center regular hexagon of side L and centre O, as shown in the
is given in diagram. Given that: (2006) 1 q
figure. Given that K = , which of the following
q q 4 π ε0 L2
V= for r ≤ R 0 and V = for r ≥ R 0
4 πε0R 0 4 πε0r statement(s) is (are) correct ? (2012)
v F
F E
+q q
d
P
E3
r
r = R0
A S T D
O -2q
Then which option(s) are correct: +2q
E2
(A) Total charge within 2 R 0 is q
R
(B) Total electrostatic energy for r ≤ R 0 is zero
C
(C) At r = R 0 electric field is discontinuous. B
+q -q
(D) There will be no charge anywhere expect at r= R 0 .
(A) The electric field at O is 6K along OD.
(B) The potential at O is zero
Q.28 Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?
(2011) (C) The potential at all points on the line PR is same
(A) If the electric field due to a point charge varies as (D) The potential at all points on the line ST is same
−2.5 −2
r instead of r , then the Gauss’s law will still be valid
Q.31 In the circuit shown in the figure, there are two
(B) The Gauss’s law can be used to calculate the field
parallel plate capacitors each of capacitance C. The
distribution around an electric dipole
switch S1 is pressed first to fully charge the capacitor
(C) If the electric field between two point charges is C1 and then released. The switch S2 is then pressed to
zero somewhere, then the sign of the two charges is charge the capacitor C2 . After some time, S2 is released
the same and then S3 is pressed. After some time, (2013)
(D) The work done by the external force in moving a S1 S2 S3
unit positive charge from point A at potential VA to
point B at potential VB is (VB − VA )
C1 C2
2V0 V0
Q.29 In the given circuit, a charge of +80 µC is given
to the upper plate of the µF capacitor. Then in the
steady state, the charge on the upper plate of the 3µF
capacitor is (2012) (A) The charge on the upper plate of C1 is 2 C V0
(B) The charge on the upper plate of C1 is C V0
+80C
4F (C) The charge on the upper plate C1 is 0
(D) The charge on the upper plate of C1 is - C V0
and that in the other portion is E2. Choose the correct d/2
option/options, ignoring edge effects (2014)
E1 E1 1
(A) = 1 (B) = Q1 E1
E2 E2 K S/2
E2 2
Q1 3 C 2+K Q2
(C) = (D) =
Q2 K C1 K
+ S/2 -
PlancEssential Questions
JEE Main/Boards JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1 Exercise 1
Q.1 Q.3 Q.4 Q.3 Q.5 Q.6
Exercise 2 Exercise 2
Q. 2 Q.3 Q.4 Q.2 Q.6 Q.12
Answer Key
Q.10 11.1% energy is increased Q.29 (i) (a) 10s ; (b) 2 µC ; (c) 6.94s
Exercise 2
Q.1 C Q.2 D Q.3 C Q.4 D Q.5 C Q.6 A
JEE Advanced/Boards
V0 1
Q.15 (a) I = e−2t/Rc ; (b) CV 2
Exercise 1 R 4 0
Q.5 10 µC 4 ε0 AV 2 ε0 AV
(ii) Q3 = ; Q5 =
3 d 3 d
8
Q.6 µF Q.18 69 mC
3
Aε0 V 100
Q.7 Q.19 (a) Volts
d 7
Q.20 150 µJ
2
Q.9 2k(q − x) Q.21 16 µC
35r
Q.10 0.8
3
Q.22
Q.11 9J 5
1 1
E Q.23 W =Aε0 V02 1 − '
Q.12 C R 2 K
R + R 3
1 3
Q.24 12Volt
7
Q.13 (a) A Q.25 (i) 0.2 × 10−8 F,1.2 × 10−5 J;
50
(ii) 4.84 × 10−5 J
(b) Q1 = 0
9µC, Q2 =
(iii) 1.1 × 10−5 J
(b) 0.125 µJ
P hysi cs | 19.71
Exercise 2
Single Correct Choice Type
Comprehension Type
Solutions
1 1 1 1 8F
Total ⇒ = + + 2F
Ctotal 3 3 9
Capacitance b/w C and D
3F C2 ' 3F −1
1 1
= 4µ F + + µ F
1 7 6 12
= ⇒ Ctotal = 9 / 7 µ F = 1.29 µF
Ctotal 9
= 4µ F + 3µ F
= 7µ F
Sol 2: We have
Let capacitance b/w E and F
Q =CV ⇒ 5 × 10−6 =C × V = 2 + 2 = 4µ F
−6
5 × 10 Net capa. b/w G and B
⇒ V= = 5000 V
−9
10 −1 −1
1 1 1
D = + µF + 1 + µ F
C4 C3 8 4 7
Sol 3: A C2 B 8 7 64 + 21 85
= + µF = µF= µF
C1C5 3 8 24 24
E
Now from symmetry, we can argue that the charge at 1 24
Now 1= +
C2 must be zero and hence potential diff. across D and E. C 85
1 1 1 1 1 85
So (capacitance across ADB)−1 = + = + = ⇒ Cc= µ F= 1.39 µ F
C 4 C3 4 4 2 61
d 1 1
Capacitance −1 = . +
-(Q-q)
2F
Q-q 2Q/3 2ε0 A k1 k 2
−1
⇒ CA
=
2ε0 A 1 1
. +
d k1 k 2
-q q
Q/3 (B) Capacitance Total = C1 + C2
2F
2 1 64 × 10−2 ε0 A 1 1
(8 × 10−4 )2
= + = Sol 9: CA = 1
and CB −= +
9 × 4 × 10−6 18 × 2 × 10−6 2×6 d C1 C2
= 5.33 × 10−2 J d d d 2ε A
= + = ⇒ CB = 0
4ε0 A 4ε0 A 2ε0 A d
⇒ Energy lost = 8 − 5.33 = 2.67 ×10−2 J
So CA / CB =1/ 2
B D
1 1 1
= × (300)2 . ε0 A −
2 d1 d2 We have q1 + q2 + q3 =
0
2d 2d.Mi q1 q2 3
Similarly,=
ti = .. ⇒ = ⇒ q1 = q
ai Ee 3 2 2 2
, q1 780 µ C
q2 520 µ C =
=
Now distance = Ve × te
520 µ C
2d.me Potential difference = = 260 Volts
2Vd 2 µF
= ×
me Ee Thus the charge will flow from each positive terminal to
the negative terminal.
V
= 2d. (independent of mass)
Ee
Sol 18: No current will pass through, the upper portion,
Same distance can be found for the ion and hence the and voltage difference between the capacitors would
time is same. be same as ε .
−1 −1
1 1 1 1
Sol 17: Q =
3 × 300 =
900 µ C. C total
=
C +C
+ = + = 5µ F
1 2 C3 + C 4 10 10
And Q 2 =
2 × 200 =400 µ C.
(4)
Actual emf = ε − × 1 = ε − 1 = 3V
Q1 Q1-q (3 + 1)
+ -
So Q = CV = 5 µ F × 9 = 15µ C
q1 q3
Q2 Q2+q
Q1 − q (Q 2 + q)
So using Kirchhoff’s law, ⇒ − 0
=
3 2
q2 q1
2Q − 3Q 2
⇒ 2Q1 − 2q = 3Q 2 + 3q ⇒ q = 1
5
q1 ⇒ q3= 9µ C ⇒ q4= 6µ C
q1
q2
1 9 . 7 6 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
3F q66F -q6
Diagram-2 C1
e q’’ c
a
2F q’’
q4 C2 CT ’
4F
2F
q4
5F 4F q5 b
-q’’C q’’ d
f
A 4F B
1
5F q5
4F
A B
3F 12F
e
a
3F 12F
Diagram-3 q’’
2.4F C2 CT’’
A 2.4F B b
f
5F
A 2.4F B
5F
−1
2.4CF = 1 + 1
total
5 4.8 a
−1 −1
1 1 1 5 120
Ctotal
= + = 2.45µ F
5 4.8 + = = CT’’’
5 24 49
−1
1 5 120 b
=
So,
=Q+ CV
= = =
2.45 × 102.45µF µ C
= 24.5
5 24 49
Now from diagram (3), capacitance
We have
= same ⇒ charge is equally divided. −1 −1
1 1 1 2 1
24.5 CT =
+ + = (6 / 7)µ C
+ =
⇒ q=
2 q=
3 = 12.25 µ C 3 3 2 3 2
2
Now from diagram (2) 6 20
Now CT ' = + 2= µC
q4 + q5 =
q2 7 7
q4 q5 7 2
−1
61 60
−1
And − 0 ⇒ 2q4 − q5
= Now CT " = + = = µC
2 4
20 3 60 61
12.25 × 2
So q4 = 12.25/3µC = 4.08µC and=
q5 = 8.166µ C
3 60 182
⇒ CT '"= + 2= µC
4.08µ C 61 61
(i) So voltage diff. =
= q / c = 2.04 V
2µ F
−1 −1
61 1 1 61 2
12.25µ C 6.12µC CTotal = + + = 1 C
+ =µ
(ii) Charge = = 182 3 3 182 3
2
[q3 =
12.25µ Cand2q6 =
q3 ]
P hysi cs | 19.77
(ii) Q = CV = 1× 900
= 900µC 7 7
VAC= × VCB ⇒ VAC ⇒ .VCB
3 3
(iii)
600 3
600V ⇒ VAC= 7 × = 420 V and V=
CB 600 × = 180 V
C 500V 10 10
900
1 C × 420 = 420 µ C
⇒ Q AC =CV =µ
600 C 2 300 C
And QBC= 180 × 1= 180 µ C
0 d 400V
300V And in each 3 , q will be equally distributed
q= 420 − 2 × 180 ( on each)
Q 900µC
=
1 1
900 Sol 23: We have × C1 × (2)2 + × C2 .(2)2 = 10 × 102
v
⇒ ∆= = 300V 2 2
3
300 ⇒ C1 + C2 =
500
Now between e and c = = 100V
3
Q2 Q2 1 1
So, between c and=
d 500 − 400V = 100V And 160
= + 320 Q 2 +
⇒=
2C1 2C2 C
1 C 2
Sol 21: (a) a b 1 1 V2
= V 2 × Ceq2 + =
All in series C1 C2 1 1
+
(b) 2 C1 C2
V ⋅ C1 ⋅ C2
320 =
C1 + C2
a b C1 ⋅ C2
⇒ 80
= ⇒ C1 ⋅ C
= 2 40000 …(i)
500
Cnet =1.2F ⇒ On solving, 400 , C2 = 100
C1 =
Sol 24:
q2 -q2
q1 -q1
Cnet
= 1.2 µ F 2F 3F
1F
We have q3 + q1 = 110µC
A 1 C B
and q2 − q1 =
0
q3 q1 q2 q1 q2
q1 and
⇒ q2 = − − 0 ⇒ q3 =
= +
A 1 C Ctot B 1 2 3 2 3
5 ⋅ q1 6 × 110
⇒ 110 − q1= ⇒ q1= = 60 ⇒ q1 = 60µC
A 1 C Ctot B 6 11
VAC + VCB =
600 ….. (i) So, q=
2 60µC and q5= 50µC
So, 110 − 50= 60µC charge passes through wire.
And 1× VAC = Ctot × VCB
1 9 . 7 8 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
40V (unchanged)
Sol 25: 100V 0
CA CB Ceq (parallel)= C1 + C2
100V CA 90 0 1 1 ε0 A.(2d)
= ε0 A. + = 2
CB d + a d − a (d − a2 )
2µC 1 1 2ε A
Without any a difference , Ceq =
ε0 A × + = 0
We have CA × 60 = CB × 40 ( q charge is same) d d d
CA 2
Similarly , = CB 0.24 µ F
⇒= 4V
CB 3
(i) We have , iR + q / c =
4
Vmax V 0
Sol 26: dq q 4
⇒ iCR + q =4C ⇒ + =
C1 C2 dt RC R
For Vmax .(inseries) , Q = same for both the capacitance (in q,t t
4 t/RC
∫ d q.e
t/RC
R ∫0
series ) ⇒ = e .dt
0,0
So , C1 (Vmax − V)= C2 (V − 0)
4
q.e
= t/RC
=.(RC) et/RC − 1
R
⇒ 1× (Vmax − V) = 2.(V − 0)
Vmax
⇒ Vmax − V =
2V ⇒ V = =
⇒ q 4C 1 − e− t/RC
3
Now V < 4kV dq 1 − t/RC
Now = 4C. .e
Vmax dt RC
⇒ < 4 ⇒ Vmax < 12 kV
3
4
= × e−1/3 = 0.96 µ C / s
And Vmax − V < 6kV 3 × 10 6
2Vmax Q2
⇒ < 6kV ⇒ Vmax < 9 kV (ii) E= x ×
3 2c
Lower limit is 9 kV dE 1 dq q dq
⇒ = × 2 × q. = .
C1.C2 dt 2C dt C dt
Sol 27: Ceq (Series) =
(C1 + C2 ) 4C 1 − e−1/3
= . 4 × e−1/3 = 1.09 × 10−6 J / s
1
−1
d+a d−a
−1
2d
−1
ε0 A C 3 × 106
1
= + =
+ = =
C1 C2 ε0 A ε0 A ε0 A 2d
dq
2
2
(iii) P = i R = .R
Which is same as without any difference a. dt
= (0.96 µ C)2 .3 × 106
P hysi cs | 19.79
5C
kq
Potential at center due to one charge =
r
9 × 109 × 5 × 10−6
2V = = 45 × 104 V
−1
10
(i)
Potential at center due to all the charges
(a) t = RC = 107 × 10–6 = 10 sec
(b) Q = CV = 2 × 1 µC = 2µC = 6 × Vq = 2.7 × 106 V
⇒ et/10 = 2
10C
⇒ t = 10ln2 = 6.94 sec
(ii) A B
2C
(k)(10µC) 2k
Sol 30: VB = = (10 µC)
a a
-1
2
NC
o
30
(0) = 0
x
30
+ 2
E=
Sol 33:
T = (Eq) (2 ) sin 30° q
T = E sin 30°. (q.2l) r = 0.1m
⇒ Dipole moment (D) v = 100 volts
26
T 27 × 10 kq 100 × 0.1
= q.2 l = = ⇒ = 100 ⇒ q =
Esin30° 30 × 10 4 × 1/ 2 r k
= 1.8 × 1024 cm = 1.1 × 10-9 C (positive)
1 9 . 8 0 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
7cm
Exercise 2
q1 q2 q q
Vp = K +k = k 1 + 2 Single Correct Choice Type
r1 r2 r1 r2
q1 = −10µc , r1 = 1 cm Sol 1: (C)
q2 = 20µc , r2 = 7 cm CV + Q
-CV
Put the values in the equation for Vp, d
Vp = – 1.8 × 106 V
Sol 35:
-7 C
0
x1
5)
.5
,1
-2 σ1 CV CV + Q CV Q CV
,0
+ = + = +
(0
.5 work done = E × d = + CV ×
,1
Q 1 Q
Total charge of system = + C × V'× = V +
2C C 2C
= -2.5 × 10-7 C + 2.5 × 10-7 C = 0
−1
Dipole moment of system 1 1 1
Sol 2: (D) Ceq =C + + =C + C / 2 =3C / 2
= -2.5 × 10 × (-15 – 15) × 10
-7 -2 C 2C 2C
Q =×
60 3C / 2 =
90C
=-7.5 × 10-8 Cm (along –ve z-axis)
q1 q2
Now = = ; q1 2q2 and =
q1 + q2 90C
Sol 36: The motion perpendicular to electric field won’t C C/2
account in work
⇒ q2 =
30C. So potential difference
∴ Work done in moving charge from A to B is = Q=
/ C 30V
E(6 – 2) = 4E
∴ Potential difference between A and B = 4E also Sol 3: (C)
q3
VB = VC (since no parallel movement along E)
q2
⇒ VC – VA = 4E and VC > VA
q4
Sol 37: (i) q1
+ Eq
4F
6 Q
Eq -
P hysi cs | 19.81
1 1
−1
10
−1 q1 q2
Ceq =4 + + =4 + =6.1µC. = ⇒ q1 = 2q2
4 2
3 7 21
144µF
⇒ q2 = = 48µC
So qtot = q1 + q2 = (6 / 6.1)µC 3
= =
q1 4×6 8 B C
6.1× 6.1 C
3C/2
Sol 4: (D) 4 times in series. Let each be x, then A B
x
= 16µF ⇒ x = 4µF
4 C
−1
Which is possible when 8 are connected in parallel 20 1 3C 8C
So eq ⇒ + +C= +C=
⇒ 8 × 4 = 32 3C C 5 5
Sol 5: (C) −1
1 1 1 5 1
Sol 8: (B) Ceq = + + − 1= +
6F 2 5 3 6 5
3F 6F −1
31 30 30
= = = µF q C=
eq .Vmax .V ;
31 max
4F 30 31
24V
q 30
−1 V=
1 = .V < 3V ⇒ Vmax < 6.2 V
1 1 C 31× 2 max
+ =2 and 2 + 4 =6µF
3 6
q 30 1
V2 == × .V < 2V ⇒ Vmax < 6.2 V
So charge = Q = 6µF × 24 = 144µC C 31 3 max
Sol 9: (B)
σ
=105 V / m ⇒
σ
=0.5 × 105 V / m Previous Years’ Questions
ε0 2ε0
σ C1C2
Now, force= × Q= 0.5 × 105 × 1µC= 0.05 N Sol 1: (A) In series, C =
2ε0 C1 + C2
σ Q2
Sol 10: (C) Force = × Q=
2ε0 2Aε0
so Force ∝ Q 2
1F
Vmax 3V 2V 1V
O
2 3 5 10F
(1) (2) (3) (10)(1) 10
Cnet = = µF
Now, when d is halved ⇒ C is doubled; Q=CV ⇒ Q is 10 + 1 11
doubled.
So Force ∝ Q 2 ⇒ F becomes four times. Sol 2: (D) Since, the capacitor plates are directly
connected to the battery, it will take no time in charging
d/2 d/2 k + k2 C
Sol 11: (A) deff = + = d 1
k1 k2 2k1k 2
d 2k1k 2 R
∴ k eff = =
deff k1 + k 2
V
A 2 ∈0 A(k1k 2 )
Also, C =
∈0 =
deff k1 + k 2
Sol 3: (D) When S3 is closed, due to attraction with
opposite charge, no flow of charge takes place through
Sol 12: (C)
S3. Therefore, potential difference across capacitor
plates remains unchanged or V1 = 30V and V2 = 20V
Alternate solution
Charges on the capacitors are
q1 = (30)(2) = 60pC and
Capacitance increases = kC0
q2 = (20)(3) = 60pC or q1 = q2 = q(say)
Now,
The situation is similar as the two capacitors in series
qi =Ci V =60µC and qf =Cf V =180µC(60 + 120) are first charged with a battery of emf 50 V and then
⇒ Cf = kCi ⇒ k = Ci . V = 180µ C ⇒ k = 3 disconnected.
q q
+ - + -
2pF 2pF q=60pC q=60pC
+ - + -
V1=30V V1=20V
50V
∴ When S3 is closed, V1 = 30V and V2 = 20 V.
P hysi cs | 19.83
Sol 4: (A) Due to attraction with positive charge, the Dipole moment
negative charge on capacitor A will not flow through
the switch S. 4q
a/2
Sol 5: (A) After time t, thickness of liquid will
-4q
d
remain – vt
3 a
P = 4q ˆj = 2qa ˆj
Now, time constant as function of time: 2
ε0 (1)R kq VR
tc = CR = Sol 9: (D) Potential of each drop = V = ⇒q=
d d / 3 – vt R k
d – – vt + VR
3 2 If n drops coalse, Q = nq = n
k
Radius R’ = n1/3 R
ε0 A
Applying C = nkVR
t The potential of new drop = = Vn2/3
d–t+ kn1/3R
k
6ε R Sol 10: (B) The potential at center is same as that of
=0
5d + 3Vt the surface.
∴ V = 10 Volts
Sol 6: (C) Option C is correct because electron gets
attracted towards positive charge (moves against Sol 11: (A)
electric field) larger the potential, lower the potential
energy for electron.
∴
U = V(-q) b
10V
5V
a
Sol 7: (B) σ = 10-7 C/m2
Given, V = 5 volts
Sol 8: (A) -
3q b
+
a
-2q -2q c -
+ -
+ -
+ -
∴ DV = VC – VC + - Q2=C2V2=(2C)(2V)=4CV
1 2 + -
1 1
= (Q1 – Q 2 ) – (Q1 – Q 2 ) The two capacitors will have the same potential, say V’
4 πε0R 2
The net capacitance of the parallel combination of the
Q1 – Q 2 two capacitors will be
= ( 2 –1)
2(4 πε0R) C’ = C1 + C2 = C + 2C = 3C
The potential difference across the capacitors will be
W = qDV = q(Q1 – Q2)( 2 – 1)/ 2 (4pe0R)
Q' 3CV
V’ = = =V
C' 3C
Sol 16: (C) The diagrammatic representation of the
given question is shown in figure. The electrostatic energy of the capacitors will be
1 1 3
Eq U’ = C’V’2 = (3C)V2 = CV2
2 2 2
E
Sol 18: (D) Potential at origin will be given by
y
E-q
q 1 1 1 1
V= – + – + .......
4πε0 x0 2x0 3x0 4x0
x
q 1 1 1 1 q
q -q = . 1– + – +....... = ln(2)
4πε0 x0 2 3 4 4 πε 0 x0
(-d, 0) (d, 0)
P hysi cs | 19.85
x
A B
+Q1 +Q2
E2 E1 E
∴ VA = VC and VA > VB
1 2
Q – Q2 Q1 – Q 2 Q1 – Q 2 q Q
VA – VB = Ed = 1 Sol 22: (B) q
2Aε d = Aε = 2C
0
2 0 x=–a x=0 x=+a
d
Initial Position
ε0 A
Sol 20: (D) Applying C= , we have q Q q
t t
d – t1 – t2 + 1 + 2 x=–a
K1 K 2 x=x x=a
ε0 (A / 2) Final position
d/2 d/2
d–d/2–d/2+ + 2KQq K.q.q
K1 K3 Ui = +
q 2a
ε0 (A / 2) Kε0 A
+ = 1 1 K.q.q
d/2 d/2 d and Uf = KQq
d–d/2–d/2+ + + +
K2 K3 a + x a – x 2a
Sol 25: (C) A = (–a, 0, 0), B = (0, a, 0) Sol 29: (A) 120C1 = 200C2
y
6C1 = 10C2
3C1 = 5C2
B -Q
∫ dV = − ∫ 30 x2 dx
V0 0
ε0 A 6ε0R
ApplyingC = = VA − V0 =
−80 volt
t 5d + 3Vt
d–t+
k
Sol 33: (B, C) The potential at the centre
Sol 28: (D) q1 = C1V = 2V = q 2
R 4 π r dr
Q 3 kQ 3 1
4 3 ∫0
= k = = =V ;k
This charge will remain constant after switch is shifted r 2 R 2 0 4 π ε0
πR
from position 1 to position 2. 3
1 q2 q2 q2
Ui = = = ∴ R1 = 0
2 Ci 2×2 4
kQ
1 q2 q2 q2 Potential at surface, V0 =
Uf = = = R
2 Cf 2 × 10 20
5V R
q2 Potential at R 2 = 0
⇒ R2 =
∴ Energy dissipated = Ui – Uf = 4 2
5
k Q 3 kQ 4R
q2 Potential at R3 , = ⇒ R=
3
This energy dissipated = is 80% of the initial R3 4 R 3
5
q 2
stored energy = k Q kQ
4 Similarly at R 4 , = ⇒ R 4 = 4R
R4 4R
P hysi cs | 19.87
And thus , q=
2 50 µ C
Sol 5: ∆ V =
10 V 4ε A ε0 AV
4Q = (4C)V = 0 V ⇒ Q =
So, Q = CV = 10 × 1 µ C d d
(The ends of C = 1µ F are connected to the terminals of ε0 AV
the battery) So, the charge on plate 1 is and that on plate 4
d
2ε AV
is − 0
d
Sol 6: Suppose a charge q is given to the system.
q1 -q1 q4 -q4 C1.C2
Sol 8: Capacitance (left side):
C1 + C2
-q2 1
x 1 1 2 y 1× (A / 2).ε0 3 × (A / 2).ε0
q2 . 3Aε0 3Aε0
2 = d d = =
(A / 2).ε0 8d 8d
q3 -q3 4.
d
Then, q1 + q2 + q3 =q …… (i)
Capacitance: (right side)
And q4 + q3 = q ….. (ii)
2 × (A / 2).ε0 4 × (A / 2).ε0
Also , applying kirchoffs law in loop (i) .
d d 4 Aε0 2Aε0
−q1 q2 = = =
+ 0 ⇒ q1 = q2 …(iii)
= (A / 2).ε0 6 d 3d
6.
1 1 d
q3 q2 q4
And − − 0
= 3Aε0 2Aε0
2 2 1 So C=
total +
8d 3d
q3 2(q2 + q4 )
⇒=
9 + 16 Aε0 25 Aε0
Now, 2q1 + q3 =
q (form (i)) =Ctotal =
24 d 24 d
(q − q3 )
⇒ q=
2 q=
1
2
Sol 9:
(q − q3 )
⇒ q3 2.
= + q − q3
2 II
⇒ 4q3 =q − q3 + 2q − 2q3
I q2
⇒ q3 = 3q / 4 -x
p
1 3q
Now, ∆=
V 3q / 4 × = V
2 8 x
8 q-x
So Capacitance = q / ∆ V = µF -q+x
3
Sol 7: The Circuit can be converted to all branches have Now V at outer must = 0
the same capacitance and are connected in parallel.
k.( − x) kq k[( −q + x) + q2 ]
1 2 ⇒ + + 0
=
Q Q 3.5r 3.5r 3.5r
⇒ kq2 = 0 ⇒ q2 = 0
3 2
(A,1,3,5) (2,4,B) And now potential at inner cell = 0
Q Q
k.( −q + x) k(q − x) k.x kx
3 4 + + − 0
=
3.5r 2.5r 2.5r r
Q Q
5 4 k( −q + x) kq kx
⇒ + − 0
=
Q Q 3.5r 2.5r r
P hysi cs | 19.89
(x − q) q 20
1
+ −x =0 So Energy =∫ ε0 .E2 .(4 πr 2 ).dr
3.5 2.5 2
10
2(x − q) 2q
+ − x=0 ε0 dr
7 5 = . 4 π.k 2q2 20
10 ∫ r2
2
⇒ 10(x − q) + 14 q − 35 x =
0
⇒ 4q = 25x kq2 1 1 5kq2
= . − =
2 0.1 0.2 2
⇒ x = 4q / 25
kx 5 × 9 × 109 × (20)2 × 10−12
So in region (I), E = =
r2 2
2.5r =9J
1
Energy = ∫ ε .E2 .(4 πr 2 ).dr
2 0 E
r Sol 12: i =
R1 + R3
2.5
1 2 1 2
= 2 ×ε0 × 4 π.kx ∫ r2 r .dr
So, ∆ v= R 3 .i=
R 3E
r
R1 + R 3
2
kx 2 3k 2 CR 3E
= 1 − = 10r .x where x = 4q/25 Now, Q = C × ( ∆ V) =
2r 5 R1 + R 3
Similarly in region II
−kx k(q) k( −x + q) Sol 13: (A)
E
= + =
2 2
r r r2
2F
3.5r
1
⇒ Energy = ∫ ε0E2 (4 πr 2 )dr 30
2.5r
2 9V 2V
30 60 +
k(q − x)2 2 2 2k(q − x)2 1F
= − = -
2r 5 7 35r
O
-2V
Sol 10:=i 2 / 4 + =
5 2/9 -
or
2 10 +
So ∆ V for 4µ F =iR = 5 × =V
9 9
2 8 2µC
And ∆ V for 5 µ F = iR = 4 × = v (a) ∆V across 1µ=
F = 2V
9 9 1µ F
1 / 2 × 5 × (8 / 9)2 9−2
So Energy ratio = Now so current =
1 / 2 × 4 × (10 / 9)2 −1
1 1
30 + +
5 64 4 60 30
= × = =0.8
4 100 5 7 7
= = = A 0.14 A
30 + 20 50
Sol 11: Now after connection all the
charge will transfer to be outer shall. 30C (b) Current = 0; So, qC = 9 × 1 = 9µ C
1
Now, the heat generated would be And qC =( ∆V) × C2 =0 × C 2 =0
same as then energy of the region 100m 2
kq
So, E =
r2
1 9 . 9 0 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
5 × 0.05 2
= 1 − e−10
R2 R2 2
E + qC 0.125 µJ
-
q
⇒ E − iR1 − i1 R 3 − =0 ….. (i) Sol 15:
C
0
And E − iR1 − i2R 2 = ….. (ii) q1
i= i1 + i2 …… (iii) (a)
q2
q
So i2R 2 − i1R 3 − =0
C
q dq1 dq2
(i − i1 ) R 2 − i1R3 − 0
= =
=i =
C dt dt
q
iR 2 − i1 (R 2 + R3 ) − 0
= q1 q2
c And − iRC =
C C
R q
⇒ iR1. 2 = i1 (R 2 + R 3 ) + and q1 + q2 =
CV
R1 C
q R q ⇒ q1 − iRC = CV − q1
⇒ E − i1R3 − . 2 = i1(R 2 + R3 ) +
C R1 C dq1
⇒ 2q1 + .(RC) =
CV
dt
R R .R q R
⇒ E. 2= i1 R 2 + R3 + 3 2 + 1 + 2q1 dq1
R1 R1 C R1 ⇒ + V /R
=
C dt
q
⇒ E.R 2= i1(R1.R 2 + R1.R 3 + R 3 .R 2 ) + .[R .R ] q,t t
C 1 2 ⇒ ∫
q0,0
(
d q1.e2t/RC = ) V
∫ R .e
0
2t/RC
.dt
2 dq q(R1 + R 2 )
⇒ = +
∑ R1.R 2 dt c.( ∑ R1.R 2 ) 2t/RC V (RC) 2t/RC
⇒ q1.e= − q0 . . e −1
R 2
t.(R1+R2 ) t.(R1+R2 )
E.R 2 t c( ∑ R .R ) dt q,t c.( ∑ R +R ) VC
∑ R .R ∫ e = ∫ d q.e
⇒ 1 2 1 2
⇒ q=
1 q0 .e
−2t/RC
+ . 1 − e−2t/RC
1 2 0 0,0 2
dq1 −2 −2/RC VC 2 −2t/RC
t(R1+R2 ) t(R1+R2 ) = So, q0. .e + .e
E.R 2 C( ∑ R1.R 2 ) C( ∑ R1.R2 ) C( ∑ R1.R2 ) dt RC 2 RC
⇒ . e −1 = q.e
∑(R1.R 2 ) (R1 + R 2 )
−V V
= × 2.e−2t/RC + .e−2t/RC
R R
ECR 2 −t(R1 + R 2 ) dq
⇒ 1 − e =q V
(R1 + R 2 ) C( ∑ R1.R 2 ) = i=
− 1=+ .−2t/RC
dt R
(b) Heat generated = Einitial − Efinal
− t(300 +300)×2
10 × 0.01× 300 0.01×106 [300×300 +300×50 + 300×50×186 ]
q . 1 − e 1 CV 2 1
300 + 300 1
= × CV0 2 − × × × 2
2 2 2 C
0.1
= . 1 − e− t/2 = 0.05 1 − e− t/2 µC CV02 CV02 CV02
2
= − =
2 4 4
P hysi cs | 19.91
3q q q So capacitance = Q / ∆V
Sol 16: E = − =
2Aε0 2Aε0 Aε0 = q / 3q / 5c
qd q 5C 5Aε0
⇒ Voltage = E × d= = = =
Aε0 C 3 3d
1
So energy initial = × C × V2 (ii) Charge on plate 3 ⇒ q4
2
2
q (from 2 and 3)
2q4 + q2 =
1 q q2 q2d
= × C × = = ⇒ q4 = − q / 10
2 C 2C 2Aε0
Now, we have ∆ v =
3q / 5C , So v 0 = 3q / 5C
and Efinal = 0 (both have q = 2q)
5V0 C
So Einitial = Efinal + heat ⇒ =q
3
q2d 5V0 Aε0
⇒ = Heat ⇒ .
=q
2Aε0 3d
Aε0 .V0
Sol 17: So, q4
= ⇒ on plate 3
6d
1
And charge on plate 5 = q1
2
-
3 Now, q1 + q2 =
q
4
5
⇒ q1 = 2q / 5
6
+
7 2 5V0 .Aε0 2 V0 Aε0
8 = × =
5 3d 3 d
Sol 18:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Qo Q2 Qo-Q2
3F
3F 10V 6F
5V
Q1-Qo 3F
-q1 7 q
2 8
Q1 A B
q1 1 -q3
q3 6F 5V 6F
q4 5 Qo
3 -q4 6 Qo 10V
A B
q2 4
-q2 Set up potential drop equations to get the values of Q0,
Q1, and Q2
Let q charge be given to the system. Now, close the switch ‘AB’ and draw a similar charge
distribution diagram.
q
q1 + q2 = …. (i)
This will give you the new charges across all the plates.
q
q3 + q4 + q2 = ….. (ii)
q3 q4 By using appropriate arithmetic, you can easily get to
− =0 ⇒ q3 =q4 …. (iii) the charge flown across the switch AB.
1 1
q1 − q2 + q4 =
0
q2
q1 + q4 = ….. (iv)
So on solving,
⇒ q2 = 3q / 5
So ∆ V =
3q / 5C (C = capacitance of each capacitors)
1 9 . 9 2 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
60C q3 = CV = 3µ F × 10 = 30µ F
-10C 10C So energy or heat generated = work done by battery -
energy stored in capacitor
A 20 V 4F
1
50C = 10 × 30 − × 3 × (10)2 = 300 − 150 = 150 µ J
2
−1 −1
1 1
Sol 21: Ceq = 1 + + + 1
3F 2 2
V 2 V-20 2 2 4
1 = + = µF
20 V 4F 3 3 3
2F 3
4
5F So , Q =Ceq .V = × 24 =32 µ C
3
This will be divided equally, as the capacitor are
Charge is conserved
equal ⇒ Q = 16 µ C
(V − 0) × 3 + (V − 0) × 2 + (V − 0) × 5 + (V − 20) × 4 = 10 + 60 + 50
= 10 + 60 + 50 1
1 2
2
⇒ 14V − 80 =
120 24V 1
1 FF S 2
2 FF
+
+ 24V S
⇒ VA = 200 / 14 = 100 / 7 --
2'
2' FF 1
1 FF
300
(b) q1= 2 × (100 / 7) , q2 =3 × V = µC 4
4 3
3
7
5 × 100 300 (a)
(a)
And=
q3 = µC
7 7
-Q
-Q11 Q
Q11 Q
Q22 -Q
-Q22
100
= q4 = (VA − 20) × 4 µ F = − 20 × 4µ F 1 2
7 1
1FF 2FF
2
24V 1 S 2
+ 24V
+ S
−160 -- 0
= µ F = 22.88
7
0 2
2 FF V
V00 1
1FF
4
4 3
3
Q22 Q Q22
Sol 20: Q -Q
-Q11 Q
Q11
5
(b)
(b)
2F
10V 3F When the switch S is closed as shown in the figure
(b), then the charges stored across positive plates
5V
0 (Cons. of charge)
⇒ (V − 5)2 + (V + 10)4 = Q=
1 ( 24 − Vo ) × 1µF …(i)
⇒ 6V + 30 =
0 Q 2= ( 24 − Vo ) × 2µF …(ii)
⇒ V = −5 Q 3= V0 × 1µF …(iii)
So q1 =−
( 5 − 5)2 =− 20 µ C Q 4 = V0 × 2µF …(iv)
And q2 = ( −5 + 10) × 4 = 20 µ C Thus from (i) and (iii) V0 = 12V and thus the charges be
n
After the switch is closed, the above eq s would s + Q1 =
Q3 =
12µF and Q 2 =
Q4 =
24µF
111 be valid , and hence q1 and q2 would be same.
P hysi cs | 19.93
Thus when switch is zero, 12µF charge is passed through Sol 24:
the switch. q1 C
8.85×10-12
q2 CV 2 = [0.02+ 0.18]
Therefore,
= UB = 8.85×10-4
2(3C) 6
= 0.2 ×10-8 F
2 2
3CV CV 1 2
∴ UTotal = + Energy = CV= 1.2 × 10−5 J
2 6 2
(ii) Q = CV
10 2 5CV 2
= = CV Uf …(ii) ε0 A
6 3 Find the new capacitance, C' =
Ui 3 d
From eqs. (i) and (ii) U = 5 Q 2
Q 2
f Work done = – = 4.84 × 10−5 J
2C' 2C
Aε0 Aε0 AV0
Sol 23: C = , So Q = CV = × V0 = .ε 0
d d d
kc
AV0 ε0 Q2 Q2 (iii) C’ 2
So, Q = , Einitial = =
d 2C0 2C0
1 1 Aε
= × C0 V02 = . 0 × V02 Find the new charge distribution, and proceed as (i) & (ii)
2 2 d
Energy of system = 1.1×10-5 J
ε0 AV02
Einitial =
2d
2 Sol 26:
Aε0 2
V0
Q2 = d V02 Aε0
E=
final = .
2Cf Aε0 2k d (1-x)
2.k.
d
x
Efinal + work done = Einitial
−100 (t/2RC/3)
10F ⇒ q1et/2CR
= /3
− 100 e −1
3
100
q1 100.e− t/RC/3 −
⇒= . 1 − e− t/2RC/3
3
+ - 200
Charge
10V (C) 3
So, q = 30 × 10 = 300 µC
t
Thus, q on 20 µ=
F 200 µC
Sol 28: Q = C0V0
And q on 20 µ=
F 200 µC
Now,
Now,
q1 -q1 q1 q2
C0 C
-q2 q2
q1 q2 q1 q q C
So, − =0 ⇒ =2 ⇒ 1= 0
C0 C C0 C q2 C
Now, q2 − q1 = 200 − 100 = 100 µCNow,
C0
−dq1 dq2 So, q1
= (q1 + q2 ) (After first)
i= = − (C0 + C)
dt dt
q1 q2 C02 V0
And, + − iR =
0 = (After First)
10 20 (C0 + C)
P hysi cs | 19.95
⇒ (0.094899)n = 0.35
qq1 1 -q-q
1
1
ln(0.35)
⇒ n=
22 FF
ln(0.94899) -q33
-q -q-q
2 2
⇒ n = 20 33FF 22FF
q33 q2q2
Sol 29:
S −q3 q1 q2
i R
i1 (i) Now Kirchhoff’s law : − + 0
=
3 2 2
i3 q2 q1 = 3q
=2 3q1 + 2q3 …. (i)
V R
C
i2 C and charge conservation
⇒ q1 − q3 = 300 µ C
i = i1 + i2 + i3 q2 − q3 = 60 µ C
dq1 dq
= i1= , 2 i2 = 3 60 − q3 =
3 300 + q3 + 2q3
dt dt
q1 q2 = 180 − 3q3 = 900 + 3q 3 + 2q3 = −720 =
8q3
And − = 0 ⇒ q1 + q2 …. (i)
C C = q3 =
− 90 µ C
dq1 dq2
⇒ = = i= i And thus, =
q2 150 µ C
dt dt 1 2
And =
q1 210 µ C
d2
⇒ = i3R ⇒ q2 = i3RC 2
C 1 Q2 1 Q2
(ii) Einitial = × + ×
q2 2 C1 2 C2
⇒ i3 = …. (ii)
RC 1 (300)2 1 (360)2
q = × + ×
V − iR − 1 = 0 2 3µ F 2 2µ F
C
= (300 × 50 + 360 × 90) µ J = 0.0474 J
(Kirchoff’s Law in bigger loop)
Sol 31:
P 1 ˆ
E2 + 2k 3 ( − j)
+q 2 y
e kP
E = E1 + E2 = ( −ˆi − 2ˆj)
2y 3
a a
Sol 33:
+q +q I. +q
a
r
Initial +q
2
kq
Ui = ×3 r
a
a/2 a/2 Or
eq eq eq +q
r
Final
kq2 +q
kq2
Uf = + ×2
a a II. +q
2 r
2v
Work done = Uf – Ui
2kq2 2r
⇒t=
ap +q
9 −2
2 × 9 × 10 × 10
= = 18×104 sec
1× 103
kq2 kq2 kq2 kq2
UI = ×2+ + ×2+
r 2r 3r 4r
Sol 32:
kq2 kq2 kq2
y UII = + + ×4
4r 2r 5r
P (0,y)
kq2 8 4
Wfirst step = UII – UI = −
r 3 5
o x
45
III.
P
E1 o,y (0,y)
E2 2v
P r
+
2
P r
2
P 1 2r
E1 = k 3 ( −ˆi)
2 y 0
P hysi cs | 19.97
r
UIII = UII ∴ wsecondstep = 0
dr
⇒ wthird = UIV – UIII – UII – UI - Wfirst step
∴ kldone
∴ Total work total =w first + wsec ond + w third =0 Initial electric potential = V
Q
kdq
Sol 34: Q = ∫ dv = ∫ (H2 + r2 )1/2
0
a
kσ2πr,dr q
⇒V= ∫ (H2 + r2 )1/2 where σ = 2
A 0 πa
L a
(H2 + r 2 )1/2
B ⇒ V = πσk
Q 1/ 2 0
σ = surface charge density = take an elemental
πRL
part
dx
(
⇒ V = 2psk (H2 + a2 )1/2 − H = 2 )
Final electric potential Vf = 2psk (a)
[substitute H = 0]
r
By equation conservation,
x A mg H + 2psk ((H2 + a2)1/2 – H) q = (2pska)q
q q
⇒ gH + σ ((H2 + a2)1/2 –H) = (σ . a)
dp 2 ε
0 m m2 ε0
Q
⇒V= U
2n ε0L
Exercise 2
⇒ 4.5CV 2 =
Heat generated
2
Single Correct Choice Type =ratio 4.5CV
= / 2CV 2 2.25
CV -CV CV 2CV q1 C
2V q2
Initial Final 2C
1
∴ × C × V 2 + 2V.(3CV)
2
1
= × C × (2V)2 + Heat generated
2
1 2
⇒ CV + 6CV 2 = 2CV 2 + Heat generated
2
P hysi cs | 19.99
2
q2 -q2 q2 -q2 Sol 9: (A) q 1F
v2 v2
oA oA
d d
A B 1
q 1F
Let there be a charge Q on body 1.
oA
q1 q2 q1 1
d So = ⇒ =
2ε0 A 1 2 q2 2
Net Capacitance =
d and q1 + q2 = Q ⇒ q1 = Q / 3 where q = initial charge
−1 −1
1 1 1 1 Q/ 3n
⇒q=
Sol 8: (A) Ceq = + + +
3C 2C 7C 3C
EC
6C 21C 33C Sol 10: (D) Total charge now= E.C / 2 =
= + = =3.3C 2
5 10 10
Now after dielectric is inserted,
Q max = Vmax × Ceq = Vmax (3.3C)
kC.C kC kCE
Ceff
= = so
= Q net
q1 q2 q 4 (kC+ C) (k + 1) (k + 1)
Now
= = ; 1
6 / 5C 21/ 10C q2 7 KCE CE (K − 1)CE
so Q flowed = − = from B to A
4 k +1 2 2(k + 1)
Now q1 = × Vmax × (3.3C) =1.2 Vmax C
11
as capacitance increases.
7
q2 = × Vmax × (3.3C) =2.1Vmax C
11 Sol 11: (B) Voltage would be highest at x = 0. And
E = constant ⇒ V ∝ x so it would decrease linearly,
from x = 0 to x-d, will remain constant from x = d to
x = 2d.
c B
A
d
Sol 12: (C) 1000V 0V
1
and thus ×i i|t ln 4µs.
=
1.5F 2 =|t 0 =
300 C -360 C
1
-300 C +360 C τ = 2µs = (r + 2) × × 10−6 ⇒ r = 2Ω
2
1 q0 q0 − t/ τ
⇒ × − = − .e = et/ τ = 2
2 τ τ
1.5F ⇒ ln 2 ⇒ ln 4 / τ
Sol 16: (A) q= q0 .e
q3− t/ τ -qwhere
3 τ (2 + r)0.5µ F
=
dq q0 − t/ τ 1.5F
⇒ =.e Multiple Correct Choice Type
dt z
300 -q -q2 -360 C
C1
-300 qC 2F ln2 × µs 3F +360 C Sol 21: (A, B, C) Now from charge conservation
e− t/ =
τ
1/ 2 1⇒ ln2
= t/τ⇒ = qln2
2
z q1 + q2 = 60µC ... (i); q3 − q1 = 300µC ... (ii)
r == 00)
⇒ τ = 1µs = (2 + r) × 1/ 2 ⇒ (r
⇒ q2 + q3 = 360µC
1.5F q1 q3 q2
q3 -q3 + − = 0 ; 3q1 + 4q
=3 2q2 ... (iii)
2 1.5 3
Final Ceff =
2C ⇒ charge =
2CE
Sol 18: (D) As at t = 0 the capacitor is assumed as a wire.
2CE − 2CE / 3 =
4CE / 3
dq q
Sol 19: (B)
= q q0 .e− t/RC ⇒= 0 .re−= t/RC
i Sol 23: (A, D)
dt RC
q0 1F v+10 2F
⇒=i .e− t/RC Now ∫ i2R.dt= 3.6 × 10−3 5 v O
−6
2 × 10 × 10
C1 C2
P hysi cs | 19.101
1 1
EC = × 1× (10)2 = 50µ J ; EC = × 2 × (5)2 = 25µ J + - o
1 2 2 2 CE/3 CE/3
⇒ 2EC =
EC + - + -
1 1
E E
σ
Sol 24: (A, B) We have E = (by one plate)
2ε0
Sol 26: (A, B, D) Charge = KCV – CV=(K-1)CV
σ Q2
So force = . Q= Energy absorbed= (K − 1)CV 2
2ε0 2Aε0
1 (K − 1)
C2 V 2 d CV 2 Energy
energy = × K × C × V2 = .CV 2
Q = CV ⇒ F= × = 2 2
2Aε0 d 2d
1 1
Now × K × C × V 2 + work = × C × V 2 = (K − 1)CV 2
2 2
Sol 25: (B, C, D)
1
Ceq ⇒ Work
work =(K − 1)CV 2
12F 2
Q CV V
Now Vnet = = = = E×d ⇒ E =V / Kd
KCV KCV C KC K
+ - + -
And energy initial + work done=energy final
Q2 Q2
+ work done =
2C 2KC
V V Q2 1 CV 2 1
Work
work = − 1 =− 1 −
2C K 2 K
−1
1 1
Ceq ' = 3.9 + + = 3.9 + 2.1 = 6µF Putting the value of "C" from the first line, we get
3 7
−1 ε0 AV 2 1
1 1 =W 1 −
Ceq =3.9 + + =4µF so q
= 4EµC. 2d K
6 12
−1
q1 q2 2.1 1 1
q1 + q2 = 4E and = ⇒ q1 = × 4E Sol 29: (C, D) C= +
2.1 3.9 6 eq
C1 C2
= 0.7 × 2E = 1.4E −1
x d−x−t
0.7 × 2EµC = +
so ∆V across 7 µF ⇒ =
q1/ 7 µF = 6 Aε Aε0
7µF × 10 0
−1
⇒E=30V d−t Aε0
= =
⇒ q1 = 0.7 × 2 × 30 = 42µC. Aε
0 d−t
q
∆V across 3 µ=
F = 14V ;
3 µF
1 9 . 1 0 2 | Electric Potential and Capacitance
⇒ Statement-I is false.
120 C1 C2 V
Comprehension Type
i2 80 60
10 10 10
(B) = i= = = 5A Q0 Q
Re q −1 2 x
1 1 ⇒ 1+
= 0
⇒ q2 =
1+ + q2 d 1+ x
2 2
d
(C) From kirchoff 's law
i1 R2
i1R1 = i2R 2 ⇒ = = cons tant
i2 R1
P hysi cs | 19.103
+ - Q1=C1V1=CV
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
t
d
+ -
x d-(x-t) + -
+ -
Q2 q22 Q 02 + - Q2=C2V2=(2C)(2V)=4CV
= = = + -
2Aε0 2Aε0 (1 + x/ d)2 2Aε
0
The net charge shared between the two capacitors is
Q 02 2d
1 Q’ = Q2 – Q1 = 4CV – CV = 3CV
And work done =
2Aε0 ∫ (1 + x/ d)2
d The two capacitors will have the same potential, say V’
2 2
Q0 d Q0 d The net capacitance of the parallel combination of the
= ×=
2Aε0 6 12Aε0 two capacitors will be
C’ = C1 + C2 = C + 2C = 3C
And potential difference = q1/C
The potential difference across the capacitors will be
Q0 Q 0 (x/ d) Q 0 x
q1 =
Q0 − = = Q' 3CV
1+ x / d 1+ x / d x + d V’ = = =V
C' 3C
Q 0 xd The electrostatic energy of the capacitors will be
potential q1 / C1 =
(x + d) A ε0 1 1 3
U’ = C’V’2 = (3C)V2 = CV2
2 2 2
Sol 39: (A, C) i=E/R1 → → →
Sol 2: Electric field within the plates=
E E Q1 + E Q2
E
Sol 40: (A, B, (B)
C) Current =
R1 + R 2 E
E × R2
(A) Voltage
voltage = ;
(R1 + R 2 )
2
1 1 ER 2 +Q1 +Q2
(C) × CV 2 = × C ×
2 2
(R1 + R 2 ) E2 E1
ε0 A ∴ V = V0, C > C0
Sol 3: (D) Applying C = ,
t1 t2 Q = CV∴ Q > Q0
d – t1 – t2 + +
K1 K 2
1 2
U= CV ∴ U > U0
we have 2
V
E= but V and d both are unchanged
A/2 A/2 A d
K1 d/2 K2 d/2 Therefore, E = E0
+ K d
K3 d/2 K3 d/2
Sol 7: (B, D) Charging battery is removed. Therefore,
q = constant Distance between the plates is increased.
Therefore, C decreases.
In parallel
q
ε0 (A / 2) Now, V = , q is constant and C is decreasing
C
d/2 d/2 Therefore, V should increase.
d–d/2–d/2+ +
K1 K3
1 q2
U= again q is constant and c is decreasing
ε0 (A / 2) Kε0 A 2 C
+ = Therefore U should increase.
d/2 d/2 d
d–d/2–d/2+ +
K2 K3
Sol 8: (A, C, D) Battery is revoved. Therefore, charge
K1K 3 K 2K 3
Solving this equation, we get K = + stored in the plates will remain constant
K1 + K 3 K 2 + K3
ε0 A
Q =CV = V
Sol 4: (C) DU = decrease in potential energy = Ui – Uf d
2 Q = constant.
1 1 V + V2
= C( V12 + V22 ) – (2C) 1 Now, dielectric slab is inserted. Therefore, C will
2 2 2 increase. New capacity will be
1 ε0KA
= C(V1 – V2)2 C’ = KC =
4 d
Q V
Sol 5: (D) q1 = C1V = 2V = q V’ = =
C' K
This charge will remain constant after switch is shifted V' V
from position 1 to position 2. And new electric field E = =
d K.d
1 q2 q2 q2 Potential energy stored in the capacitor,
Ui = = =
2 Ci 2×2 4 1 ε AV 2
1 q2 q2 q2 Initially, Ui = 2 CV2 = 0
Uf = = = 2d
2 Cf 2 × 10 20 2
1 1 Kε A V ε0 AV 2
q2 Finally, Uf = C’V’2 = 0 =
∴ Energy dissipated = Ui – Uf = 2 2 d K 2Kd
5
q2 Work done on the system will be
This energy dissipated = is 80% of the initial
5
q2
ε0 AV 2 1
stored energy = |DU| = 1–
4 2d K
Sol 6: (A, D) When dielectric slab is introduced capacity Sol 9: (B, C) The magnitude and direction of electric field
gets increased while potential difference remains at different points are shown in figure. The direction of
unchanged. the electric field remains the same. Hence, option (b) is
correct. Similarly, electric lines always flow from higher
P hysi cs | 19.105
V0
x Sol 12: (A, C) It must have any K.E. at B to reach A
O d 2d 3d
Since
OA||BC and (Slope)OA > (Slope)AB UA – UB = -e (VA – VB) = +4eV
Because E0–d = E2d–3d (K.E.)f – (k.E.)i = UB – UA = -4eV
And E0–d > Ed–2d
Sol 13: (A)
Sol 10: (A, B, C) + -
+ -
+ -
PQ n P -Q/4 + -
+
+ - -
+ -
d + -
Potential at P is zero +
+ -
-
If (d>x)
By symmetry potential due to negative part =(potential
kQ kQ due to particle part). (Also every small charge is
⇒ - = 0 ⇒ d = 4d – 4x
d 4(d − x) equidistant from axis)
Direction of field is perpendicular to axis and towards (It is independent of presence of conductor because
negative side induced charges provides zero potential at center)
There will be a torque when placed in uniform field Potential B = Potential at C
(Since electric field inside conduction is zero)
Sol 14: (A, D) Electric field due to dipole exists inside
⇒ V = constant
sphere only a circle on the sphere has zero potential
which is equidistant from poles of dipole ∴ Potential at B due induced charges
= Potential at B – potential at B due to q
kq kq −kqR
- = - =
+ qenclosed =0 4 π ∈0 (d + R) 4 π ∈0 d 4 π ∈0 (R + d)d
Electric flux = 0
Sol 17: (B) Let the distribution of charges be
Zero potential
Sol 15: (B, C) (1) (2) (3) (4)
+q y x Q-x -Q+x y
r+ F
r -x -Q+x Q-x
Q 2
r+ d 2d d
-q
2F. 2
FR = (= 2F sin θ) =
2
a + 2
r + 2
2 Since the potential difference between plates (1) and
(4) is zero.
kQ kQ(P)
2 .q = − x.d Q − x(2d) (Q − x)d
r + 2
(r + 2 )3/2
2 ⇒ + + =0
A ∈0 A ∈0 A ∈0
1 pQ 3Q
⇒ FR = . 3 (r >> ) ⇒x= ∴ Option B
4π ε0 r 4
F.r ⇒ Charge on right side of plate 3 = Q – x = Q/4
Torque on dipole = (2 )
(r + 2 )1/2
2
= (=2 F cos q ) Sol 18: (B) Also Charge is conserved on plate 1 and 4
r.(2 ) l Q ⇒ y + (-x) + Q – x + y = 0 + 0
⇒T= . .q
4 π ε0 r +
2 2 1/2 2 2 Q
(r + ) ⇒y= ∴ Option B
4
1 pQ Q
⇒T= (r >> ) ∴ Charge on right side of plate 4 =
4π ε0 r 2 2
q R B R C
Sol 20: (B) Obviously, both statements are correct. But,
Statement-II is not a correct explanation of statement-I.
kq
Potential at center of sphee =
4 π ∈0 (d + R) Sol 21: Refer theory on Superposition of electric field &
Ampere’s Loop Law.
P hysi cs | 19.107
+q -q
Sol 24: (A, C, D) Q – remains constant.
2kq
∈0 A k ∈0 A E=
2 E=
3
C changes from to L2
d d 4kq
Hence, other variable also change. E1 =
L2
Sol 25: (B, C) Eall = E1 + E2 + E3
-Q 6kq 1 q
+Q = 6×
= 6K (Along OD)
=
L2 4 π ε0 L2
Vat O = 0
(B) is correct as the direction of field remain the same. Assume C0 be the capacitance without dielectric for
whole capacitor.
(C) As we are going in the opposite direction of electric
C0 2C0
field, potential would rise. k + C
=
3 3
C 2+k
Sol 26: (C, D) Using Gauss’s Law =
C1 k
qin
Net =Flux ∫= E.ds
∈0 Q1 k
= .
It electric field is same at all the points of a surface, it is Q2 2
knows as equipotential surface.
+80
-80
80
q2 =
2
x 80 = 32 q1 = 3 x 80 = 48
5 5
+32 +48
-32 -48
S
4 ε0
C10
= = 2 4 ε0 S
d/2 d
2 ε0 S ε0 S
=C20 = , C30
d d
1 1 1 d 1
= + = 1 +
C'10 C10 C10 2 ε0S 2
4 ε0 S
⇒ C'10 =
3d
7 ε0 S
C2 =C30 + C'10 =
3d
C2 7
=
C1 3
C10 C20
C30
2017-18 100 &
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PHYSICS
FOR JEE MAIN & ADVANCED
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Exhaustive Theory
(Now Revised)
Formula Sheet
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20. CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1. INTRODUCTION
Transfer of charge across a cross-section of a conducting medium constitutes an electric current. Any conductor in
general offers some resistance to the flow of electric current through it. This means an electric current cannot flow
continuously all by itself in a conductor. An electric source is needed to continuously drive electric current through
a conductor. Some work is done or energy is supplied by the source to drive the current in a conducting medium.
In this chapter we will study the laws and phenomena that govern the flow of electric current in conductors. We
will discuss the factors that affect the electrical properties of conductors, what constitutes an electric circuit and
the laws of division of current in various branches of a complicated network. Electricity has indeed transformed
our lives beyond imagination. Electric energy is used everywhere, right from the lights of our homes, our electronic
appliances, computers, automobiles, heavy machines used in our industries, hospitals, aircrafts etc. We will mainly
focus on direct current circuits and sources in this chapter. The techniques of circuit analysis developed in this
chapter form the backbone of electrical and electronics science and engineering.
2. ELECTRIC CURRENT
In this chapter we will be mainly dealing with current in a conducting medium. Electric current is defined as the
rate of flow of electric charge through a certain cross-section of a conductor. If there is to be an electric current
through a given surface, there must be a net flow of charge through the surface. The free electrons (conduction
electrons)in an isolated conductor are in random chaotic motion in all directions and on an average same number
of electrons passes through each side of any imaginary surface. Thus, the net charge passing through any surface
in any time interval is zero, and thus the current through the conductor is zero. However, if we connect the ends
of the conductor to a battery, an electric field is applied inside the conductor from positive terminal to negative
terminal, and the motion of the electrons is biased opposite to the electric field, with the result that an ordered
motion with a certain average velocity u opposite to the direction of electric field is superimposed on the chaotic
motion of the electrons. Thus there is a net flow of negative charge opposite to the electric field, or equivalently
flow of net positive charge in the direction of electric field. Thus an electric current flows through the conductor in
the direction of electric field.
If charge dq passes through an imaginary surface in time dt, then the current I through that surface is defined
dq
as I = (definition of current). The direction of the current is the direction of flow of positive charge carriers, or
dt
opposite to the flow of electrons.
Also, we can write dq = i dt. The charge that passes though the surface in a time interval extending from 0 to t is
t
given as:=q ∫=
dq ∫ idt
0
(the current i in general varies with time).
The SI unit for current is coulomb per second or the ampere (A), which is an SI base unit:
1 ampere = 1 A = 1 coulomb per second = 1 Cs-1.
2 0 . 2 | Current Electricity
3. CURRENT DENSITY
In general the electric current is distributed non-uniformly over the surface through which it passes. So to analyse
the current through an elementary surface of infinitesimal area at any point inside the conducting medium, we
introduce a current density vector j .The magnitude of current density vector at any point P, is equal to the ratio
of current dI through an elementary surface perpendicular to the direction of current at P to the area dS ⊥ of this
elementary surface. The direction of j is the same as the notion of dI at that point, or the direction of velocity
vector u of the ordered motion of positive charge carriers.
∆I
If ∆I be the current through the area ∆S ⊥ ,the magnitude of average current density is j = .
∆S ⊥
dI
The magnitude of current density at the point P is j = .
dS ⊥
S cos
Q
P
Q S n
=i S
t
Figure 20.1: Current and current density
If the area dS is not perpendicular to the current dI through it, i.e. the normal to the area makes some angle θ with
the notion of the current, then the current density is given as,
dI
j= or,
= dI jdS cos θ
dS cos θ
If dS be the area vector corresponding to the area dS, we have dI = j.dS
For a finite area, I = ∫ j.dS
An electric current is not a vector quantity. It does not follow the laws of vector addition. The current density is a
vector quantity.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Direction of Current
•• Direction of drift of electrons is in the opposite direction of electric field in conducting wires.
•• It is not always along the length of the wire (direction of cross section). We take the component of the
velocity along the wire.
Yashwanth Sandupatla (JEE 2012, AIR 821)
4. DRIFT SPEED
A conductor contains a large number of loosely bound electrons called free electrons or conduction electrons.
These electrons move randomly in all directions within the entire volume of the conductor, (see Fig. 20.2) and in
this process keep on colliding with the atoms/molecules/ions of the conductor, changing their direction of motion
at each collision.
P hysi cs | 20.3
x y x y
(a) (b)
When an electric field is applied inside the conductor, each electron experiences a force in the direction opposite
to the field. The chaotic motion of electrons gets biased in favour of this force. At each collision with a molecule,
the electron changes its direction of motion and moves with a random velocity but gains an additional velocity
eE
ve = τô in the direction opposite to the electric field till the next collision happens and the direction of its motion
m
again changes abruptly. As the average time τ between successive collisions is small, the electrons slowly and
steadily drift opposite to the applied field (see Fig. 20.3) with an average drift speed vd.
The distance drifted during successive collisions can be written as
= 1 a( τ)2 = 1 eE ( τ)2
2 2 m
1 eE
The drift speed will be given by the relation: vd= = τ
τ 2 m
E
A vd
Current density can be expressed in terms of the drift speed. Consider a cylindrical conductor of cross-sectional
area A in which electric field E exists. Consider a length L= v d ∆t of the conductor. The volume of this portion is
Av d ∆t . If there are n free electrons per unit volume of the conductor, the number of free electrons in this portion
are nA v d Δt. All these electrons cross the area A in time Δt. Thus, the charge crossing this cross-section in time Δt is
∆Q
Q neAv d ∆t or current through the conductor is,=
∆= I = neAv d
∆t
I
Therefore current density is: =j = nev d
A
Illustration 1: If n =8.5 × 1028 m–3,how long does an electron take to drift from one end of 3 m long wire to its other
end? The area of cross section of the wire is 2.0 × 10-6 m2and it is carrying a current of 3.0 Ampere. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: For constant p.d. across conductor the electrons drifts with constant drift velocity across it. If we find the drift
velocity, the time to drift across wire of constant length is easily found out
Given that: (i) Number density n = 8.5 × 1028 m–3 (ii) Cross-sectional area A = 2.0 × 10-6m2
(iii) Current I = 3 A (iv) Charge on electron e = 1.6 × 10–19 C
Current in terms of drift speed is expressed as I = neAvd
I
⇒ vd = .
neA
Now time taken to cross the length of the wire is:
2 0 . 4 | Current Electricity
t = 2.7 × 104 s.
Illustration 2: If a wire is stretched to ‘n’ times its original length how does the R change? On stretching, volume
remains constant. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: For any deformation in wire the resistance varies inversely w.r.t the area of cross-section of wire, but directly
w.r.t. the length of the conductor at the given instant of time.
As the volume remains constant, AL = A’L’ ⇒ AL = A’nL (Given L’ = nL)
A' 1 L'
⇒ =and = n
A n L
L R' L' A
Now R ∝ ⇒ = × = n × n = n2 ⇒R’ = n2 R
A R A' L
Figure 20.4
(a) Suppose a potential difference is applied between the ends of the cylinder that produces a current flowing
parallel to the axis. What is the resistance measured?
(b) If instead the potential difference is applied between the inner and outer surfaces so that current flows radially
outward, what is the resistance measured?
ρL
Sol: The resistance of the conductor is calculated as R = where A is the area of conductor perpendicular to the
A
direction of current. The larger the area, the lower the resistance offered to charge drifting across conductor.
(a) When a potential difference is applied between the ends of the cylinder, current flows parallel to the axis. In
this case, the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the current is A = π (b2 – a2), and the resistance is given by
ρL ρL
R= =
A π(b − a2 )
2
(b) When the current flows radially outwards, the area of cross-section perpendicular to the current will be the
area of cylindrical surface coaxial with the cylinder and its value will increase as the radius of the cylindrical
surface increases. Consider an elementary coaxial cylindrical shell of infinitesimal thickness having inner radius
ρdr
r and outer radius r + dr and length L. Its contribution to the resistance of the system is given by dR =
2πrL
where A = 2prL is the area normal to the direction of current flow. The total resistance of the system becomes
b
ρdr ρ b
=R ∫=
2πrL 2πL
log
a
a
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10–1 ± 5%
Silver 10–2 ± 20%
No colour ± 20%
Example
62 105 5%
Hint: An easy way to remember the sequence of colours is to memorize the following phrase: “B B ROY goes
Bombay via Gate Way”, the letters in capital (B, B, R, O, Y, G, B, V, G, W) are the first letters of the colours of the
table for Resistor colour code.
In the example shown in the Fig. 20.5, first colour is Blue and stands for numeric value 6, Red corresponds to 2,
Green corresponds to 105, Gold is ± 5%, so the value of resistance is (62 × 105 Ω) ± 5%
6. TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE
Resistivity of a material changes with temperature. If α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity, then change in
resistivity with change in temperature is given as ρ – ρ0 =ρ0 α(T – T0 ) .
Here T0 is the initial temperature and r0 is the resistivity at that temperature. Usually T0 = 293 K (room temperature).
The sizes of degrees on Celsius or Kelvin scales are identical. We can use any of these scales in this equation as only
the temperature difference between two states is used here.
6.1 Thermistor
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose temperature coefficient of resistivity is quite large as compared to standard
resistor. A small change in temperature produces a large change in resistivity. In Negative Temperature Coefficient
(NTC) thermistors, resistance decreases with increase in temperature. In Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)
thermistors, resistance increases with increase in temperature. The thermistor is dipped in the bath whose
temperature is to be measured. The current is supplied by a battery. If the temperature increases, the current
changes because of the change in resistivity. Thus, by noting the change in the current, one can find the change in
temperature. A typical thermistor can easily measure a change in temperature of the order of 10–3 ºC.
Illustration 4: The resistance of a Platinum wire at ice point (0oC) =5 Ω and steam point (100oC) =5.23 Ω. When the
thermometer is inserted in a hot bath the resistance is 5.795 Ω. Find the temperature of hot bath? (JEE MAIN)
P hysi cs | 20.7
Sol: The resistance of the wire varies linearly with change in temperature as RT =R0(1+∝ΔT).
Resistance of wire over temperature difference ∆T= 100oC is R100 = R0[1 + α(100-0)] ⇒ 5.23 = 5(1 + 100α)
0.23
⇒ α= For resistance of wire as 5.795 Ω the temperature of wire is found as
500
5.795 500
=
⇒t − 1
5 0.23
⇒ t = 345.65oC
6.2 Superconductor
Superconductor is a material which offers zero resistance to flow of electric current through it. Superconductivity is
a phenomena exhibited by certain materials wherein there resistivity drops abruptly to zero when they are cooled
below a certain temperature. This temperature is called the critical temperature for that material. Above the critical
temperature, the resistivity of the material has a non-zero value and increases with increase in temperature.
Resistivity
Resistivity
Temperature Tc Temperature
7. OHM’S LAW
German scientist George Simon Ohm stated the following law known as Ohm’s law:
The current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference (V) across its ends
provided the physical conditions (temperature, strain, etc.) do not change, i.e.
I ∝ V
V
or
= constant
= R
I
or V=IR
R is called the resistance of the given conductor. The quantity 1/R is called conductance.
Now for a wire of length L and area of cross-section A we have
L
V = I ρ
A
I V V
or = j= = σ
A Lρ L
or j = σE
2 0 . 8 | Current Electricity
i
(mA)
i
-v v
v i
(A)
Figure 20.7: Variation of current with respect to voltage in non-ohmic devices
Illustration 5: Calculate the resistance of an aluminium wire of length 50cm and cross sectional area 2.0 mm2. The
ρ 2.6 × 10 −8 Ωm
resistivity of aluminium is = (JEE MAIN)
ρL
Sol: The variation of resistance with length and area is shown as R =
A
L (2.6 × 10−8 Ωm) × (0.50m)
The resistance of the wire is R =ρ = =0.0065 Ω
A 2 × 10−6 m2
8. COMBINATION OF RESISTANCE
V1 V2 V3
V
(b) Voltage across each resistance is directly proportional to the value of resistance. V1=IR1, V2 =IR2
(c) Sum of the voltages across individual resistances is equal to the total voltage applied across the combination
i.e.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + …………………..
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + …………………
V
= R1 + R2 + R3 + …………… = R
I
where, R = equivalent resistance.
Note: If n resistances (each equal to R) are connected in series there resultant will be nR (See Fig. 20.9).
P hysi cs | 20.9
R1 R2
i2 R2
A B
i3
R3
V
Figure 20.10: Parallel combination of resistances
(b) Current in each resistance is inversely proportional to the value of resistance i.e.
V V V
=I1 = , I2 = , I3 etc.
R1 R2 R3
(c) Current flowing in the combination is the sum of the currents in individual resistances i.e. I=I1+I2+I3
V V V I 1 1 1 1
I= + + + ⇒ = = + + ……………..
R1 R 2 R 3 V R R1 R 2 R 3
where R = equivalent resistance.
Note:
1
(a) You are asked to find R and not in the question, so be careful.
R
(b) The equivalent resistance of parallel combination is less than the value of the lowest individual resistance in
the combination.
(c) For a parallel combination of two resistances
V(R1 + R 2 )
I = I 1 + I2 =
R1R 2
2 0 . 1 0 | Current Electricity
Note:
(a) If n resistance (each equal to R) are connected in parallel, their resultant will be R/n(See Fig. 20.11).
R1
i1
i2
R2
(b) If n resistance are connected in series and parallel respectively the ratio of their resultant resistances will be
(nR):(R/n) = n2.
i1 R1
a b
i2 R2
Illustration 6: (a) Three resistors 1 Ω , 2 Ω and 3 Ω are combined in series. What is the total resistance of the
combination? (JEE MAIN)
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of e.m.f. 12V and negligible internal resistance, obtain the potential
drop across each resistor.
Sol: (a) When resistances in any circuit when connected in series, the net resistance of the circuit increases, and
there is a constant potential drop across each resistance depending on amount of current passing through it.
(a) For series combination Req = R1 + R2 + R3, so we get Req = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 Ω
V 12
(b) By Ohm’s Law current drawn from the battery,=I = = 2A
R eq 6
Illustration 7: Given ‘n’ resistors each of resistance ‘R’. How will you combine them to get maximum and minimum
effective resistance? What is the ratio of maximum to minimum resistance? (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: When resistances in any circuit when connected in series, the net resistance of the circuit increases while in
parallel connection the net resistance of the circuit decreases.
Equivalent resistance of n resistors each of resistance R,
(a) Connected in series is:
Rseries = Rmax = nR
1 1 n R
Connected in parallel is: = = ⇒ Rmin =
Rparallel Rmin R n
Rmax n
= nR × = n2
Rmin R
9. POWER
Consider a simple circuit wherein a resistance R is connected across the terminals of a battery. The potential
difference across the battery is V and a steady current I is drawn from it. The amount of charge dq that moves
between the terminals in time interval dt is equal to I dt. This charge dq moves through a decrease in potential of
magnitude V across the resistance, and thus its electric potential energy is decreased by an amount,
dU = dq V = dt V
By law of conservation of energy, this energy must be converted to some another form. In a resistance this “another
form” is nothing but heat energy. The temperature of the resistance rises as a result of heat generated in it when a
current is passed through it.
After crossing the resistance this charge again enters the battery at its negative terminal and emerges at the
positive terminal. In doing so, it moves through a rise in potential of magnitude V inside the battery, thus its electric
potential energy increases by the same amount dU = V I dt.
The battery thus performs work on the charge to increase its electric potential energy and this energy is dissipated
in the resistance in the form of heat.
The power P associated with this energy transfer is the rate of work done by the battery or the rate of production
of electrical energy, equal to the rate at which heat is dissipated:
dU
=
P = V I (Rate of electrical energy transfer).
dt
J C J
We can write 1 V ⋅ A = 1 1 = 1 = 1 W .
C s s
Caution: P = VI applies to electrical energy transfers of all kinds; P = I2R and P=V2/R apply only to the transfer of
electric potential energy to thermal energy in a resistance.
Illustration 8: Consider the following circuit, find power dissipated in the resistor R.
V2
Sol: Power dissipated in any electrical resistance is = = I2R
P IV = . Power supplied by the source is P = E I
R
R
i = 2A i
E = 12V.r=2
Figure 20.13
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Power Method
•• Total power(power dissipated plus power generated) in a circuit is zero. This comes from principle of
conservation of energy.
•• In a circuit generally, battery supplies energy, and resistors always dissipate. But sometime battery
might also dissipate(in multi-source circuit)
•• Power is dissipated if current and voltage drop are in same direction of a given device and vice-versa.
If they are in opposite direction, power is supplied.
•• For a collection of devices, net power dissipated is product of voltage drop and current across the
terminals.
Vaibhav Gupta (JEE 2009, AIR 54)
P hysi cs | 20.13
9.2 Cell
A cell is an electric source, which converts chemical energy into electrical energy. A chemical solution called
electrolyte is filled inside the cell. Two metal rods called electrodes are immersed inside the electrolyte (see
Fig. 20.15). These electrodes exchange charges with the electrolyte. The electrode at the higher potential is called
positive electrode, and that at the lower potential is called negative electrode. When no current is drawn from the
cell, the potential difference between the positive and negative electrodes is called the electromotive force, emf (E).
Symbol of emf
R -
i
+ -
When an external resistance (R) is connected across the cell, a current I flows from positive to negative electrode
(terminal) through the external resistance. The same current flows though the cell from negative to positive terminal.
The resistance offered by the cell when the current flows through it is called the internal resistance (r) of the cell.
The internal resistance depends on the nature of the electrolyte, distance between the electrodes and the area of
the electrodes inside the electrolyte.
If current I flows through the cell, the potential drop across internal resistance will be I.r. Thus the potential difference
across the cell reduces by amount I.r from its value in open circuit, i.e. the emf E. Hence, the potential difference
across the cell when current I is drawn from it is
V = E – Ir
V is called the terminal potential difference.
E
The potential difference across external resistance R, is V = IR, thus, E -Ir = IR, or I =
R +r
(a) When current is drawn from a cell it is called the discharging of a cell. During discharging,
V = E – I r; V < E
(b) During charging of the cell, current enters the cell from positive terminal and emerges from negative terminal.
Energy is transferred to the cell by a DC source (see Fig. 20.16).
+ -
DC Charges
i
-
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Illustration 9: A storage battery of e.m.f.8.0V and internal resistance 0.5 Ω is being charged by a120V dc supply
using a resistor of 15.5 Ω. What is the terminal voltage of the battery during charging? What is the purpose of
having a series resistor in the charging circuit? (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: The total potential difference in the circuit is the algebraic sum of voltage drop across the components in the
circuit. Using ohm’s law we get the potential difference across resistance.
The circuit is as shown in Fig. 20.17. During charging the total potential drop across the battery (including its
internal resistance) and the resistance connected in series will be equal to the voltage of the source.
V=E+Ir+IR
V −E 120 − 8 112
=I = = = 7 A Terminal voltage = 8 + 7 × 0.5 = 11.5 V
r + R 0.5 + 15.5 16
120V
1.5.5
8V 0.5
Figure 20.17
....n cells
E1 r1 E2 r2 E3 r3 E4 r4
Enet = ∑ Ei and rnet = ∑ ri For parallel combination of two cells (see Fig. 20.19) we have
E2 r2
i2
i
i1
E1 r1
E1 − V E2 − V
VA − VB = V = E1 − i1r1 ⇒ i1 = Again, VA − VB = V = E2 − i2r2 ⇒ i2 =
r1 r2
E1 – V E 2 – V
i= i1 + i 2 ⇒ i= +
r1 r2
E E 1 1
⇒ i = 1 + 2 −V +
r1 r2 r1 r2
1 1 E E
⇒ V + = 1 + 2 −i
r1 r2 r1 r2
E1 E2
+
r1 r2 − i
⇒ V
=
1 1 1 1
+ +
r1 r2 r1 r2
Ei
∑
ri 1 1
⇒ =
V Eeq − ireq where Eeq = and =∑
1 req ri
∑
ri
Eeq is the equivalent emf and req is the equivalent internal resistance of the cell combination.
r
If all the cells are identical then for parallel combination, Net Emf = E; Net internal resistance is: req = for ’n’ cell
in parallel. n
Illustration 10: Two cells in series have emf 1.5V each and internal resistance 0.5 Wand 0.25 Ω respectively. They
are connected to external resistance R that is 2.25 Ω. Find the current in the circuit and potential difference across
the resultant cell. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The total potential difference in the circuit is the algebraic sum of voltage drop across the components in the
circuit. Using ohm’s law we get the potential difference across resistance.
1.5V 1.5V
0.25 0.25
0.25
Figure 20.20
E = 1.5V, R = 2.25 W
r = 0.5 Ω, r’= 0.25 W
Total emf =1.5 + 1.5 = 3V ;
Total emf 3
Current I
= = = A 1 A ; V1 = E1 – Ir1 = 1.5 – 1 × 0.5 = 1 V
Total resis tance 0.5 + 0.25 + 2.25
dP dP E2 (R + r)2 − 2E2R(R + r)
For P to be maximum,
= = 0 or = 0
dR dR
( )
4
R+ r
E2 R E2r E2
Which gives R = r and=
Pmax = or=
Pmax
4r
(R + r ) (r + r )
2 2
Kilowatt-hour
It is commercial unit of electrical energy. It is known as 1 unit.
Thus, 1 KW – h = 1000 × 3600 J = 3.6 × 106 J
10.1 Kirchhoff’s First Law or Rule (The Junction Law or Kirchhoff’s Current Law)
This law is based on law of conservation of charge.
It states that the sum of all current smeeting at any point ( junction) must be equal to the sum of all current leaving
that point ( junction).
or
The algebraic sum of all the current meeting at a point ( junction) in a closed electrical circuit (for example see
∑
Fig. 20.21) is zero. i.e. Ik = 0 … (i)
R2
R3
i3 i2
O
R4 i4 i5 i1 R1
R5
Figure 20.21
Here we need to choose the sign of each current Ik. Each term Ik is an algebraic quantity. The currents leaving a
junction and currents meeting at a junction are supposed to have opposite signs. For example if we assume former
to be positive then the latter has to be assumed negative and vice-versa(which one to be decided positive or
negative is immaterial). The sign convention once decided for a particular junction has to be followed for all the
currents at that junction.
P hysi cs | 20.17
Illustration 11: Consider a point or junction O in an electrical circuit. Let I1, I3 be the currents entering the point O
and I2, I4, I5 be the current leaving point O.
Sol: According to KCL, the algebraic sum of the current entering and leaving the junction is zero. So apply KCL to
the junction O.
According to Kirchhoff’s first law, I1 + I3 = I2 + I4 + I5 … (i)
Note: Kirchhoff’s First law is based on the law of conservation of charge i.e. on the fact that charge does not remain
accumulated at a junction or a point of a circuit.
10.2 Kirchhoff’s Second Law (The Loop Law or Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law)
This law is based on the law of conservation of energy.
The algebraic sum of all the potential differences ΔVk, along a closed loop in a circuit is zero.
∑
Closed loop
∆Vk =
0
The rules for determining the sign of ΔV across a resistor and a battery are shown below:
Travel direction Travel direction
higher V I Lower V
I
Lower V higher V
a V=Vb-Va=-IR b a V=Vb-Va=+IR b
Note: The choice of direction of loop traversal is arbitrary. The same equation is obtained whether the closed loop
is traversed clockwise or anti-clockwise.
Illustration 12: A battery of 10V and negligible internal resistance is connected across the diagonally opposite
corners of a cubical network consisting of 12 resistors each of resistance 1 Ω . Find the equivalent resistance and
the current along each edge of the cube. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Using KCL, the current distribution across each branch of the cube is as shown in Fig. 20.23. potential difference
across each branch is given by Ohm’s law. P.D. across diagonally opposite points equals equivalent resistance
multiplied by input current.
2i 6i
2i
i 2i
2i i i
1 2
2i
i
2i 3
6i
Figure 20.23
2 0 . 1 8 | Current Electricity
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
It is highly advised to solve numerous problems on Kirchhoff’s laws and ohm’s law to get hold over the
concepts and criticalities.
Chinmay S Purandare (JEE 2012, AIR 698)
Principle: When the battery is connected, the galvanometer shows the presence of
current Ig through it. The value of variable resistance R is adjusted in such a way that
the galvanometer shows no deflection. At this stage, the points B and D are at same Figure 20.24
potential and hence no current flows through the galvanometer. The Wheatstone
bridge at this stage is said to be balanced and ratio of P and Q is equal to ratio of R and S.
P R Q
i.e. = or S = R Knowing P, Q and R, the value of S can be calculated.
Q S P
Illustration 13: Find the value of R in circuit (see Fig. 20.25) so that there is no current in the 50 Ω resistor.
(JEE MAIN)
20
10
50
R 40
Figure 20.25
P hysi cs | 20.19
Sol: For Wheatstone network, when the bridge is in balanced condition the, ratio of resistance in the opposite
branches is equal.
Using Wheatstone bridge principle there will be no current in the 50 Ω resistor if the bridge is balanced.
10 Ω 20 Ω
= or R = 20 Ω
R 40 Ω
scale. Let the resistance of the wire between A and J be P and that between J and A
J
B be Q. The resistance R between A and C is known and the resistance X between G
C and B is unknown. A galvanometer is connected between C and J. The jockey J
is slid on the wire AB till we get null point (zero reading of the galvanometer). If
length AJ is then we have, R C X
P
= Figure 20.26
Q 100 −
P R
= =
Q 100 − X
100 −
or X= R
Thus, by knowing R and we get the value of X.
13. POTENTIOMETER
A potentiometer is a device used to measure the potential difference across points in a circuit. It acts as an ideal
voltmeter, because it does not draw any current from the circuit element across which it is connected.
Construction: It consists of a long uniform mangen in or constantan wire AB fixed on a wooden board. The
schematic diagram of a potentiometer is shown in Fig. 20.27.
K
R B
1m
+ CS
100
A 1m
-
CS
1m
+ -
V
Figure 20.27: Potentiometer circuit
2 0 . 2 0 | Current Electricity
Actually, this long wire AB consist of four equal parts each 1 m long. These four parts of the wire are connected to
one another by thick copper strips (CS).
Principle: It works on the principle that potential difference across any part of a uniform wire is directly proportional
to the length of that part, when a constant current flows through the wire. According to Ohm’s law V = IR, but R ∝
for uniform cross-section.
∴ V ∝ , provided I is constant.
We measure the length of the wire which has same potential difference as that of the circuit element. This length
is obtained with the help of a jockey connected to a galvanometer by ensuring zero deflection.
K Rh
+ -
()
P Q
E1
+ - A
C G
+ - B
E2
Illustration 14: In a potentiometer, a cell of e.m.f 1.5V gives a balance point at 30cm length of the wire. Another
battery gives new balance point at 60 cm. Find e.m.f. of the battery. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: For potentiometer circuit, E α . Thus we take the ratio of l1 to l2 to find E2.
E1 l1 l 60
From the formula = we get E2 = E1 × 2 = 1.5 × =3V
E2 l2 l1 30
A B
J’ J
G
R
K₂
Figure 20.29: Determination of internal resistance of cell
P hysi cs | 20.21
Step 1: Key K1 is closed and key K2 is kept open. E.m.f. (E) of the cell is balanced for a length 1 on the potentiometer
wire. Therefore
E ∝ 1 .…(i)
Step 2: Both keys K1 and K2are closed. A known resistance (R) is connected across the cell. Potential difference
across the cell is balanced for a length 2 of the potentiometer wire. Therefore
V ∝ 2 .…(ii)
Dividing (i) by (ii) we get,
E 1
= ….(iii)
V 2
We know, internal resistance of a cell is given by,
E
r = – 1 R …. (iv)
V
Using (iii) in (iv), we get,
r = 1 – 1 R …. (v)
2
Note: A potentiometer can be used to compare/determine unknown resistances and to calibrate ammeters and
voltmeter.
Illustration 15: A potentiometer with 1.5V cell is used for finding the internal resistance of a 1.2V cell. The balance
point corners at 65cm.If a resistor of 10 Ω is used as shown in the Fig. 20.30, the balance point changes to 55cm.
Calculate the internal resistance of the cell. (JEE MAIN)
1.5V
P Q
1.2V G
G
10
Figure 20.30
– 2 65 – 55
=r 1 = R Ω 1.82 Ω .
× 10=
2 55
2 0 . 2 2 | Current Electricity
A
E - +
A
l₁ l₂
0 J 100
G
Rmk Rk
unknown known
resistance resistance
Procedure: Close key K1. Find point Jon the wire AB of potentiometer such that, the galvanometer G gives no
l1 Ruk
deflection. Length AJ is l1 and length JB is l2. Using the principle of balanced Wheatstone bridge, we get, = ;
l2 Rk
l1
Ruk = Rk
l2
Precaution: Sliding of jockey should not be allowed. Itis not to be pressed roughly on the wire. It should be assured
that all connections are made with thick copper wires or strips. All connections should be tight. Key should be
opened after every reading to avoid unnecessary heating up of the wire.
Illustration 16: In a meter bridge the null point is found at 33.7 cm. If a resistance of 12 Ω is connected in parallel
with S, null point is 51.9 cm. Find R and S? (JEE MAIN)
Case-II: New null point is = 51.9 cm. Resistance S and 12 Ω are in parallel.
0R RR 0 R0
S = 13.5 Ω and R = 6.86 Ω R1 + = +
2 2R + R 0 2
l
Illustration17: A resistance of R R = ρ draws current form a potentiometer.The potentiometer has total
l A
resistance R0 R = ρ . Drive an expression for the voltage across R when the sliding contact is in middle of the
A
potentiometer. V (JEE MAIN)
R₀
A C
B
R
Figure 20.32
P hysi cs | 20.23
Sol: As the resistance R0 and R, are in parallel combination the equivalent resistance of circuit drops and using
ohm’s law we get the current through the resistance.
When the sliding contact is in the middle, only half of the resistance R0 is included between A and B. So, the total
RR 0
1 1 1 2 RR 0
resistance between A and B is R1, = + = ; R1 =
R1 R R 0 / 2 R 2R + R 0
R+ 0
2
0 R RR 0 R0
Total resistance (Req) between A and C, Req = R1 + = +
2 2R + R 0 2
V V 2V
Current drawn from supply is, i=
= =
Re q R 2R1 + R 0
R1 + 0
2
Potential drop across A-B will be
2V RR 0 2V RR 0 2VR
VR = iR1 = × = × =
2R1 + R 0 2R + R 0 RR 0 2R + R 0 4R + R 0
2 + R 0
2R + R 0
RG
G
I A B
(I-I) r
Ammeter
Figure 20.33: Representation of Ammeter circuit
A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance called shunt, parallel to the
galvanometer.
Let RG and rs be the resistances of the galvanometer and the shunt respectively.
Let I be the maximum current to be measured by an ammeter in the circuit.
Let Ig be the maximum current that can flowt hrough the galvanometer corresponding to which galvanometer gives
the full scale deflection.
The resistance of the shunt must be such that the remaining current (I-Ig) should pass through the shunt.
Since RG and rs are in parallel, the potential difference across them is same.
Ig
i.e. IgRG = (I - Ig)rs or rs = RG .
I − Ig
2 0 . 2 4 | Current Electricity
This is the required value of shunt resistance to convert a galvanometer into an ammeter of range 0 to I ampere.
Effective resistance of ammeter: The total effective resistance Reff of an ammeter is gives by
1 1 1 R +r R r
= + = G s or R eff = G s
R eff R G rs R Grs R G +rs
Hence R eff = rs
Thus, an ammeter is a low resistance device.
14.2 Voltmeter
Potential difference across a circuit element is measured by an instrument called voltmeter. The voltmeter is to be
connected in parallel to the circuit element across which potential difference is to be measured. The resistance of
the voltmeter has to be very large.
Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter: A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting a large
resistance in series with it.
Volmerter
R
A Rc B
Let RG and R be the resistances of the galvanometer and a resistor connected in series with it respectively. R is very
large as compared to RG.
Let V be the potential difference to be measured by the voltmeter.
Let Ig be the current for which the galvanometer gives the full scale deflection.
Potential difference across voltmeter is
IgR + IgRG= Ig(R + RG)
V=
V V
∴ R + R G = or R= − RG
Ig Ig
This is the value of resistance R which has to be connected in series to the galvanometer to convert it into a
voltmeter of range 0 to V volt.
Effective resistance of the voltmeter is given by Reff = (R + RG) which is very high.
Thus, voltmeter is a high resistance device.
Illustration 18: A galvanometer having a coil of resistance 12 Ω gives full scale deflection for a current of 4 mA.
How can it be converted into a voltmeter of range 0 to 24 V? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: When we connect a large resistance in series to the galvanometer, the current through it reduces. Thus such a
galvanometer can be connected across high potential difference.
P hysi cs | 20.25
Galvanometer is converted into voltmeter by connecting a large resistance say R in series to the coil. Value of R can
V 24
be calculated using the formula R = − RG = – 12 =5988 Ω
Ig 4 × 10 –3
R1 B1 R2 C
R2 R1
ig
A G D
1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50 E
K1
X
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100
D D
E K1
A’ K1 K2 B’
R2
Post office box is a form of Wheatstone bridge. The unknown resistance X is given as X = R
R1
The arms having resistances R1 and R2 are called the ratio arms.
R2 1 1 1
The ratio can be adjusted to have values in multiples of 10, e.g. 1, 10, 100, 1000, , , and so on.
R1 10 100 1000
R2
The accuracy in the measured value of X depends on the selection of the ratio .
R1
R2
If is selected as 1, then the value of the unknown resistance is measured within accuracy of ± 1 Ω.
R1
R2 1
If is selected as , then the value of the unknown resistance is measured within accuracy of ± 0.1 Ω.
R1 10
R2 1
If is selected as , then the value of unknown resistance is measured within accuracy of ± 0.01 Ω and so on.
R1 100
2 0 . 2 6 | Current Electricity
Illustration 19: The value of an unknown resistance is obtained by using a post office box. Two consecutive
readings of R are observed as the galvanometer deflects in the opposite direction for three different value of R1.
These two values are recorded under the column I and II in the following observation table. (JEE MAIN)
I Ω II Ω IΩ II Ω
1 10 10 16 17
2 100 10 163 164
Sol: The table listed above computes the value of unknown resistance for different values of ratio R2: R1. The
average of the final values will give the best estimate for the unknown resistance.
The observation table may be complete as follows:
I Ω II Ω IΩ II Ω
1 10 10 16 17 16.0 17.0
2 100 10 163 164 16.3 16.4
3 1000 10 1638 1639 16.38 16.39
The value of the unknown resistance lies in-between 16.38 Ω and 16.39 Ω
16.38 + 16.39
The unknown value may be the average of the two=
i.e. X = 16.385 Ω .
2
PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS
(a) Never think of current in terms of electrons and get confused in direction or vector analysis. Instead, it would
be easier to think of current in terms of flow of positive charges because it is equivalent. However, my advice
is to remember the reality in questions which intentionally deals with this concept.
(b) While solving a problem always remember that it is the resistivity and conductivity that is same for materials
and not the resistance and conductance itself. This will help you avoid silly mistakes. Also note that Temperature
dependence formula is very analogous to length expansion formula.
(c) The problems related to devices are quite easy and always remember that they are always solved by ratios and
proportions. And one good thing is they do not require much of calculation too.
(d) Questions on combination of resistances can be solved more easily by identifying symmetry in breaking down
the problem to basic series and parallel circuit.Symmetry, in this context implies equal resistances or equal
distribution of current. This can help you in solving big complicated looking circuits.
(e) Questions related to power are easy and require use of law of conservation of energy.
P hysi cs | 20.27
(f) Applying Kirchhoff’s Rules: Kirchhoff’s rules can be used to analyse multi-loop circuit. The steps are
summarized below:
(i) Draw a circuit diagram, and label all the quantities, both known and unknown. The number of unknown
quantities must be equal to the number of linearly independent equations we obtain.
(ii) Assign a direction to the current in each branch of the circuit. (If the actual direction of current is opposite
to that assumed initially, the value of current obtained will be a negative number.)
(iii) Apply the junction rule to all but one of the junctions. (Applying the junction rule to the last junction will
not yield any independent equation.)
(iv) Apply the loop rule to the loops in the circuit.
Obtain as many independent equations using both the Kirchhoff’s Laws as there are number of unknowns.
FORMULAE SHEET
E
4. Current in terms of resistivity is defined as I = A
ρ
I
5. Drift velocity for charge is v d =
ne A
neA
6. Time taken by charge to drift across conductor is t =
I
7. The current density of a conductor is J = (ne) v d
vd
9. Mobility of charges ì =
E
E 1
10. Resistivity of conductor is ρ= =
J σ
n
11. For Series Network of resistance , net resistance R eq = ∑ Ri
i=1
R1 R2
R1 R2
V = V1 +=
V2 where V1 = V and V2 V
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
V
n
1 1
For Parallel Network of resistance, net resistance is = ∑ Figure 20.36
R eq i=1 Ri
2 0 . 2 8 | Current Electricity
R2 R1
= I = I1 + I2, I = I and I2 I
1
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
I1 R1
I2 R2
Figure 20.37
(ii) Current in the circuit I = Ioe–t/τ where τC = ReqC is the time constant of the circuit
E
25. Internal resistance of cell is given by r = − 1 R = 1 − 1 R
V 2
P hysi cs | 20.29
Solved Examples
3A e = 1.6 × 10–19C
0.2 cm 0.1 cm V 200
3A Now =
I = = 2 ampere
R 100
The electron density = 7× 1028 m-3. All the conductors
are made of the same material. The electric charge on Charge flowing in t = 1 sec, q =I t = 2 × 1 = 2C
electron is equal to = 1.6 × 10–19C
Therefore, number of Ω electrons flowing through the
conductor flowing in 1 s,
Sol: At the junction the algebraic sum of currents is
zero. The drift velocity of charges is the ratio of current q 2
n= = = 1.25 × 1019
density to the charge density. e 1.6 × 10 −19
get the current through network. Example 6: Calculate the current flowing through the
resistor R1 in the given circuit. R1 = 10Ω, R2 = 20Ω and
Let the total resistance of the circuit be Z and a set of
R3 = 30Ω The potentials of the points 1, 2 and 3 are
three resistor of
respectively, V1 = 10v. Calculate V2 = 6v and V3 = 5v.
R Z Calculate the potential at the junction.
Example 7: Four identical cells, each of emf 2V, are The positive terminals of the cells E1 and E2 are connected
joined in parallel providing supply of current to external to the wire AE of resistance 10Ω and negative terminals
circuit consisting of two 15 Ω resistors joined in parallel. to the wire BD of resistance 4Ω. The resistance of 10Ω
The terminal voltage of the cells as read by an ideal is connected between the middle points F and C of the
voltmeter is 1.6 V. Calculate the internal resistance of wires AE and BD respectively. (See figure)
each cell.
I1 E1 = 2V r1 = 1
Sol: For parallel connection of n identical cells, the net A B
emf is equal to that of one cell and the net internal
resistance is the parallel combination of resistances of R 1 = 5
I1+I1 I1
r
all the cells req = . C1
n
Four cells are connected in parallel to the parallel R 1 = 5
combination of two 15 Ω resistors as shown in figure. E D
I2 r2 = 2
E r E2 = 1V
E r
r 10 4
∴ R1 =R 2 = =Ω5 ; R3 =R 4 = =Ω
2
I 2 2
15
The distribution of current in various branches is shown
in the figure.
15 In closed part ABCFA of the circuit
Let r be internal resistance of each cell and I be the
I1 × r1 + I1 × R 3 + (I1 × I2 )R + I1 × R 3 =
Ea
current I in the circuit. Since the cells are connected in
parallel. or I1 × 1 + I1 × 5 + (I1 × I2 ) × 10 + I1 × 2 =2
Total e.m.f in the circuit – e.m.f. one cell -2V
or 9I1 + 5I2 =
1 .…(i)
Further, total internal resistance of the cells is gives by
In closed part CDRFC of the circuit:
1 1 1 1 1 4
r= + + + = or r’ = r/4 I2 × r2 + I2 × R 2 + (I1 × I2 )R + I2 × R 4 =
E2
r' r r r r ' r4
or I2 × 2 + I2 × 5 + (I1 × I2 ) × 10 + I1 × 2 =1
Let R be resistance of the parallel combination of two
15 Ω resistors. Then, total external resistance,
10l1 + 9l2 = 1 ....(ii)
15 × 15
=R .75Ω E
15 + 15 =
r' − 1 R
Now, internal resistance of the parallel combination of V
cells is given by Solving equation (i) and (ii) we have
E r 2 14 1
r' = − 1 R or = − 1 × 7.5 or=
r 7.5 Ω I2 = A and I2 = A
V 4 1.6 121 121
This can also be obtained by multiplying the total 10(I1 + Ig ) − 15Ig − 5(I1 − Ig ) =
0
current between A and B by equivalent resistance
between A and B that is, 10I1 + 30Ig 5I2 =5 ; 20I1 + 6Ig =I2 =0
VAB= 2A × 2Ω= 4V (b) Considering the mesh ADCEA,
The voltage drop across BC is.
60I2 + 5(I1 − Ig ) =
10
VBC= 12Ω× 1Ω= 2V
65I=
2 + 5Ig 10 ; 13I=
2 + Ig 2
Finally, the voltage drop across CD is
(c) Multiplying Eq. (b) by 10
2
VCD= 12Ω × I3= 12Ω × A= 8V 20I1 + 60 Ig – 10I2 = 0
3
(d) Form Eqs. (d) and (a) we have
This can alternatively be obtained by multiplying total
current between C and D by the equivalent resistance I2 = 31.5Ig
between C and D that is, VCD= 2A × 4Ω= 8V
Substituting the value of l2 into Eq. (c), we get
Note that the total voltage drop across AD is
4V + 2V + 8V =
14V 2 ; 410.5 +=
13(31.5Ig ) + Ig = Ig 2 ; =
Ig 4.87mA
I1 100I1
Considering the mesh BADB, we have A
Metre scale
C
Which gives S = 13.5Ω. Using the value of R/S above, open. When both the keys are closed the balanced
we get R = 6.86Ω point is obtained at only 5 cm. Calculate.
(a) The emf of E1
Example 13: Calculate the potential difference between
(b) The internal resistance of E2
the plates A and B of the capacitor in adjacent circuit.
The resistance of the potentiometer wire RAB = 10Ω.
30 A B K1
IV
R2
20 10
A B
4V r G
F
Sol: Use KVL for current distribution across each
component and compute the p.d. across plates A and B. H M
R2 K1
The distribution of the current shown in figure. Applying
Kirchhoff’s second Law to the closed loop abedea Sol: For potentiometer circuit,
E ∝ . Use KVL and solve for the current in the circuit.
g
30 h A B
i
Use Ohm’s law to get internal resistance of cell E2.
(a) Resistance R1is connected into the circuit when both
the keys are open while R2 gets
c
e Disconnected
20 I1-I1 10 I
ε1ρ
=ε1 4V =
∴ ε2 I1
a b R1 + R AB
4V I
10
We have, ρ= = 20Ωm−4
0.5
= 10I = 20(I − I1 ) + 4 = 0 ; ∴ 30I − 20I1 = 4 . 4 + 20 −2
R1= 15Ω ∴ ε2= 31.25 × 10
For the dhge loop 5 + 10
20(I − I1 ) + I =30I1 =0 ; ∴ 20I =50I1 =−1
R AB= 10Ω ∴ ε2= 1V
Solving equation (i) and (ii), we have,
=I1 0.1A
= and I 0.2 A. = = 31.25 × 10−2 m
I2 31.25cm
The pd between the two plates of the capacitor is equal (b) Resistance R1 gets short circuited when both of
to the pd between c and h point. Let 100l1 + 15l, – 6012 = the keys are closed, in other words resistance R1 is not
0 be the potential at point c and let 20l1 + lg – 212 = 0 be connected in the circuit while R2 gets connected.
the potential at h. For the path odh, we have Let V12 be the pd between point A and jockey which is
equal to the p.d. between points F and G of the circuit.
∴ Vc = 10 × 0.2 + 1 = Vb
∴ Vc =
Va ==
2 1+1 ε1 × I2 × ρ 4 × 5 × 10−2 × 20
=V12 =
∴ The potential difference between the two capacitor = 1 V R AB 10
4 10−2 V
∴ V12 =×
Example 14: A potentiometer circuit is shown in the
figure, the length of the potentiometer wire is equal to
Now, the pd. between point F and G = E2 – Ir
50 cm E1 = 4V. The internal resistance of the battery can
ignored. The values of the resistance R1 and R2 are 15 Ω Where 1 = current flowing through the battery E2. It can
and 5 Ω . The balanced point is obtained at a distance be seen from the diagram that current does flow from
of 31.25 cm from the end A, where both the keys are the circuit FHMG’F, even if the galvanometer shown
P hysi cs | 20.35
zero deflection which means that current flow the E2 The path AA’, AD and AB are obviously symmetrically
battery which results in a pd between point ‘F’ and ‘G’. placed in the network. Thus, the current in each must
be same say, I, Further, at the corners A’, B and D, the
E2 = Ir
incoming current I must split equally into the two
The pd should be equal to V12 using equation in the outgoing branches. In this manner, the current in all the
above result, we have, 12 edges of the cube are easily written down in terms
40 × 10 −2 =ε1 =Ir of I, using Kirchhoff’s a first rule and the symmetry in
the problem. Next take a closed loop, say, ABCC’EA,
The current flowing in the circuit FHMG’F’ is equal to. and apply Kirchhoff’s second rule:
ε1 = IR = (1/2)IR - IR + ε = 0
I=
R2 + r where R is the resistance of each edge and ε the emf of
ε2r r 5
∴ 40 × 10−2 =ε2 − =ε2 1 − battery. Thus, ε = IR
R2 + r R 2 + r 2
The equivalent R eq of the network is
ε2 + r − r R 5
=ε2 − ∴ 40 × 10−2 ε2 2 =
= 1 ε 5
R2 + r R 2 + r 5 + r =
R eq = R
3I 6
5
∴ 5 +=
r = 12.5Ω For R = 1 Ω ,Req=(5/6)Ω and for ε = 10V , the
40 × 10 −2
total current (=3I) in the network is 3I = 10V/(5/6)Ω
∴ r = 12.5 − 5 = 7.5 Ω = 12A, i.e., I = 4A
The current flowing in each edge can now be read off
JEE Advanced/Boards from the figure.
Example 1: A battery of 10 V and negligible internal Example 2: A resistance of RΩ draws current from
resistance is connected across the diagonally opposite a potentiometer. The potentiometer has a total
corners of a cubical network consisting of 12 resistors resistance R0Ω (see figure). A voltage V is supplied to
each of resistance 1Ω (see figure below). Determine the the potentiometer. Derive an expression for the voltage
equivalent resistance of the network and the current across R When the sliding contact is in the middle of
along each edge of the cube. the potentiometer.
V
Sol: Use KVL and for p.d. across each component and
solve for current though each component.
The network is not reducible to a simple series and
parallel combinations of resistors. There is however, R
clear symmetry in the problem which we can exploit to A C
obtain the equivalent resistance of the network. B
3I
R
D’ C’ 6i
I/2
I/2 Sol: Use formulae for series and parallel combination of
A’ resistances. P.D. across each branch is given by Ohm’s law.
I While the slide is in the middle of the potentiometer
I/2
I/2 only half of its resistance (R0/2) will be between the
I points A and B. Hence, The total resistance between A
D C and B, say R1 will be given by the following expression:
I I/2
I/2
1 1 1 R 0R
A
B = + ; R1 =
3I 3 R1 R (R 0 / 2) R 0 + 2R
3I
2 0 . 3 6 | Current Electricity
The total resistance between A and C will be sum of Thus, the main current form the battery is
resistance between A and B and B and C, i.e. R1 + R0/2
100V
∴ The current flowing through the potentiometer will=i = 0.25A
be 400Ω
V1 =
2VR
or V1
2VR (a) When a potential difference of 50 V is applied across
2R + R 0 + 2R R 0 + 4R the voltmeter, full-scale deflection should take place.
Thus, 50 µA should go through the coil. We
Example 3: (a) Find the potential drops across the
two resistors shown in figure (a). (b) A voltmeter of 100
R 50 A 100
resistance 600Ω is used to measure the potential drop G G
10 A
across the 300Ω resistor (see figure (b)). What will be
the measured potential drop? r
50 V
600
V add a resistance R in series with the given coil to achieve
300 200
this (see figure (a)).
50V
300 200 We have, 50 µA =
100 V 100Ω + R
or =
R 106 Ω − 100Ω ≈ 106 Ω
100 V
(b) When a current of 10mA is passed through the
Sol: Find the equivalent resistance in both the circuit ammeter, 50µA should go through the coil. We add a
and then find the p.d. using Ohm’s law. resistance r in parallel to the coil to achieve this (see
100V figure (b)).
(a) The current in the circuit is = 0.2A
300Ω + 200Ω The current through the coil is
The potential drop across the 300Ω resistor is r
50 µA = (10mA) or r = 0.5Ω
300Ω × 0.2A = 60V r + 100Ω
600Ω × 300Ω
=
R 200Ω + = 400Ω
600Ω + 300Ω
P hysi cs | 20.37
JEE Main/Boards
B
Q.2 A battery of emf 10V and internal resistance 3Ω
is connected to a resistor. If the current in the circuit 10 5
is 0.5A, what is the resistance of the resistor? What is
the terminal voltage of the battery when the circuit is
closed? A 5 D
Q.5 At room temperature (27.0 o C) the resistance of a Q.11 In potentiometer arrangement, a cell of emf 1.25V
heating element is 100Ω. What is the temperature of gives a balance point at 35.0cm length of the wire. If the
the element if the resistance is found a be 117Ω, given cell is replaced by another cell and the balance point
that the temperature coefficient of the material of the shifts to 63.0cm, what is the emf the second cell?
resistor is 1.70 × 10‒6 °C‒1.
Q.12 The number density of free electrons in a copper
Q.6 A negligibly small current is passed through a wire conductor as estimated is 8.5 × 1028m‒3. How long does
of length 15m and uniform cross–section 6.0 × 10‒7 m2 , an electron take to drift form one end of a wire 3.0m
and its resistance is measured to be 5.0Ω. What is the long to its other end? The area of cross- section of the
resistivity of the material oat the temperature of the wire is 2.0 × 106 m2 and it is carrying a current of 3.0A.
experiment?
Q.13 The earth’s surface has a negative surface charge
Q.7 A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1Ω at 27.5 o C , density of 10-9cm-2. The potential difference of 400kV
and a resistance of 2.7Ω at 100°C. Determine the between the top of the atmosphere and the surface
temperature coefficient of resistivity of silver. results (due to the low conductivity of the lower
atmosphere) in a current of only 1800A over the
Q.8 A heating element using nichrome connected to entire globe. If there were no mechanism of sustaining
a 230V supply drawn an initial current of 3.2A which atmosphere electric field, how much time (roughly)
settles after a few seconds to a steady value of 2.8A. would be required to neutralise the earth’s surface?
What is the steady temperature of the heating element (This never happens in practices because there is a
2 0 . 3 8 | Current Electricity
mechanism to replenish electric charges, namely the with internal resistance 0.5Ω by the infinite network
continual thunderstorms and lighting in different parts shown in figure. Each resistor has 1Ω resistance.
of the globe). (Radius of earth = 6.37 × 106 m)
1 1 1 1 1
Q.14 (a) Six lead-acid type of secondary cells each of 1 1 1
12V
emf 2.0V and internal resistance 0.015Ω are joined in 1.5
series to provide a supply to a resistance of 8.5Ω. What 1 1 1 1 1
are the current drawn from the supply and its terminal
voltage? Q.19 Figure shows a potentiometer with a cell of 2.0V
(b) A secondary cell after long use has an emf of 1.9V and internal resistance 0.40Ω maintaining a potential
and a large internal resistance of 380Ω. What maximum drop across the resistor wire AB. A Standard cell which
current can be drawn from the cell? Could the cell drive maintains a constant emf of 1.02V (for every moderate
the starting motor of a car? up to a few mA) Give a balance point at 63.7cm length
of the wire. To ensure very low currents drawn from the
standard cell, a very high resistance of 600kΩ is put
Q.15 Two wire of equal length, one aluminium and the in series with it, which is shorted close to the balance
other of copper have the same resistance. Which of the point. The standard cell is then replaced by a cell of
two wire is lighter? Hence explain why aluminium wires unknown emf ε and the balance point found similarly,
are preferred for overhead power cables. turns out to be at 82.3cm length of the wire.
(ρA1 = 2.63 × 10‒8 Ωm, ρA2 = 1.72 × 10‒8 Ωm,
2V 0.4
Relative density of Al = 2.7, of Cu = 8.9)
2.0V Q.26 With two resistance R1 and R2 (> R1) in the two
gaps of a meter bridge, the balance point was found
1
to be m from the zero end. When a 6Ω resistance
3
is connected in series with the smaller of the two
2
A B resistance, the point is shifted to m from the same
3
1.5V
end. Calculate R1 and R2.
G
G
Q.27 A set of 4cells, each of emf 2 V and internal
9.5 resistance 1.05Ω, are connected across an external load
of 10Ω. with 2 rows, 2cells in each branch. Calculate the
Q.21 A galvanometer coil has a resistance of 12Ω and current in each branch and potential difference across
the meter shows full scale deflection for a current of 10Ω.
3mA. How will you convert the bridge into a voltmeter
of range 0 to 18 V? Q.28 In the circuit shown in figure E,F,G and H are cells
of emf 2,1,3 and 1 V respectively. The resistances 2,1,3
and 1Ω are their respective internal resistance.Calculate
Q.22 A galvanometer coil has resistance of 15Ω and
(a) the potential difference between B and D and (b) the
the meter shows full scale deflection for a current of
potential difference across the terminals of each of the
4mA. How will you convert the meter into an ammeter
cells G and H.
of range 0to 6 A?
2V 2 2V 2
B B
Q.23 A 10 m long wire of uniform cross-section of A
E
A
E
20Ω resistance is fitted in a potentiometer. This wire is 1V
F H
1V 1V
F H
1V
connected in series with a battery of 5volt, along with
an external resistance of 480Ω. If an unknown emf E is 1
2 1
1
2 1
balanced at 6.0 m length of this wire, calculate (i) the i1 i2
G G
potential gradient of the potentiometer wire, (ii) the D
3V
C D
3V
C
i2
value of the unknown emf E. 3 3
Q.24 (a) Three cells of emf 2.0V, 1.8V, and 1.5V are
connected in series. Their internal resistances are 0.05Ω, Exercise 2
0.7Ω and 1Ω, respectively. If the battery is connected
to an external resistor of 4Ω via a very low resistance Q.1 A current I flow through a uniform wire of diameter
ammeter, what would be the reading in the ammeter? d when the mean electron drift velocity is V. The same
current will flow through a wire of diameter d/2made
(b) If the three cells above were joined in parallel, of the same material if the mean drift velocity of the
would they be characterized by a definite and internal electron is:
resistance (independent of external circuit)?If not, how
will you obtain currents in different branches of the (A) V/4 (B) V/2 (C) 2V (D) 4V
circuit?
Q.2 A wire has a non- uniform cross- section as shown
Q.25 A galvanometer with a coil of resistance 12.0Ω in figure. A steady current flows through it. The drift
shows a full scale deflection for a current of 2.5 mA. speed of electrons at point p and q is Vp and VQ.
How will you convert the galvanometer into (a) an
ammeter of range 0 to 7.5A, (b) a voltmeter of range
0 to 10.0V. Determine the net resistance of the meter
in each case. When an ammeter is put in a circuit, does P Q
it read (slightly) less or more than the actual current in
the original circuit? When a voltmeter is put a cross a
part of circuit, does it read (slightly) less or more than (A) VP = VQ (B) VP < VQ
the original voltage drop? Explain.
(C)VP > VQ (D) Data insufficient
2 0 . 4 0 | Current Electricity
Q.3 A uniform copper wire carriers a current i amperes Q.7 Two batteries one of the emf 3 V, internal resistance
and has p carriers per cubic meter. The length of the wire 1 ohm and the other of emf 15 V, internal resistance
is l meters and its cross-section area is s meter2. If the 2 ohm are connected in series with a resistance R as
charge on a carrier is q coulombs, the drift velocity in shown. If the potential difference between a and b is
ms-1 is given by zero the resistance of R in ohm is
(A) i/lsp (B) i/psq (C) psq/i (D) i/pslq a b 1.5V,2
3V,1
Q.4 The current in a metallic conductor is plotted
against voltage at two different temperatures T1 and T2.
Which is correct
(A) 5 (B) 7 (C) 3 (D) 1
T1
Current
A B
Q.5 A battery consists of a variable number n of
identical cells having internal resistance connected in
11R 18R 7R 11R
series. The terminal of the battery are short circuited (A) (B) (C) (D)
and the current I measured. Which one of the graph 7 11 11 18
below shows the relationship between I and n?
Q.9 When electric bulbs of same power, but different
marked voltage are connected in series across the
power line, their brightness will be:
(A) I/A (B) I/A
(A) Proportional to their marked voltage
O n O
n (B) Inversely proportional to their marked voltage
(C) Proportional to the square of their marked voltage
(C) I/A (D) I/A (D) Inversely proportional to the square of their marked
voltage
n O n
O
Q.10 Two bulbs rated (25W – 220 V) and (100W – 220V)
are connected in series to a 440 V line. Which one is
Q.6 A circuit is comprised of eight identical batteries
likely to fuse?
and a resistor R = 0.8Ω. Each battery has an emf 1.0V
and internal resistance of 0.2Ω. The voltage difference (A) 25 W bulb (B) 100 W bulb
across any of the battery is
(C) Both bulbs (D) None
R R
V V
V V
(A) (B)
P hysi cs | 20.41
R R
E=12V, r=2
Q.12 The battery in the diagram is to be charged by the 4
generator G. The generator has a terminal voltage of V
120 volts when the charging current is 10 amperes. The
battery has an emf of 100 volts and an internal resistance (A) 0 (B) 4 V (C) 6 V (D) 12 V
of 1 ohm. In order to charge the battery at 10 amperes
charging current, the resistance R should be set at Q.18 Statement-I: Conductivity of a metallic conductor
20 decreases with increases in temperature.
Statement-II: On increasing temperature the number
i/2 of free electrons in the metallic conductor decreases.
i
G (A) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true and
i/2 Rg statement-II is correct explanation for statement-I.
(A) 0.1 Ω (B) 0.5 Ω (C) 1.0 Ω (D) 5.0 Ω (B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true and
statement-II is NOT the correct explanation for
statement-I
Q.13 In a galvanometer, the deflection becomes one
half when the galvanometer is shunted by a 20Ω (C) Statement-I is true, statement-II is false.
resistor. The galvanometer resistance is (D) Statement-I is false, statement-II is true.
(A) 5 Ω (B) 10 Ω (C) 40 Ω (D) 20 Ω
Q.14 A galvanometer has a resistance of 20Ω and reads Previous Years’ Questions
full-scale when 0.2 V is applied across it. To convert it into
a 10 A ammeter, the galvanometer coil should have a Q.1 In the circuit shown in figure the heat produced the
5Ω resistor due to the current flowing through it is 10
(A) 0.01Ω resistor connected across it
cal/s. (1981)
(B) 0.02Ω resistor connected across it
4 6
(C) 200Ω resistor connected in series with it
(D) 2000Ω resistor connected in series with it
30
12 volt. Then R is equal to
30
R
A 30
1 1 1 1
V
(A) A (B) A (C) A (D) A
45 15 10 5
(A) 122 Ω (B) 140 Ω (C) 116 Ω (D) 100 Ω
2 0 . 4 2 | Current Electricity
2 2 2
Q.8 In the given circuit, with steady current, the potential
difference across the capacitor must be
(A) The 3Ω resistor is 0.50A (2001)
V R
(B) The 3Ω resistor is 0.25A
V C
(C) The 4Ω resistor is 0.50A
2V
(D) The 4Ω resistor is 0.25A
Q.5 In the circuit shown P ≠ R, the reading of (A) V (B) V/2 (C) V/3 (D) 2V/3
galvanometer is same with switch S open or closed.
Then (1999)
Q.9 The effective resistance between point P and Q of
the electrical circuit shown in the figure is (2002)
P Q
2R 2R
2R
R G r r
P Q
2R
2R 2R
V
2Rr 8R(R + r)
Q.6 In the given circuit, it is observed that the current I (A) (B)
R +r 3R + r
is independent of the value of the resistance R6. Then,
the resistance values must satisfy (2001) 5R
(C) 2r + 4R (D) + 2r
R5 2
Potential difference
25
V En volts
R1 R2 20
15
G 10
A B 5
C
0 50 50 150 200 250 300
Q.11 The three resistance of equal value are arranged Q.13 The electric bulbs marked 25 W – 220 V and 100
in the different combinations shown below. Arrange W – 220 V are connected in series to a 440 V supply.
them in increasing order of power dissipation (2003) Which of the bulbs will fuse ? (2012)
Heater
II 6 Bulb
120 V
i
Q.16 In a large building, there are 15 bulbs of 40 W, 5 Q.18 When 5V potential difference is applied across a
bulbs of 100 W, 5 fans of 80 W and 1 heater of 1kW. wire of length 0.1 m, the drift speed of electrons is 2.5
The voltage of the electric mains is 220 V. The minimum × 10‒4 ms‒1. If the electron density in the wire is 8 × 1028
capacity of the main fuse of the building will be: (2014) ms‒3, the resistivity of the material is close to: (2015)
(A) 12 A (B) 14 A (C) 8 A (D) 10 A (A) 1.6 × 10‒7 Ωm (B) 1.6 × 10‒6 Ωm
(C) 1.6 × 10‒5 Ωm (D) 1.6 × 10‒8 Ωm
Q.17 In the circuit shown, the current in the 1 Ω resistor
is: (2015)
Q.19 A galvanometer having a coil resistance of
(A) 0 A 100 Ω gives a full scale deflection, when a current of
1 mA is passed through it. The value of the resistance,
(B) 0.13 A, from Q to P
V
which can convert this galvanometer into ammeter
6V
(C) 0.13 A, from P to Q giving a full scale deflection for a current of 10 A is:
P
(D) 1.3 A, from P to Q 9V (2016)
1 (A) 2 Ω (B) 0.1 Ω (C) 3 Ω (D) 0.01 Ω
V+6
V-9
3 Q
5(=2+3)
JEE Advanced/Boards
2
1 1
1 1
Q.4 Find the current through 25V cell &power supplied
1 by 20V cell in the figure.
2 2 10V 5V 20V
B C 30V
1 25V
10
11
5
20 V
4 8
2 10
P hysi cs | 20.45
Q.6 In the circuit shown in figure, all wires have equal Q.12 If switches S1, S2 and S3 in the figure are arranged
resistance r. Find the equivalent resistance between A such that current through the battery isminimum, find
and B. C the voltage across points A and B.
E
6 3
B
D 6 A
F
S2
1
A S1 9 1 1
24V S3
Q.7 Find the resistor in which maximum heat will be
produced. 5 5 B
6
4 Q.13 A battery of emf e0 = 10V is connected across a
2 1 m long uniform wire having 10Ω\m. Two cells of emf
V 𐐩1= 2V and 𐐩2 = 4Vhaving internal resistances 1Ω and
5Ω respectively are connected as shown in the figure. If
Q.8 For what value of R in circuit, current through 4Ω a galvanometer shown no deflection at the point P, find
resistance is zero. the distance of point P from the point a.
R 4
4V 2 10
6V
10V 0=10V
P
A B
1
Q.9 In the circuit shown in figure, the reading of
1=2V G
ammeter is the same with both switches open as with 5
both closed. Then find the resistance R.(ammeter is
2=4V
ideal)
100
Q.14 Potentiometer wire AB is 100 cm long and has a
V
2k 1k
B
A B
30V
2 0 . 4 6 | Current Electricity
Q.16 A part of a circuit is shown in figure. Here reading of Q.21 A network of resistance is constructed with R1 and
ammeter is 5 ampere and voltmeter is 96 V and voltmeter R2 as shown in the figure. The potential at the point
resistance is 480 ohm. The find the resistance R 1,2,3,…, N are V1,V2,V3,..., Vn respectively each having a
R potential k time smaller than previous one. Find:
A
V V0 R1 V1 R1 V2 R1 V3 VN-1 R1 VN
Q.25 An ideal cell having a steady emf of 2 volt is Q.4 Resistance R1and R2 each 60Ω are connected in
connected across the potentiometer wire of length series as shown in figure. The Potential difference
10 m. The potentiometer wire of magnesium and between A and B is kept 120 volt. Then what will be the
having resistance of 11.5Ω/m. An another cell gives a reading of voltmeter connected between the point C
null point at 6.9 m. If a resistance of 5Ω is put in series and D if resistance of voltmeter is 120Ω.
with potentiometer wire, find the new position of the
null point. A B
R1 C R2
Exercise 2 V D
Q.1 An insulating pipe of cross-section area ‘A’ contains (C) 40V (D) None of these
an electrolyte which has two types of ions → their charge
begin-e and +2 e. A potential difference applied between Q.5 The resistance of all the wires between any two
the ends of the pipe result in the drifting of the two types adjacent dots is R. The equivalent resistance between A
of ions, having drift speed = v ( -v e ion) and v/4 (+v e ion). and B as shown in figure is:
Both ions have the same number per unit volume = n. The
current flowing through the pipe is A
(C) E2r2 > E1(R + r2) (D) E1r1 > E2(R + r1) (A) +3V (B) +2V
(C) -2V (D) None of these
Q.3 Awire of length L and 3 identical cells of negligible
internal resistance are connected in series. Due to the Q.7 One end of a Nichrome wire of length 2L and
current, the temperature of the wire is raised by ΔT in cross-sectional area A is attached to an end of another
time t. N number of similar cells is now connected in Nichrome wire of length L and cross- sectional area
series with a wire of the same material and cross section 2A. If the free end of the longer wire is at an electric
but of length 2L. The temperature of the wire is raised potential of 8.0 volt, and the free end of the shorter
by the same amount ΔT in the same time t. The value wire is at an electric potential of 1.0 volt, the potential
of N is: at the junction of the two wire is equal to
(A) 4 (B) 6 (C) 8 (D) 9 (A) 2.4 V (B) 3.2 V (C) 4.5 V (D) 5.6 V
2 0 . 4 8 | Current Electricity
Q.8 Rate of dissipation Joule’s heat in resistance per Q.12 Which of the following quantities do not change
unit volume (Symbols have usual meaning) when an ohmic resistor connected to a battery is heated
due to the current?
(A) σE (B) σJ (C) JE (D) None of these
(A) Drift speed (B) Resistivity
Q.9 A millimetre of range 10 mA and resistance 9Ω is (C) Resistance (D) Number of free electrons
joined in a circuit as shown (see figure). The meter gives
full-scale deflection for current I when A and B are used
Q.13 Consider the circuit shown in the figure.
as its terminals, i.e. current enters leaves at A and leaves
at B (C is left isolated). The value of I is 5 3 A 3
9 10mA 4 2 3
Q.10 In a balance Wheatstone bridge, current in the Q.14 In the circuit shown the readings of ammeter and
galvanometer is zero. It remains when: voltmeter are 4A and 20V respectively. The meters are
(i) Battery emf is increased non-ideal, then R is:
R
(ii) All resistance are increased by 10 ohms A
(iii) All resistance are made five times V
(iv) The battery and the galvanometer are interchanged (A) 5 Ω
(A) Only (i) is correct (B) Less than 5 Ω
(B) (i), (ii) and (iii) are correct (C) Greater than 5 Ω
(C) (i), (iii) and (iv) are correct (D) Between 4 Ω and 5 Ω
(D) (i) and (iii) are correct
Multiple Correct Choice Type
Q.11 A Wheatstone’s bridge is balanced with a
resistance of 625Ω in the third arm, where P, Q and S Q.15 A metallic conductor of irregular cross-section is
are in the 1st, 2ndand 4th arm respectively. If P and Q are as shown in the figure. A constant potential difference
interchanged, the resistance in the third arm has to is applied across the ends (1) and (2). Then:
be increased by 51Ω to secure balance. The unknown
resistance in the fourth arm is
(1) P Q (2)
P Q
(A) The current at the cross-section P equals the current
at cross-section Q
(B) The electric field intensity at P is less than that at Q.
S 625 (C) The rate of heat generated per unit time at Q is
greater that at P
(D) The number of electrons crossing per unit area of
(A) 625Ω (B) 650Ω (C) 676Ω (D) 600Ω
cross-section at P is less than that at Q.
P hysi cs | 20.49
Q.16 In the circuit shown E, F, G and H are cells of Q.20 Mark out the correct options.
e.m.f 2V,1V, 3V and 1V respectively and their internal
(A) An ammeter should have small resistance
resistance are 2 Ω ,1 Ω ,3 Ω and 1 Ω respectively.
(B) An ammeter should have large resistance
A (C) A voltage should have small resistance
F E (D) A voltage should have large resistance
D B
2 Assertion Reasoning Type
G H (A) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true and
C statement-II is correct explanation for statement-I.
(A) VD-VB=-2/13V (B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true and
statement-II is true and statement-II is NOT the correct
(B) VD-VB=2/13V
explanation for statement-I
(C) VG=-21/13V=potential difference across G.
(C) Statement-I is true, statement-II is false.
(D) VH=19/13V=potential difference across H.
(D) Statement-I is false, statement-II is true
Q.18 In a potentiometer wire experiment the emf of Statement-II: A battery always has some internal
a battery in the primary circuit is 20V and its internal resistance.
resistance is 5Ω. There is resistance box in series with the
battery and the potentiometer wire, whose resistance Q.23 Statement-I: Knowing that rating is done at
can be varied from 120Ω to 170Ω. Resistance of the steady of the filament, an electric bulb connected to a
potentiometer wire is 75 Ω. The following potential source having rated voltage consumes more than rated
difference can be measured using this potentiometer. power just after it is switched on.
(A) 5 V (B) 6V (C) 7V (D) 8 V Statement-II: When filament is at room temperature
its resistance is less than its resistance when the bulb is
Q.19 A current passes through an ohmic conductor fully illuminated.
of non-uniform cross-section. Which of the following
quantities are independent of the cross- section? Comprehension Type
(A) The charge crossing in a given time interval.
Paragraph 1: Two persons are pulling a square of side
(B) Drift speed a along one of the diameters horizontally to make it
rhombus. Plane of rhombus is always vertical and
(C) Current density
uniform magnetic field B exist perpendicular to plane.
(D) Free-electron density They start pulling at t = 0 and with constant velocity v.
Q.25 If the resistance of the frame is R the current Match the Columns
induced is
Q.31 Electrons are emitted by a hot filament and are
Bav 2Bav Bav Bav
(A) (B) (C) (D) accelerated by an electric field as shown in figure. The
2R 2R 2 4R two stops at the left ensure that the electron beam has
a uniform cross-section. Match the entries of column-I
Q.26 Finally square frame reduces to straight wire. The with column-II as electron move from A to B:
total charge flown is
E
a2B a2B aB aB
(A) (B) (C) (D)
R 2R R R
A B
Q.2 For the post office box arrangement to determine (C) Current density across AB is double that of across BC
the value of unknown resistance, the unknown
(D) Potential difference across AB is 4 times that of
resistance should be connected between (2004)
across BC
B C D
C2 R2
B1 C1 V
R1 C1
Q.4 Find out the value of current through 2 Ω resistance 3F 6F
X
for the given circuit. (2005)
S
3 6
Y
10V 5 10 20V
9V
2
(A) Zero (B) 54 µC (C) 27 µC (D) 81 µC
(A) 5A (B) 2A (C) Zero (D) 4A
Q.8 Figure shows resistor circuit configuration R1 ,R 2
Q.5 Two bars of radius r and 2r are kept in contact as and R3 connected to 3V battery. If the power dissipated
shown figure. An electric current l is passed through the configuration R1R 2 and R3is P1 ,P2 and P3respectively,
bars. Which one of following is correct? (2006) then (2008)
l/2
1 1 1
2r l/2 1
1 1 3V
r 3V
1
l 1 1 3V 1 1
C 1
1 1 1
A B
R1 R2 R3
(A) Heat produced in bar BC is 4 times the heat
produced in bar AB
(A) P1 > P2 > P3 (B) P1 > P3 > P2
(B) Electric field in both halves is equal
(C) P2 > P1 > P3 (D) P3 > P2 > P1
2 0 . 5 2 | Current Electricity
Q.9 Consider thin square sheet of side L and thickness Q.12 A micrometre has a resistance of 100Ω and full
t, made of a material of resistivity ρ. The resistance scale range of 50 µF . If can be used as a voltmeter or as
between two opposite faces, shown by the shaded area a higher range ammeter provided a resistance is added
in the figure is (2010) to it. Pick the correct range and resistance combination
(S) (1991)
(A) 50V range with 10 kΩ resistance in series
(B) 10V range with200 kΩ resistance in series
(C) 5mA range with 1Ω resistance in parallel
t
L (D) 10mA range 1Ω resistance in parallel
(A) Directly proportional to L. Q.13 When a potential difference is applied across. The
current passing through (1999)
(B) Directly proportional to t
(A) An insulator at 0 K is zero
(C) Independent of L
(B) A semiconductor at 0 K is zero
(D) Independent of t
(C) A metal at 0 K finite
Assertion Reasoning Type (D) A p-n diode at 300 K is finite, if it is reverse biased
(A) If statement-I is true, statement-II is true: statement-II
is the correct explanation for statement-I Q.14 For the circuit shown in the figure. (2009)
(B) If statement-I is true, statement-II is true: statement-II
is the not a correct explanation for statement-I 2k R1
(C) If statement-I is true: statement-II is false l
Q.10 Statement-I: In a meter bridge experiment, null (A) The current I through the battery is 7.5 mA
point for an unknown resistance is measured. Now,
the unknown resistance is put inside an enclosure (B) The potential difference across RL is 18V
maintained at a higher temperature. The null point can (C) Ratio of powers dissipated in RL and R2 is 3
be obtained at the same point as before by decreasing
(D) If R1and R2 are interchanged, magnitude of the
the value of the standard resistance.
power dissipated in RL will decrease by a factor of 9
Statement-II: Resistance of a metal increase with
increase in temperature. (2008)
Q.15 For the resistance network shown in the figure,
choose the correct option(s). (2012)
Q.11 Capacitor C1 of capacitance 1 µF and capacitor C2
2
of capacitance 2 µF are separately charged fully by a P
i2
S
common battery. The two capacitors are then separately 2 2
allowed to discharge through equal resistor at time
t = 0 (1989) 1 1
(A) The current in each of the two discharging circuit is 4 4
zero at t = 0 Q 4 T
(B) The current in the two discharging at circuits at i2
t = 0 are equal but not zero 12 V
(C) The current in the two discharging circuit at t = 0
are unequal (A) The current through PQ is zero
(B) I1 = 3 A
(D) Capacitor C1, loses 50% of its initial charge sooner
than C2 loses 50% of its initial charge (C) The potential at S is less than that at Q
(D) I2 = 2A
P hysi cs | 20.53
Q.16 The ideal batteries of emf V1 and V2 and three j(t) j(t)
resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected as shown in
the figure. The current in resistance R2 would be zero if
(2014) (A) (B)
(A) V=1 V2 and R= 1 R=2 R3
t
(B) =
V1 V2 and =
R1 2R
= 2 R3 (0, 0) (0, 0)
(C) =
V1 2V2 and 2R
= 1 2R
= 2 R3
j(t) j(t)
(D) 2V=
1 2V2 and 2R=
1 Rj(t)
=2 R3 j(t)
t (C) t (D)
(A) (0, 0) (0, 0)
(B)
Q.17 During an experiment with a metre bridge, the
t
galvanometer shows a null point when the jockey t is (0, 0) t (0, 0)
pressed at 40.0 cm using a standard
(0, 0) resistance of 90 Ω , (0, 0)
as shown in the figure. The least count of the scale used
in the metre bridge is 1 mm.
j(t) The unknown resistance is j(t)
(2014)
(A) 60 ± 0.15 Ω (C) (B) 135 ± 0.56 Ω (D)
(C) 60 ± 0.25 Ω (D) 135 ± 0.23 Ω
t t
(0, 0) (0, 0)
R 90
Q.19 Consider the identical galvanometers and two
identical resistors with resistance R. If the internal
resistance of the galvanometers RC < R/2, which of
40.0cm the following statement(s) about any one of the
galvanometers is(are) true ? (2016)
Q.18 An infinite line charge of uniform electric (A) The maximum voltage range is obtained when all
charge density λ lies along the axis of an electrically the components are connected in series
conducting infinite cylindrical shell of radius R. At (B) The maximum voltage range is obtained when the
time t = 0, the space inside the cylinder is filled with a two resistors and one galvanometer are connected in
material of permittivity ε and electrical conductivity σ . series, and the second galvanometer is connected in
The electrical conduction in the material follows Ohm’s parallel to the first galvanometer
law. Which one of the following graphs best describes
the subsequent variation of the magnitude of current (C) The maximum current range is obtained when all
density j(t) at any point in the material? (2016) the components are connected in parallel
(D) The maximum current range is obtained when the
two galvanometers are connected in series and the
combination is connected in parallel with both the
resistors
2 0 . 5 4 | Current Electricity
Q.20 In the circuit shown below, the key is pressed at (A) The voltmeter displays – 5 V as soon as the key is
time t = 0. Which of the following statement(s) is (are) pressed, and displays +5 V after a long time
true? (2016)
(B) The voltmeter will display 0 V at time t = ln 2 seconds
40 F 25 k
(C) The current in the ammeter becomes 1/e of the
- initial value after 1 second
V
+ (D) The current in the ammeter becomes zero after a
20 F long time
A 50 k
+ -
Key 5V
PlancEssential Questions
JEE Main/Boards JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1 Exercise 1
Q. 8 Q.9 Q.11 Q.1 Q.2 Q.13
Q.19 Q.20 Q.24 Q. 23 Q.24
Q.28
Exercise 2
Exercise 2 Q.5 Q.9 Q.14
Q. 2 Q.4 Q.8 Q.15 Q.17 Q.18
Q.14 Q.21
Comprehension – 1 (Q.24-26),
Comprehension – 2 (Q.27-30)
Answer Key
JEE Main/Boards Q.4 (a) (20/19) Ω ,(b) 10A, 5A, 4A; 19A
Q.9 current in branch AB = (4/17)A, in BC = (6/17)A, Q.17 (a) greater, (b) lower, (c) nearly independent of,
in CD = (-4/17)A, in AD(6/17)A, in BD = (-2/17)A, total (d) 1022.
current (10/17)A.
Q.18 Hint: Let X be the equivalent resistance of the
Q.10 11.5V infinite network. Clearly, 2+X(X+1) =X which given
Q.12 2.7 × 104 s (7.5 h) Q.19 (a) ε = 1.24V, (b) To reduce current through the
galvanometer when the movable contact is far from the
Q.13 ≈ 238 s. balance point, (c) No. (d) N truncated. (e) No
Q.15 ≈ 22 Aluminium is lighter, it is preferred for long Q.21 Resistance in series =5988 Ω
suspensions of cables Q.22 Shunt resistance=10 m Ω
Q.16 (a) Only current (because it is given to be steady). Q.23 0.12 volt
The rest depends on the area of cross-section inversely. Q.24 (a) 0.9 A, (b)(b) Yes we can do it. It is called The
(b) No, examples of non-ohmic elements; vacuum venin theorem. It can be represented as equivalent
diode, semiconductor diode. resistance and equivalent voltage.
Q.25 (a) shunt resistance = 400 × 10 which is also
−3
Exercise 2
Single Correct Choice Type
JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1
22
Q.1 1 Ω Q.2 I = 2.5A, V= 2.5 V Q.3 Ω
35
3r
Q.4 12A-20W Q.5 R1R 2 Q.6 Ω
5
2 0 . 5 6 | Current Electricity
Q.21 (i)
(k − 1)2
;
k
(ii)
( )
(k − 1) \ k 2 V0
Q.22 4/9kgs–1, 450 sec
k (k − 1) R3
Exercise 2
Q.13 A Q.14 C
Comprehension Type
Q.24 B Q.25 B Q.26 A Q.27 A Q.28 A Q.29 D
Q.30 C
Solutions
Exercise 1 Sol 6: R =
ρL
A
V 12
Sol 1: i = = = 30 A RA 5 × 6 × 10−7
R 0.4 ρ= = = 2 × 10–7 Wm
L 15
V
Sol 2: i = (let R be resistor) ∆r 2.7 – 2.1
r +R Sol 7: α = = = 0.0039ºC–1
∆t 100 – 27.5
10
0.5 =
3+R V V
−
∆r i1 i2 V 1 1
R = 17 W Sol 8: α = = = −
∆t ∆t ∆t i1 i2
V0 = V – ir = 10 – 3 (0.5) = 8.5 V
\ Terminal voltage = 8.5 V V1 1 230 1 1
t= t0 + − = 27 + −
α i1 i2 1.7 × 10 2.8 3.2
−4
V 1.9
(b) imax = = = 0.005 A
r 380 R 1
It can’t start a car as its current is very less. 1
ρ ρ
Sol 15: R = ; R∝ 1 R
A A ⇒R= +2⇒R= +2
1 1 R +1
m = d.Al +
R 1
m 1 d
A∝ ; ∝ ⇒R= 3 + 1; (R >0⇒ R ≠ – 3 + 1)
d A m
ρd V 12
⇒R∝ R = constant i= = ≈ 3.7 A
m r +R 3 + 1 + 0.5
⇒ m ∝ ρd
Sol 19: (a) Let length of potentiometer be
ma 2.63 × 10−8 × 2.7
= = 0.464 ⇒ Standard cell voltage
mcu 1.72 × 10−8 × 8.9
2
VS = E
⇒ mAl < mCu
Aluminium is lighter Assume = 100 cm
For long suspension cables, Al is used as it is lighter. For standard potentiometer
P hysi cs | 20.59
16 19
DVH = EH + i1RH= 1 + (i) = V Sol 5 : (D)
13 13
Exercise 2
Single Correcr Choice Type
E + E2 + .......En
i = 1
Sol 1 : (D) i = neVA r + r + r + .....R
1 2 3
i1 V1 A1
= nE
i2 V2 A2 i= (for no R)
nr
i 1 = i2 E
i=
⇒ V1A1 = V2A2 r
2
V1(π d2) = V2 πd ; V2 = 4V Sol 6 : (C) On simplifying
4
i 0.8
Sol 2 : (C) i = neVA
∴ For constant n and e; 0.8
⇒ V1A1 = V2A2
VP AQ i 0.8
= ;AQ> AP
VQ AP
VP Current flowing through R is zero.
∴ > 1;⇒ VP> VQ
VQ 8
‘i’ in the circuit is = 5 amp.
1.6
P hysi cs | 20.61
P1 25
Potential difference between each cell is E – ir Sol 10 : (A) (i) i1 = = ≈ 0.1136 A
V1 220
1 – 5(0.2) = 0V
P2 100
i2 = = ≈ 0.4545 A
3 + 15 V2 220V
Sol 7 : (C) i =
1 + 2 +R V12 2002
r1 = = = 1936 W
18 P1 25
i =
3+R
V22 2002
r2 = = = 484 W
3V, 1 15V, 2 P2 100
a b
V 440
i= = = 182Å
r1 + r2 1936 + 484
∴ 25 W bulb fuses.
R
(ii) Alternative solution
Now writing the potential drop ab;
1
r∝
18 P
3 – (1) =0
3+R r1 : r2 = P2 : P1 = 700 : 25 = 4 : 1
18 V1 : V2 = r1 : r2 = 4 : 1
⇒3= ;R = 3 W
3+R
4V 4
V1 = = V = 352 V
Sol 8 : (D) 4 +1 5
V V
V2 = = = 88 V
C D 4 +1 5
V1>Vrated , V2<Vrated
i1 \ 2)(4)(p i2R)
Now P4 (i=
=
given i2 =
2
p5 = (i)2 (5)
1 1 1
⇒ = p4 1
or = P=
P5 10
= = 2 cal / s
2 r r + 20 4
p5 5 5 5
⇒ r = 20 W
Sol 14: (B) To convert galvanometer to ammeter, we Sol 2: (C) The simplified circuit is shown in the figure
need to connect resistance across it. Let it be r max
current through galvanometer 30
V 0.2
2V
30 30
I= = = 10–2 A 2V
R 20 30 30
ir = I0R0 30 .
.
10(r) = 10–2 × 20
2V 2V
60 20
⇒ r = 2 × 10–2 W
30 =
2V 2V
30 60 = 20
\ 0.02Ω resistor is connected across it.
.
.
Sol 15: (C) Total voltage (V0) = i(r + R)
= 10(90 + 910)mV = 10 V 2 1
Therefore current I ==I = A
\ Number of divisions 20 10
V0 10
= = = 100 Sol 3: (B) The given circuit is a balanced Whetstone’s
least count 0.1
bridge
C
Sol 16: (D) V = i(r + R) R 2R
12 = 0.1(20 + r) ⇒ r = 100 W 6R
A B
R R
R 6R R
E 2R
Sol 17: (D) Resistance of galvanometer, 4
R 4R
4R D
Rg>> r, R
4
\Vg≈ 12 V E
∴ It reads 12 V Thus no current will flow across 6R of the side CD. The
given circuit will now be equivalent to
Sol 4: (D) Net resistance of the circuit is 9 W. Therefore, in the second case,
∴ Current drawn from the battery. (NE)2
= t (2m)s ∆T ... (i)
9 2R
= = 1A = current though 3 Ω resistor Dividing Eq. (ii) by (i), we get
9
PR (IR2 )R1 (7.5)2 (2) 25 N2
1 1
= 2=or N2 36=
or N 6
= = = 18
PR (I 2 (1.5) 3
2 R )R 22
IR I=
= G , IP IQ
4R
2Rr
Sol 6: (C) The statement indicates a balanced 2r R+r
Wheatstone bridge formed by R3, R4, R2 and R1. P Q P Q
R3 R1 4R
⇒ =
R 4 R2
AC
i.e. R1R4 = R3R2 Sol 10: (A) The ratio will remain unchanged.
CB
(3E)2 Sol 11: (A) P = i2R
Sol 7: (B) In the first case t = ms ΔT ... (i)
R
Current is same, so P∝R.
V2 2
H = t
In the first case it is 3r, in second case it is r in third
R 3
r 3r
When length of the wire is doubled, resistance and case it is and in fourth case the net resistance is .
3 2
mass both are doubled.
R III < R II < R IV < R I ∴ PIII < PII < PIV < PI
2 0 . 6 4 | Current Electricity
⇒ RAB = 6 W
Sol 1: Let voltage at A be VA
Let current from A to B be iAB. Similarly define iAC by the 1 1 1
Similarly = +
symmetry of circuit, iAB = iAC R CD 4+8 2 + 10
VB = VA – iAB (RAB) ⇒ RCD = 6 W
⇒ VB = VC ⇒ I = 2.5 A
3 Sol 3:
1 1 C D
O
1
1
A B
E F E
B 2 2 C
1 1 1 1
⇒ = + + G
R eff 2 1+ 2+1 1+ 2+1
By symmetry, iCE = iED
1 ⇒ Point E can be detached to your CED branch.
=1
R eff
Let resistance across CD be RCD
⇒ Equivalent resistance between AD = 1W
1 1 1 1 1
⇒ = + + ⇒ RCD = W
R CD 2 2 1 2
Sol 2:
1 1 1
= +
60V R AC 1 2
A 5 2 B + –
2
RAC = W
3
I 34 7 4
2
V RDB = W
20V 3
⇒ RACDB = RAC + RCD + RDB
4 8
1 2 2
= + +
2 10 2 3 3
11
RACDB = W
6
2 0 . 6 6 | Current Electricity
11
By symmetry, RAGB = RACDB = W = R12R2 + 2R1R2R + R2R2
6
RAEB = 1 + 1 = 2 W ⇒ R2 (R1 –R2) = R1R2(R1 –R2)
Power consumed V
1 1 1 1
V 2R1 = + +
P1 = i12R1 = R AB 2 6 5
(R + R1 )2
15
RAB = W
V 2R 2 13
Similarly P2 =
(R + R 2 )2 20
RBC = W
Given P1 = P2 9
Let current trough circuit be i
V 2R1 V 2R 2
⇒ = 15i
(R1 + R)2 (R + R 2 )2 ⇒ VAB = iRAB =
13
20i
⇒ R1R22 + 2R1R2R + R1R2 VBC =
13
Power in 4Ω is more than 5Ω across it as
P hysi cs | 20.67
1
V2 V2 1.5 − VR 1.5 −
4Ω< 5Ω > if r1 < r2 = = 3 = 7 × 10−2 A
r r2 300 300 18
1
Similarly P2Ω is greater than 6Ω, 5Ω across it Current through R iR = i0 - i
( VAB )
2 2 7 1 1
15i 1 = × 10−2 – × 10 −2 = × 10−2 A
P2Ω = = . 18 3 18
2Ω 13 2
1
225 i2 VR
P2Ω = Ω R= = 3 = 600 W
338 iR 1
× 10−2
(VBC )2
2
20i 1 100 i2 18
P4Ω = = =
4Ω 9 4 81
Sol 10 : Since resistance of voltage is 400 Ω, resistance
100 225 viewed by voltmeter R0
>
81 338 1 1 1
= +
⇒ 4Ω produces maximum power. R0 R RV
RV = 400 Ω, R = 400 W
Sol 8: R A 4
C ⇒ R0 = 200 W
2 Now we see there is a wheat stone bridge formed.
4V 6V
V
10V 400
B 100 100 200
i4Ω = 0
100
Given, ⇒ VAB = 6V
But VAB = VR + 4V
10V
⇒ VR = 2V (VR = Voltage across R)
Hence the middle 100 Ω can be ignored
10V – 6V
iAB = = 2A 200 20
2 ⇒ V200Ω = × 10 = V
200 + 100 3
iAB = iR = 2A (∵ i4Ω = 0) 20
\ Voltmeter resonances V
VR 2V 3
⇒R= = = 1W
iR 2A
Sol 11: Resistance of circuit
G
A B
2V A B
1
G 9V
9V
X Y
5 R1 40
= ⇒ 3R1 = 2R2 … (i)
iG = 0 R2 60
⇒ iAX = 0 R1
=1
Note: here we should see XY as a system since current 1
leaving is zero. 1 1
+
R 2 10
⇒ Current entering is zero
VAB = Vxy R 2 (10)
R1 =
10 + R 2
Current in XY system
R1R2 = 10(R2 – R1) … (ii)
4−2 1
ixy = = A
5+1 3 From (i) and (ii)
1 7 10
Vxy = 2 + 1 = V R1 = Ω; R2 = 5W
3 3 3
P hysi cs | 20.69
I = 5 ampere, V = 96 V 1.5V 1
V
480 V + 1.25 5
Voltage diff. at R= 5 R = 96
R + 480
x(3)i = 1.25
25R = R + 480
(10 – x) 3i = 0.75; x = 6.125m
R = 20 W
r
10 m
x V R
V + 1.5
1 G
Consider a small circular strip of width dr.
1.5V V Area of strip dA = 2ρrdr
Hence xi = 1.5 Current through strip di = 5 .dA
(v – x)i = 0.5
= J0 1 − r 2πr.dr
X = 7.5 m
R
V – 0.5 R
V – 0.5+i(5) r
i= ∫ di = ∫ J0 1 − R 2πrdr
0
10 m R
A R 2 2 3
B = 2πJ0 (r − r ).dr = 2πJ0 ( r − r )
(a) V + 1.5
x V ∫ R 2 3R
G 0 0
2
2 3 πJ R
1.5V = 2πJ0 R − R = 0
2 3R 3
x
1.5 = i (30) … (i) AJ0
10 i= (πR2 = A)
3
10 − x r
0.5 – i(5) = i 30 (b) Here J = J0
10 R
R
5 – 50i = i(350 – 30x) R
r 2π J0 3 2
⇒i= ∫ di = ∫ J0 2πrdr= r = πJ R2
5 = i (350 – 30x) … (ii) 0
R 3 R 0 3 0
R R 7
R P1 = 0.2(4) 2
R R 7
P1
P1 = = 0.1(4) 2
1 2
Resistance of bridge Reff. = =R
1 1
+ Pr= I2r = (0.2)2 . (4)5 .r
2R 2R
\Total resistance R2 = 3R 7
⇒ 6.1 (4) 2 = (0.2)2 (4)5 .r
Change in resistance = 5R – 3R = 2R
3
R1 : R2 = 5 : 3 1 −
⇒r= . (4) 2
0.4
Sol 20: Let resistance be r r = 0.3125W
(i) ⇒ V = V0 – ir
VN
⇒ i = 0.2 ( V0 – ir)5/2 Sol 21: R3 =
VN − 1
Given i = 0.44
VN−1 − VN
⇒ 0.44 = (6 – 0.44r)5/2 × 0.2 R1 =
VN − 1
2
0.44 5 R1 VN−1 − VN
= 6 – 0.44r =
0.2 R3 VN
2
0.44 5 R1
6−
0.2 6 − 1.37 =k–1
r= = = 10.52 W R3
0.44 0.44
V0 − V1 (k − 1) − V1
5 Now R1 = =
(ii) I = 0.2 V2 i i
V1 i
2 ⇒ =
I 5 R1 (k − 1)
⇒V=
0.2 V1 V1
R2 = ⇒ i1 =
Power dissipated in rod P1 = VI i1 R2
7
k − 1
P1 =
I5 V
V1 − V2 k 1
2 R1 = =
(0.2)5 i − i1 i − i1
3
Total power dissipated P = P k − 1
2 1 V
V R 1
Power supplied by battery Pb = V0I i– =
R2 R1
\ Pb = P
V k − 1 i
7 2 i– =
3 I5 3 I5
R2 k R − 11
⇒ VoI= . ⇒6= .
2 2 2 2
V k − 1
(0.2)5 (0.2)5 = i
R2 k
5 VR
⇒I = 0.2 . (4) 2 =6.4 A ⇒ R2 =
i(k − 1)
7 R1 (k − 1)2
5 5 ⇒ =
R2 k
0.2(4) 2
R2 R2 R1 k
P1 = = × =
2 R3 R1 R3 (k − 1)
(0.2)5
P hysi cs | 20.71
h = efficiency
(rx = resistance till a distance x)
dm dm
= 0.9 × × 10 × 10 = 90
ρ0L
x
dt dt −
= 1 − e L
But Pg = Pd A
dm ΔV= rx. I
⇒ 40 = 90
dt
ρ0L ρ A
x
dm 4 − 1
⇒ = kg/s = 1 − e L . 0
dt 9 A Lρ0 (1 − e−1 )
Mass of water = V × d
−
x
= 200 × 1 (1 litre = 1 kg)= 200 kg V0 1 − e L
200
=
4 =
−1
T 9 (1 − e )
T = 450 s = 7.5 minute
DV = V0 – V(R) (V(x) = Potential at x)
3 ⇒ V(R) = V0 – ΔV
Sol 23: (i) Va = × 36 = 12 V
3+6
6 −
x
Vb = × 36 = 24 V V0 1 − e L
3+6
= V0 –
−1
V 36 1−e
(ii) Va = = = 18 V
2 2
−x
e L − e−1
18 V(R)= V0
i6Ω = = 3A −1
6 1−e
18
i3Ω = = 6A
3 Sol 25 : Voltage at 6.9 m
iab = i3Ω – i6Ω =6 – 3 = 3A 6.9
V1 = × 2 = 1.38 V
x
10
−
ρd ρ e 2 But V1 is voltage of another cell
Sol 24 : (a) dr= ;dr = 0 .dx
A A ⇒ Vcell = 1.38 V
−
x
L
The null point is V = 1.38 V
x e L
− Resistance of wire r w = ρ × l = 11.5 × 10 = 115 W
L ρ0 e L dx ρ0
r = ∫r = ∫0 = 0
Resistance at a distance R,
A A 1
−
L rx = 11.5 x
ρ0L Lρ0 e − 1 Voltage at x
r= . (1 − e−1 ) =
A A e rx 11.5 × x 11.5x
Vx = ×V = (ii) =
rw + 5 120 60
V V0 V0 Ae
I= = =
r Lρ0 e −1 Lρ0 (e − 1) But Vx = Vcell
A e
11.5x
⇒ 1.38 = ⇒ x = 7.2 m
60
2 0 . 7 2 | Current Electricity
Exercise 2 E1 E1 + E2
∴ >
r1 + R r1 + R + r2
Single Correct Choice Type
E1r1 + E1R + E1r2>E1r1+E1R +E2r1 +E2R
Sol 1: (D) We have two types of charges –e and +2e E1r2> E2(R + r1)
+e Vd V2 (3)2
Vd –e Sol 3: (B) Power initially = =
R R
Sol 5: (B) Now we can remove resister OO’ because of VP – VQ = 5i2 – i1 –1= 5 – 2 – 1
symmetry property.
VPQ = 2V
A
Sol 7: (A)
L, 2A
R O O’ 2L, A
R R A O B
ρ.2L ρ.2L
B R1 = R2 =
A 2A
ρL 1 ρL
R1 = 2 ; R2 = R x ∴ R =
R/2 A 2 A
R R1 = 2R
2R/3
VA – VB 8 −1 7 14R
i= = = =
R1 + R 2
2R +
R 5R 5R
2R/3
2R/3 2 2
VA – iR1 = V0
2R/3
B 14
8 – (2R) = V0
5R
A 28
V0 = 8 – = 2.4 V
5
P EeVd
7R/3 7R/3 = (7R/6) Sol 8: (C) =
V V
P
J = neVd ⇒ = EJ
V
B
2 I = 10 mA
Q
R = 9Ω + 0.9 Ω = 9.9 W
4 3
(A) (B) r = 0.1 W
2 10 × 9.9
1 i2 1 ⇒i= = 990 mA
P i1 O i X 0.1
Total current = i + I = 990 + 10 = 1A
i1 – 4 + 2i1 – 2 = 0
Sol 10: (C) For wheatstone bridge,
3i1 = 6
R 1R 4 = R 2 R 3
⇒ i1 = 2 amp
Now same for mesh 2;
R1 R2
– 2i2 + 1 – 3i2 + 4 = 0
⇒ i2 = 1 amp
Now applying voltage drop along POXQ; R3 R4
V0 20
It is independent of emf Sol 14: (C) 1f V was ideal, R = = = 5W
i0 4
Let r = KR
\ V is not ideal, i< i0
⇒ r1r4 = K2(R1R4) = K2(R2R3) = r2r3
⇒ R > R0
So it is still balance
⇒ R > 5W
Even if battery and galvanometer are interchanged, still
it is balanced. Multiple Correct Choice Type
Sol 11: (B) 625(P) = QS Sol 15: (A, B, C, D) Current is constant across the
(625 + 51) = PS cross-section.
P Q P 676 1 1
⇒ 625 . = 676 ; ⇒ = E∝ ; r∝
A A
Q P Q 625
1
P 26 ⇒ i2r∝
= A
Q 25
\ Heat at Q > heat a P
P 26
S = 625 = 625 × = 650 Ω
Q 25
Sol 16: (A, D)
Comprehension type
dQ B dA
= .
Assertion Reasoning Type dt R dt
iR 2 B B
Sol 21: (D) JE = (V = volume) ⇒DQ = ∆A = (a2)
V R R
⇒ E ∝ R2
a2B
∴ Statement-I is false DQ =
B
2 0 . 7 6 | Current Electricity
(3)2 (3)2 10
P2
= = 18 W and=
P3 = 4.5W For option (B)
= R − 100 ≈ 200 kΩ
0.5 2 50 × 10−6
∴P2> P1> P3
Sol 13: (A, B, D) At 0 K, a semiconductor becomes
ρ(L) ρL ρ a perfect insulator. Therefore, at 0 K, if some
Sol 9: (C) R = =
R = = potential difference is applied across an insulator or
A tL t
semiconductor, current is zero. But a conductor will
i.e. R is independent of L. become a super conductor at 0 K. Therefore, current
will be infinite. In reverse biasing at 300 K through a
Sol 10: (D) With increase in temperature, the value of p-n junction diode, a small finite current flows due to
unknown resistance will increases. minority charge carriers.
R l1
In balanced Wheat stone bridge condition, =
X l2 6 × 1.5
Sol 14: (A, D) Rtotal= 2 + 3.2 kΩ
=
Hence R = Value of standard resistance 6 + 1.5
X = value of unknown resistance 24 V
(a) I
= = 7.5mA
= IR
l1 3.2kΩ 1
To take null point at same point or to remain
l2 RL
R IR =
unchanged should also remain unchanged. I
RL + R 2
2
X
Therefore, if X is increasing R, should also increase. 1.5
I= × 7.5 = 1.5 mA
7.5
+ –
Sol 11: (B, D) The discharging IR = 6mA
L
−τ /CR
current in the circuit is, i = i0 e
R (b) VR
= (I=
R )(RL ) 9V
L L
V
Hence, i0 = initial current =
R PR IR2 R1 (7.5)2 (2) 25
(c)= 1
= 1
=
Here, V is the potential with which capacitor was PR I 2
R (1.5)2
(6) 3
2 R 2
charged. 2
Since, V and R for both the capacitors are same, initial (d) When R1 and R2 are inter changed then
discharging current will be same, but non-zero.
R 2RL 2 × 1.5 6
= = kΩ
Further, τc = CR R 2 + RL 3.5 7
C1< C2 or τC < τC Now potential difference across RL will be
1 2
dr
4 Q 4 T 4 12
I1 12V I1 12V
r
12 × 6
R e q= = 4Ω
12 + 6
12 2
I1 = = 3A ; I2 = × 3 = 2A
4 3
Here we have
Sol 19: (A, C) For maximum voltage range across a
VS − VQ =
−4 i.e., VS < VQ galvanometer, all the elements must be connected in
series.
For maximum current range through a galvanometer,
R1 (V1 + V2 ) all the elements should be connected in parallel.
Sol 16: (A, B, D)
= V1 ⇒V
=1R 3 V2R1
R1 + R 3
R3 (V1 + V2 ) Sol 20: (A, B, C, D) At t = 0 voltage across each
V2
= ⇒V
=2R1 V2R 3
R1 + R 3 capacitor is zero, so reading of voltmeter is -5 Volt.
At t = ∞ , capacitors are fully charged. So for ideal
x
Sol 17: (C) R = 90 voltmeter, reading is 5 Volt.
100 − x
At transient state.
∴ R =60 Ω
t t
dR 100 5 −τ 5 −τ
= dx I1= e mA, I2= e and =
I I1 + I2
R (x)(100 − x) 50 25
100
dR
∴ = 60 0.25 Ω
0.1 ×= I2 40 F I2 25 k
(40)(60)
-
Sol 18: (C) For infinite the, V
+
λ I1
E=
2πεr
I 50 k I1 20 F
−λ
⇒ dV = dr
2πεr
Current through an elemental shell ; 5V
λ Where τ = 1 sec
dr
| dV | λσ
=I = 2πε= r
So I becomes 1/e times of the initial current after 1 sec.
dR 1 dr ε
×
σ 2πr The reading of voltmeter at any instant
This current is radially outwards so ; −
t
−
t
∆V40µf − ∆V50k=
Ω 5 1 − e τ − 5e τ
d −λσ dλ σ
( λ ) = ⇒ =− dt
dt ε λ ε So at t = log2 sec, reading of voltmeter is zero.
⇒ λ=λ
0e−( σ / ε )t
2017-18 100 &
op kers
Class 12 T
By E ran culty
-JE Fa r
IIT enior emie .
S fP r es
o titut
Ins
PHYSICS
FOR JEE MAIN & ADVANCED
SECOND
EDITION
Exhaustive Theory
(Now Revised)
Formula Sheet
9000+ Problems
based on latest JEE pattern
1. INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters on electrostatics and current electricity, we have studied about the electric force and electric
field. Another important property associated with moving charges is the magnetic force and the magnetic field.
The current flowing in a conductor produces a magnetic field and any charge moving in this field will experience a
magnetic force which will depend on the velocity (both magnitude and direction) as well as on some property of
the field. We will study the properties and laws governing the magnetic field and magnetic force in detail in this
chapter.
There are a wide variety of industrial and medical applications of magnetic fields and forces. Common example, is
the use of electromagnet to lift heavy pieces of metal. Magnets are used in CD and DVD players, computer hard
drives,loud speakers, headphones, TVs, and telephones. We are surrounded by magnets. Right from our doorbells
to cars to security alarm systems and in our hospitals, magnets are being used everywhere.
charge q times the cross product of its velocity v and the field B (all measured in the same reference frame). Using
formula for the magnitude of cross product, we can write the magnitude of = Fm as Fm q vB sin θ where θ is the
angle between the velocity v and magnetic field B .
If angle θ is 90o, then the above relation for magnetic force can be used to define the magnitude of magnetic flux
density B as,
Fm
B =
q v⊥
where v ⊥ is the velocity component perpendicular to vector B .
Thus, the total electromagnetic force acting on charge q is given as, F= Fe + Fm
or F = qE + q[v × B]
The unit of B is Tesla abbreviated as T. If q=1 C, v=1 ms-1, sin θ=1 for θ = 90o, and Fm = 1 N,then B=1 T = 1
Weber-m-2. Thus 1 Tesla is defined as the unit of magnetic field strength in S.I units which when acting on 1 C of
charge moving with a velocity of 1 ms-1 at right angles to the magnetic field exerts a force of 1 N in a direction
perpendicular to that of field and velocity vectors. C.G.S. units of magnetic field strength or magnetic induction is
1 gauss or 1 oersted. 1 gauss = 1 oersted= 10-4T.
Illustration 1: A 2 MeV proton is moving perpendicular to uniform magnetic field of 2.5 T. What is the magnetic
force on the proton? (Mass of proton = 1.6 x 10-27 kg) (JEE MAIN)
mp v 2
Sol: Kinetic energy of proton is K.E. = . 1 MeV=1.6 x 10-13J.
2
1
K.E = 2 MeV = 2 x 1.6 x 10-13J or mv2= 3.2 x 10-13J
2
2x3.2x10−13 2x3.2x10−13
∴V= = = 2 x 107 m s-1
m 1.6x10−27
Now, magnetic force on proton, F= ev B = 1.6 x 10-19 x 2 x 107 x 2.5 = 8.0 x 10-12 N
Illustration 2: A charged particle is projected in a magnetic field = B (3i + 4j)x10−2 T
The acceleration of the particle is found to be,=a (xi + 2j) ms−2 Find the value of x. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Magnetic force on a moving charge is perpendicular to the magnetic field. Therefore the dot product of force
and magnetic field vector is zero.
As we have read Fm ⊥ B i.e., the acceleration a ⊥ B or a ⋅B =0
8
or (xi + 2 j) ⋅ (3i + 4 j) x10 −2 =
0 ; (3x+8)x102=0 ∴ x= − ms−2
3
This initial force on it is the force Fe due to electric field in the K’ frame.Thus the magnetic field in K frame appears
as a combination of electric field and magnetic field in K’ frame. The electric and magnetic fields are thus inter-
dependent. We introduce a single physical entity called electromagnetic field. Whether the electromagnetic field
will appear as electric field or magnetic field depends on the frame of reference. If we confine to a particular
reference frame, we can treat electric fieldand magnetic field as separate entities. A field which is constant in one
reference frame in the general case is found to vary in another reference frame.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
•• In case of a bar magnet, the density of magnetic field lines is high at points near the poles, and the
density at pointsnear the center of the magnet is low.
•• If we place a magnetic compass at any point in the earth’s magnetic field, it will align itself in the
direction of the magnetic field lines.
Vaibhav Krishnan (JEE 2009 AIR 22)
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
•• Common misconception about magnetic field lines is that it is the path followed by a magnetic
north pole in a magnetic field.
•• This is not correct. It is the instantaneous direction of the magnetic force acting on the magnetic
north pole in the magnetic field.
Vaibhav Gupta (JEE 2009 AIR 54)
1 qE 2
∴ y= t
2 m
2
1 qE x qEx2
Using Eq, (ii), we get y = or =y = Kx2 …(iii)
2 m v 2mv 2
qE
where K= is a constant.Thus the charged particle moves along a parabolic trajectory.
2mv 2
(d) The magnetic force on the component of velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field provides the centripetal
force to the charged particle to follow a circular trajectory of radius r.
mv 2⊥
qqv
v ⊥⊥ B =
r
mv ⊥
or r =
qB v sin v
v ⊥ qB
Angular velocity, =
ω =
r m
qB
Frequency f = B
2πm
Figure 21.4: Charged particle moving in
2πm helical path in uniform magnetic field
Time period T=
qB
7.DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON
The Fig. 21.5 shows the simplified version of Thomson’s’ experiment. An electric field E is established
in the region
between the deflecting plates by connecting a battery across their terminals. The magnetic field B in the region
between the deflecting plates is directed into the plane of the figure.
+
E
B Spot of
Filament light
x x x x x
x x x x x
Screen C
– Screen S
Glass
envelope
v
To vacuum pump
Charged particles (electrons) are emitted by a hot filament at the rear of the evacuated cathoderay tube and are
accelerated by an applied potential difference V. After they pass through a slit in screen C, they form a narrow
beam. They then pass through the region between the deflecting plates, headed towards the center of fluorescent
screen S, where they produce a spot of light. The crossed-fields E and B in the region between the deflecting
plates can deflect them from the center of the screen. By controlling the magnitude and directions of the fields, E
and B the deflection of the charged particles can be controlled.
When both the fields E and B are turned-off the beam of charged particles reaches the screen un-deflected.
When field E is turned-on the beam of charged particles is deflected.
Keeping the field E unchanged, field B is also turned-on.The magnitude of B is adjusted such that the deflection
2 1 . 6 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
of the charged particles becomes zero. In this situation the electric force on the charged particles is balanced by
the magnetic force.
q E = −q v ×B
or E =− v × B
The ratio of magnitudes of E and B in this situation gives the speed of the charged particles.
E
v =
B
When only field E is turned-on, the displacementof the charged particlesin the y-direction, when they reach the
end of the plates, as derived in article 6.1 is
q EL2
y =
2m v 2
where v is the particle’s speed along x-direction, mits mass, qits charge, and L is the length of the plates. The
direction of deflection of charged particles show that the particles are negatively charged.
Substituting the value of v in terms of E and B we get,
q B2 L2
y =
2mE
m B2 L2
or =
q 2 yE
Thus in this way the mass to charge ratio of electrons was discovered.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
8. HALL EFFECT
The Hall Effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage) across acurrent carrying conductor, lying
in a magnetic field perpendicular to the current. The hall voltage is produced in the direction transverse to the
electric current in the conductor. It was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.Hall Effect allows us to find out whether the
P hysi cs | 21.7
Illustration 3:Copper has 8.0 x 1028 conduction electrons per metre3. A copper wire of length 1 m and cross-
sectional area 8.0 x 10-6 m2 carrying a current and lying at right angle to magnetic field of strength 5 x 10-3 T
experiences a force of 8.0 x 10-2N. Calculate the drift velocity of free electrons in the wire. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: If v is the drift speed of electrons then the magnetic force on the wire is
o
=F qvBsin
= θ qvBsin90
= qvB
where q is the total charge of electrons in the wire.
n=8.0 x 1028 m-3
l= 1 m; A=8.0 x 10-6m2
Charge on each electron, e=1.6 x 10-19 C
Number of electrons in the copper wire = n x volume of wire = n(A l)
Total charge in the wire, q=n((A l)e or q=8.0 x 1028 x 8.0 x 10-6 x 1 x 1.6 x 10-19=1.024 x 105C
F 8.0x10−2
Using F=qvB sin θ, we have,
= ν = = 1.563 x 10-4m s-1
qBsin θ 1.024x105 x5x10−3 x sin90o
j = nev d
So dF= [ j × B]dV
Introducing the vector d in the direction of current we can write, j dV =∆ j S d =I d . Here ΔS is the area of
cross-section and d the length of the elementary volume dV.
So = dF I [d × B]
The total magnetic force on the conductor= is F I ∫ [d × B]
For a thin straight wire of length L, if the field B is constant throughout the length of the wire and perpendicular
to it, we can write
F = I L B
In vector form we can write, =
F I L ×B , where L is a length vector that has magnitude L and is directed along the
wire segment in the direction of the (conventional) current.
L’
Few important points regarding the force on current carrying conductor -
in magnetic field are given below: L
(a) In a uniform magnetic field the force, dF= IBd sin θ , does not I
depend on the position vector r of the current element.Thus
this force is non-central. (Acentral force is a function of position Figure 21.7: Current carrying conductor in
uniform magnetic fieldr
vector r , F = f(r ) )
(b) Theforce dF is always perpendicular to the plane containing B
and d .Vectors B and d may or may not be perpendicular to
each other. I
(c) As explained above, the total magnetic force on the conductor is
= F I ∫ [d × B]
I
For uniform magnetic field, B can be taken out from the integral. -
Fnet = 0
= F I ∫ d × B
Figure 21.8: Current carrying loop in
According to the law of vector addition ∫ d is equal to the length
uniform magnetic field
vector L from initial to final point of the conductor as shown in
Fig. 21.7. For a conductor of any arbitrary shape the magnitude
of vector L is different from the actual length L’ of the conductor.
∴ F = IL xB
(d) For a current carrying closed loop of any arbitrary shape placed
in a uniform magnetic field (see Fig. 21.8), I -
B
= F I � ×B 0
∫ d =
Uniform
field
Here as we add all the elementary vectors d around the closed -
loop, the vector sum is zero because the final point is same as Fnet = 0
the initial point. net = 0
-
I1 I1
I2 I2
-
Fnet
- -
Fnet 0 Fnet 0
=0
-
net 0
-
net
The net work done by magnetic forces acting on a current carrying conductor is zero.
Though it may appear that,
W= ∫ F.dr =∫ [ I ∫ (d × B)].dr =
∆K
Illustration 4: A wire 12 cm long and carrying a current of 2 A is placed perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field.
If a force of 0.8 N acts on it, calculate the value of the magnetic induction. (JEE MAIN)
F 0.8
Using, F= BIlsin θ , we=
get B = = 3.3 T
I sin θ 2x12x10−12 x sin90o
2 1 . 1 0 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
Field
Current
In vector form we can write τ= I A ×B
Defining magnetic dipole moment of the loop as M = I= A I Anˆ , we can write torque as τ= M×B
If the number of turns in the loop is N then we have,
= M NI=A NI Anˆ
Note that although this formula has been derived for a square loop, it comes out to be true for any shape of the
loop.
Illustration 5: A vertical circular coil of radius 0.1 m has moment of inertia as 1 x 10-1kg m2.It is free to rotate along
y-axis coinciding with its diameter. Initially axis of the coil and direction of magnetic field of 1 T are along x-axis.
The coil takes a quarter rotation. Find (JEE ADVANCED)
(i) Magnetic field strength at the center of the coil. Current of 3.19 A flows through this coil having 200 turns.
(ii) Magnetic moments of the coil.
(iii) Torque at the initial and final positions of the coil.
(iv) Angular speed at the final position.
dω dω
Sol: The torque on coil is τ = − M × B where M the magnetic moment of coil is. As torque τ = I α = I = I ω,
integrating equation of torque we get the angular velocity. dt d θ
µ NI (4 πx10−7 )(200)(3.19)
B = 0 , we have B = 4x10−6 T
(i) Using =
2R 2x0.1
dω dω dω dω dθ dω
(iv)
= Γ I and
= Γ mBsin θ ; I mBsin θ, But
= =x =ω Then, Iωdω=(mB sin θ )d θ
dt dt dt dθ dt dθ
ω π /2
Iω2 90
Integrating, we get I ∫ ωdω = mB ∫ sin θdθ i.e, = −mBcos θ | = mB
0 0
2 0
1/2 1/2
2mB 2x8x10−5
i.e.
= ω = =4 x 10-2 rad s-1
I 0.1
Note:
(a) Never use Fleming left-hand rule or right hand rule while solving questions. It becomes cumbersome to
remember them precisely. Instead always find the direction of force by identifying the directions of motion
and the field and then take the cross-product.
(b) Also, torque can be directly calculated by formula M × B , where M is the magnetic dipolemoment as discussed
below.
Each loop has magnetic dipole moment defined as M = NI A , where N is the number of turns in the loop, I is the
current in the loop andA is the area of cross-section of the loop.
For the direction of M any one of following methods can be used:
(a) The direction of M is from South Pole to North Poles we traverse inside the magnetic M
dipole. For a current loopthe North and the South Pole can be identified by the sense
of current. The side fromwhere the current seems to flow clockwise is the South Pole i
and the opposite side from where it seems to flow anticlockwise is theNorth Pole.
(b) Vector M is along the normal to the plane of the loop. The direction of M is related
to the direction of current in the loop by the right hand screw rule. Curl the fingers of
the right hand around the perimeter of the loop in the direction of current as shown
in Fig.21.16. Then thumb extendedperpendicular to the plane of the loop, points in
Figure 21.16: Right
the direction of M . hand screw rule
The potential energy U of a magnetic dipole placed in a uniform magnetic field is
U= − MBcos θ
M
or U = − M.B
For a bar magnet we define the magnetic dipole moment as
M= m
Here m is the pole strength of the bar magnet and vector is directed from South Pole
to North Pole.
The unit of magnetic dipole moment is A-m2.
Figure 21.17: Direction of
The magnetic field at a large
distance x on the magnetic axis of a bar magnet having magnetic moment
magnetic dipole moment M is
µ0 2M
B=
4 π x3
The magnetic
field at a large distance x on the perpendicular bisector of a bar magnet having magnetic dipole
moment M is
µ0 M
B= −
4 π x3
Illustration 6: A square loop OABCO of side carries a current I. It is placed as shown in Fig. 21.18. Find magnetic
moment of the loop. (JEE MAIN) z
A
Sol: The magnetic moment of the loop is M = I A for single turn. The direction
of M is related to the direction of current in the loop by the right hand screw rule. B
As discussed earlier, magnetic moments of the loop can be written as, i
( )
O
M = I BCxCO o
y
60
3 C
Here, BC = k CO = − cos60o ˆi − sin60o j =− i − j x
2 2
Figure 21.18
− i − 3 j or
I2
∴ M = I ( − k)x = M (j − 3 i)
2 2 2
P hysi cs | 21.13
C D
B E
A F
Figure 21.20
µ I d (r sin θ)
dB = o
4π r3
µ I d (sin θ)
dB = 0
4π r2
µ0
Here m0 is the permeability of free space and = 10−7 Tesla-meter/ampere.
4π
The direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane containing current element d and radius vector r which joins
d to P.
The total magnetic induction due to the conductor is given by, B = ∫ dB .
2 1 . 1 4 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
The magnetic intensity H at any point in the magnetic field is related to the magnetic induction
B
as H = or B = µH where µ is permeability of the medium. The unit of magnetic intensity H
µ
is A-m-1
Maxwell’s Cork Screw Rule: If a right handed cork screw is rotated so that its tip moves in the
direction of flow of current through the conductor, then the direction of rotation of the head of
the screw gives the direction of magnetic field lines around the conductor.
Right Hand Rule: If we hold the conductor in the right hand such that the thumb is stretched
Figure 21.22:
in the direction of current, the direction in which the fingers curl gives the direction on the
Right hand
magnetic field.
thumb rule
12.1.1 Magnetic Induction Due to Infinitely Long Straight Current Carrying Conductor
Suppose the current I flows through a long straightcurrent carrying conductor. We intend to find the magnetic field
at point P at perpendicular distance r from the conductor. As shown in Fig. 21.23. the magnitude of field dB at P
due toan infinitesimal element of length d, is given by Biot-Savart law as:
µ I d sin(90 + α )
dB
= dB = 0
4 πx2
where x is the distance between the current element and point P. The field dB is directed into the plane of the
figure and perpendicular to it.
d xd
x
I
d
dB
r A
π /2
µo I µo I
= B
4 π r −π /2 ∫=
cos α d α
2π r
α
µ0 I µo I sin α Figure 21.25: Magnetic
4 πr ∫
= B cos
= α dα
4 πr field at end of straight
0
wire of finite length
12.1.5 At a Point Along the Length of the Straight Conductor Near Its End
π π
In this case (see Fig. 21.26) α1 = and α2 =− , and thus equation (ii)gives B=0. Actually
2 2
in this case the value of α does not vary at all i.e. it is constant (at all points of the wire we
π
have α = ), thus dα = 0 and thus equation (i) gives dB = 0. I
2
Illustration 8: Calculate the magnetic field at the center of a coil in the form of a square
of side 4 cm carrying a current of 5A. (JEE MAIN)
r
Sol: Square loop can be considered as four wires each of length . Magnetic field due to
µ0 1
any one wire, at a the center is calculated=
as B1 sin θ1 + sin θ2 P
4π x
Figure 21.26: Magnetic
A square coil carrying current is equivalent to four conductors of finite length. field along length of
straight wire
Step 1
Magnetic field at O due to conductor BC is A B
µ0 1
=B1 sin θ1 + sin θ2
4π x O
45o
45 a
o
By symmetry, magnetic field intensity at O due to each arm will be same.Moreover, the direction of magnetic field
at O due to each arm of the square is same
Step 2
∴ Net magnetic field at O due to current carrying square,
B=4B1 =4 x 3.54 x 10-5Tor B=1.42 x 10-4T
If a current I is flowing in a circular arc of radius R lying in the y-z plane with center at origin O and subtending an
angle ϕ at O, then the magneticfield dB at a point Pon x-axiswith coordinates (x, 0, 0) due to a small elementary arc
of length d= R dθ at a distance r from P is given by Biot-Savart Law as:
µ0 I d × r
dB = … (i)
4π r3
where r is a vector from midpoint of d to P.
As shown in Fig. 21.28 the coordinates of d are (0, R cosθ, R sinθ), where θ is the angle between the radius of the
arc through d and the y-axis.
Rd
(0, Rcos, Rsin) BY
I R r
P BX
X
O
(x, 0, 0)
BZ
Figure 21.28: Magnetic field at a point on the axis of current carrying arc
So we can write r = x ˆi − R cos θ ˆj − R sin θ kˆ … (ii)
Magnitude
= r x2 + R 2 … (iii)
Let us express d in Cartesian coordinates system as shown in Fig. 21.29.
d =− R sin θ dθ ˆj + R cos θ dθ kˆ … (iv)
Put (ii), (iii) and (iv) in (i) to get
µ0 I R x(1 − cos φ)
Bz =
4 π(x2 + R 2 )3/2
The field at center of the arc: At center x = 0, so
µ0 I φ
Bx =
4πR
By = 0
Bz = 0
Thus at the center the field is normal to the plane of the arc.
µ0 I
For a semicircular loop, the angle subtended at the center is φ = π, so B =
4r
µ0 I
=∴ B [R 2 (2π) ˆi + xR sin2π ˆj + xR(1 − cos2π)k]
ˆ
4 π(x + R 2 )3/2
2 Y
µ0 IR 2 ˆi
P
∴ B = X
2 2 3/2 (x, 0, 0) BX
2(x + R )
Z
Thus field B is directed along the axis of the circular loop.
Figure 21.30: Magnetic field at a point
µ0NIR 2 on the axis of circular loop
For a coil havingN circular turns, B=
2(R 2 + x2 )3/2
The field at center of the coil:
µ0 NIR 2
At center x = 0, so B0 =
2R3
µ0 NI
∴ B0 =
2R
2 1 . 1 8 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
The direction of B at the center of circular current carrying arc or closed circular loop can be found as follows:
If we curl the fingers of the right hand in the direction of the current in the arc/loop, then the stretched thumb
points in the direction of the field at the center.
µ NIR 2
If the point P is at a very large distance from the coil,then x2>>R2, B = 0
2x3
µ NI A
If A is area of one turn of the coil, A=πR2 B = 0
2πx3
Illustration 9: A straight wire carrying a current of 12 A is bent into a semi-circular are of radius 2.0 cm as shown in
Fig. 21.31.(i) What is the direction and magnitude of magnetic field (B) at the center of the arc? (JEE ADVANCED)
(ii) Would the answer change if wire is bent in the opposite way?
Sol: For given arrangement of wire, the magnetic field at the 2.0
center due to the straight sections will be zero. The magnetic cm
field at center will be due to the semicircular wire. Direction O
of field depends on direction of current and determined by
right hand thumb rule.
(i) The wire is divided into three sections: (a) the straight Figure 21.31
section to be left (b) the straight section to the right and
(c) circular arc.
µ0 Idl sin θ
Step 1. Magnetic field due to a current carrying element at a point is given by dB =
4π r2
In the given case, angle between dl and r for the straight section is 0oor π .So sin 0 =sin π =0
Hence magnetic field at the center (O) of the arc due to straight sections is ZERO
Step 2. Magnetic field at the center due to current carrying semi-circular section is
Illustration 10: A current path shaped as shown in Fig. 21.32 produces a magnetic field at P, the center of the arc.
If the arc subtends an angle of 30o and the radius of the arc is 0.6m, what are the magnitude and direction of the
field produced at P if the current is 3.0 A (JEE ADVANCED)
A
µ Iφ
Sol: Magnetic field at the center P of arc CD is B = 0 , and due to straight C
4 πR
wires AC and DE is zero.
P E
because d is parallel to r along these paths, this means that d x r =0. D
Each length element d along path CD is at the same distance from P,
Figure 21.32
µ0 I µ0 I π µ0 I
B
= = φ ×=
4 πr 4 πr 6 24r
P hysi cs | 21.19
Note: Memorizing various formula of magnetic field due to ring and wire carrying current would easily help in
calculating magnetic field due to complicated wire systems. Also, be careful about the direction of field in every
problem you solve.
Illustration 11: A current of 10A flows through each two parallel long wires. The wires are 5 cm apart. Calculate the
force acting per unit length of each wire. Use the standard values of constants required. (JEE MAIN)
F µ0 2I1 I2
Sol: Field of one wire exerts force on other wire and the force per unit length of wire is
= .
4π d
Force acting per unit length of long conductor due to another long conductor parallel to it and carrying same
current.
Illustration 12:The wires which connect the battery of an automobile to its starting motor carry a current of 30A
(for a short time).What is the force per unit length between the wires, if they are 70 cm long and 1.5 cm apart? Is
the force attractive or repulsive? (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: Field of one wire exerts force on other wire and the force per unit length of M
F µ 2I I
wire is = 0 1 2 .
4π d 70 cm
Force depends on direction of current. Parallel currents attract while anti-parallel F1 F2
currents repel. 1.5 cm
dF µ0 2I1 I2
= ; I =I =300A; r=1.5cm=1.5x 10-2m
d 4 π d 1 2
Figure 21.34
2 1 . 2 0 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
For example in the Fig. 21.35 shown, the current directed out of the plane of the figure is positive, so we have Ienc
= I1 - I2; � µ0 ( I1 − I2 )
∫ B ⋅ d =
Note: Ampere’s circuital law holds good for a closed path of any size and shape around a current carrying conductor.
14.2.1 Magnetic field due to current carrying circular wire of infinite length
Let R be the radius of the infinite circular wire carrying current I. The magnetic field lines are concentric circles with
their centers on the axis of the wire.
We intend to find magnetic field at a distance r> R from the axis of the wire. We choose a circular path of radius r
and center at the axis of the wire as the Amperian loop. B will be constant and tangential at all points of this loop.
Using Ampere’s law,
P hysi cs | 21.21
0
�∫ B.d = µ0 I or �∫ Bd cos0 = µ0 I
or B �
∫ d =B(2π r) =µ0 I
µ0 I
∴ B= …(i)
2πr
Thus, the magnetic field intensity at a point outside the wire varies inversely as the distance of the point from the
axis of the wire.
r r>R
I r R
r<R
Amperian
Loop
1
That is, B ∝
r
µ0 I
At the surface of the wire, r = R, so B= …(ii)
2πR
We intend to find magnetic field at a distance r< R from the axis of the wire. We choose a circular path of radius r
and center at the axis of the wire as the Amperian loop. B will be constant and tangential at all points of this loop.
Using Ampere’s law,
0
�∫ B.d = µ0 Ienc or �∫ Bd cos0 = µ0 Ienc
If the current is uniformly distributed throughout the cross – section of the wire, then we have
I Ir 2
Ienc= ( π r 2 )= B
πR 2 R2
Ir 2 B 1
∴ B(2π r) =µ0 r
r
B
R2
µ0 Ir
∴ B= r=R
2π R 2
Figure 21.37: Variation of field
Thus, B∝r with radial distance r
The variation of B with distance r from the axis of the wire is shown in Fig.21.37.
Illustration 13: Figure 21.38 shows the cross section of a long conducting cylinder with inner radius a=2.0 cm and
outer radius b=4.0 cm.The cylinder carries a current out of the page, and the magnitude of the current density in
the cross section is given by j = cr2, with c=3.0 x 106 A/m4and r in meters. What is the magnetic field B at appoint
that is 3.0 cm from the central axis of the cylindrical? (JEE ADVANCED)
2 1 . 2 2 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
Sol: The magnetic field in this case is symmetric. The field lines are concentric
circles. We choose a circular amperian loop coaxial with the cylinder. First find
the current enclosed for region a<x<r where r = 3 cm. Then use � ∫ B ⋅ ds =
µ0ienc
to find B .
r 2
We write the integral as=
ienc ∫=
JdA ∫ cr (2πr dr) a
a b
r
r r4 πc(r 4 − a4 )
2πc r3 dr =
= ∫ 2πc =
a 4 a 2
We next evaluate the left side of Ampere’s law exactly as we did in figure.
Then Ampere’s law, �
∫ B ⋅ ds =
µ0ienc ,
µ0 πc
Gives us B(2πr) =− (r 4 − a4 )
2
µ πc
− 0 (r 4 − a4 )
Solving for B and substituting known data yield B =
4 πr
= −
( 4π x10 −7
)(
T ⋅ m / A 3.0 x106 A / m4 ) x (0.030 m) 4
– ( 0.020m)
4
= − 2.0 x 10 −5 T
.
4 (0.030m)π
Thus, the magnetic field B at a point 3.0 cm from the central axis has magnitude B=2.0 x 10-5 T and forms magnetic
field lines that are directed opposite our direction of integration, hence counterclockwise in figure.
x x x x x
We can apply Ampere’s law to find the magnetic field inside the solenoid. We choose a rectangular Amperian
loop abcd partly inside the solenoid and partly outside it as shown in Fig. 21.40, its length lbeing parallel to the
solenoid’s axis.
d c
Amperian
Loop a b
B
There are four sides of the rectangle. We write �∫ B.d as the sum of four integrals, one for each side:
b c d a
�
∫ B.d = ∫a B.d + ∫b B.d + ∫c B.d + ∫d B.d
The sides bc and da do not contribute to the line integral as the magnetic field is perpendicular to these sides at
points inside the solenoid and at points outside the solenoid the magnetic field is zero. The side cd is completely
outside the solenoid and hence the magnetic field is zero at all its points. So the only side that contributes to the
line integral is ab.
Thus, we get �∫ B.d = B = µ0 n I
Here I is the current through each turn of the solenoid and n is the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid.
The net current enclosed by the rectangle is n I.
∴ B = µ0 n I
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
(i) Think of an infinite solenoid, if you could take the midpoint at the axis of this solenoid then
µ nI
the magnetic field strength at that point from each side would be B = 0 the situation you
2
µ0nI
describe is like taking half of this infinite solenoid (as L>>d) and so B =
2
( µ0 =permeability of free space, n= number of coils in the solenoid, l= current)
Anurag Saraf (JEE 2011 AIR 226)
2 1 . 2 4 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
Illustration 14:A closely wound solenoid 80 cm long has 5 layers of winding of 400 turns each. The diameter of the
solenoid is 1.8 cm. if the current carries is 8.0 A, find the magnitude of B inside the solenoid near its center.
(JEE MAIN)
µ0NI
Sol: For solenoid of length the field at a point inside it is B = where N is the number of turns in solenoid.
Magnetic field induction at a point inside the solenoid is
Illustration 15: A solenoid is 2 m long and 3 cm in diameter. Ithas 5 layers of winding of 1000 turns each and
carries a current of 5A. What is the magnetic field at its center? (JEE MAIN)
µ0NI
Sol: For solenoid of length the field at a point inside it is B = where N is the number of turns in solenoid.
Magnetic field at the center of a solenoid is given by,
µ0NI 5x1000
B= =(4 π x10-7) x5= 1.57 x 10 T
-2
l 2
B
r
B
If each turn of the toroid carries current I and the total number of turns in the toroid is N, then current enclosed by
the Amperian loop is NI.
µ NI
So 2π r B = µ0 N I or, B = 0
2πr
P hysi cs | 21.25
Illustration 16: A toroid of 4000 turns has outer radius of 26 cm and inner radius of 25 cm. If the current in the wire
is 10A, calculate the magnetic field of the toroid also in the inner air space of the toroid. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: For toroid the field at a pointinside it at radial distance r from its
µ NI
center is B = 0 where N is the number of turns in toroid.
2πr
25 + 26
Radius of toroid r = = 25.5cm = 25.510−2 m
cm
2
26
Length of toroid l=2 π r=2 π x (25.5 x 10-2= 51 x 10-2 π m 25
cm
4000
∴ Number of turns /unit length, n=
51 x10−2 π
Field in a toroid is given by
4000
B= µ0nI = 4 πx10 −2 x10 ;= 3.14 x 102T
51 x10−2 π
Field in the air space bounded by the toroid is zero because the field exists inside
the envelope of the winding of the toroid. Figure 21.42
Principle: When a current carrying loop or coil is placed in the uniform magnetic field, it experiences a torque and
thus starts rotating.
Construction: A moving coil galvanometer is shown in Fig. 21.43. It consists of a coil made of insulated copper
wire wound on a soft-iron cylinder. The coil is suspended by a spiral spring between two cylindrical shaped poles
of a permanent magnet.
The spring exerts a very small restoring torque on the coil. Soft iron core
Theory
Let B = Magnetic field N S
I = Current flowing through the coil
= Length of coil
b = Breadth of the coil Coil
(xb) = A= Area of the coil Figure 21.43: Moving coil
galvanometer
N = Number of turns in the coil
When current flows through the coil, it experiences a torque, which is given by
τ=NIAB sinθ
where, θ is the angle between the normal to the plane of the coil and the direction of the magnetic field.
Initially, θ = 90o, so τ=NIAB …(i)
This torque is called deflecting torque.As the coil gets deflected, the spring is twisted and a restoring torque is
developed in it which is proportional to the angle of deflection φ
τres=kφ …(ii)
2 1 . 2 6 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
kφ
or I= …(iv)
NAB
or I = Gφ …(v)
k
where G = is Galvanometer constant
NAB
∴ I ∝ φ …(vi)
Thus, the current flowing through the coil is directly proportional to the deflection of the coil. Hence we can
determine the current in the coil by measuring its deflection.
Use of Galvanometer
(a) It is used to detect electric current in a circuit e.g., Wheatstone Bridge.
(b) It is convertedinto an ammeter by putting a small resistance parallel toit.
(c) It is converted into a voltmeter by putting a high resistance in series with it.
(d) It is used as an ohmmeter.
Sensitivity of a Galvanometer
A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if a small current flowing through its coil produces a large deflection in it.
16. CYCLOTRON
Cyclotron is a device used to accelerate positively
charged particles (like protons,α particles, deuteron, S
ions etc.) to acquire enough energy to carry out
B
nuclear disintegrations. Deflecting High
plate D1
Principle: It works on the following principle: A frequency
positively charged particle is made to accelerate oscillator
W
through an electric field and using a strong magnetic
Source of
field it is circled back to the region of the electric
positively
field, to accelerate it again and again to acquire
Target charged
sufficiently large amount of energy. D2
particle
Construction and Working: It consists of two
hollow D-shaped metallic chambers D1 and D2 called
dees. These dees are separated by a small gap where N
a source of positively charged particles is placed.
Dees are connected to high frequency oscillator,
which provides high frequency electric field across Figure 21.44: Cyclotron
the gap of the dees which accelerates the particles.
The magnetic field inside the dees is perpendicular to the plane of motion of particles and drives theminto a
circular path. Suppose the particles start from rest and are accelerated towards chamber D2. After completing a
semicircle, when the particles reach the gap of the dees again, thereversal of the polarity of electric field ensures
that the particlesareagain accelerated towards the other chamber D1 by the electric field. Radius of the circular path
increases with increase in speed, thusthe particles follow a spiral path (see Fig. 21.44)
Theory: The magnetic force on the positively charged particle provides the centripetal force to move in a circle of
radius r.
mv 2 mv
∴ qvB
= = or r … (i)
r qB
2 1 . 2 8 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
Time taken by the particle to complete the semi-circle inside the dee,
dis tance πr π mv πm
t= = or t= × or t = … (ii)
speed v v qB qB
This shows that time taken by the positively charged particle to complete any semi-circle (irrespective of its radius)
is same
(a) Time Period: Let T be the period of the high frequency electric field, then the polarities of dees will change
T
after time .
2
T
The particle will be accelerated if time taken by it to describe the semi-circle is equal to .
2
T πm 2πm
i.e. = t= or T = … (iii)
2 qB qB
1 qB
(b) Cyclotron frequency: fc= = … (iv)
T 2πm
qB
∴ Cyclotron angular frequency ω = 2πfc = … (v)
m
1
(c) Energy gained: Energy gained by the positively charged particle in the cyclotron is given by E = mv 2
2
2
qBr 1 qBr q2B2r 2
From eqn.(i), we have v= , then E= m x or E = … (vi)
m 2 m 2m
Maximum energy gained by the positively charged particle will depend on the maximum value of radius of
its path, i.e the radius of the dees.
q2B2 2
Emax = r … (vii)
2m max
(d) Limitations of Cyclotron: Cyclotron cannot accelerate uncharged particles like neutron.
(e) Cyclotron cannot accelerate electrons because they have very small mass. Electrons start moving at a very
high speed when they gain small energy in the cyclotron. The frequency of oscillating electric field required
to keep them in phase with the electric field is very high, which is not feasible.
(f) The positively charged particle having large mass (i.e. ions) cannotbe accelerated after a certain speed in the
cyclotron. When the speed of ion becomes comparable to the speed of light,the mass of ion increases as per
the relation
m0
m= ,
v2
1−
c2
where m= mass of ion at velocity v, m0=mass of ion at rest,cis speed of light (3 x 108 ms-1)
Time taken by the ion to describe semi-circular path increases as mass increases.So as the mass increases, the
ion does not reach the gap between the two dees exactly at the instant the polarity is reversed and,it is not
be accelerated further.
Uses of a Cyclotron
(a) It is used to produce radioactive material for medical purposes.
(b) It is used to synthesize fresh substances.
(c) It is used to improve the quality of solids by adding ions.
(d) It is used to bombard the atomic nuclei with highly accelerated particles to study the nuclear reactions.
P hysi cs | 21.29
Note: Sections after this are not in the syllabus of JEE ADVANCED but they are important for understanding the
concepts completely.
Illustration 17:A cyclotron’s oscillator frequency is 10 MHz. What should be the operating magnetic field for
accelerating protons? If the radius of its dees is 60 cm. What is the kinetic energy (in MeV) of the proton beam
produced by the acceleration? (JEE MAIN)
2πmf
B=
q
(2)(22 / 7)(1.67 x10−27 )(10 x106 )
Substituting the values in SI units, we have B = =0.67 T
1.6 x10 −19
The emerging beam of proton moves with the velocity
( )
2
−27 7
m v 2 1.67 × 10 × 3.77 × 10
Thus the kinetic
= energy (in MeV) is = eV 7.42 MeV
2e 2 × 1.6 × 10 −19
The magnetic field B due to a magnetic dipole at a point along its magnetic axis at (large) distance r from its center,
µ0 2M
is B =
4π r3
A bar magnet has two poles (North and South) separated by a small distance.
N S
However, we cannot separate these poles apart. If a magnet is broken, the
fragments prove to be dipoles and not isolated poles. If we break up a magnet N S N S N S
into the electrons and nuclei that make up its atom, it will be found that even
these elementary particle a re magnetic dipoles. Figure 21.45: Poles of bar magnet
(b) A magnetic charge placed in a magnetic field experiences a force, F = mB . The force on positive magnetic
charge is along the field and force on a negative magnetic charge is opposite to the field.
(c) A magnetic dipole is formed when a negative magnetic charge –m and a positive magnetic charge +m are
placed at a small separation d. The magnetic dipole moment is, M=md. The direction of M is from –m to +m.
Magnetic length
N S
Geometric length
o
Illustration18: Calculate the magnetic induction at a point 1 A away from a proton, measured along its axis of
spin. The magnetic moment of the proton is 1.4 x 10-26 A-m2. (JEE MAIN)
µ0 2M
Sol: On the axis of a magnetic dipole, magnetic induction is given by. =
B ⋅
4π r3
(10 )
3
−10
The proportionality constant χm is called the magnetic susceptibility of the material. I and H have the dimensions
of A-m-1 and the susceptibility χm is a dimensionless constant. For vacuum χm =0. For paramagnetic materials
χm > 0, and for diamagnetic materials χm < 0 are diamagnetic.
The magnetization of ferromagnetic material also decreases with increase in temperature, and on reaching a certain
temperature,the ferromagnetic properties of the material disappear. This temperature is called Curie point (Tc). At
temperatures above Tcferromagnetic turns into a paramagnetic and its susceptibility varies with temperature as,
C'
χm =
T − Tc
where C’ is a constant.
(c) Ferromagnetic Substances: Examples of such substances are iron, nickel, steel, cobalt and their alloys. These
substances resemble to a higher degree the paramagnetic substances with regards to their behaviour. They
have the following additional properties:
(i) These substances are strongly magnetized by even a weak magnetic field.
(ii) The relative permeability is very large and is of the
order of hundreds and thousands.
(iii) The susceptibility is positive and very large.
(iv) Susceptibility remains constant for very small
N S
values of H , increases for larger values of H and
then decreases for very large values of H .
(v) Susceptibility decreases steadily with the rise of the
temperature. Above a certain temperature, known Figure 21.49: Diamagnetic substance
as Curie temperature, the ferromagnetic substances in magnetic field
become paramagnetic. For iron, it is 1000oC, 770oC
for steel, 360oC for nickel, and 1150oC for cobalt.
21. HYSTERESIS
Hysteresis is the dependence of the magnetic flux density B in a
ferromagnetic material not only on its current magnetizing field H, A
but also on its history of magnetization or residual magnetization.
C
PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS
(a) General advice for this section involves learning of formulae and avoiding silly mistakes. Also it would be
better to go by the usual algorithm of noting down known and unknown quantities and linking them.
(b) Much of manipulation and mathematical complexity is involved here which can’t be avoided.
P hysi cs | 21.33
FORMULAE SHEET
(a) Magnetic Force on a charge moving with velocity v in magnetic field B is F=
m q v × B . Magnitude is
= Fm q vB sin θ .
(b) Charged particle moving in uniform magnetic field
qB
(i) Angular velocity ω = 2πf =
m
2πm
(ii) Time period T=
qB
mv m 2qV 1 2mV
(iii) Radius
= r = =
qB qB m B q
mv ⊥ 2πm
(c) Helical Paths: Radius r = Pitch:=
p v=
⊥T v⊥
qB |q|B
(d) The cyclotron q B= 2πmfosc
(e) Crossed Fields: Lorentz Force F= q(E + v × B)
q E x2
(f) Trajectory of a charged particle in electric field y =
2m v 2
(g) Magnetic force on current element dF
= I d × B
(h) Magnetic force on a conductor in uniform field F= IL × B
(i) Magnetic dipole moment of a current coil having N turns pm = NI Anˆ
( j) Torque on a current coil =
τ pm × B
(k) Potential energy of current coil U = − pm .B
µ I d × r µ I d sin θ R1
(l) Biot-Savart Law dB = 0 , dB = 0 i i
4π r3 4π r2
µ Iθ R2
(m) Magnetic field at center of an arc subtending angle θ, B = 0
4π R
µ0 NIR 2
(n) Magnetic field at a point on the axis of a N turn coil B = Figure 21.51
2
(z )
32
2 2
+R
µ NI
(o) Magnetic field at center of N turn coil B = 0
2 R
µ0 NI µ0 NI
Net magnetic field, =B − R1
2 R1 2 R 2 i i
µ0 1 1 R2
= NI −
2 R1 R 2
(u) Force per unit length between two parallel currents separated by
dF µ0 I1 I2 Figure 21.53
distance d, =
d 2πd
(v) Ampere’s law � ∫ B.d = µ0 Ienc
µ0 I
(w) Field inside infinite straight wire of circular cross-section B = r
2πR 2
(x) Magnetic Field inside long solenoid having n turns per unit length B = µ0 nI
µ0 NI
(y) Magnetic Field inside toroid having N turns B =
2πr
µ0 2M
(z) Magnetic field due to bar magnet at end-on position B =
4 π d3 Y
Solved Examples
JEE Main/Boards 10-9C and moving in the x-y plane. Find the velocity of
the particle.
Example 1: A uniform magnetic fields of 30 mT
Sol: The force on the particle in external magnetic
exists in the +X direction. A particle of charge +e and
mass1.67 x 10-27 kg is projected into the field along the field is F = q(v xB) . Take vector product of velocity and
+Y direction with a speed of 4.8 x 106 m/s magnetic field vector.
( )
(i) Find the force on the charged particle in magnitude
= Given, B = 4 x10−3 k T,q 10−9 C
and direction
(ii) Find the force if the particle were negatively charged. and Magnetic force = Fm (4.0i + 3.0 j)10−10 N
(iii) Describe the nature of path followed by the particle Let Velocity of the particle in x-y plane be, v = ν x i + ν y j
in both the cases. Then From the relation, Fm = q(v xB)
Sol: The force on the particle in external magnetic We have,
( )( )
field is F = q(v xB) . Take vector product of velocity and (4.0i + 3.0j) x10 10−9 ν x i + ν y j x 4x10−3 k
−10
=
magnetic field vector, and solve for force.
y (
= 4ν X10−12 j − 4ν 10−12 j
y x )
Comparing the coefficients of i and j we have,
v
F 4 x 10-10= 4ν y x10−12
∴ =ν y 102=
m / s 100m / s
z
Example 3: Figure shows current loop having two
(i) Force acting on a charge particle moving in the circular arcs joined by two radial lines. Find the magnetic
magnetic field field B at the center O.
F = q(v xB) Magnetic field B = 30(mT)j i
Velocity of the charge particle V = 4.8 x106 (m / s) j D C
( )( )( )
F = 1.6 x10−19 4.8 x106 j x 30 x10−3 i A B
F =230.4 x 10-16( −k̂ )N.
O
(ii) If the particle were negatively charged, the magnitude
Sol: Find magnetic field at the center O of concentric
of the force will be the same but the direction will be
µ Iθ
along (+z) direction. arcs AB and CD by B = 0 where θ is the angle
4 πR
(iii) As v ⊥ B, the path describe is a circle subtended at the center.
mv
R
= = (1.67x10−27 ) ⋅ (4.8x106 ) / Magnetic field at point O, due to wires CB and AD
qB
(1.6x10−19 ) ⋅ (30x10−3 ) = 1.67 m. will be zero. Magnetic field due to wire BA will be,
θ µ i
B1 = 0 Direction of field B1 is coming out of
Example 2: A magnetic field of (4.0 x 10-3 k ) T exerts a 2π 2a
force (4.0 i +3.0 j ) x 10-10N on a particle having a charge the plane of the figure. Similarly, field at O due to arc
2 1 . 3 6 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
Example 6: The region between x=0 and x=L is filled Example 7: A uniform, constantmagnetic field B is
directed at an angle of 45° to the x-axis in the xy-plane.
with uniform, steady magnetic field B0k. A particle of
PQRS is a rigid, square wire frame carrying a steady
mass m, positive charge q and velocity v0 î travels along current I0 , with its center at the origin. O. At time t=0,
x-axis and enters the region of magnetic field. Neglect the frame is at rest in the position (shown the Figure)
gravity throughout the question. with its sides parallel to the x and y axes. Each side of
(i) Find the value of L if it emerges from the region of the frame is of mass M and length L.
magnetic field with its final velocity at an angle 30o to y
the initial velocity. S R
(i) Find the final velocity of the particle and the time
spent by it in the magnetic field, if the field now extents
up to x=2. 1L. x
O
Sol: The particle under action of uniform magnetic field
performs uniform circular motion. The magnetic force P Q
acting on it provides the centripetal force. The radius of
mv
the circular orbit is r = .
qB (a) What is the torque τ about O acting on the frame
(i) As the initial velocity of the particle is perpendicular due to the magnetic field?
to the field the particle will move along the arc of a (b) Find the angle by which the frame rotates under the
circle as shown. action of this torque in a short interval of time ∆t , and
v0 i x=L the axis about which this rotation occurs. ( ∆t is so short
o
30 that any variation i n the torque during this interval may
be neglected). Given moment of any variation in the
torque during this interval may be neglected). Given
r B0k moment of inertia of the frame about an axis through
r its center perpendicular to its p late is (4/3) ML2 .
o
30
Sol: The torque acting on loop is τ = M × B .
So in vector from
( ) ( )
=B ˆi B 2 + j B 2
v0 i
and=
M I= ˆ I L2kˆ
0 Sk 0
The speed of the particle does not change due to the
magnetic field.
2 1 . 3 8 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
2µ0i 1 ˆ ˆ µ0i
BP
⇒= j − k ⇒ BP
= 1 + π2
3a π 3πa
B
=
(1.67 × 10 )(10 )=
−27 7
qV µ I
4R
qV µ I
qV µ I ( ) (−ˆˆi × −ˆˆi= ))
+ ˆˆj qV0 µ0 I −kˆˆ(( ))
4R ( ) (
0 0 0 0
= 0 0
= 4R − i × − i= +j 4R −k
4R
The force dF acting on the current element is Similarly, the resultant magnetic field at R will be
= 1.33 × 10−4 T along the direction pointing upward in
dF = I(d xB) the figure.
µ0 I2x dx The magnetic field at point Q due to the two wires will
=dF = ∴ sin90° 1
π a2 + x2 have equal magnitudes but opposite directions and
hence the resultant field will be zero.
P hysi cs | 21.41
Example 5: A coil of radius R carries current I. Another According to law of conservation of angular momentum,
concentric coil of radius (r<<R) carries current i. Planes I1 ω1 = I2 ω2
of two coils are mutually perpendicular and both the
and according to law of conservation of energy,
coils are free to rotate about a common diameter. Find
maximum kinetic energy of smaller coil when both 1 1
I ω2 + I ω2 =U
the coils are released, masses of coils are M and m 2 1 1 2 2 2
respectively. From above equations, maximum kinetic energy of
1 smaller coil,
Sol: For rotating coils, kinetic energy is I ω2 .
2 1 UI1 µ0 πliMRr 2
2
I=
ω =
Each coil is a magnetic dipole and has a potential
energy in magnetic field due to other coil. This potential
(
2 2 2 I1 + I2 2 MR 2 + mr 2 )
energy is converted into kinetic energy as the dipole
moment of the coil aligns itself with the magnetic field. Example 6: A wire loop carrying a current I is placed in
the x-y plane as shown in Figure.
(a) If a particle with charge q and mass m is placed at
the centerP and given a velocity v along NP find its
instantaneous acceleration.
y
M
If a magnetic dipole having moment M be rotated
through angle θ from equilibrium position in a uniform
magnetic field B, work done on it is W= MB(1 − cos θ) .
q x
This work is stored in the system in the form of energy. 120
o
i
When system is release, dipole starts to rotate to P
occupy equilibrium position and the energy converts
a
into kinetic energy and kinetic energy of the system is
maximum when stored energy is completely released.
N
Hence at θ = π 2
r
2mgR l1
⇒ Nmax= + mg − qB 2gR
R
N x0
ma
O
2 P
A 2 m/s
A
B X
mg
The 'dµ ' magnetic moment of the elemental loop Sol: At minimum separation the x-component of
velocity of the particle will be zero. Find the acceleration
= I2ldr of the particle due to the magnetic force and solve to
get the expression for velocity and displacement.
The B at that point due to straight wire =
µ0 I1 2πr .
Let the particle be initially at P. Take the wire as the y-axis
b and the foot of perpendicular from P to the wire as the
origin. Take the line OP as the x-axis. We have, OP= X0.
l2 The magnetic field B at any point to the right of the
l1 a l a wire is along the negative z-axis. The magnetic force
on the particle is, therefore, in the x-y plane. As there
is no initial velocity along the z-axis, the motion will be
in the x-y plane. Also, its speed remains unchanged. As
1 2 the magnetic field is not uniform, the particle does not
go along a circle.
µ0 I1 µ i
dU = −B.dµ = − I ldr(cos π) The force at time t is =F qv ×= B q(iv x + jv y ) × − 0 k
2πr 2
2πx
[As dµ is anti-parallel to B.] µ i µ i
= jqv x 0 − iqv y 0 .
µ0 I1 I2l b 1 µ0 I1 I2l a 2πx 2πx
U1
= ∫=
du
2π a r ∫ =dr
2π
ln
b
2 1 . 4 4 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
dv x dv x dx v x dv x
Also,=
ax = = . …(ii)
dt dx dt dx
Sol: Field due to the sheet will be symmetric. Field lines
As v 2x + v 2y =
v2 , will be parallel to the sheet at points near it. Select a
rectangular amperian loop and use Ampere’s Law to
2v x dv x + 2v y dv y =
0 find the field.
BC x
C x
B
Example 11: Figure shows a cross section of a large O dl
l
metal sheet carrying an electric current along its (a) (b)
surface. The current in a strip of width dl is Kdl where K
1
2Bl = µ0Kl or, B= µ K Note that it is independent of x.
2 0
JEE Main/Boards
Q.10 The wires which connect the battery of an move on the same path, what should be the ratio of the
automobile to its starting motor carry a current of 300 velocity of proton and the velocity of deuteron?
A (for a short time). What is the force per unit length
between its wires if they are 70 cm long and 1.5 cm
Q.18 State the principle of cyclotron.
apart? Is the force attractive of repulsive?
A 10
m from the wire B, is zero. Calculate
11
l (i) the magnitude and direction of current in B (ii) the
magnitude of magnetic field induction at S
O
l (ii) the force per unit length of the wire B.
o
60
o 60
r
Exercise 2
B D C
Q.4 Three rings, each having equal radius R, are placed Q.8 A particle of charge q and mass m starts moving
mutually perpendicular to each other and each having from the origin under the action of an electric field
its center at the origin of co-ordinates system. If current ˆ
= E E= 0 i and B B0 ˆi with velocity v = v 0 ˆj . The speed of
is flowing through each ring then the magnitude of the
magnetic field at the common center is the particle will become 2 v 0 after a time
2mv 0 2Bq
y (A) t = (B) t =
qE mv 0
3Bq 3 mv 0
(C) t = (D) t =
mv 0 qE
x
Q.9 An electron is projected with velocity v 0 in a uniform
electric field E perpendicular to the field. Again it is
z projected with velocity v 0 perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field B. If r1 is initial radius of curvature just
µ0 I
(A) 3 (B) Zero after entering in the electric field and r2 in initial radius
2R of curvature just after entering in magnetic field then
(C) ( 2 −1 ) µ2RI
0
(D) ( 3− 2 ) µ2RI
0 the ratio r1 r2 is equal to
Bv 2 0 B Ev 0 Bv 0
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Q.5 Two concentric coils X and Y of radii 16 cm and E E B E
10 cm lie in the same vertical plane containing N-S
direction. X has 20 turns and carries 16 A. Y has 25 turns Q.10 A uniform magnetic field B = B0 ˆj exists in a space.
& carries 18 A. X has current in anticlockwise direction A particle of mass m and charge q is projected towards
and Y has current in clockwise direction for an observer, negative x-axis with speed v from the point (d, 0, 0).
looking at the coils facing the west. The magnitude of The maximum value v for which the particle does not
net magnetic field at their common center is hit y-z plane is
µ0i ˆ ˆ µ0i ˆ ˆ ˆ Q.12 Three ions H+ ,He+ and O +2 having same kinetic
(C)
2πa
i−j ( ) (D)
2πa
(
i + j+k ) energy pass through a region in which there width is a
uniform magnetic field perpendicular to their velocity,
Q.7 An electron is moving along positive x-axis. A then:
uniform electric field exists towards negatively y-axis. (A) H+ will be least deflected.
What should be the direction of magnetic field of
(B) He+ and O +2 will be deflected equally.
suitable magnitude so that net force of electron is
zero. (C) O +2 will be deflected most.
(A) Positive z-axis (B) Negative z-axis (D) all will be deflected equally.
(C) Positive y-axis (D) Negative y-axis
Q.13 An electron having kinetic energy T is moving in
a circular orbit of radius R perpendicular to a uniform
2 1 . 4 8 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
magnetic induction B. If kinetic energy is doubled and Q.18 A block of mass m & charge q is released on a
magnetic induction tripled, the radius will become. long smooth inclined plane magnetic field B is constant,
3R 3 uniform, horizontal and parallel to surface as shown.
(A) (B) R Find the time from start when block loses contact with
2 2
the surface.
2 4 mcos θ mcosec θ
(C) R (D) R (A) (B)
9 3 qB qB
mcot θ
Q.14 A charged particle moves in magnetic field (C) (D) None
qB
B = 10iˆ with initial velocity u= 5i + 4j .
The path of the particle will be. Q.19 A metal ring of radius r=0.5m with its plane normal
to a uniform magnetic field B of induction 0.2T carries
(A) Straight line (B) Circle a current I=100A. The tension in Newton developed in
(C) Helical (D) None the ring is:
q
m
(
Q.15 A electron experiences a force 4.0iˆ + 3.0ˆj x10−13 N ) B
x x’ x x
d
2 1 . 5 0 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
Q.7 A long straight wire along the z-axis carries a current (A) I > III > II > IV (B) I > II > III > IV
Iin the negative z-direction. The magnetic vector field
(C) I > IV > II > III (D) III > IV > I > II
B at a point having coordinate (x,y) on the z=0 plane is
(2002)
(A)
(
ˆ ˆ
µ0 I yi − xj
(B)
) ˆ ˆ
µ0 I xi − yj ( ) Q.11 An electron moving with a speed u along the
position x-axis at y=0 enters a region of uniform
2π(x2 + y 2 ) 2π(x2 + y 2 )
magnetic field B = −B0kˆ which exists to the right of
(C)
(
µ0 I xjˆ − yiˆ ) (D)
(
µ0 I xiˆ − yjˆ ) y-axis. The electron exits from the region after sometime
2
2π(x + y ) 2
2π(x + y ) 2 2 with the speed v at coordinate y, then (2004)
y
Q.8 A particle of mass m and charge q moves with a
constant velocity v along the positive x-direction. It
enters a region containing a uniform field B directed e- u
along the negative z-direction, extending from x=a x
to x=b. the minimum value of v required so that the
particle can just enter the region x>b is (2002)
P x
O
0 x
a 2a 3a
(A) E= 0;B= bjˆ + ckˆ (B) = ˆ =
E ai; B ckˆ + aiˆ
-B0
(C) E= 0;B= cjˆ + bkˆ (D) = ˆ =
E ai; B ckˆ + bjˆ
The trajectory of the charge in this region can be like
(2007)
Q.10 A current carrying loop is placed in a uniform
magnetic field in four different orientations, I, II, III and z z
IV, arrange them in the decreasing order of potential
energy (2003) a 2a 3a
(A) x (B) x
a 2a 3a
n B B
z z
n
(I) (II)
(C) (D) a 2a 3a
x x
n a 2a 3a
B B
n
(III) (IV)
P hysi cs | 21.51
Q.13 Which of the field patterns given in the figure Q.17 The coercivity of a small magnet where the
is valid for electric field as well as for magnetic field? ferromagnet gets demagnetized is 3 × 103 Am−1 . The
(2011) current required to be passed in a solenoid of length 10
cm and number of turns 100, so that the magnet gets
demagnetized when inside the solenoid, is: (2014)
(A) (B) (A) 3A (B) 6A (C) 30 mA (D) 60 mA
JEE Advanced/Boards
1amp 90
o
I1 I2
1amp
Y
(a) x=0, z=2m ;
(b) x=2m, z=0 R
Q.11 A charged particle (charge q, mass m) has velocity (c) (2a, 0).
V0 at origin in +x direction. In space there is a uniform
magnetic field B in –z direction. Find the y coordinate of Q.17 A square current carrying loop made of thin wire
the particle when it crosses y axis. and having a mass m=10g can rotate without friction
with respect to the vertical axis OOI , passing through
Q.12 A proton beam passes without deviation through the center of the loop at right angles to two opposite
a region of space where there are uniform transverse sides of the loop. The loop is placed in a uniform
mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic field with magnetic field with an induction B=10-1T directed at
E and B. Then the beam strikes a grounded target. Find right angles to the plane of the drawing. A current
the force imparted by a beam on the target if the beam I=2A is flowing in the loop. Find the period of small
current is equal to I. oscillations that the loop performs about its position of
stable equilibrium.
x x x o
x x x
90
x x x x x x
i’ c
x x x x x x
a
Q.15 A rectangular loop of wire is oriented with the
left corner at the origin, one edge along X-axis and b
the other edge along. Y-axis as shown in the figure. A
magnetic field is into the page and has a magnitude
2 1 . 5 4 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
Q.19 3 Infinitely long thin wires each carrying current i (b) If an external uniformmagnetic induction field
in the same direction, are in the x-y plane of a gravity B = Biˆ is applied, find the torque acting on the loop
free space. The central wire is along the y-axis while due to the field.
the other two are along x = ±d. (i) Find the locus of the
points for which the magnetic field B is zero. Q.23 (a) A rigid circular loop of radius r & mass m lies in
(ii) If the central wire is displaced along the Z-direction the xy plane on a flat table and has a current I flowing
by a small amount & released, show that it will execute in it. At this particular place, the earth’s magnetic field
simple harmonic motion. If the linear density of the B Bx ˆi + B y ˆj . How large must I be before one edge
is =
wires is λ , find the frequency of oscillation. of the loop will lift from table?
B Bx ˆi + Bzk.
(b) Repeat if,= ˆ
Q.20 Q charge isuniformly distributed over the same
surface of a right circular cone of semi-vertical angle Q.24 A conductor carrying a current is placed parallel
θ and height h. The cone is uniformly rotated about a current per unit width j0 and width d, as shown in the
its axis at angular velocity ω . Calculated associated Figure.
magnetic dipole moment.
z
j0 h
h d y
I I P
a S
X B
N B
o
60
(a) If a particle with charge +Q and mass m is placed at
Gun X
the center P and given a velocity along NP (see figure).
Find its instantaneous acceleration.
P hysi cs | 21.55
Q.27 Two coils each of 100 turns are held such that one Exercise 2
lies in the vertical plane with their centers coinciding.
The radius of the vertical coil is 20cm and that of the Single Correct Choice Type
horizontal coil is 30cm. How would you neutralize the
magnetic field of the earth at their common center?
What is the current to be passed through each coil? Q.1 Two very long straight parallel wires, parallel to -y
Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic induction = direction, respectively. The wire are passes through the
3.49 x 10-5T and angle of dip=300. x-axis at the point (d, 0, 0) and (-d, 0, 0)respectively. The
graph of magnetic field z-component as one moves
along the x-axis from x=-d to x=+d, is best given by
Q.28 An infinite wire, placed along z-axis, has current
i1 in positive z-direction. A conducting rod placed in o x
xy plane parallel to y-axis has current i2 in positive (A) (B)
y-direction. The ends of the rod subtend +300 and -600 o
at the origin with positive x-direction. The rod is at a
distance a from the origin. Find net force on the rod.
(C) x (D) o x
o
Q.29 A square loop of wire of edge a carries a current i.
(a) Show that B for a point on the axis of the loop and a Q.2 A long thin walled pipe of radius R carries a current
distance x from its center is given by, I along its length. The current density is uniform over
4µ0ia2 the circumference of the pipe. The magnetic field at the
B= center of the pipe due to quarter portion of the pipe
( )( 4x )
1/2
π 4x2 + a2 2
+ 2a2 shown, is
13 αE0 16αB0
(A) (B)
2 B0 E0
25 5α
(C) (D)
2αE0 2B0
2 1 . 5 6 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
Q.5 A particle of specific charge (q/m) is projected from Q.9 A conducting wire bent in the form of a parabola
the origin of coordinates with initial velocity [ui-vj]. y 2 = 2x carriers a current i=2A as shown in figure. This
Uniform electric magnetic field exist in the region along wire is placed in a uniform magnetic field B = −4kˆ Tesla.
the +y direction, of magnitude E and B. The particle will The magnetic force on the wire is (in newton).
definitely return to the origin once if y(m) A
(A) vB / 2πE is an integer
( )
1/2 2 x(m)
(B) u2 + v 2 B / πE is an integer
B
(C) vB / πE in an integer
(A) −16iˆ (B) 32iˆ
(D) uB / πE is an integer.
(C) −32iˆ (D) 16iˆ
Q.6 Two particles of charges +Q and –Q are projected Q.10 A semicircular current carrying wire having radius
from the same point with a velocity v in a region of R is placed in x-y plane with its center at origin ‘O’.
uniform magnetic field B such that the velocity vector There is non-uniform magnetic field
makes an angle θ with the magnetic field. Their masses B x
are M and 2M, respectively. Then, they will meet again B = o kˆ (here Bo is +ve constant) is existing in the
for the first time at a point whose distance from the 2R
region. The magnetic force acting on semicircular wire
point of projection is
will be along
(A) 2πMv cos θ / QB (B) 8πMv cos θ / QB Y
(C) πMv cos θ QB (D) 4 πMv cos θ / QB
i
Q.7 A particle with charge +Q and mass m enters a
magnetic field of magnitude B, existing only to the (-R,0,0) (+R,0,0) X
right of the boundary YZ. The direction of the motion
of the particle is perpendicular to the direction of B. Let Z
(A) –x-axis (B) +y-axis
2πM
T= . The time spent by the particle in the field
QB (C) –y-axis (D) +x-axis
will be
Q.11 A square loop ABCD, carrying a current I, is placed
(A) T θ (B) 2T θ
near and coplanar with a long straight conductor XY
π + 2θ π − 2θ carrying a current I, the net force on the loop will be
(C) T (D) T
2π 2π
B C
+Q
Y
m x B i L
x A D
x L/2 L
x
2µ0 Ii µ0 Ii 2µ0 Iil µ0 Iil
x (A) (B) (C) (D)
Z 3π 2π 3π 2π
Q.8 In the previous question, if the particle has-Q
charge, the time spend by the particle in the field will Q.12 A conducting ring of mass 2kg and radius 0.5m is
be placed on a smooth horizontal plane. The ring carries
a current i=4A. A horizontal magnetic field B=10T is
(A) T θ (B) 2T θ
switched on at time t=0 as shown in figure. The initial
π + 2θ π − 2θ angular acceleration of the ring will be
(C) T (D) T
2π 2π
P hysi cs | 21.57
Q.15 In a region of space, a uniform magnetic field Q.18 A long straight wire carriers a current along the
B exists in the y-direction. A proton is fired from the x-axis. Consider the points A(0,1,0), B(0,1,1), C(1,0,1)
origin, with initial velocity v making a small angle α and D(1,1,1). Which of the following pairs of points will
with the y-direction in the yz plane. In the subsequent have magnetic field of the same magnitude?
motion of the proton, z (A) A and B (B) A and C (C) B and C (D) B and D
B
Q.19 Consider three quantities x=E/B, = y 1 / µ0 ε0
1
v and z = . Here, l is the length of a wire, C is a
CR
y capacitance and R is a resistance. All other symbols
O B
have standard meanings.
x
2 1 . 5 8 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
(A) x,y have the same dimensions (B) While deflecting in magnetic field its energy
gradually increases.
(B) y, z have the same dimension
(C) Only the component of magnetic field perpendicular
(C) z, x have the same dimensions
to the direction of motion
(D) None of the three pairs have the same dimensions.
of the charged particle is effective in deflecting it.
(D) Direction of deflecting force on the moving charged
Q.20 Two long thin, parallel conductors carrying equal
particle is perpendicular to its velocity.
currents in the same direction are fixed parallel to the
x-axis, one passing through y=a and the other through
Assertion Reasoning Type
y=-a. The resultant magnetic field due to the two
conductors at any point is B. Which of the following (A) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true and
are correct? Statement-II is correct explanation for Statement-I.
z (B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true and statement-
II is NOT the correct explanation for statement-I.
(C) Statement-I is true, statement-II is false.
-a (D) Statement-I is false, statement-II is true.
O a y
i
i Q.24 Statement-I: A charged particle can never move
x
along a magnetic field line in absence of any other
force.
(A) B=0 for all points on the x-axis Statement-II: Force due to magnetic field is given by
(B) At all points on the y-axis, excluding the origin, B ( )
F = q v xB .
has only a z-component.
(C) At all points on the z-axis, excluding the origin, B Q.25 Statement-I : It is not possible for a charged
has only an x-component. particle to move in a circular path around a long
straight uncharged conductor carrying current under
Q.21 An electron is moving along the positive X-axis. the influence of its magnetic field alone.
You want to apply a magnetic field for a short time so Statement-II: The magnetic force (if nonzero) on a
that the electron may reverse its direction and move moving charged particle is normal to its velocity.
parallel to the negative X-axis. This can be done by
applying the magnetic field along.
Q.26 Statement-I: For a charged particle to pass through
(A) Y-axis (B) Z-axis a uniform electro-magnetic field without change in
velocity, its velocity vector must be perpendicular to
(C) Y-axis only (D) Z-axis only
the magnetic field.
Q.22 Two identical charged particles enter a uniform Statement-II: Net Lorentz force on the particle is given
magnetic field with same speed but at angles 300 and by=F q E + v xB
600 with field. Let a, b and c be the ratio of their time
periods, radii and pitches of the helical paths then Q.27 Statement-I: Two long parallel conductors
carrying current in the same direction experience a
(A) abc=1 (B) abc > 1
force of attraction.
(C) abc < 1 (D) a=bc
Statement-II: The magnetic fields produced in the
space between the conductors are in the same direction.
Q.23 Consider the following statements regarding
a charged particle in a magnetic field. Which of the
Q.28 Statement-I: Ampere law can be used to find
statement are true :
magnetic field due to finite length of a straight current
(A) Starting with zero velocity, it accelerates in a carrying wire.
direction perpendicular to the magnetic field.
P hysi cs | 21.59
Statement-II: The magnetic field due to finite length Q.30 The magnetic field at C due to curved part is
of a straight current carrying wire is symmetric about µ0 I
the wire. (A) , directed into the plane of the paper
6α
µ0 I
Q.29 Statement-I: A pendulum made of a non- (B) , directed towards you
6α
conducting rigid massless rod of length is attached to
a small sphere of a mass m and charge q. The pendulum µ0 I
(C) , directed towards you
is undergoing oscillations of small amplitude having 3α
time period T. Now a uniform horizontal magnetic field µ0 I
(D) , directed up the plane of the paper
out of plane of page is switched on. As a result of this 3α
change, the time period of oscillations will change.
m,q
a
120o
C
Statement-II: In the situation of statement-I, after the I I
magnetic field is switched on the tension in string will a
change (except when the bob is at extreme position).
Q.33 A current of 3A is flowing in a plane circular coil of Q.35 In above question, to hold the current-carrying
radius 1cm and having 20 turns. The coil is placed in a coil with the normal to its plane making an angle of 900
uniform magnetic field of 0.5 Wbm-2. Then, the dipole with the direction of magnetic induction, the necessary
moment of the coil is torque is
(A) 3000Am2 (B) 0.3Am2 (A) 1500 Nm (B) 9.4 x 10-3 Nm
(C) 75 Am2 (D) 1.88x10−2 Am2 (C) 15 Nm (D) 150 Nm
Q.36 Two wires each carrying a steady current I are shown in four configuration in column I. Some of the resulting
effects are described in column II. Match the statement in column I with the statements in column II and indicate
your answer by darkening appropriate bubbles in the 4 x 4 matrix given in the ORS.
(B) Point P is situated at the mid- (q) The magnetic fields (B) at P due to
point of the line joining the centers the current in the wires are in opposite
of the circular wires, which have directions.
same radii. P
Q.37 Six point charges, each of the same magnitude q, are arranged in different manners as shown in column II. In
each case, a point M and a line PQ passing through M are shown. Let E be the electric field and V be the electric
potential at M (potential at infinity is zero) due to the given charge distribution when it is at rest. Now, the whole
system is set into rotation with a constant angular velocity about the line PQ. Let B be the magnetic field at M and
µ be the magnetic moment of the system in this condition. Assume each rotating charge to be equivalent to a
steady current.
P + -
P
+
3 mv 2
(A) E =
4 qa
O B
(B) Rate of work done by the electric field at P is
Q.2 In the graphs below, the resistance R of a
superconductor is shown as a function of its temperature 3 mv 2
T for two different magnetic fields B1 (solid line) and
4 a
B2 (dashed line). If B2 is larger than B1 , which of the
following graphs shows the correct variation of R with (C) Rate of work done by the electric field at P is zero
T in these fields? (2010)
(D) Rate of work done by both the fields at Q is zero
R R B2
B1 Q.6 H+ ,He+ and O2+ all having the same kinetic energy
(A) (B) pass through a region in which there is a uniform
magnetic field perpendicular to their velocity. The
T T
masses of H+ ,He+ and O2+ are 1 amu, 4 amu and 16
O B2 B1 O
amu respectively. Then (1994)
Q.7 Which of the following statement is (are) correct in (A) They will never come out of the magnetic field
the given Figure? (2006) region
infinitely long wire kept perpendicular (B) They will come out travelling along parallel axis
C
to the paper carrying current inwards B (C) They will come out at the same time
l1
l2 (D) They will come out at different times.
O O’
Q.10 Consider the motion of a positive point charge in
a region where there are
simultaneous uniform electric
A and magnetic fields E = E0 ˆj and B = B0 ˆj . At time t =
D 0, this charge has velocity v in the x-y plane, making
(A) Net force on the loop is zero. an angle θ with the x-axis. Which of the following
option(s) is(are) correct for time t > 0 ? (2012)
(B) Net torque on the loop is zero.
(A) If θ =0o , the charge moves in a circular path in the
(C) Loop will rotate clockwise about axis OO' when x-z plane.
seen from O
(B) If θ =0o , the charge undergoes helical motion with
(D) Loop will rotate anticlockwise about OO’ when seen constant pitch along the y-axis.
from O
(C) If θ =10o , the charge undergoes helical motion
with its pitch increasing with time, along the y-axis
Q.8 A particle of mass m and charge q. moving with
velocity v enters Region II normal to the boundary as (D) θ =90o , the charge undergoes linear but accelerated
shown in the Figure. Region II has a uniform magnetic motion along the y-axis.
field B perpendicular to the plane of the paper. The
length of the Region II is l. Choose the correct choice Q.11 A cylindrical cavity of diameter a exists inside
(s). (2008) a cylinder of diameter 2a as shown in the figure.
Both the cylinder and the cavity are infinitely long. A
Region I Region II Region III
uniform current density J flows along the length. If the
x x x x magnitude of the magnetic field at the point P is given
x x x x N
by µ aJ , then the value of N is (2012)
v
x x x x 12 0
x x x x
x x x x
a
l P O
qlB
(A) The particle enters Region III only if its velocity> .
m
(B) The particle enters Region III only if its velocity 2a
qlB Q.12 A loop carrying current I lies in the x-y plane as
v< .
m shown in the figure. The unit vector k̂ is coming out of
(C)Path length of the particle in Region II is maximum the plane of the paper. The magnetic moment of the
qlB current loop is - (2012)
when velocity v= . y
m
(D) Time spent in Region II is same for any velocity v as
long as the particle returns to Region I.
I
Q.9 An electron and a proton are moving on straight a x
parallel paths with same velocity. They enter a semi-
infinite region of uniform magnetic field perpendicular
a
to the velocity. Which of the following statement(s) is/
are true? (2011)
2 1 . 6 4 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
π 50πM
(C) The magnitude of the magnetic field units.
(A) a2 I kˆ (B) + 1 a2 I kˆ 3Q
2
100πM
(D) The magnitude of the magnetic field is
π units 3Q
(C) − + 1 a2 I kˆ (D) (2π + 1)a2 I kˆ
2
Q.15 Two bodies, each of mass M, are kept fixed with a
Q.13 An infinitely long hollow conducting cylinder with separation 2L. A particle of mass m is projected from the
inner radius R/2 and outer radius R carries a uniform midpoint of the line joining their centres, perpendicular
current density along
its length. The magnitude of the to the line. The gravitational constant is G. The correct
magnetic field, | B | as a function of the radial distance statement(s) is (are) (2013)
r from the axis is best represented by (2012)
(A) The minimum initial velocity of the mass m to escape
GM
the gravitational field of the two bodies is 4
L
(A) B (B) B
(B) The minimum initial velocity of the mass m to escape
GM
R/2 R the gravitational
R/2 R field of the two bodies is 2
L
Q.18 Consider d >> a, and the loop is rotated about its Q.20 Consider two different metallic strips (1 and 2) of
diameter parallel to the wires by 30° from the position the same material. Their lengths are the same, widths
shown in the figure. If the currents in the wires are in are w1 and w2 and thicknesses are d1 and d2, respectively.
the opposite directions, the torque on the loop at its Two points K and M are symmetrically located on the
new position will be (assume that the net field due to opposite faces parallel to the x-y plane (see figure). V1
the wires is constant over the loop) (2014) and V2 are the potential differences between K and M
in strips 1 and 2, respectively. Then, for a given current I
µ0 I2a2 µ0 I2a2 flowing through them in a given magnetic field strength
(A) (B)
d 2d B, the correct statement(s) is(are) (2015)
(A) If w1 = w2 and d1 = 2d, then V2 = 2V1
3µ0 I2a2 3µ0 I2a2
(C) (D) (B) If w1 = w2 and d1 = 2d2, then V2 = V1
d 2d
(C) If w1 = 2w2 and d1 = d2, then V2 = 2V1
Q.19 A conductor (shown in the figure) carrying constant (D) If w1 = 2w2 and d1 = d2, then V2 = V1
current
I is kept in the x-y plane in a uniform magnetic
field B . If F is the magnitude of the total magnetic force Q.21 Consider two different metallic strips (1 and 2)
acting on the conductor, then the correct statement(s) of same dimensions (lengths , with w and thickness
is (are). (2015) d) with carrier densities n1 and n2, respectively. Strip
y 1 is placed in magnetic field B1 and strip 2 is placed
in magnetic field B2, both along positive y-directions.
R R Then V1 and V2 are the potential differences developed
I /6 /4
x between K and M in strips 1 and 2, respectively.
L R R L Assuming that the current I is the same for both the
strips, the correct option(s) is(are) (2015)
(A) If B is along ẑ, F ∝ (L + R)
(A) If B1 = B2 and n1 = 2n2, then V2 = 2V1
(B) If B is along x̂, F = 0
(B) If B1 = B2 and n1 = 2n2, then V2 = V1
(C) If B is along ŷ, F ∝ (L + R)
(C) If B1 = 2B2 and n1 = n2, then V2 = 0.5V1
(D) If B is along ẑ, F = 0
(D) If B1 = 2B2 and n1 = n2, then V2 = V1
PlancEssential Questions
JEE Main/Boards JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1 Exercise 1
Q. 7 Q.8 Q.12 Q.4 Q.5 Q.16 Q.19
Q.20 Q.25 Q.22 Q.25 Q.30
Q.26 Q.27
Exercise 2
Exercise 2 Q.1 Q.3 Q.11 Q.13
Q.2 Q.5 Q.20 Q.15 Q.19 Q.20 Q.22
Q.40 Q.42 Q.44 Q.45
Q.48 Q.50
2 1 . 6 6 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
Answer Key
JEE Main/Boards
Exercise 1
Q.1 π × 10−4 T ≈ 3.1 × 10−4 T Q.2 3.5 × 10−5 T
Q.3 4 × 10−6 T, vertically up Q.4 1.2 × 10−5 T, towards south
Q.5 0.6N m−1 Q.6 4.2cm
Q.7 (i) 3.1 Nm, (ii) No Q.8 5π × 10−4=
T 1.6 × 10−3 T towards west
Q.9 (a) A horizontal magnetic field to magnitude 0.26T normal to the conductor in such a direction that Fleming’s
left-hand rule gives a magnetic force upward. (b) 1.176N
Q.10 1.22N m−1
Q.11 (a) 2.1 N vertically downwards (b) 2.1N vertically downwards (c) 1.68N vertically downwards
Q.12 2:1
Q.13 (a) Zero (b) Zero (c) Force on each electron in evB=IB(nA)= 5 × 10−25 N .
Note: Answer (c) Denotes only the magnetic force.
µ0 I µ0 I
Q.14 B = Q.15 B =
2R 2πR
Q.16 B = µ0 I N where N is the number of turns per unit length and I is the current flowing through the solenoid.
Q.17 2:1 Q.19 F =qE + q(v × B)
Q.20 Circle Q.21 4 × 10−5 T
Q.22 B=14.1 Wb Q.23 1.57 × 10−2 T
Q.24 3 × 10−12 Q.25 6 × 10−7 Nm−1
Q.26 5.9 × 10−6 N m Q.27 22.5V
Q.28 (i) 8A (ii) 3 × 10−7 T (iii) 7.68 × 10 –6 Nm−1
Exercise 2
Q.1 D Q.2 C Q.3 A Q.4 A Q.5 A Q.6 A
Q.7 B Q.8 D Q.9 D Q.10 B Q.11 A Q.12 B
Q.13 C Q.14 C Q.15 A Q.16 A Q.17 A Q.18 C
Q.19 D Q.20 B Q.21 B
JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1
Q.1 In the plane of the drawing from right to left
Q.2 (a) 0 (b) 1.41 × 10−6 T, 45° in xz plane, (c) 5 × 10−6 T , +x-direction
(1 − 2 2)µ0 I
Q.3 k̂ Q.4 zero
πa
µ0 I 3 ˆ 1 ˆ µ0i 3
Q.5 k + j Q.6 π + 1
4R 4 π 4 πR 2
µοiqv
Q.9 Q.10 10kˆ
2πa
2mv 0 mEI
Q.11 Q.12
qB Be
3mv 2 3mv 3
Q.15 F = αa2ijˆ Q.16 (a) , (b) , (c) zero
4qa 4a
m µ0 I I'c 1 1
Q.17 T0 =
2π 0.57s
= Q.18 − to the left
6IB 2π a b
d I µ0 Qω
Q.19 (i) z=0, x = ± (ii) Q.20 h2 tan2 θ
3 2πd πλ 4
µ0 4I µ0 I2 1
Q.21 (i) along Y-axis, (ii) 10 ,tan4 + π with positive axis
4π a
4 π 2a 3
Qvµ0 I 3 3 π 3 2ˆ
Q.22(a) − 1 (b)
= τ BI − a j
m 6a π
3 4
mg mg µ0iJ0 d
Q.23 (a) I = (b) I = Q.24 tan−1 −kˆ ( )
( ) πrBx π 2h
1/2
πr B2x + B2y
Q.25 0.62N<F<0.88N = 4.7 × 103 T
Q.26 Bmin
µ0 I1 I2
Q.27 i 1 0.1110A,i
= = 2 0.096A Q.28 In (3) along –ve z direction
4π
µ0 I2 a2
Q.29 (b) Yes Q.30 F = In , zero
2π L2 + a2
Exercise 2
Comprehension Type
Paragraph 1:
Q.30 A Q.31 A Q.32D
Paragraph 2:
Q.33D Q.34 B Q.35 B
Solutions
µ0 × 90 µ0
JEE Main/Boards Sol 4: B =
3
=
π
× 30 = 1.2 × 10–5T,
2π ×
2
Exercise 1 towards south.
−µ0 × 20 × 16 µ0 × 25 × 18 (c)
Sol 8: B = +
16 10 10
2× 2× 6
100 100
= 5 π × 10–4T toward west 8 8
µ0i1i2 µ0 × (300)2 µ1 N1 A1 N × πR 2 2
F= = = 1.2 Nm–1 = = =
2πd 3 µ2 N2 A2 2 1
2π × × 10−2 R
2 2N × π
Since the direction of the current is in opposite direction 2
in the wire, the force will be repulsive in nature. Sol 13: N = 20
r = 0.1 m
Sol 11: B = 1.5T; r = 0.1m B = 0.1 T
I=5A
B = 1.5 T
(a) τ = M × B = MB sin0º = 0
7A (b) F = i × B
F = Total force is zero as is zero for a closed loop
(c) Force on each electron = q v × B
(a) F = i × B IB
= eVB = = 5 × 10–25 N
= 7 × 0.2 ×1.5= 2.1 N vertically downwards. nA
9.6 × 10 µ0
I= = 8A = µ0 × 1250= × 5000π = 5π × 10−4 T
12 4π
µ0i1i2
(ii) Force per unit length F = Sol 6: (A)
2π × 2 y
µ0 × 9.6 × 8
= = 7.68 × 10–6 Nm-1
4π a
x
Exercise 2
z
Sol 1: (D) Total magnetic field at point O
µ0i ˆ µ0i ˆ
Magnetic field = B = – i+ j
µ0 3 µ0 1 2πa 2πa
=B +
2R ' 4 2R 4
µ 3 1 Sol 7: (B) E = −K1ˆj ;
= 0 +
8 R ' R K1 is some constant
V = K 2ˆi
Sol 2: (C)
F = q V × B + qE = 0
⇒ V × B = − E ⇒ B = −k̂
R
2
µ0 I θ ˆ qEt
Magnetic field B = ( −k) =v= v 20 + = 2v0
2R 2π m
2
qEt
µ0 q V × r µ qV sin θ v 20 + 2
= 4 v0
Sol 3: (A) B = = 0 m
4π r3 4π r2
2
µ0 2 × 100 × sin30º qEt 2 3 mv 0
= × = 10−7 × 25 =2.5mT = 3v 0 ⇒ t =
4π 4 m qE
µ0 I ˆ µ0 I ˆ µ0 I ˆ
i+ j+ k •
2R 2R 2R qE
µ0 I
= 3
2R V0
Vx = 5
(d, 0, 0) B =10
V
Y-component of velocity will make the particle to move
in circle whereas x-component of velocity will make
particle move along x-axis.
For the particle to not hit y-z plane radius of the particle So motion is helical.
should be less than equal to d
So, R =R mgcos
He+ O +2
mgsin
P hysi cs | 21.73
F = qVB 2π 2πr
t= =
Particle will leave the inclined plane when ω v
Sol 19: (D) y v
⊗ z
y
×
I –I
x
x
T B
T d
→ →
Since, angle between v and B is 180°.
F = I ∫ d × B
Therefore, magnetic force
= I (2r î )× (–0.2 k̂ ) = 20 ˆj → → →
Fm = q ( v × B ) = 0
Magnetic force is in +ve y direction
So balancing force on semi-circular ring we get Sol 2: (C) H1 = Magnetic field at M Due to PQ +
magnetic field at M due to QR
2T = 20 ⇒ T = 10N
But magnetic field at M due to QR = 0
Sol 20: (B) ∴ Magnetic field at M due to PQ (or due to current I
in PQ)= H1
B
B Now H2 = Magnetic field at M due to PQ
(current I) + magnetic field at M due to QS (current I/2)
+ magnetic field at M due to QR
H1 3 H 2
B =H1 + +0= H1 ; 1 =
2 2 H2 3
Note: Magnetic field at any point lying on the current
B carrying straight conductor is zero.
Torque due to magnetic field will be balanced by gravity.
B=0
mgsin θ R = I× π R × B sin θ
2
mg
B=
πiR
i
Sol 21: (B) Magnetic field = I × A
q.πr 2
M=
t
2 1 . 7 4 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
Sol 3: (B) If the current flows out of the paper, the Note: This is a common practice, when by assuming
magnetic field at points to the right of the wire will be equal currents in opposite directions in an imaginary
upwards and to the left will be downwards as shown in wire (here AB) loops are completed and solution
figure. becomes easy.
B Sol 5: (C) Consider an element of thickness dr at a
i distance r from the centre. The number of turns in this
N
B element,dN = dr
b – a
B Magnetic field due to this element at the centre of the
coil will be
Now, let us come to the problem.
µ0 (dN)I µ0 IN dr
Magnetic field at C = 0 dB = = .
2r 2 b–a r
Magnetic field in region BX’ will be upwards (+ve) r =b
because all points lying in this region are to the right of µ0NI b
both the wires.
∴B= ∫ dB = 2(b – a)
ln
a
r =a
X X’
C B
A
b
Magnetic field in region AC will be upwards dr
(+ve),because points are closer to A, compared to B. r
Similarly magnetic field in region BC will be downwards
a
(–ve).
Graph (B) satisfies all these conditions. Therefore,
correct answer is (B).
Sol 4: (D) The magnetic field at P(a, 0, a) due to the Note: The idea of this question is taken from question
loop is equal to the vector sum of the magnetic fields number 3.245 of IE Irodov.
produced by loops ABCDA and AFEBA as shown in the
figure. mv
Sol 6: (B) Radius of the circle =
Bq
C
or radius ∝ mv if B and q are same.
P(a, 0, a)
(Radius)A> (Radius)B; ∴ mAvA> mBvB
k̂
→
D B î Sol 7: (A) Magnetic field at P is B , perpendicular to OP
E
in the direction shown in figure.
ˆj
y
P(x, y)
F r
A
Magnetic field due to loop ABCDA will be along î and i B
× x
due to loop AFE BA, along k̂ . Magnitude of magnetic o
field due to both the loops will be equal. Therefore,
1
direction of resultant magnetic field at P will be
2
( î + k̂ ).
P hysi cs | 21.75
→ Sol 11: (D) Magnetic force does not change the speed
So, B = B sin θ î – B cos θ ˆj of charged particle. Hence, v = u. Further magnetic field
on the electron in the given condition is along negative
µ0 I
Here, B = y-axis in the starting. Or it describes a circular path in
2πr clockwise direction. Hence, when it exits from the field,
y x y < 0.
sin θ = and cos θ =
r r Therefore, the correct option is (D)
→ µ0 I 1 µ I(yiˆ – xj)
ˆ
∴B = . (y î – x ˆj ) = 0 → → →
2π r 2
2π(x + y 2 )
2
Sol 12: (A) F m = q ( v × B )
(as r2 = x2 + y2) ∴ Correct option is (A)
Sol 8: (B) If (b – a) ≥ r Sol 13: (C) Correct answer is (C), because induced
electric field lines (produced by change in magnetic
(r = radius of circular path of particle)
field) and magnetic field lines form closed loops.
The particle cannot enter the region x > b.
So, to enter in the region x > b Sol 14: (A) If we take a small strip of dr at distance r
from centre, then number of turns in this strip would
mv q(b – a)B
r > (b – a)or > (b – a)or v > N
Bq m be, dN = dr
b – a
Sol 9: (B) Electric field can deviate the path of the Magnetic field due to this element at the centre of the
particle in the shown direction only when →it is along coil will be
negative y-direction. In the given options E is either
µ0 (dN)I µ0NI dr
zero or along x-direction. Hence, it is the magnetic field dB = =
which is really responsible for its curved path. Options 2r (b – a) r
(a) and (c) cannot be accepted as the path will be r =b
µ0NI b
circular in that case. Option (d) is wrong because in that ∴B= ∫ dB = ln
n
case component of net force on the particle also comes r =a 2(b – a) a
in k̂ direction which is not acceptable as the particle is
moving in x-y plane. Only in option (b) the particle can
Sol 15: (B)
move in x-y plane.
→ → → → 2mK
In option (d) F net = q E + q ( v × B ) r= ⇒r∝ m
Bq q
Initial velocity is along x-direction. So, let rα= rp < rd
→
v =v î
→
F net = qa î + q [(v î ) × (c k̂ + b ˆj )]
Sol 16: (A) Bnet = BM + BM + BH
1 2
= qa î – qvc ˆj + qvb k̂
→
µ0M1 µ0M2
= + + BH
In option (b) F net = q (a î ) + q[(v î ) × 4 πx 3
4 πx3
(c k̂ + a î )]= qa î – qvc ˆj µ0
= (M1 + M2 ) + BH
4 πx3
→ →→
Sol 10: (C) U = – MB = – MB cos q 10−7
→ = × 2.2 + 3.6 × 10−5
Here, M = magnetic moment of the loop 10 −3
→ →
θ = angle between M and B
= 2.56 × 10−4 Wb / m2
U is maximum when θ = 180° and minimum when θ = 0°.
So, as θ decreases from 180° to 0° its PE also decrease.
2 1 . 7 6 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
I
JEE Advanced /Boards y 45º 45º
a/2
Exercise 1
x
Sol 1: I1 = I2 = I3 = I4
z
⇒ F1 = F2 = F3 = F4 = F a
⇒ 2F Magnetic field due to loop = Bl
2F
µ0 I 1 1
= –
a 2
+ × 4kˆ
45º 2
2 F 4π
2
45º 2
2F I1 I2
Resultant force will be 2 2 F from right to left 1 ⊗ F2+F4
⊗2
45º
Sol 2: Let magnetic field due to wire be Bw Fres
45º
(a)x = 0, z = 2m; F1+F3
µ0 I ˆi ⊙ ⊙3
B = B 0 + Bw = – + 10–6 î 4
2π × 2
µ0 I
= –10–7 ×10 î + 10–6 î =– × 2 ×4 k̂
2πa
=0
2 2µ0 I
(b)x = 2m, z = 0 = − k̂
πa
µ0 I
B = B 0 + Bw = k̂ + 10–6 î µ0 Ikˆ
2π × 2 Magnetic field due to infinite length wire = Bw =
a
µ I 2π
B = 10–6 k̂ + 10–6 î = 2 ×10–6 T = 0 k̂ 2
πa
(c)x=0, z=–0.5m (1 − 2 2)µ0 I
Net magnetic field = k̂
πa
B= B0 + Bw
P hysi cs | 21.77
y µ I 1 µ I1 µ I
B = 0 kˆ + 0 kˆ + 0 ˆj
2 2(2R) 4 2R 4 4 πR
45º 1
x µ0 I 3 ˆ 1 ˆ
1amp 1 = k + j
4R 4 π
z
i2
Sol 6: Magnetic Induction
π π
1 µ0 I 3 2 µ I
i1 = 2 × 1 = amp B= kˆ + 0 kˆ
2π 4 2R 2π 4 πR
1 3 µ0 I 3 ˆ µ0 I ˆ µ I 3π
i2 = 1 – = amp = × k+ k = 0 + 1 kˆ
4 4 2R 4 4 πR 4 πR 2
1
µ0 3π
4
Magnetic field due to i1 = B1 =– 2 k̂ Sol 7: Magnetic Induction
2 2 2π
µ0 µ I µ I µ I
3
= − × k̂ B = 0 ˆi – 0 ˆi – 0 kˆ
8 2 4 2R 4 πR 4 πR
3 π
µ0
4 2 k̂ µ0 I µ0 I ˆ
Magnetic field due to i2 = B2 = = [2π − 1] ˆi – k
2 2 2π 4 πR 4 πR
3µ0 1 µ0 I
= × k̂ = 4 π2 + 1 − 4 π + 1
4 πR
8 2 4
µ0 I
Magnetic field due to wire in x-direction = B3 =
4 πR
(
2 2π2 − 2π + 1 )
µ0 × 1
B3 = (sin(–45º ) + sin90º ) kˆ
4π × 1 Sol 8: We will find magnetic field B by ampere’s law.
µ0 1 ˆ �∫ B.dl = µ0 IIN
B3 = 1 − k
4π 2
r
1 1m
1 2
1 (a)For r1< R
1amp
Magnetic field due to wire in negative y-direction =By B×2 π r1 = µ0 ( ∫ JdA )
µ ×1 r1
By = – 0 (sin(–45º ) + sin90º ) kˆ =μ0 br2πr dr
4π × 1 ∫0
µ0 1 ˆ 2πbr13
= − 1 − k B×2 π r1 = µ0
4π 2 3
Net magnetic field = B = B1 + B2 + B3 + B4= 0 µ0br12
B=
3
2 1 . 7 8 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
0 Sol 11:
y
(b)
By ampere’s law
r0
B×2 π r2 = µ0 ∫ (JdA) = µ0 ∫ br2πr dr x
0 q, m V
r03
B×2 π r2 = µ0 2πb
3
y coordinate is equal to twice the radius of the circle
µ0br03
B= y = 2R
3r2
mV0 2mV0
R= ⇒y=
qB qB
Sol 9:
j
When both forces are equal in magnitude and opposite xB
in direction then net force on charged particle is zero.
qVB = qE
R R i
I
E 5 × 107
B= = = 10 T
k
V 5 × 106
= 2Ri
and direction is in positive k̂ direction
Force = I ∫ d × B
Since B is constant so
F = I ( ∫ d ) × B
F = I · ×B
P hysi cs | 21.79
1 1 m2 4 m2
a = m2 + α = = ... (ii)
24 8 8 3 6
2a By (i) and (ii)
2v
m2
I 2 Bθ = α
(a) Work done by Electric Field = Change in Kinetic 6
Energy 6 IB
α = θ
1 1 m
∫F.dx = m(2v)2 − m v 2
2 2 6 IB
ω2 =
3 m
qE × 2a= mv 2
2 m 10−2
Time period = 2π = 2π
3mv 2 6 IB 6 × 2 × 10−1
E=
4qa 1
=
2π = 0.57 sec
3 120
(b) Rate of work done = F.v = qE.v= mv 3
4a
(c) Work done by magnetic field is always zero. Sol 18: Net force acting on the loop = F
Work done by electric field = F.vˆ = qE î . (–2v ˆj )= 0 µ0 I I'c µ0 I I'c µ0 I I'c 1 1
F= − = −
2πa 2πb 2π a b
Sol 17:
O This loop will experience attractive forces.
P
Q B
i
S
O1 R
2 1 . 8 0 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
For small z
Net Force at some point x, y is
µ0 I µ0 I µ0 I −µ0i2 z
Fnet = + + =0 Fnet = = λa
2π(x + d) 2πx 2π(x − d) π d2
1 1 1 µ0i2
⇒ + + =0 ω =
n+d x x−d λπd2
2x 1 µ0i2 µ0
+ =0 ω 1 i
2
x −d 2 x F= = =
2π 2π λπd 2 2πd λπ
2x2 + x2 − d2
= 0 ⇒ 3x2 = d2
x(x2 − d2 ) Sol 20: l cos θ = h
d
x= ±
3
Net force will be zero only in x–y plane
y
d θ
i.e. when z = 0 and x = ±
3 h
(ii) z
⊗ z
h tan
⊗ ⊗ x Take a ring at distance y from the top point of the cone.
Let the middle wire is displaced by z distance in positive Magnetic moment M = IA
z-direction. dM=
Attractive force acting on wire is F
Q 2πydy tan θ ω
· · π (y tan θ)2
π(htan θ) h cos θ 2π
F F
cos θ
θ z h
Qω tan3 θ Qω tan2 θ h4
= ∫ · y 3dy = ·
0 h2 tan θ h2 4
d
P hysi cs | 21.81
µ0 I × 2 R
B=
2π 2 a 2
y
BD + BB
1 3 ˆ
⊙ 45º ⊗
v = v ˆi + j
BC + BA 2 2
x
2π
⊙ ⊗ µ I µ I 3 3
B = 0 3 − 0 + k̂
2R 2π 4 πR 2 2
2
Net magnetic field is µ I 3µ0 I µ I 1 3
µ I ×2 B= 0 − k̂ = 0 − k̂
Bnet = B 2 = 0 along y-axis 6R 2πR 2R 3 π
2π a
qv ˆ µ I1 3 ˆ
(ii)
F2 Force = qv×B =
2
( )
i + 3 ˆj × 0 − k
2R 3 π
D A
F1 Qv µ0 I 3 3
= − 1
F1 m 6a π
(b)Net Torque = M × B = I AB ˆj
C B
µ0 I2 π 3a2 ˆ
F1 = = I a2 − B j
2π(2a) 3 4
µ0 I2 π 3 2 ˆ
F2 = = B I − a j
3 4
2π(2 2a)
F2 µ0 I2 λ 1 3 µ0 I2 λ
F x = F1 + = 1 + = 8πa Sol 23: (a) Net Torque on the loop is
2 4 πa 2
τ = – MBx ˆj + MBy î = Ιπr 2 B2x + B2y ...(i)
2 2
F2 µ I λ 1 µ0 I λ
F y = F1 – = 0 1 − = 8πa
2 4 πa 2 By Torque balance mgr = τ ...(ii)
By (i) and (ii)
µ0 I2 2
Net force = 1+3 ; =1 mg
8πa I=
πr B2x + B2y
µ0 I2
=
4 π 2a 10 (b) Net Torque is τ = –MBx ˆj
Radius = R = a | τ | = Iπr 2Bx
By torque balance
mgr = t ⇒ mgr = Iπr2 Bx
mg
I=
πrBx
2 1 . 8 2 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
Sol 24: Magnetic field due to sheet of width d and Sol 26:
infinite length at a distance h is given by S
d 0.1m
µ j
B = 0 0 tan–1 2 ˆi
π h
v
= ˆj 2
F = i ×B
G v
iµ 0 j 0 d ˆ
F= tan−1 (–k)
π 2n
v 3
Sol 25: 2
R
Electron will move in helical path with pitch = 0.1 m. For
minimum value of B particle should reach at point S in
a single revolution.
I
2πm
Time period T =
qB
v
So 0.1 = T
2
Force= I × B = 10 × 0.5 × 0.1 v ·2πm
0.1 =
1 2·qB
Force = N upward on inclined plane
2
20πmv
B’ =
2q
2 2
1
mg
2 2 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 2000
1 = 10π
2 mg N 1.6 × 10−19
2
mgcos B = 10π 2.275 × 10−4
B = 4.7 × 10–3 T
F
Sol 27: To neutralize the magnetic field, current in
3 vertical ring should be such that the magnitude of
3 3 magnetic field is 3.49×10–5 T and current in horizontal
4
4 ring should be such that the magnitude of magnetic
3 3 3 3 1
µ .1 + F = ⇒F= – field is × 3.49 × 10−5
4 4 40 3
3.49 × 10−5 3.49 × 10−5 Sol 29: (a) |B1| = |B2| = |B3| = |B4|
I= = = 0.111 A
µ0 × 250 4 π × 10−7 × 250
µ0 Ia2 µ0 I2 α
µ0 I2 α
= = ∫ cot θ dθ = ln(sin θ)90
1 π π
π
a2 a2 2 2
4 π x2 + x2 +
4 2
µ0 I2
a
= ln − 1
µ0 I a2 2π L2 + a2
B13 =
1
a2 2 If direction of current in B is reversed then resultant
π(4x2 + a2 ) x2 +
2 magnetic field will become horizontal and so net force
will be zero.
µ0 Ia2
Similarly B24 =
1
a2 2
π(4x + a ) x2 +
2 2
2 Exercise 2
Net resultant = B13 + B24 Single Correct Choice Type
R dθ 2 µ 0 I a µ0 (4 I) ˆ µ0 I ˆ
= ∫ I × sin θ cos θ ; sin α = k+ k
2πR L2 + a2 2π(d − x) 2π(d + x)
µ0 I 4 1 µ0 I 5d + 3x
= + =
2π d − x d + x 2π d2 − x2
⊗
It corresponds to graph (c)
2
x
V
z π − 2θ π − 2θ
Time taken = = T
Helical motion of the particle ω 2π
2mv 2πm
⇒ = n
qE qB Sol 9: (B)
Bv
n= (2, 2)
πE
Bv
So should be an integer
πE
dfm = 8∫dl î = 8 × 4 î = 32 î τ = I × π R2 × B = I α
MR 2 α
Sol 10: (A) I π R2 × B =
2
y 2 × 4 × π × 10
α =
2
= 40 π rad/sec2
d
I
Sol 13: (A) Let us assume that resistance of p material
x is ρ and that of Q is q.
(–R,0,0) (R,0,0)
2ρ + q 2q + ρ
i1 = i , i2 = i
3(ρ + q) 3(ρ + q)
i1 2ρ + q
z =
i2 2q + ρ
B0
F = I∫Rdθ(sin θ î + cos θ ˆj ) × (–R cos θ ) k̂ I Q Y
2R
IB0R π Q
=
2 ∫ (sin θ ˆi + cos θ ˆj) × (− cos θ k)
ˆ dθ P
0
π i1
= ∫ (sin θ cos θ ˆj – cos2 θ ˆi) dθ P Q
0 i
X P i2 II
sin2θ ˆj (1 + cos2θ)iˆ
π
= ∫ – dθ
2 2 We know that B ∝ i
0
π π π SoB1 = magnetic field due to I part
− cos2θ ˆ θ ˆ sin2θ ˆ
= j − i − i B2 = magnetic field due to II part
4 0 2 0 4 0
For the magnetic field to be zero B1 = –B2 should hold.
π π
=0– î − 0 = – î Bi i1 2ρ + q
2 2 But ∝ = ≠ –1
Bi i2 2q + ρ
Sol 11: (A) Refer Q.18 Exercise-I JEE Advanced. So magnetic field will not be zero at centre.In (B), (C)
and (D) i1 = i2 so magnetic field is zero at centre.
Sol 12: (A) Torque on the ring due to magnetic field is
Sol 14: (C)
i I i
i1
B
i2
II
In (A)
3 i
i1 = i ; i2 =
4 4
P hysi cs | 21.87
45º 45º
x
L i2 Its x- and z- coordinate will be zero when particle will
complete one revolution.
y - Coordinate = vcos α t
3 i
i1 = i ; i2 = Multiple Correct Choice Type
4 4
Let magnetic field due to sides of square be Bs Sol 16: (B, C) (A)Motion is helical in nature
3 i
−µ0 i1 3µ0 (B) They will follow circular path with radius
Bs = 4 1 1 4 1 + 1
+ k̂ + 2mKE
L 2 2 L
4π 4π 2 2 R=
2 2 qB
Bs = 0 (C) Work done by magnetic force is always zero.
i µ 0I µ 0I
(A) B = – =0
2πa 2πa
−µ 0 I µ 0I
B= kˆ + kˆ
2π(a + y) 2π(a − y)
B2
Sol 18: (B, D) Magnetic field 1
y y
O
2
A(0,1,0) x
(0,1,1)B D(1,1,1)
x (D) B cannot has x-component as B is perpendicular to
direction of I.
C(1,0,1)
z
Sol 21: (A, B) This can be done by applying magnetic
field in y-axis or z-axis.
µ0 I µ0 I
at A = BA = ;BB = y y
2π × 1 2π 2
µ0 I µ0 I
BC = ;BD =
2π × 1 2π × 2
x
x
1
Sol 19: (A, B, C) = c2
µ0 ε0 z z
Sodimension of y is m/s
Sol 22: (A, D)
V
E
v = when E and B are both perpendicular and
B
perpendicular to velocity 30º
B
So dimension of x m/s V
Dimension of RC = sec 60º
So Z = has dimension m/s
CR
2πm T1
So x, y, z have same dimensions. Time period T = ; a= =1
qB T2
P hysi cs | 21.89
abc = 1; a = bc Sol 29: (D) Since angular acceleration of the mass will
not change so time period will also remain the same.
Paragraph 1
Sol 25: (B) Magnetic field at any point is in tangential
direction. So it is not possible for a particle to move in Sol 30: (A) Magnetic field due to curved part is
tangential direction by the action of magnetic force.
µ 0 I 2π µ 0 I
B= =
4 πa 3 6a
60º
Sol 26: (D) It’s velocity vector must be perpendicular to
both magnetic field and electric field.
60º
Sol 27: (C) F = I ∫ d × B
So force acting is attractive
µ0 I 3µ0 I
B= (sin60º + sin60º ) =
1 2 a 2πa
4π
i1 i2 2
1 F
Sol 34: (B) PE = –1.88 ×10–2 × + –
2
= –9.4mJ Magnetic moment= INA= 0 × NA = 0
– + – + – +
Match the Columns
a M
Q
B B +• •+
–
•
P
F a
b M
Magnetic field at P is in the same direction.
•–
–•
Wires will attract as the current is in the same direction.
(C) Magnetic field at P is in opposite direction due to
•
+
two wires and has same magnitude. So net magnetic P
field is zero at P. Wires will attract each other as current E=0
is in the same direction.
Electric field will cancel out due to symmetry
(D) Magnetic field will be in opposite direction and wires
Kq Kq
will repel each other as current is in opposite sense. V=– ×3+ ×3≠0
a b
µ = INA →
Sol 4: (A, B, D) If both E and B are zero, then Fe and
as I ≠ 0 ⇒ µ ≠ 0 →
Fm both are zero. Hence, velocity may remain constant.
– + – Therefore, option (a) is correct.
If E = 0, B ≠ 0 but velocity is parallel or antiparallel
→ →
to magnetic field, then also Fe and Fm both are zero.
P Q Hence, option (b) is also correct.
→ →
If E ≠ 0, B ≠ 0 but Fe + Fm = 0, then also velocity may
– –
+ remain constant or option (d) is also correct.
Electric field is zero.By symmetry electric field will
cancel out each other. Sol 5: (A, B, D) Magnetic force does not do work. From
−Kq Kq work-energy theorem:
×4+ ×2 ≠ 0
V = 5a a 1
WFe = ∆KE or (qE)(2a) = m[4v2 – v2]
2 2 2
3 mv 2
Let I be the current due to moving charge or E =
4 qa
2xµ0 Ia2
µ0 I ≠0
So B = – 3 At P, rate of work done by electric field
2a 2 ( )
2a2 2 → →
Previous Years’ Questions Therefore, option (b) is also correct. Rate of work done
→ →
at Q: of electric field = F e . v = (qE)(2v)cos 90° = 0 and
of magnetic field is always zero. Therefore, option (d) is
Sol 1: (C) cφ = BINA
also correct.
BNA →
∴ φ= I Note that F e = qE î
c
mv P 2km
Sol 2: (C) If B2> B1, critical temperature, (at which Sol 6: (A, C) r = = =
resistance of semiconductors abruptly becomes zero) Bq Bq Bq
in case 2 will be less than compared to case1. m
i.e., r ∝
Using iron core, value of magnetic field increases. So, q
deflection increases for same current. Hence, sensitivity
If K and B are same.
increases.
Soft iron can be easily magnetized or demagnetized. 1 4 16
i.e., r :r :r = : : =1:2:3
H+ He+ O2 + 1 1 2
Sol 3: (D) With increase in temperature, TC is decreasing. Therefore, He+ and O2+ will be deflected equally but H+
having the least radius will be deflected most.
TC(0) = 100 K
TC = 75 K at B = 7.5 T
Hence, at B = 5 T, TC should lie between 75 K and 100 K.
Hence, the correct option should be (b).
2 1 . 9 2 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
→
Sol 7: (A, C) F BA = 0, because magnetic lines are
X X X
parallel to this wire.
→ X X X
F CD = 0, because magnetic lines are antiparallel to this
wire. ×
→ → –
F CB is perpendicular to paper outwards and F AD is
perpendicular to paper inwards. These two forces
(although calculated by integration)cancel each other
but produce a torque which tend to rotate the loop in
clockwise direction about an axis OO’. Te Tp
∴ Te< Tp, te = and tp =
2 2
BqI
Sol 8: (A, C, D) v =
m or te< tp
→ →
v ⊥ B in region II. Therefore, path of particle is circle
in region II. Sol 10: (C, D) Y
E0, B0
v
X X X
X X
X X
If θ =0 or 10o
X X then particle moves in helical path with increasing pitch
along Y-axis.
If θ =90o then magnetic force on the particle is
Particle enters in region III if, radius of circular path, r >l zero and particle moves along Y-axis with constant
acceleration.
mv
or >l
Bq
Sol 11: (5)
BqI
or v>
m a
a/2
BqI mv P O
If v = ,r= = I, particle will turn back and path
m Bq
length will be maximum. If particle returns to region I,
2πm 5
Further, T = or T ∝ m ⇒B=
µ0 Ja ×
Bq 12
P hysi cs | 21.93
µ0L R 2
=B r − I I I I
2 4r X0 X0
R
If we put r = ,B=0
2 P P
X0/3 X0/3
∴ B is continuous at r = R/2
mv
R1 =
Sol 14: (A, C) So magnetic field is along –ve, z-direction. qB2
πM
Time taken in the magnetic field =10 × 10−1 = R1 B2 1/3
6QB ⇒ = = =3
R2 B1 1/9
πM 1000πM 50πM
=B = =
−3
60 × 10 Q 60Q 3Q Sol 17: (C) The net magnetic field at the given point
will be zero if.
y
x ⇒ h ≈ 1.2a
4i
Sol 15: (B) The direction of magnetic field at the given point due
to the loop is normally out of the plane. Therefore, the
−2GMm 1 GM net magnetic field due the both wires should be into
+ mv 2 =
0⇒v=
2 the plane. For this current in wire I should be along PQ
L 2 L
and that in wire RS should be along SR.
Note: The energy of mass ‘m’ means its kinetic energy
(KE) only and not the potential energy of interaction Sol 18: (B)
between m and the two bodies (of mass M each) – µ0 I µ0 I2a2
τ = MB sin θ = Iπa2 × 2 × sin 30o =
which is the potential energy of the system. 2πd 2d
2 1 . 9 4 | Moving Charges and Magnetism
Sol 19: (A, B, C) F = 2I(L + R)[iˆ × B]
ˆ
.
2(L+R)
⇒ neA1 v1 =
neA2 v 2
⇒ d1 w1 v1 =
d2 w2 v 2
n1 w1d1 v1 = n2 w2d2 v 2
V2 B2 v 2 w2 B2 w2 n1 w1d1 B2n1
Now
= = =
V1 B2 v1 w1 B1 w1 n2 w2d2 B1n2
2017-18 100 &
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PHYSICS
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Exhaustive Theory
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9000+ Problems
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1. INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction has acquired prime importance in today’s world in the field of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering. We have studied that a current produces a magnetic field. The phenomenon
of electromagnetic induction is thereverse effect wherein a magnetic field produces a current. Applications of this
phenomenon are found in modern electric power generation and transmission systems and various electronic
devices. This phenomenon enables us to convert the kinetic energy of a coil rotating and/or translating in a
magnetic field into electrical energy. So, by applying this phenomenon, energy stored in various forms like, nuclear,
thermal, wind etc. can be converted into electrical energy. The operating principle of electric motors, generators
and transformers is based on this phenomenon. Other applications include musical instruments, induction stove
used in our kitchen, and induction furnace used in foundries.
B B
S
R = BS cos R = BS
Illustration 1: At certain location in the northern hemisphere, the earth’s magnetic field has a magnitude of 42 µT
and points downward at 570 to vertical. The flux through a horizontal surface of area 2.5m2 will be (cos 570 =0.545)
(JEE MAIN)
Sol: The magnetic flux through any surface is φφ==BB•.•AA
Using the formula of flux
= φ BA cos θ
we get the flux through the area as φ= BA cos 570= 42 × 10−6 × 2.5 × 0.545= 57 ×10−6 Wb .
3. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
If a magnet is brought to a coil which is connected with a galvanometer, an electric
current is produced in the circuit (See Figure 22.3). The direction of the current so G
induced in the circuit, is reversed when the magnet recedes away from the coil.
The current so produced lasts long, as there is relative motion between the magnet
and the coil. S N
It is shown that whenever the magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, Figure 22.3: Induced current in
an induced e.m.f. is produced in the circuit and lasts as long as the flux changes. coil due to relative movement
Such currents are produced due to induced electromotive force and the of magnet
phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction. The magnitude and direction
of induced electromagnetic force is given by the following Faraday’s and Lenz’s
laws respectively.
4. LENZ’S LAW
The direction of induced electromotive force is such that it opposes the cause that produces the electromagnetic
induction.
N ( φ2 − φ1 )
If the magnetic flux changes from φ1 to φ2 in time t, the average induced e.m.f. is given by e ( avg) = −
t
When the magnetic flux φ through a closed circuit of known resistance R changes, the quantity of induced charge
q can be found as below:
∆φ e N ∆φ N ∆φ N∆φ Total change of flux
As e =−N , i = = ; q = i∆t = ∆t = =
∆t R R ∆t R ∆t R Resis tance
Furthermore, the direction of induced e.m.f. is that of the induced current. Lenz’s law follows from the law of
conservation of energy.
(c) Plot a graph between the induced e.m.f. and the time of rotation for two periods of C O B
rotation. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The current induced in the loop is such that it opposes the change in the magnetic D
flux linked with the loop.
(a) When the loop is in region I, the magnetic flux linked with the loop is zero. When
Figure 22.5
the loop enters in magnetic field in region II.
The magnetic flux linked with it, is given by φ = BA
dφ d (BA ) dA
∴ e.m.f. induced is E =
− =− = −B (Numerically) Region I Region II
dt dt dt
Let dθ be the angle by which the loop is rotated in time dt, then from Figure 22.6 E rd
dA= Area of the triangle OEA=(1/2)r•r d θ
A
1 r × r dθ 1 2 dθ 1 2 e.m.f 1 Br 2 ω
E B .
∴= = Br = Br ω Using Ohm’s law, induct current I= = C
O B
2 dt 2 dt 2 R 2 R
r
Note: dA can also be calculated in the following way; The area corresponding 2π
(angle) is πr 2 . D
Illustration 3: Figure 22.8 shows a conducting loop placed near a long, straight wire carrying a current i as shown.
If the current increases continuously, find the direction of the induced current in the loop. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: According to Lenz’s law, the direction of the induced current is such that it
opposes the cause.
Let us put an arrow on the loop as in the Figure 22.8. The right-hand thumb rule i
shows that the positive normal to the loop is going into the plane of the diagram.
Also, the same rule shows that the magnetic field at the site of the loop
due to the
current is also going into the plane of the diagram. Thus, B and ds are along the
Figure 22.8
same direction everywhere so that the flux Φ ∫
Φ = B.ds is positive. If i increases, the
dΦ
magnitude of Φ increases. Since Φ is positive and its magnitude increases, is positive. Thus, E is negative and
dt
hence, the current is negative. The current is, therefore, induced in the direction opposite to the arrow.
P hysi cs | 22.5
+ i
Q vBl
I
v R R
r
P - i
i
(b)
x
(a)
Figure 22.10: (a) Current due to motional emf (b) Equivalent circuit showing induced emf and current in the loop
2 2 . 6 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
Thus, we can replace the moving rod QP by battery of e.m.f. ν Bl with the positive terminal at Q and the negative
terminal at P. The resistance r of the rod QP may be treated as the internal resistance of the battery. Figure 22.10
(b) shows the equivalent circuit.
ν Bl
The current is i = in the clockwise direction (induced current).
R +r
We can also find the induced e.m.f. and the induced current in the loop in Fig.22.10 (a) from Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction. If x be the length of the circuit in the magnetic field at time t, the magnetic flux through
the area bounded by the loop is Φ =Blx.
dΦ dx
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is
= E = Bl = νBl.
dt dt
ν Bl
The current is i = . The direction of the current can be worked out from Lenz’s law.
R +r
Illustration 4:Figure 22.11 (a) shows a rectangular loop MNOP being pulled out of a magnetic field with a uniform
velocityvby applying an external force F. The length MN is equal to l and the total resistance of the loop is R. Find (a)
the current in the loop, (b) the magnetic force on the loop, (c) the external force F needed to maintain the velocity,
(JEE ADVANCED)
F2
N O N O
v v
I F I F
M P M F2 P
(a) (b)
Figure 22.11
Sol: Due to the motion of the loop inside the magnetic field, the motional e.m.f. is induced in the loop. And the
magnetic force acting on the loop is F= I × B
(a) The e.m.f. induced in the loop is due to the motion of the wire MN. The e.m.f. is E=vBl with the positive end at
E vBl
N and the negative end at M. The current is =i =
R R
inclockwise direction (see Figure 22.11 b).
vB2l2
(b) The magnetic force on the wire MN is F 1= i l × B . The magnitude is F=
1 ilB
= and is opposite to the velocity
R
on the parts of the wire NO and PM, lying in the field, cancel each other. The resultant magnetic force on the loop
B2l2 ν
is, therefore, F1 = opposite to the velocity.
R
(c) To move the loop at a constant velocity, the resultant force on it should be zero. Thus, one should pull the loop
ν B2l2
with a force F= F1 =
R
electric field is produced by the changing magnetic field and not by charged particles according to the Coulomb’s
law or the Gauss’s law. The electric field produced by the changing magnetic field is non-electrostatic and non-
conservative in nature. We cannot define a potential corresponding to this field. We call it induced electric field. The
lines of induced electric field are curves. There are no starting and terminating points of the lines.
If E be the induced electric field, the force on a charge q placed in the field is qE . The work done per unit charge
as the charge moves through dl is E ⋅ dl .
The E.M.F. developed in the loop is,
ε=� ∫ E.dl.
Using Faraday’s Law of Induction,
dΦ dΦ
ε=
− ∫ E.dl =
or � −
dt dt
The presence of a conducting loop is not necessary to have an induced electric field. As long as B keeps changing,
the induced electric field is present. If a loop is there, the free electrons start drifting and consequently an induced
current results.
Note: Induced electric field is not similar to electrostatic field. The biggest difference is that electrostatic field is
conservative while the other one is not.
If l is the length of rod CD, which moves with velocity ν in time dt, Figure 22.12 Change of flux linkage due to
change in area perpendicular to the field=CDD’C=l vdt. motion of conductor
∴ dφ = Blνdt
dφ
e
The magnitude of induced e.m.f.= = Blv
dt
Blν
If R is the resistance of loop, the induced current is I =
R
The direction of the induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
Flux
When the induced e.m.f. is non-zero, the current I
B v
is (in magnitude) I = +B
r
EMF
The force required to keep the arm PQ in constant motion is IB.
-B
Its direction is to the left. In magnitude 2 2
2 2
-B
B v r
=F 0≤x<b
Force
r
= 0 0 ≤ x < 2b 2 2
-B
2
The Joule heating loss is PJ = I r r
2 2
-B
B2 2 v 2 r
Power
= 0≤x<b
r
= 0 0 ≤ x < 2b x= 0 b 2b b 0
One obtains similar expressions for the inward motion from x=2b to x=0. Figure 22.14
Illustration 6:A wheel with 10 metallic spokes each 0.5 m long is rotated with a speed of 120 rev/min in a plane
normal to the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field HE at a place. If HE= 0.4 G at the place, what is the
induced e.m.f. between the axle and the rim of the wheel? Note that 1G=10-4 T. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: E.m.f. induced in a rod of length R rotating about one end in magnetic field is
1
E= ωBR 2
2
120 × π
Frequency of revolution ω=120 rev/s = m / s= 2π m/ s
60
1 1
× 2π × 0.4 × 10−4 × ( 0.5 ) = 6.28 × 10−5 V
2
∴ Induced e.m.f.= ωBR 2=
2 2
The number of spokes is immaterial because thee.m.f.’sacross the spokes are in parallel.
P hysi cs | 22.9
(b) Coil rotating in a magnetic field: If a rectangular conducting coil of area A and N turns is rotated in a
uniform magnetic field B with angular velocity ω, as shown in the Figure 22.16.
As the coil rotates, an induced e.m.f. E, is produced due to change of flux. At any
instant, area vector of coil makes an angle θ with magnetic field, flux linked with coil
is φ = NBA cos θ where θ = ωt ⇒ φ = NBA cos ωt
dφ
−BAN ω sin ωt
=
dt
Using Faraday’s Law B
e = BAN ω sin ωt or =e e0 sin ωt
The induced e.m.f. has a sinusoidal variation with time and has a maximum value of
e0 =NBA ω .
Figure 22.16: Coil rotating
Such a coil converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It provides the basic in uniform magnetic field
principle onwhich an alternating current (A.C.) generator is based.
(c) Change of area inside magnetic field changes: Let a
x
rectangular coil of width Land length x be placed inside a B
magnetic field flux linked with coil, A
φ BA=
= (BL ⋅ x ) L v
dφ dx
= = (BLv )
BL
dt dt
D C
According to Faraday’s Law e=-LBv or |e|=LvB
The direction of induced e.m.f. is given by Lenz’sLaw.
Figure 22.17: Coil moving in magnetic field
(d) Flux linked with coil also changes when magnetic field
over coil change with time.
Illustration 7:Flux associated with coil of resistance 10 Ω and number of turns 1000 is 5.5 × 10−4. If the flux reduces
to 5.5 × 10−5 wb in 0.1 s. The electromotive force and the current induced in the coil will be respectively. (JEE MAIN)
dφ φ − φ1
is E N= N 2
Sol: The induced e.m.f. in coil = where N is the number of turns in the coil.
dt t2 − t1
−4
Initial magnetic flux φ1= 5.5 × 10 Wb.
Final magnetic flux φ2 = 5 × 10 −5 Wb.
∴ Change in flux ( ) ( )
∆φ = φ2 − φ1 = 5 × 10 −5 − 5.5 × 10 −4 = −50 × 10 −5 Wb
Time interval for this change, ∆t =0.1 sec.
However, when a changing magnetic flux is present, this integral is not zero but is −dΦB/d.Thus, assigning electric
potential to an induced electric field leads us to a contradiction. We must conclude that electric potential has no
meaning for electric fields associated with induction.
7. EDDY CURRENT
Consider a solid plate of metal which enters a region having a magnetic field (See Figure 22.18a). Consider a loop
drawn on the plate, a part of which is in the field.
B B
(a) (b)
Figure 22.18: Generation of eddy current in conductor
As the plate moves, the magnetic flux through the area bounded by the loop changes and hence, a current is
induced. There may be a number of such loops on the plate and hence currents are induced on the surface along a
variety of paths. Such currents are called eddy currents. The basic idea is that we do not have a definite conducting
loop to guide the induced current. The system itself looks for the loops on the surface along which eddy currents
are induced. Because of the eddy currents in the metal plate, thermal energy is produced in it. This energy comes
at the cost of the kinetic energy of the plate and the plate slows down. This is known as electromagnetic damping.
To reduce electromagnetic damping, one can cut slots in the plate (See Figure 22.18 (b)). This reduces the possible
paths of the eddy current considerably.
8. INDUCTORS
An inductor (symbol ) can be used to produce a desired magnetic field. We shall consider a long solenoid
(more specifically, a short length near the middle of a long solenoid) as our basic type of inductor.
If we establish a current i in the windings (turns) of the solenoid we are taking as our inductor, the current produces
NΦB
a magnetic flux ΦB through the central region of the inductor. The inductance of the inductors is then L =
i
(inductance defined)
In which N is the number of turns.
NΦBis called the magnetic flux linkage.
The inductance L is thus a measure of the flux linkage produced by the inductor per unit of current.
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the tesla-square meter (Tm2), the SI unit of inductance is henry (H)
1 henry= 1H=1T.m2/A.
P hysi cs | 22.11
an e.m.f. is induced in each turn. The net e.m.f. induced between the ends of the coil is the sum of all these.Thus,
d
E = −N ∫ B.ds
dt
One can compare this with the previous equation to get the inductance.
Illustration 8: The inductor shown in Figure 22.20 has inductance of 0.54 H and carries
i
di a b
a current in the direction shown that is decreasing at a uniform rate = − 0.03 A / s.
dt
(a) Find the self-induced e.m.f. L
Figure 22.20
(b) Which end of the inductor,a or b, is at a higher potential? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The e.m.f. induced in an inductordue to self-inductance opposesthe change in current in it. As the current
decreases, the induced e.m.f. tries to increase the current, thus a will be at higher potential.
dI
(a) Self-inducede.m.f. E = −L =
dt
( −0.54 )( −0.03) V =
1.62 × 10−2 V
dI
(b) Potential difference between two ends of inductor is Vba = L −1.62 × 10−2 V
=
dt
Since Vba (Vb-Va) is negative. It implies that Va>Vb or a is at higher potential.
2 2 . 1 2 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
Illustration 9: Consider the circuit shown in the following Figure 22.21. The sliding contact is being pulled towards
the right so that the resistance in the circuit is increasing. Resistance at time instance is found to be12 Ω. Will the
current be more than 0.50 A or less than it at this instant? (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: As resistance in the circuit changes, the current through the inductor also changes. 20 mH
Thus e.m.f. is induced in the inductor.
For change in resistance, there is equivalent change in the value of current. Then
r
dI 6V
inducede.m.f. in inductor E = −L
dt
dI
dI 6V − L Figure 22.21
The net e.m.f. in the circuit is 6V − L and hence current in circuit is I = dt
dt 12 Ω
... (i)
Due to continuous increase in resistance, the current in the circuit decreases.
Therefore, at given time instant t, the ratio dI/dt decreases, which makes numerator of eqn (i) higher than 6 and
hence, the current in the circuit is larger than 0.5 A
Illustration 10: An average e.m.f. of 0.20V appears in a coil when the current in it is changed from 5.0 A in one
direction to 5.0 A in the opposite direction in 0.20 s. Find the self-inductance of the coil. (JEE MAIN)
dI
Sol: Using the formula E = −L , we can find inductance of coil.
dt
NS
The magnetic flux through each turn is, φB =BS =µ0 i . Here, S is the cross-sectional area of the solenoid.
l
NφB N µ0NSi µ0N2S µ0N2S
Now,
= L = = ∴ L=
i i l l l
This result shows that L depends on dimensions (S,l) and is proportional to the square of the number of turns. L∝N2
Because N=nl, we can also express the result in the form,
(nl)
2
L=
µ 0 µ0n2Sl =
s= µ0n2 V µ0n2 V
or L =
l
Here, V=Sl is the volume of the solenoid.
Illustration 11: Two inductors L1 and L2 are placed sufficientlyapart. Find out equivalent inductance when they are
connected (a) in series (b) in parallel. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: For inductors, when they are connected in series, the inductance of the combination should increase, while for
parallel connection, the inductance of combination should decrease
(i) In series the induced current i flows in the both the inductors and the total magnetic-flux linked with them will
be equal to the sum of the fluxes linked with them individually, that is, Φ=L1i+L2i
If the equivalent inductance be L. then Φ=Li ∴ Li=L1+L2 or L=L1+L2
(ii) In parallel, let the induced currents in the two coils be i1 and i2 Then the total induced current is I= I1 + I2
dI dI1 dI2
∴ = +
dt dt dt
dI dI
In parallel, the induced e.m.f. across each coil will be the same. Hence, E =
− L1 1 =
− L2 2
dt dt
di
If the equivalent inductance be L, then E = − L
dt
E dI dI dI E E 1 1 1 L1L 2
∴ = − = − 1 + 2 = + or = + or L =
L dt dt dt L
1 2 L L L1 L 2 L1 + L2
Energy transfer
The rate at which you do work on the loop as you pull it from the magnetic field:
B2L2 ν2
P = Fν = (rate of doing work).
R
The rate at which thermal energy appears in the loop as you pull it along at constant speed. P = i2R.
2
BLν B2L2 ν2
Or, P =
= R (thermal energy rate), which is exactly equal to the rate at which you are doing work on
R R
the loop.
Thus, the work that you do in pulling the loop through the magnetic field appears as thermal energy in the loop.
9. L-R CIRCUITS
Consider an inductor having inductance L and a resistor R are connected in series which is connected in series
to a battery of e.m.f. E in series through a two way key A,B,S as shown in the circuit diagram. When the switch S
is connected to A, the current in the circuit grows from zero value. When the current starts growing through the
inductance, a back e.m.f. is induced in the coil due to self-induction which opposes the rate of growth of current in
the circuit. Similarly, when the switch S is connected to B by disconnecting the battery, the current begins to fall.
The current, however, does not fall to zero instantaneously due to the e.m.f. induced in the coil due to self-induction
which opposes and reduces the rate of decay of current in the circuit.
E
I t −RT
dI dt
∫ E −=
RI ∫L =, I
R
1 − e L
0 0
E
If I0 is maximum current, so that I0 =
R
E
−Rt = I0
I=I0 when exp =
or t ∝
0= R
L
Thus, current I approaches a value I0 asymptotically and grows 0.63I0
exponentially to a value equal to E/R. The curve for growth of the
current in L-R circuit is shown in the Figure. I
L
When t = ,
R t
−R L
× 1 e − 1 2.718 − 1
=I I0 1 − e L R = I0 1 − = =
I0 I0=
0.63 I0 Figure 22.24: Rise of current in LR circuit
e e 2.178
P hysi cs | 22.15
L
The current reaches a value which is equal to 63% of the maximum value I0 after a time of τ = from the beginning.
R
L
∴ Time constant of the circuit = τ =
R
The time constant τ of a circuit is the time during which the current rises from zero to 63% of its maximum value.
−t
I I0 1 − e τ
∴=
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Inductor as stabilizer:
(a) From L-R circuits, we can see that for sudden changes in voltages, there is a smooth and continuous
10V
changes in current through inductor. Io == E / R = 0.10 A
100Ω
(b) Thus, inductor is used as a current stabilizer in circuits.
(c) Froma mathematical point of view, for any kind of voltage input (even discontinuous), current is
acontinuous function.
If voltage is continuous, then current is a smooth function.
Vaibhav Gupta (JEE 2009, AIR 54)
Illustration 12: An inductor (L=20 mH), a resistor (R=100 Ω) and a battery (E=10V) are connected in series. Find
(a) the time constant, (b) the maximum current and (c) the time elapsed before the current reaches 99% of the
maximum value. (JEE MAIN)
L
Sol: For LR circuit the current is= ( )
It Io 1 − e− t/ τ where τ = is the time constant of the circuit and maximum
R
E
current I0 =
R
L 20mH
(a) The time constant is. τ= = = 0.20ms
R 100Ω
(b) The maximum current is
( ) ( )
It =Io 1 − e− t/ τ ⇒ 0.99 I0 =I0 1 − e− t/ τ ⇒ e− t / τ =
0.01
L
Where τ = is the time constant of the circuit.
R
−R L
L × I0 I0
When t = I I0 e
,= L R= = = 0.371 I0
R e 2.718
The time constant τ is defined as the time interval during which the current decays to 37%of the maximum current
during the decay. The rate of decay of the current shows an exponential decay behavior as shown in the Figure
22.27.
1 2
The energy stored in an inductor of inductance L, when the current I is passing through it, is equal to L I which
2
is in the magnetic form. Such LC circuit produces harmonic oscillation in an electrical circuit in which the energy
changes from the electrical to magnetic and vice versa. Such oscillations can be sustained in an electrical circuit and
can continue for a long time with the sane amplitude if there is negligible resistance in the circuit.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The formula for current in l-r circuit is very similar to that of charge in r-c circuit.
The basic similarities are its form i.e. exponential function.
Also, listed here are some basic points about capacitor, inductor and resistor.
(a) Resistor resists flow of charge.
(b) Capacitor resists change in the charge but can hold ideally any amount of charge.
(c) Inductors do not resist charge but resist change in current and ideally it can allow any amount of
current flow.
Nitin Chandrol (JEE 2012, AIR 134)
Illustration 13: A 50 mH inductor is in series with a 10Ω resistor and a battery with an e.m.f. of 25V. At t=0 the
switch is closed. Find: (a) the time constant of the circuit. (b) how long it takes the current to rise to 90% of its final
value;(c) the rate at which energy is stored in the inductor; (d) power dissipated in the resistor. (JEE ADVANCED)
( )
It Io 1 − et/ τ where τ =L / R is time constant,and the energy
Sol: For LR circuit, the current at any time instant is=
1 dUL V2
stored in the inductor is UL = L I2 andpower dissipated in the circuit is P= L & P=R I2=
R IV = (a) The
2 dt R
time constant is τ = L/R = 5×10−3s.
(b) We need to find the time taken for I to reach 90% of I0 i.e. 0.9I=0.9 E/R.
0.9I
= 0 (
I0 1 − e− t / τ )
From this we find that exp ( −t / τ ) =0.1 ⇒ ( −t / τ ) =In ( 0.1 ) . Thus, t = −τ In ( 0.1 ) = 11.5 × 10−3 s
(c) The rate at which energy is supplied to the inductor is
dUL dI dI dU −Rt/L
=+ LI ; =+E / Le−Rt/L ; There fore PPLL == LL =
=I × E × ee− t/ τ
dt dt dt dt
E2 −t / τ −2 t / τ
We now substitute for I to obtain
= PL e −e
R
P hysi cs | 22.17
−2 t/ τ
(d) The power dissipated in the resistor is PR = I2R =
I20R 1 − 2e− t/ τ + e
E IP 1
From equation
= (iii), Es Is E=
P IP or s . In general, E∝
EP Is I
Illustration 14: (i) Calculate the inductance of an air core solenoid containing 300 turns if the length of the
solenoid is 25.0 cm and its cross-sectional area is 4.00 cm2.
(ii) Calculate the self-induced e.m.f. in the solenoid if the current through it is decreasing at the rate of 50.0 A/s.
(JEE MAIN)
µ0N2S dI
Sol: For air core solenoid, inductance is calculated as L = and the e.m.f. induced in solenoid is E = −L
l dt
µ0N2S
(i) from the formula of inductance, L = we ..have,
l
=L
( 4π × 10 ) (300 ) ( 4.00 × 10 )=
−7 2
H
−4
1.81 × 10 −4 H
(25.0 × 10 ) −2
dI
(ii) Here ,
dt
= −50.0 A / s using formula of e.m.f. we get, E = (
− 1.81 × 10 −4 ) ( −50.0 ) 9.05 × 10−3 V =
= 9.05 mV
Illustration 15: Calculate the energy stored in an inductor of inductance 50 mH when a current of 2.0 A is passed
through it. (JEE MAIN)
1
Sol: In LR circuit, magnetic energy is stored in inductor is U=
L L × I2
2
The energy stored is U =
1 2 1
2
Li =
2
(
50 × 10−3 H ( 2.0 A ) =
2
)
0.10 J.
2 2 . 1 8 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
Illustration 16: What inductance would be needed to store 1.0 kWh of energy in a coil carrying a 200 A current?
(1kWh=3.6×10−6J) (JEE MAIN)
1
Sol: In LR circuit, magnetic energy stored in inductor is U=
L L × I2
2
We have, i=200 A and U=1kWh= 3.6 × 10−6 J
This equation gives the density of stored energy at any point where the magnitude of the magnetic field is B. Even
though we derived it by considering the special case of a solenoid, this equation holds for all magnetic fields, no
1
matter how they are generated. This equation is comparable to uE= ε E2
2 0
Which gives the energy density (in a vacuum) at any point in an electric field. Note that both uB and uE are
proportional to the square of the appropriate field magnitude, B or E.
Suppose two closed circuits are placed close to each other and a
current i is passed in one. It produces a magnetic field and this field
has a flux Φ through the area bounded by the other circuit. As the
magnetic field at a point is proportional to the current producing it,
R
we can write Φ=MI where M is a constant depending on the
geometrical shapes of the two circuits and their placing. This
Figure 22.26: Mutual inductance of two coil
P hysi cs | 22.19
constant is called mutual inductance of the given pair of circuits. If the same current i is passed in the second circuit
and the flux is calculated through the area bounded by the circuit, the same proportionality constant M appears. If
there ismore than one turn in a circuit, one has to add the flux through each turn before applying the above
equation.
If the current i in one circuit changes with time, the flux through the area bounded by the second circuit also
changes. Thus, an e.m.f. is induced in the second circuit. This phenomenon is called mutual induction. From
dΦ dI
di
theabove equation, the induced e.m.f. is E = − = −M
dt dt
dt
Sol: The flux linked with the secondary coil due to primary coil, is φ =MI .
Suppose a current i is passed through the inner solenoid S1. A magnetic field B = µ0n1i is produced inside S1 where
the field outside of it is zero. The flux through each turn of S2 is Bπr12 =µ0n1i πr12
The total flux through all the turns in a length l of S2 is
Φ= ( )
µ0n1 I πr12 n2l = (
µ0n1n2 πr12 l I) µ0n1n2 πr12 l.
Thus, M =
… (i)
t=0 b t=t c
+ +
C q0 L C q L
- -
a d
S S
(a) (b)
Figure 22.28: LC circuit
Fig.22.28 (b). Later we will see that, as the charge is oscillating there may be a situation when q will be increasing,
but in that case, direction of the current is also reversed and the equation remains unchanged.
The potential difference across capacitor=potential difference across inductor, or
q di
Vb − Va = Vc − Vd ∴ = L … (i)
C dt
−dq di d2q
Now, as the charge is decreasing, ∴ i=
or =−
dt dt dt2
q d2q d2q 1
Substituting in Eq. (i), we get −L
= or − q
= … (ii)
C dt2 dt 2
LC
d2 x 2
This is the standard equation of simple harmonic motion 2 = − ω x .
dt
1
Here, ω = ... (iii)
LC
(ii), is q q0 at cos ( ωt ± φ )
The general solution of Eq.=
For example in our case φ=0 as q=q0 at t=0.
Hence,
= q q0 cos ωt … (iv)
Thus, we can say that charge in the circuit oscillates simple harmonically with angular frequency given by Eq. (iii).
1 ω 1 1
Thus, ω = , f= = and T = = 2π Lc
LC 2π 2π Lc f
The oscillations of the L-C circuit are electromagnetic analog to the mechanical oscillations of a block-spring
system.
q UC
q0 2
q max
t
2C
t
i UL
2
i0 Li max
2
t
T T 3T 2T T T 3T T
0 2 2 0 4 2 2
Illustration 18: Two conducting loops of radii R and r are concentric and coplanar. Find the
mutual inductances of the system of the two loops. Take R>>>r. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: For current I in the circuit, magnetic field is produced around and at the center of the R r
coil. The flux linked with the smallerloopis the product of the magnetic field at the center due
to the bigger loop and the area of the smaller loop.
Consider a current I passing through the large loop. The magnetic field at the center of this I
µ I Figure 22.30
loop due to this current is B = 0
2R
Now since r is very small in comparison to R, value of B can be considered uniform over πr2 area of the inner loop.
∴ The flux linked with the smaller loop is given by
µ0 I µ0 π Ir 2 Φ µ0 πr
2
=
Φ .π
=r2 ; ∴ M= =
2R 2R I 2R
P hysi cs | 22.21
between the changing electric field and the magnetic field resulting from it is given by
d ΦE … (vii)
�∫ . dl =µ0 ε0 dt
B
ΦE is the flux of the electric field through the area bounded by the closed curve along which the circulation
Here,
of B is calculated. Equation (iii) gives the magnetic field resulting from an electric current due to flow of charges.
Equation (vii) gives the magnetic field due to the changing electric field. If there exists an electric current as well as
a changing electric field, the resultant magnetic field is given by
d ΦE
�∫ B.dl = µ0 i + µ0 ε0 dt
Or, �∫ B.dl =µ0 (i + id ) … (viii)
d ΦE
In the above equation id = ε0 is the displacement current.
dt
Illustration 19: For a charging parallel plate capacitor, prove that the displacement current across an area in the
region between the plates and parallel to it is equal to the conduction current in the connecting wires.
Sol: For electric flux ΦE associated with the surface of one of the parallel plates, the displacement current in and
d ΦE
across the area of the parallel plate is id = ε0 .
dt
The electric field between the plates is E = Q
ε0 A
Where Q is the charge accumulated at the positive plate. The flux of this field through the given area is
Q Q
Φ=
E A
×=
ε0 A ε0
d ΦE d Q dQ
The displacement current is id =
ε0 =
ε0 =
dt dt ε0 dt
dQ
But is the rate at which the charge is carried to the positive plate through the connecting wire. Thus, id=ic
dt
dΦB
Faraday’s law �∫ E ⋅ dl =− dt
… (xi)
dΦE
Ampere’s law �∫ B ⋅ dl = µ0i + ε0µ0 dt
… (xii)
dΦE
and �∫ B ⋅ dl =µ0 ε0 − dt
… (xiv)
Respectively.
Let us check if these equations are satisfied by a plane electromagnetic wave given by
E= Ey = E0 .sin ω(t − x/ c)
… (xv)
and B= Bz = B0 sin ω(t − x/ c)
The wave described above propagates along the positive x-direction, the electric field remains along the y-direction
and the magnetic field along the z-direction. The magnitudes of the fields oscillate between ± E0 and ± B0
respectively. It is a linearly polarized light, polarized along the y-axis.
From the theory of the waves, we can prove the relations between electric and magnetic field represented in
equation (xv) as
E0 = c B0 . … (xvi)
1
B0 =µ0 ε0 c E0 ⇒ µ0 ε0 = … (xvii)
c2
1
Or, c = … (xviii)
µ0 ε0
2π ω E 1
The wave number k = and speed of light in vacuum is c = = fλ = o =
λ k Bo εo µo
In general the speed of electromagnetic waves in the medium of electric permittivity ε and magnetic permeability
1
µ is v =
µε
Illustration 20: The maximum electric field in a plane electromagnetic wave is 900 N C-1. The wave is going in the
x-direction and the electric field is in the y-direction. Find the maximum magnetic field in the wave and its direction.
1 1 2 1 1 2
The energy density is u = ε0E2 + B = ε E2 sin2 ω(t − x/ c) + B sin2 ω(t − x/ c) … (xxii)
2 2µ0 2 0 0 2µ0 0
If we take the average over a long time, the sin2 terms have an average value of ½ Thus,
2 2 . 2 4 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
1 1 2
uau = ε0 E20 + B … (xxiii)
4 4µ 0 0
From equations (xvi) and (xx)
2 2
1 1 2 ε0 c E0 1
=E0 cB0 and
= µ0 ε0 so that, B0= = ε0 E02
c2 4µ 0 4 c 4
Thus, the electric energy density is equal to the magnetic energy density in average.
1 1 1
Or, uav = ε E2 + ε E2 = ε E2 ... (xxiv)
4 0 0 4 0 0 2 0 0
1
Sol: The energy of electric field is given by U
=E V ε E2 where V is the volume of the cylinder
2 0
1 1
The energy density is uav = ε0 E20 = × (8.55 × 10−12 C2N−1m−2 ) × (50 NC−1 )2 = 1 ⋅ 1 × 10−8 Jm−3
2 2
The volume of the cylinder is V=10 cm2 x 50 cm=5 x 10-4 m3.
The energy contained in this volume is U = (1 ⋅ 1 × 10−8 Jm−3 ) × (5 × 10−4 m3 ) = 5 ⋅ 5 × 10−12 J
Intensity
The energy crossing per unit area per unit time perpendicular to direction of propagation is called the intensity of
a wave.
ct
A x
Figure 22.32
Consider a cylindrical volume with area of cross-section A and length c ∆t along the X-axis (See Figure 22.32).
The energy contained in this cylinder crosses the area A in time ∆t as the wave propagates at speed c. The energy
contained is
=U uav (c ∆ t) A .
U
The intensity is of the wave =
is I = uav c.
A∆t
1
In terms of maximum electric field, the intensity is written as I= ε E2 c … (xxvi)
2 0 0
19. MOMENTUM
The propagating electromagnetic wave also carries linear momentum with it. The linear momentum carried by the
U
portion of wave having energy U is given by p = … (xxvii)
c
Thus, if the wave incident on a material surface is completely absorbed, it delivers energy U and momentum
p=U/c to the surface. If the wave is totally reflected, the momentum delivered to the surface of the material is 2U/c
because the momentum of the wave changes from p to –p. It follows that electromagnetic waves incident on a
surface exert a force on the surface.
The accelerated charge is the basic source of electromagnetic wave. This produces changing electric field and
changing magnetic field which constitute the wave. Among the electromagnetic waves, visible light is most familiar
to us. This is emitted by atoms under suitable conditions. An atom contains electrons and the light emission is
related to the acceleration of an electron inside the atom. The mechanism of emission of ultraviolet radiation is
similar to that for visible light.
FORMULAE SHEET
(a) Flux of magnetic field through a surface: ΦB = ∫ B ⋅ ds
(b) Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
dΦB N ⋅ d ΦB
(i) in coil of single loop Eξ = − (ii) in coil of N loops ξE = − where E is induced E.M.F.
dt dt
(c) Motional E.M.F. ξE = − ∫ E ⋅ d = ∫ (v ×B) ⋅ = vB
vB
(d) The magnitude of induced current is I =
R
dΦB
(e) Electric field induced due to changing magnetic field ∫ E ⋅ d =
−
dt
( vB )
2
(f) Power P = F × v =
R
NΦB
(g) Self-inductance of a coil is L =
I
µ0n2 πr 2
(h) For infinitely long solenoid, self-inductance per unit length Lunit length =
dI
(i) Self-Induced e.m.f. ξE = −L
dt
( j) Series Inductors: L=L1+ L2 + …..
1 1 1
(k) Parallel Inductors: = + + .....
L L1 L 2
Solved Examples
JEE Main/Boards d ΦB E
Using formula E = , I= & dq = I × dt
dt R
Example1:A coil made up of inductance L=50 µH and
resistance r=0.2 Ω is connected to a battery of e.m.f.=5.0
∆φ 8 × 10−3
When ∆t=0.01 s − B =
E= 0.8 V
=
V.A resistance R=10 Ω is connected parallel to the coil. ∆t 0.01
Now at some instant the connection of the battery is
E 0.8
switched off. Find the amount of heat generated in the I
= = = 0.16 A
coil after switching off the battery. R 5
& ∆q = I × ∆t = 0.16 × 0.01 = 1.6 × 10−3 C
Sol: In LR circuit, the magnetic energy is stored in
When ∆t=0.01 s
1
inductor and is U=L L × I2
2 ∆φ 8.0 × 10−3
Given: (i) L= 50 µH , (ii) r=0.2 Ω, − B =
E = 0.4 V
=
∆t 0.02
(iii) R=10 Ω
E 0.4
We want to find the fraction of energy lost by the I
= = = 0.8 A
inductor in the form of heat. R 5
& ∆q = I × ∆t = ( 0.08 )( 0.02 ) = 1.6 × 10−3 C
Total energy stored in the inductor is
2
1 2 1 V Example 3: A coil of area 2 m2 is placed in magnetic
UL =
= Li L
2 0 2 r fieldwhich varies as=
B ( )
2t2 + 2 T with area vector in
the direction of B. What is the magnitudeof E.M.F.at
∴ Fraction of energy lost across inductor as heat
t=2s?
r LV 2 50 × 10 −6 × 52
= UL •= = =3.1×10−4J
(R + r ) 2r (R + r ) 2 × 0.2 (10 + 0.2) Sol: The rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the
= 3.1 × 10 J −4 dφ
coil is equal to the induced e.m.f. in the coil E = −
Example 2: A square loop ACDE of area 20 cm2 and dt
resistance 5 Ω is rotated in a magnetic field B=2T
through 1800
Find the magnitude of E, i and ∆q after time
(a) 0.01s and (b) in 0.02s.
Hence, flux through the loop before rotation is t=2 s. If we find the rate of change of flux, we have
E.M.F.
φi = BS cos00 = 2 × 20 × 10−4 =4.0×10−3 Wb ... (i)
For θ =0= , φ BA =
cos θ BA cos 0
o
=
& flux × 10−3 Wb
4.0passing through the loop...(1)
when it is rotated by dφ dB
Differentiating the above equation, we get = .A
180 ,
0
dt dt
φf =BS cos1800 =− 1 × 2 × 20 × 10−4 =4.0×10−3 Wb ... (i) dB dΦB
E A. = A ( 4t + 4 )
⇒= |=
E|
−3 dt dt
= −4.0 × 10
Therefore, changeWbin flux, ...(2)
for =
A 2; | E=| 8t + 8
∆φB = φf − φi = − 8.0 × 10−3 Wb
When t=2 s, |E|=16+8=24 V
2 2 . 2 8 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
Example 4: A current i=(3+2t)×10-2 Aincreases at a Example 5: What inductance would be needed to store
steady rate in a long straight wire. A small circular loop 1.0kWh of energy in a coil carrying a 200Acurrent?
of radius 10-3 m has its plane parallel to the wire and
placed at a distance of 1m from the wire. The resistance
(1kWh= 3.6 × 106 J )
of the loop is 8 mΩ. Find the magnitude and the 2U
Sol: The inductance in the coil is L =
direction of the induced current in the loop. i2
Given: (i) energy stored in inductor UL=1 kWh=3.6 MJ,
Sol: As the circular loop is small, the magnetic field (ii) Current =200 A.
through it can be assumed to be uniform, having
We want to find inductance of coil.
magnitude equal to that of the field at the center of the
circular loop, and flux associated with loop is φ = Bπr 2 . 1
The energy stored in inductor is UL = Li2
dφ 2
The emf induced in loop is E = .
dt The inductance is
1m 2U 2 × 3.6 × 106
∴L= = = 180 H
i2 ( 200 )
2
Ais passed in the bigger loop and the smaller loop is is observed that when the terminal velocity is attained,
rotated with angular velocity wrad/s about a diameter. the power dissipated in R1 and R2 are 0.76 W and 1.2 W
Calculate (a) the flux linked with the smaller loop (b) respectively. Find the terminal velocity of the bar and
induced e.m.f. and current in the smaller loop as a the values of R1 and R2.
function of time.
A R2 C
FM
IA
a - I +
b
mg
B D
R1
Sol: Current in the larger loop produces magnetic field
at the center of the loop. Magnetic flux is linked with Sol: The motional e.m.f. induced in the bar is E=ℓBv. The
the smaller loop. When the smaller loop is rotated, flux direction of induced current in the bar is as shown in
linked with it changes, and thus e.m.f. is induced in it. Figure. By Fleming’s left hand rule the ampere force on
the bar will be vertically upwards.
(a) The Figure represents the arrangement of coils.
When current passes through the larger loop, the field The bar falling freely under action of gravity will acquire
at the center of larger loop is, terminal velocity only when its motion is opposed by
magnetic force FM=Bil,
µ0 I µ 0 2π × I 2π × 1 Wb
B1 = = = 10 −7 × = 2π × 10 −6 Such that Bil=mg
2R 4π R 0.1 m2
0.2 × 9.8 9.8
is normal to the area of smaller loop. i.e., I
= = A
0.6 × 1 3
The smaller loop is rotating at angular velocityω. The total power dissipated in the circuit if E is the E.M.F.
Therefore the angle of rotation is θ = ωt w.r . to B linked with the coil is
The flux linked with the smaller loop at time t,
E × I = P = P1 + P2
φ2= B1S2 cos θ= (2π × 10 )(5 × 10 ) cos(ωt)
−6 −4
⇒ E
=
( 0.76
=
+ 1.20 )
0.6 V
−9
i.e., φ2 = π × 10 cos(ωt) Wb ( 9.8 / 3)
E 0.6
The E.M.F. E=l•BvT ∴ vT = = =1 ms−1
(b) The induced e.m.f. in the smaller loop, Bl 0.6 × 1
dφ2
E2 = −
dt
d
= −
dt
(
π × 10−9 cos ωt ) Using the formula of =
power P
V2
=
R
i.e., R
V2
P
i.e., E2 = π × 10−9 ω sin ωt For constant potential drop V1 =V2 =E
( 0.6 )=
2
And induced current in the smaller loop, E2 9
R= = Ω &,
E2 1 1
P1 0.76 19
I2= = πω × 10 −9 sin ωt A.
R 2
( 0.6 )=
2
E2
R=
2 = 0.3 Ω
Example 8: Two parallel vertical metallic rails AB and P2 1.20
CD are separated by 1 m. They are connected at the ∴ The terminal velocity of the rod is 1m/s & R1=0.47 Ω
two ends by resistances R1 and R2 as shown in Figure & R2=0.3 Ω
22.40. A horizontal metallic bar of mass 0.2 kg slides
without friction, vertically down the rails under the
Example 9: A square metal wire loop of side 10 cm and
action of gravity. There is a uniform horizontal magnetic
resistance 1 Ω is moved with a constant velocity V0 in
field of 0.6 T perpendicular to the plane of the rails. It
a uniform magnetic field of induction B=2 Wbm-2. The
2 2 . 3 0 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
coil is
V0
S PP = IP × EP = 6.9 kW
O 3 3
B 6.9 × 103
∴ Ip
= = 30 A ;
A C 230
3
P 3 Is Np 1000 1
3 &= = =
Q Ip Ns 20000 20
1 30
Is = ×I = = 1.5 A ;
20 P 20
Sol: The network of resistors is a balanced wheatstone ∴ Current rating of the secondary coil is 1.5
bridge. The induced e.m.f. in the loop is E=BlV, where l
is one side of square loop, moving with speed v in the
magnetic field. Example 11: An infinitesimally small bar magnet of
dipole moment M is pointing and moving with the
The network mesh ASCQ is a balanced Wheatstone. So speed v in the x-direction. A small closed circular
there is no current through branch AC. conducting loop of radius ‘a’ and of negligible self-
Let R be the effective resistance of mesh ASCQ inductance lies in the y-z plane with its center at x=0,
and its axis coinciding with the x-axis. Find the force
6×6 opposing the motion of the magnet, if the resistance of
∴R = = 3Ω
6+6 the loop is R. Assume that the distance x of the magnet
Resistance of loop OSCQP =3+1=4 Ω from the center of the loop is much greater than a.
Let speed of loop through the field be V0 Sol: The flux linked with loop due to magnetic field of
bar magnet will decrease as the bar moves away from
∴ The induced E.M.F. in the loop is E=BlV0
the loop. The current induced in the loop will oppose
E = 2×0.1×V0 = 0.2V0 its cause i.e. will create a magnetic field at the location
of bar magnet such that the bar magnet is attracted
& using Ohm’s law the current in the circuit is towards the loop, thus bar magnet is decelerated.
E BlV0 0.2V0 Field due to the bar magnet at distance x (near the
I
= = =
R R 4 µ0 2M
4 × 10−3 loop) B =
−3
I =10 A ⇒ V0 = =2 × 10−2 ms−1 4 π x3
0.2
Flux linked with the loop:
According to Fleming’s right hand rule direction of µ0 2M
φ = BA = πa2 ×
induced current in the loop is in clockwise direction. 4 π x3
e.m.f. induced in the loop:
Example 10: A power transformer is used to step up an dφ µ0 6π × Ma2 dx µ0 6πMa2
alternating e.m.f. from 230 V to 4.6kV to transmit 6.9KW E=
− = = v
dt 4 π x4 dt 4 π x 4
of power. If primary coil has 1000 turns, find
∴ Induced current:
(a) no. of turns in the secondary
E µ0 3πMa2 3µ Ma2
(b) the current rating of the secondary coil. I= = × ⋅v = 0 ⋅v
R 2π Rx 4 2Rx 4
Sol: For coil of transformer E ∝ N where E is induced (B) Find the opposing force
E.M.F. and N is number of turns in the coil.
The induced current develops field around it. As coil is
P hysi cs | 22.31
moving in the external field it will be opposed by the Example 13: A light beam travelling in the x - direction
force which is equal to heat dissipated in the coil due is described by the electric field
= Ey 300 sin ω(t − x / v)
to resistive force. . An electron is constrained to move along the
y-direction with the speed of 2.0 × 107 m/s. Find the
Heat dissipated in coil= Resistive force acting on coil
maximum electric force and the maximum magnetic
while it is in motion.
force on the electron.
I2R ;
∴ Fv = (Dimension of power)
2 Sol: The maximum force exerted by the wave is
I2R 3µ0Ma
2 2 2 4
R 9 µ0M a v F=FE+FB= qE + qvB.
⇒ F= = × v2 × = .
v 2Rx 4 v 4 Rx8
(i) Maximum electric field E0 = 300 V / m
( )
2
−6
1 q0 105 × 10
2
Sol: As the wire frame oscillates in the magnetic field,
=U = = 6.56 J
2 C 2 × 840 × 10 −12 the angle between the area vector and the magnetic
field continuously varies. Thus, the flux linked with
(b) Energy stored in inductor in the given time the frame changes and e.m.f.and current is induced
=total energy in circuit – energy stored in capacitor in the frame. As the magnetic field is uniform, the net
magnetic force on the frame will be zero.
=6.56-6=0.56 J
The instantaneous flux through the frame when it is
displaced through an angle θ is given by
= Φ BA cos θ
2 2 . 3 2 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
sin
Emax 4 × 10−6
g
mg mg cos
m
Imax = = = 2 × 10−7 A
R 20
Instantaneous induced e.m.f. to the coil is
Example 2: A variable magnetic field creates a
dΦ dθ constant e.m.f. E in a conductor ABCDA. The resistance
E=
− BA sin θ
=
dt dt of the portions ABC, CDA and AMC areR1, R2and R3,
sinceθ is very small respectively. What current will be recorded by the meter
M? The magnetic field is concentrated near the axis of
dθ
E = BA θ
dt
( sin θ = θ ) … (i) the circular conductor.
M
= BA θ0 sin ωt ωθ0 cos ωt + +
E2 E1
E BA ωθ20 sin2ωt
= ...(iii) ... (iii) - x-y - y
x
g 9.8 −1
Here
= ω = = 5 rads
l 0.392 And R3 y- R1(x-y) =E3-E1 =0
x0 2 × 10−2 ER1
And θ0 = = = 5 × 10−2 rad Solving for y, y= .
l 0.392 R1R 2 + R 2R3 + R3R1
P hysi cs | 22.33
Example 3: A square loop of side ‘a’ and a straight, Sol: If n2 is the number of turns in secondary and φ2 is
infinite conductor are placed in the same plane with the flux linked through one turn, then the flux linked
two sides of the square parallel to the conductor. through the secondary is n2φ2.
The inductance and resistance are equal to L and R
Magnetic field inside any point of solenoid B = µ0 n1 i1
respectively. The frame is turned through 1800 about
where n1 is no turns in primary and i1is current in
the axis OO’. Find the electric charge that flows in the
primary.
square loop.
Flux through secondary having turns n2 is
n2 (BA ) =
O
b a n2 φ2 = µ0 n1n2i1 A
n2 φ2
⇒ M= µ0 n1n2 S
=
i1
4 π × 10−7 × 50 × 200 × 4 × 10−4
= = 5 × 10−4 H.
−2
O’ 10
At=t t1 , =
v v= gt1 to ampere force should be balanced by the net torque
1
of the external agent which is maintaining constant
angular velocity of the rod.
mR B2 v 1 W 2
A=
t1 + loge mg −
B2 W 2 R
y A
Substituting for A,
x
d
B2 vW 2
dr
Ro
B2 W2 mg −
− ( t −t1 ) R
= loge
r
e mR mg FM
B v1 W 2
2
mg − O
R
Gives the expression for velocity of the loop in the
interval t1 ≤ t ≤ t2 . (a) As the terminals of the switch S are connected
between the points O and C, so the e.m.f. across the
switch is same as across the ends of the rod. Now to
Example 6:A metal rod OA of mass m and length l
calculate the e.m.f. across the rod, consider an element
is kept rotating with a constant angular speedwin a
of the rod of length dr at a distance r from O, then
vertical plane about a horizontal axis at the end O. The
free end A is arranged to slide without friction along dE = Bνdr = Brωdr ( as ν = rω)
a fixed conducting circular ring in the same plane as l
1
that of rotation. A uniform and constant magnetic so E =∫ Bωr dr = Bωl2 ………( i )
2
induction B is applied perpendicular and into the plane 0
And in accordance with Fleming’s right hand rule the
of rotation as shown in Figure. An inductor L and an
direction of current in the will be from A to Oand so O
external resistance R are connected through a switch S
will be at a higher potential (as inside a source of e.m.f.
between the point O and a point C on the ring to from
current flows from lower to higher potential)
an electrical circuit. Neglect the resistance of the ring
the rod. Initially, the switch is open. (b)(i) Treating the ring and rod rotating in the field as a
source of e.m.f. E given by equation (i), the equivalent
(a) What is the induced e.m.f. across the terminals of
circuit (when the switch S is closed) is as shown in
the switch?
Figure.
(b) The switch S is closed at time t=0
A
y
A S
E
S
O
R
C L
L C
dx i (R + 2λx )
l 2
M Mgl l E Bd dx
= ∫ rdr
τ g cos θ + BI= cos θ + BI = i (R + 2λx) ⇒
=i dx =
l 0 2 2 ⇒R = (R + 2λx ) dt dt Bd
dt Bd i (R + 2λx )
But as rod is rotating at constant angular velocity ω, i (R + 2λx )i.e., velocity =
Bd
θ =ωt and from equation (iii) =
I (
Bωl2 / 2R ) i.e., velocity =
Bd
2 4
Mgl B ωl The instantaneous acceleration
So, τ
= cos ωt + … (iv)
2 4R
d2 x 2iλ dx
And hence the rod will rotate at constant angular = a =
velocity ω if a torque having magnitude equal to that dt2 Bd dt
given by equation is applied to it in anticlockwise
=
( 2
)
2iλ i R + 2λx 2i λ R + 2λx
=
( )
sense.
Bd Bd 2 2
Bd
M
∴ Instantaneous applied force
2i2 λ (R + 2λx )
F ma
= = ×m
B d B2d2
R
FB2d2
From this equation i2 =
x 2mλ (R + 2λx )
FB2d2
N Heat produced per second = i2 (R + 2λx ) =
2mλ
i (R + 2λx )
Example 7: Two long parallel horizontal rails at Power W= F. v= F ×
Bd
distance d apart and each having a resistance λ per
2 2
HeatR.product
unit length, are joined at one end by a resistance A H FBHeatd productBd H FB2d2 Bd
Therefore,
= = × = = ×
perfectly conducting rod MN of mass m is free to work
slidedone W 2mwork (
λ FidoneR + 2 λ x )W 2m λ Fi ( + 2λx )
R
on rails without friction. There is a uniform magnetic
B3d3 B3d3
field of induction B normal to the plane of the paper = =
2mλ (R + 2λx ) 2mλ (R + 2λx )
and direct into the paper. A variable force F is applied
to the rod MN such that, as the rod moves, a constant
current flows through R.
Example 8: A metal rod of mass m can rotate about
(a) Find the velocity of the rod and the applied force F a horizontal axis O, sliding along a circular conductor
as function of the distance x of the rod from R. of radius a. The arrangement is located in a horizontal
(b) What fraction of the work done per second by F is and uniform magnetic field of induction B directed
converted into heat? perpendicular to the ring plane. The axis and the ring
2 2 . 3 6 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
are connected to an e.m.f. source to form a circuit of between the rails d is large compared with x, the distance
resistance R. Deduce the relation according to which between the wires. Both wires and rails are made of a
the source e.m.f. must vary to make the rod rotate material of resistivity ρ per unit length. A magnetic flux
with a constant angular velocityω. Neglect the friction, of density B applied perpendicular to the rectangle
circuit inductance and ring resistance. made by the wires and rails. One wire is moved along
the rails with a uniform speed v while the other is held
E
stationary. Determine how the force on the stationary
wire varies with x and show that it vanishes for a value
µ0 v
of x approximately equal to .
t 4 πρ
x Rail 1
O mg
x dx
B
I v
d
Sol: As current flows in the rod due to the source e.m.f., B
it experiences torque due to ampere forces and starts Rail 2
rotating. The torque due to weight of the rod should
balance the torque due to ampere force to maintain
Sol: Due to motional e.m.f. current will be induced in
constant angular velocity. As torque due to weight of
rectangular loop. The stationary wire will be attracted
the rod varies with angular position the torque due to
by the moving wire, as well as it will experience a force
ampere force should also vary. So in turn, the current
due to the uniform magnetic field.
and thus source e.m.f. should also vary.
Let at any instant t, during the motion of second wire,
Inductance e.m.f. across the ends of the rod
a the second wire is at a distance x. The area of the
1
E =∫ dE =∫ Bωx dx = B ωa2 rectangle between the two wires is xd. Rate of change
0
2 of magnetic flux through the rectangle
Force on the rod if a current I flow through it:
dφ d dx
F= IaB =
dt dt
(=
B x d) B=
d
dt
Bvd
a 1 dφ
mg sin ωt = I a2 B e=
− − Bvd
=
2 2 dt
So, the current induced in the rectangle I is given by
∴ Current required through the rod
E Bvd
mgsin ωt I= = −
I= R 2 (d + x ) ρ
aB
The force between the two wires due to current flow
This must be equal be to the current due to total e.m.f.
in the circuit µ0i1i2 µ0 2I2d
F
= .d
= ×
1 2πx 4π x
E − Bωa2 2
2 mg sin ωt
=I = ; µ 2d Bvd
R aB = 0
4π x 2 ( d + x ) ρ
=∴E
1
2Ba
(
2 mgR sin ωt + B2 ωa2 ) The force F’, due to magnetic field on the stationary
wires
Example 9: Two long wires are placed on a pair of Bvd B2d2 v
parallel rails perpendicular to the wires. The spacing F' B=
= I d Bd =
2 ( d + x ) ρ 2 ( d + x ) ρ
P hysi cs | 22.37
∴ Fresultant =
F'− F Putting in (i)
2 Li20 1 1 LE2 E2
B2d2 v µ 2d Bdv Pmax
= − = =
= − 0 τ 2 4 4R (L / R ) 4R
2
2 ( d + x ) ρ 4 π x 2 ( d + x ) ρ
B2d2 v µ0 dv
Example 11:A parallel-plate capacitor having plate area
= 1 −
2 ( d + x ) ρ 4 π ( d + x ) ρ A and plate separation d is joined to a battery of emf
V and internal resistance 2R, at t=0. Consider a plane
The force will be zero, when surface of area A, parallel to the plates and situated
µ0 dv µ0 v symmetrically between them. Find the displacement
= 1 or x = current through this surface as a function of time. [The
4π ( d + x ) ρ 4 πρ
charge on the capacitor at time t is given by q=CV
(Neglecting x in comparison with d). (1 − e− t / τ ) .where τ =CR]
d ΦE
Sol: id = ε0 is the displacement current, ϕEis
Example 10: An inductance L and a resistance R are dt
connected in series with a battery of e.m.f. . Find the the flux of the electric field between the plates of the
maximum rate at which the energy is stored in the capacitor.
magnetic field.
Given, q=CV (1 − e− t / τ )
Sol: Substitute the expression for instantaneous current q CV
∴ Surface charge density σ= = (1 − e−t/ τ )
in the LR series circuit in the formula for energy stored A A
in the inductor. Electric field between the plates of capacitor,
I σ CV
E
= = (1 − e− t / τ )
ε0 ε0 A
V − t/2CR
dU
P= =
dt
Li20 1 − e− t/ τ( )( −e ) − 1τ
− t/ τ We have, id =
2R
e
Li20 ε0 A
=
τ
(e − t/ τ
)
− e−2t/ τ ... ( i ) Again substituting, C =
d
td
This rate will be maximum when V 2ε0 AR
id = e
2R
2 2 . 3 8 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
JEE Main/Boards
Q.2 A coil of mean area 500 cm2 and having 1000 turns
is held perpendicular to a uniform field of 4 × 10−4 T. Q.10 A 5 H inductor carries a steady current of 2 A. How
can a 50 V self-induced e.m.f. be made to appear in the
1
The coil is turned through 1800 in s. Calculate the inductor?
average induced e.m.f.. 10
S
Q.18 A 0.5 m long metal rod PQ completes the
circuit as shown in the Figure. The area of the circuit Deduce an expression for
is perpendicular to the magnitude field of flux density
0.15 T. If the resistance of the total circuit is 3 Ω, calculate (i) The e.m.f. induced across the arm ‘RS’,
the force needed to move the rode in the direction as (ii) The external force required to move the arm, and
indicated with a constant speed of 2 ms-1.
(iii) The power dissipated as heat.
Q
Q.23 Define self-inductance of a coil. Write its S.I. units.
S N S N
(A) 2π(R0+t)B clockwise (B) π(R0+t)B clockwise (C) The current in each will remain the same
(C) 2π(R0+t)B anticlockwise (D) zero (D) The current in one will increase and in other will
decrease
Q.2 A square wire loop of 10.0 cm side lies at right
angle to a uniform magnetic field of 20T. A 10V light Q.6 The Figure shows an
bulb is in a series with the loop as shown in the Figure. isosceles triangle wire frame with B
The magnetic field is decreasing steadily to zero over apex angle equal to π / 2 . The o
frame starts entering into the 90
a time interval ∆t . The bulb will shine full brightness if v
∆t is equal to uniform magnetic field B with
Constant velocity v at t=0. The
t=0
longest side of the frame is
perpendicular to the direction of velocity. If i is the
instantaneous current through the frame then choose
the alternative showing the correct variation of i with
time.
i i
(A) (B)
(A) 20 ms (B) 0.02 ms t t
(C) 2 ms (D) 0.2 ms
i i
(C) (D)
Q.3 The dimensions of permeability of free space can
t t
be given by
(A) MLT −2 A −2 (B) MLA −2 Q.7 A thin wire of length 2 m is perpendicular to the xy
( )
plane. It is moved with velocity v = 2iˆ + 3ˆj + kˆ m / s
(C) ML−3 T2 A2
(D) MLA −1
through a region of magnetic induction B= (ˆi + 2ˆj)
Wb/ m2. Then potential difference induced between the
Q.4 A vertical magnet is dropped from position on the ends of the wire:
axis of a fixed metallic coil as shown in Figure, figure (i).
(A) 2 V (B) 4 V
In figure (ii) the magnet is fixed and horizontal coil is
dropped. The acceleration of the magnet and coil are (C) 0 V (D) none of these
a1 and a2 respectively then
Q.8 A long metal bar of 30 cm length is aligned along a
S north south line and moves eastward at a speed of 10
ms-1. A uniform magnetic field of 4.0 T points vertically
S
downwards. If the south end of the bar has a potential
N of 0 V, the induced potential at the end of the bar is
Fixed Fixed N (A) +12 V
l L
µ0 ν Il µ0 ν Il
(A) (B) Q
πr 2πr
2µ0 ν Il µ0 ν Il
(C) (D) P
πr 4 πr
N
Q.11 A conducting rod PQ of length 5 m oriented as
shown in Figure is moving with velocity 2 î m/s without
( )
R
any rotation in a uniform magnetic field 3ˆj + 4kˆ T. e.m.f. P
Q
induced in the rod is
y S
Q
2m/s
5m (A) A current from P to Q
53
o (B) A current from Q to P
x (C) No current, because the e.m.f. induced in one side
P
of the disc is opposed by the back e.m.f.
(A) 32 V (B) 40 V (c) 50 V (D) none (D) No current, because the e.m.f. induced in one side
of disc is opposed by the e.m.f. induced in the other
Q.12 The magnetic field in a region is given by side
x ˆ (E) No current, because no radial e.m.f. is induced in
B B0 1 +
= k . A square loop of edge length d is
a the disc
placed with its edge along x & y axis. The loop is moved
with constant velocity V = V0 ˆi . The e.m.f. induced in the Q.15 A rectangular coil of single turn, having area A,
loop is rotates in a uniform magnetic field B with an angular
velocity w about an axis perpendicular to the field. If
V0 B0 d2 V0 B0 d2 initially the plane of coil is perpendicular to the field,
(A) (B)
a 2a then the average induced e.m.f. when it has rotated
V0 B0 a2 through 900 is
(C) (D) none
d
2 2 . 4 2 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
j
C L
A B
A
B
i
(A) Remains stationary
ωBA ωBA ωBA 2ωBA
(A) (B) (C) (D)
π 2π 4π π (B) Is attracted by the loop-A
(C) Is repelled by the loop-A
Q.16 A copper rod AB of length L, pivoted at one end
(D) Rotates about its CM, with CM fixed
A, rotates at constant angular velocity ω , at right angle
to a uniform magnetic field of induction B. The e.m.f.
developed between the midpoint C to of the rod and Q.21 A circular loop of radius R, carrying current I, lies
end B is in x-y plane with its center at origin. The total magnetic
flux through x-y plane is
Bωl2 Bωl2 3Bω l2 3Bω l2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
4 2 4 8 (A) Directly proportional to I
(B) Directly proportional to R
Q. 17 Figure 22.70shows a uniform magnetic field
(C)Directly proportional to R2
B confined to a cylindrical volume and is increasing
at a constant rate. The instantaneous acceleration (D) Zero
experienced by an electron placed at P is
Q.22 Two circular coils can be arranged in any of
the three situations in the Figure 22.72. Their mutual
P inductance will be
(A) BLv/R clockwise (B) BLv/R anticlockwise the circular region (2000)
(C) 2BLv/R anticlockwise (D) Zero B(t)
P
Q.2 A thin semicircular conducting ring of radius R is r
falling with
its plane vertical in a horizontal magnetic
induction B. At the position MNQ the speed of the ring
is ν and the potential difference developed across the
ring is (1996) a
B
(A) is zero (B) decreases as 1/r
N (C) increases as r (D) decreases as 1/r2
Q.3 A metal rod moves at a constant velocity in a direction (A) Increases with time
perpendicular to its length. A constant magnetic field (B) Decreases with time
exist in space in a direction perpendicular to the rod as
(C) Does not vary with time
well as its velocity. Select the correct statement (s) from
the following. (1998) (D) Passes through a maximum
(A) The entire rod is at the same electric potential
Q.8 A metallic square loop ABCD is moving in its
(B) There is an electric field in the rod
own plane with velocity ν in a uniform magnetic field
(C) The electric potential is higher at the center of the perpendicular to its plane as shown in the Figure 22.84.
rod and decrease towards its ends Electrical field is induced (2001)
(D) The electric potential is lowest at the center of the
rod and increase towards its ends
Q.9 As shown in the Figure, P and Q are two coaxial Q.13 In an LCR circuit as shown below both switches
conducting loops separate by some distance. When are open initially. Now switch S1 is closed, S2 kept open.
the switch S is closed, a clockwise current IP flows in (q is charge on the capacitor and τ =RC is capacitive
P (as seen by E) and an induced current IQ1 flows in Q. time constant). Which of the following statement is
The switch remains closed for a long time. When S is correct? (2013)
opened, a current IQ2 flows in Q. Then the direction IQ1 V
and IQ2 (as seen by E) are (2002)
P
Q R
S1
E
C
S
S2
L
Battery (A) At t=τ, q=CV / 2
(B) At t=2τ, q=CV(1−e−2)
(A) Respectively clockwise and anticlockwise
τ
(B) Both clockwise Attt= =
(C) = , q=CV
q CV(1−e e−) 1 )
(1 − −1
2
(C) Both anticlockwise
(D) Work done by the battery is half of the energy
(D) Respectively anticlockwise and clockwise
dissipated in the resistor.
L2 L2
(A) Electric energy density is equal to the magnetic (A) (B)
L1 L1
energy density.
t t
(B) Both electric and magnetic energy densities are
zero.
(C) Electric energy density is double of the magnetic
2 2
Q Max QMax
energy density. (C) (D) L1
Q0 (For both L1 and L0)
(D) Electric energy density is half of the magnetic L2
energy density. t t
Q.18 In the circuit shown here, the point ‘C’ is kept Q.21 Two long current carrying
connected to point ‘A’ till the current flowing through thin wires, both with current I, are L
the circuit becomes constant. Afterward, suddenly, held by insulating threads of
point ‘C’ is disconnected from point ‘A’ and connected length L and are in equilibrium as
to point ‘B’ at time t=0. Ratio of the voltage across shown in the figure, with threads I I
resistance and the inductor at t=L/R will be equal to : making an angle ' θ ' with the
(2014) vertical. If wires have mass λ per unit length then the
A R value of I is: (g=gravitational acceleration) (2015)
C
B πλgL πgL
L (A) 2sin θ (B) 2 tan θ
µ0 cos θ µ0
πλgL πλgL
1−e e (C) tan θ (D) sin θ
(A) -1 (B) (C) (D) 1 µ0 µ0 cos θ
e 1−e
Q.19 An inductor (L=0.03 H) and a resistor (R=0.15 kΩ) Q.22 Two identical wires A and B, each of length ' ' ,
are connected in series to a battery of 15 V EMF in a carry the same current I. Wire A is bent into a circle of
circuit shown. The key K1 has been kept closed for a radius R and wire B is bent to form a square of side ‘a’. If
long time. Then at t=0, K1 is opened and key K2 is closed BA and BB are the values of magnetic field at the centres
simultaneously. At t=1 ms, the current in the circuit will BA
of the circle and square respectively, then the ratio
be (e5 ≅ 150) (2015) BB
(A) 67 mA (B) 6.7 mA is: (2016)
π2 π2 2 π2
(C) 0.67 mA (D) 100 mA (A) (B) (C) π (D)
16 2 16 8 2 8
Q.24 Hysteresis loops for two magnetic materials A and These materials are used to make magnets for electric
B are given below : generators, transformer core and electromagnet core.
B B Then it is proper to use: (2016)
(A) A for electromagnets and B for electric generators
(B) A for transformers and B for electric generators
H (C) B for electromagnets and transformers
(D) A for electric generators and transformers
(A) (B)
JEE Advanced/Boards
m
B
A B
R
P hysi cs | 22.47
Q.7 A metal rod of resistance 20Ω is fixed along a with the rails starts at vertex at the time t=0 & moves
diameter of a conducting ring of radius 0.1 m and lies symmetrically with a constant velocity of 5.2 m/s to the
on x-y plane. There is a magnetic field B= (50T) K̂ . The right as shown in Figure. A 0.35 T magnetic field points
ring rotates with an angular velocity ω=20 rad/s about out of the page. Calculate:
its axis. An external resistance of 10 Ω is connected
across the center of the ring and rim. Find the current B
through external resistance.
5.2m/s
o
90
Q.8 A triangular wire frame (each side=2m) is placed in
a region of time variant magnetic field
Having dB/dt= 3 T/s. The magnetic field is
perpendicular to the plane of the triangle. The base of
the triangle AB has a resistance 1 Ω while the other (i) The flux through the triangle by the rails & bar at
two sides have resistance 2 Ω each. The magnitude of t=3.0s
potential difference between the points A and B will be.
(ii) The e.m.f. around the triangle at that time.
Q.9 A uniform magnetic field of 0.08 T is directed into (iii) In what manner does the e.m.f. around the triangle
the plane of the page and perpendicular to it as shown vary with time?
in the Figure. A wire loop in the plane of the page has
constant area 0.010m2. The magnitude of magnetic Q.14A wire is bent into 3 circular segments of radius
field decrease at a constant rate 3 × 10 −4 Ts-1. Find the r=10cm as shown in Figure. Each segment is a quadrant
magnitude and direction of the induced e.m.f. in the of a circle, ab lying in the xy plane, bclying in the yz
loop. plane & ca lying in the zx plane.
z
c
B
r r
b
Q.10 There exists a uniform cylindrically symmetric y
magnetic field directed along the axis of a cylinder but
varying with time as B=kt. If an electron is released from
rest in this filed at a distance ‘r’ from the axis of cylinder, a
its acceleration, just after it is released would be (e and x
m are the electronic charge and mass respectively) (i) If a magnetic field B points in the positive x direction,
what is the magnitude of the e.m.f. developed in the
Q.11 A uniform but time varying magnetic field B=Kt–C; wire, when B increases at the rate of 3 mT/s?
(0 ≤ t ≤ C/K), where K and C are constants and t is time, (ii) What is the direction of the current in the segment
is applied perpendicular to the plane of the circular bc.
loop of radius ’a’ and resistance R. Find the total charge
that will pass around the loop.
Q.15 Consider the possibility of a new design for an
electric train. The engine is driven by the force due to
Q.12 A charged ring of mass m=50gm, charge 2 the vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field on
coulomb and radius R=2m is placed on a smooth a conducting axle. Current is passed down one coil, into
horizontal surface. A magnetic field varying with at a a conducting wheel through the axle, through another
rate of (0.2t) T/ s is applied on to the ring in a direction conducting wheel & then back to the source via the
normal to the surface of ring. Find the angular speed other rail.
attained in a time t1=10 s.
(i) What current is needed to provide a modest 10-KN
force? Take the vertical component of the earth’s field
Q.13 Two straight conducting rails form a right angle
be 10 µ T & the length of axle to be 3.0 m.
where their ends are joined. A conducting bar contact
2 2 . 4 8 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
(ii) How much power would be lost for each Ω of Q.19 A rectangular frame ABCD made of a uniform
resistivity in the rails? metal wire has a straight connection between E & F
made of the same wire as shown in the figure. AEFD is
(iii) Is such a train realistic?
a square of side 1m & EB= FC=0.5 m. The entire circuit
is placed in a steadily increasing uniform magnetic field
Q.16 A rectangular loop of dimensions l& w and directed into the place of the paper & normal to it. The
resistance R moves with constant velocity V to the right rate change of the magnetic field is 1T/s, the resistance
as shown in the Figure. It continues to move with same per unit length of the wire is 1 Ω/m. Find the current in
speed through a region containing a uniform magnetic segments AE, BE &EF.
field B directed into the plane of the paper &extending
A E B
a distance 3 W. sketch the flux, induced e.m.f. & external
force acting on the as a function of the distance.
3w B
v B D F C
h
m
O x
B
E F
b g
G H
C D
y
P hysi cs | 22.49
F
Exercise 2
Single Correct Choice Type
Q v
(A) F=Qv (B) F= (C) F= (D) F= Qv
Q.1 An electron is moving in a circular orbit of radius v Q
R with an angular acceleration α. At the center of the
orbit is kept a conducting loop of radius r,(r<<R). The Q.6 Two parallel long straight conductors lie on a
e.m.f. induced in the smaller loop due to the motion of smooth surface. Two other parallel conductors rest
the electron is on them at right angles so as to form a square side
(A) Zero, since charge on electron in constant a initially. A uniform magnetic field B exists at right
angles to the plane containing the conductors. They all
µ0 er 2 start moving out with a constant velocity v. If r is the
(B) α
4R
2 2 . 5 0 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
resistance per unit length of the wire the current in the Multiple Correct Choice Type
circuit will be
Bv Br Q.11 A conducting wire is placed in a magnetic field
(A) (B) (C) Bvr (D) Bv
r v which is directed into the paper. The magnetic field is
increasing at a constant rate. The directions of induced
Q.7An equilateral triangle loop ADC of some finite B currents in wire AB and CD are
as shown in the Figure. At time t=0, side DC of loop
is at edge of the magnetic field. Magnetic field is
perpendicular to the paper inwards (or perpendicular
to the plane of the coil). The induced current versus
time graph will be as
A
Figure
(A) B to A and D to C (B) A22.104
to B and C to D
(C) A to B and D to C (D) B to A and C to D
Q.10 A small square loop of wire of side l is placed (A) qA=+800 µC andqB =
−800µC
inside a large square loop of wire of side L (L>>l).
(B) qA =
−800 µ C andqB =
+800µ C
The loop are co-planner & their centers coincide. The
mutual inductance of the system is proportional to: (C) qA= 0= qB
Q.14 The e.m.f. induced in a coil of wire, which is (A) There will be repulsion between A and B if i is
rotating in a magnetic field, does not depend on increased
(A) The angular speed of rotation (B) There will be attraction between A and B if i is
increased
(B) The area of the coil
(C) There will be neither attraction nor repulsion when
(C) The number of turns on the coil
i is changed
(D) The resistance of the coil
(D) Attraction or repulsion between A and B depends
on the direction of current. It does not depend whether
Q.15 Current growth in two L-R circuit (b) and the current is increased or decreased.
(c) as shown in Figure (a). Let L1,L2, R2 and R2 be the
corresponding value in two circuits, then
Q.19 A bar magnet is moved along the axis of copper
ring placed far away from the magnet. Looking from
i the side of the magnet, an anticlockwise current is
(b) L1 ( c ) R1 L12 R21 found to be induced in the ring. Which of the following
(b) (c) may by true?
t V S V S (A) The south pole faces the ring and the magnet moves
towards it.
(a) (b) (c)
(B) The north pole faces the ring and the magnet moves
(A) R1 > R 2 (B) R1 = R 2 (C) L1 > L2 (D) L1 < L2
towards it.
(C) The south pole faces the ring and the magnet moves
Q.16 The dimension of the ratio of magnetic flux and
away from it.
the resistance is equal to that of:
(D) The north pole faces the ring and the magnet moves
(A) Induced e.m.f. (B) Charge
away from it.
(C) Inductance (D) Current
Q.20 AB and CD are smooth parallel rails, separated
Q.17 Figure 22.73 shows a P by a distance l, and inclined to the horizontal at an
plane figure made of a angel θ. A uniform magnetic field of magnitude B,
conductor located in a Q directed vertically upwards, exists in the region. EF is a
magnetic field along the conductor of mass m, carrying a current i. For EF to be
inward normal to the plane R in equilibrium,
of the figure. The magnetic B F D
field starts diminishing.
Then the induced current
C B
(A) At point P is clockwise
(B) At point Q is anticlockwise
E
(C) At point Q is clockwise
(D) At point R is zero A
(A) i must flow from E to F (B) Bil=mg tan θ
Q.18 Two circular coils A and B are facing each
other as shown in Figure. The current I through (C) Bil=mg sin θ (D) Bil=mg
A can be altered
A B Q.21 In the previous question, if B is normal to the
plane of the rails
(A) Bil=mg tan θ
(B) Bil=mg sin θ
(C) Bil=mg cos θ
i
Q.22 A semicircle conducting ring of radius R is placed Q.25 Two metallic rings A and B, identical in shape
in the xy plane, as shown in the Figure. A uniform and size but having different resistivities ρA and ρB ,
magnetic field is set up along the x-axis. No net e.m.f., are kept on top of two identical solenoids as shown in
will be induced in the ring. If the Figure. When current I is switched on in both the
Y solenoids in identical manner, the rings A and B jump to
heights hA and hB respectively, with hA>hB. The possible
relation (s) between their resistivity and their masses mA
B
and mB is (are)
R
X A B
c d
a b
Comprehension Type Q.30 The value of magnetic flux in each case is given by
P B ( C ) Case I : Φ= (L + ) B
2 2
Case II : Φ= (L − ) B
2 2
(D ) Case I : Φ= (L + ) B
2
O Q
Case II : Φ = π (L − ) B
2
R
Q.31 The direction of induced current in the case I is
Q.27 choose the correct statement (s) related to the
potential of the points P, Q and R (A) From a to b and from c to d
(D) VQ − VP = VP − V0
Q.32 The direction of induced current in the case II is
Q.28 Choose correct statement (s) related to the (A) From a to b and from c to d
magnitude of potential differences (B) From b to a and from f to e
1 1 (C) From b to a and from c to d
(A) VR − V0 = Bωa2 (B) VP − VQ = Bωa2
2 2
(D) From a to b and from d to c
2 2
(C) VQ − VO =2Bωa (D) VP − VR =2Bωa
Q.33 If I1 and I2 are the magnitudes of induced current
in the cases I and II, respectively, then
Q.29 Choose the correct statement(s) related to the
induced current in the ring (A) I1 =I2 (B) I1 > I2
(A) Current flows from Q → P → O → R → Q (B) (C) I1 < I2 (D) Nothing can be said
Current flows from Q → R → O → P → Q
(C) Current flows from Q.34 Match the Following Columns
Q.1 An infinitely long cylinder is kept parallel to a (D) I1 is in the direction ab and I2 is in the direction dc
uniform magnetic field B directed along positive z-axis.
The direction of induced as seen from the z-axis will be Q.3 A thin flexible wire of length L is connected to
(2005) two adjacent fixed points and carries a current l in the
clockwise direction, as shown in the Figure. When the
(A) Clockwise of the+ ve z-axis
system is put in a uniform magnetic field of straight B
(B) Anticlockwise of the + ve z-axis going into the plane of the paper, the wire takes the
(C) Zero shape of a circle. The tension in the wire is (2010)
Column I Column I
V1 V2
(A) I ≠ 0, V1 is proportional to I
6mH 3F
(p)
V
V1 V2
(B) I ≠ 0, V2 > V1
6mH 2
(q)
V
P hysi cs | 22.55
V1 V2
(C)=
V1 0,
= V2 V
6mH 2
(r)
V1 V2
(D) I ≠ 0, V1 is proportional to I
6mH 3F
(s)
V
V1 V2
1k 3F
(s)
V
Q.8 Two different coils have self-inductances L1=8 mH (B) The emf induced in the loop is finite if the current
and L2 =2 mH. The current in one coil is increased at is constant
a constant rate. The current in the second coil is also
(C) The emf induced in the loop is zero if the current
increased at the same constant rate. At a certain instant
decreases at a steady rate
of time, the power given to the coils is the same, At that
time, the current the induced voltage and the energy (D) The emf induced in the loop is finite if the current
stored in the first soil are i1,V1 and W1 respectively. decreases at a steady rate
Corresponding value for the second coil at the same
instant are i2, V2 and W2 respectively. (1994) Q.12 If the direct transmission method with a cable of
Then resistance 0.4 Ω km−1 is used, the power dissipation (in
i1 i1 %) during transmission is (2013)
1 W1 1 V1
(A) = (B) = 4 (C) = (D) =4
i2 4 i2 W2 4 V2 (A) 20 (B) 30 (C) 40 (D) 50
µ0
(A) The magnitude of induced emf in the wire is
3R volt π
Q.15 Two inductors L1 (inductance 1 mH, internal Which of the following schematic plot(s) is(are) correct?
resistance 3 Ω) and L2 (inductance 2 mH, internal (Ignore gravity)
resistance 4 Ω), and a resistor R (resistance 12 Ω) are all
I(x) F(x)
connected in parallel across a 5V battery. The circuit is
switched on at time t=0. The ratio of the maximum to
the minimum current (Imax/Imin) drawn from the battery (A) (B) L
is (2016) x x
0 L 2L 3L 4L 0 2L 3L 4L
I(x)
L v(x)
v0 v0
3L 4L
(C)
0 xx (D)
0 L 2LL 2L
3L 4L x
0 L 2L 3L 4L
PlancEssential Questions
JEE Main/Boards JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1 Exercise 1
Q.4 Q.7 Q.9
Q.5 Q.8 Q.9
Q.13 Q.14 Q.19
Q.18
Q.20
Exercise 2 Exercise 2
Q.3 Q.4 Q.7
Q. 1 Q.2 Q.8
Q.13 Q. 15 Q.24
Q.11 Q.14
Q.25 Q.26
2 2 . 5 8 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
Answer Key
Exercise 2
JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1
Q.1 10 µV Q.2 λVyB0
1
Q.7 A Q.8 0.4V
3
Q.9 3 µV ,clockwise
erk
Q.10 directed along tangent to the circleof radius r, whose center lies on the axis of cylinder
2m
πa2C
Q.11 Q.12 200 rad/s
R
Q.13 (i) 85.22 Tm2; (ii)56.8 V (iii) Linearly Q.14 (i) 2.4 × 10−5 V (ii) from c to b
Q.15 (i) 3.3 × 108 A, (ii) 4.1 × 107 W, (iii) totally unrealistic Q.16
E w s
3w 4w
s
F
s
2
µ0ihωimN b dB 2
Q.17 ln Q.18 R −
2π a 2 dt 4
7 3 1 1 Bωr 2 1 − e−Rt/L
Q.19
= iEA = Al; iBE = A; iFE A 2
Q.20 (i) E= Bωr (ii) I =
22 11 22 2 2R
mgR g
Q.21 (i) Vterminal = ;(ii)
2 2
BL 2
µ0 a
CI0 ω2 ln2,
( µ0ni0 cos ωt ) πa2 (Ld)
Q.22 (a) Imax= Q.23 I =
π ρ2πR
(b) Qo
/ 2/
t
/2 3/2
-Qo
Exercise 2
Q.26 C
Comprehension Type
Q.33 B
Q.34 A → P; B → P, Q, S; C → Q, S; D → Q, R, S
Solutions
JEE Main/Boards di
N∈=– M
dt
Exercise 1 m0nNA=M
di dφ
ε =– L e=– =nBA0 w sin wt
dt dt
L2 µ2 B=m0 in
= di
L1 µ1 ε =– m0npr2 dt ∴ L=m0npr2
m1=m0, m2=mrm0
N µ Nπr 2
L2
10 π= ∴ L= 0
⇒ mr= = =1000
L1 0.01
\ mr=1000 Sol 18: ε =Blv
B V
Sol 13: It flows anti-clock wise to increase flux along i=
R
outside the plane. Hence it flow PSRQP. B2 2 V (0.15)2 (0.5)2 (2)
F=iB = = =3.75×10–3 N
R 3
di
Sol 14: ε = –L
dt Sol 19: The currents induced in a solid conducting
Solenoid tries to go back to initial state i.e. If an action body as it passes through a magnetic field is called
produce a change Dε1, solenoid tries to produce a eddy current.
change Dε2 such that Dε2 is in Opposite direction of Dε1. Eddy currents lead to heating up of Transformer core.
When you remove iron core, L keeps decreasing Eddy current is reduced by making transformer with
thin slabs.
2 2 . 6 2 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
Exercise 2
Sol 1 : (C) A=pR2 =π(R0 + t)2
dA
=2π (R0 + t)
dt
–BdA
ε= =– 2πB(R0 + t)
dt
Sol 20: (i) The Principal involved is mutual inductance \2π(R0 + t)B is induced anticlockwise.
(ii) The current produced in coil B depends on Note: To have clarity about clockwise or anticlockwise,
(a) number of turns in the coil, remember as flux increases, it tries to reduce net
magnetic field B. Hence voltage is induced. It leads to
(b) Nature of material current in direction of voltage, which reduces magnetic
(c) geometry of coil field.
BA
Sol 21: (i) Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction Sol 2 : (A) E=
∆t
An emf is induced in the loop when the number
of magnetic field lines that pass through the loop is 20 × (0.1)2
10=
changing. ∆t
(ii) ε =Blv tanθ
∴ Dt=20 ms
5 1
=5×10 ×25×1800×
–4
×
18 3 Sol 3 : (A) [MA–1T–2]
625
= ×10 V
–4
3 µ0i
Now B= (for circular wire)
2r
Sol 22: (a) The current induced in a solid conducting
body as it passes through a magnetic field is called eddy [B][r] [MA –1 T –1 ][L]
⇒ [m0]= = = MLA–2T–2
current. It is used in induction stove, water heaters, etc. [ i] [A]
(b) (i) ∈=Blv
Sol 4 : (C) Induced emf tries to push the coil upward in
∈ B v B2 2 v
(ii) i= = ; F=iB= case II and magnet in case-I, to present sudden change
R R R
in net flux.
∈2 B2 2 v 2
(iii) Power dissipated P= = \a1, a2< g
R R
Sol 23: If a current i in a coil charges with time, an emf Sol 5 : (A) For a circular loop B at center is greater than
B at any point along the axis.
di
is induced in the coil. The self-inducedemf is ∈L=– L
dt When both the loops approach each other, magnetic
S.I unit Henry–H. field (B) starts increasing at center. To compensate it,
Current decreasing.
Sol 24: (i) Inducedemf is same →
Sol 6 : (D) Let the triangle travel a distance x along v
ε = 2pr2w B in time t.
(ii) Current in copper is more, as its resistance is less. Area of triangle in magnetic field
1
Sol 25: It induces current in opposite direction. A= x(2x) = x2
2
A=v2t2
Sol 26: Emf induces Anticlockwise as seen from north.
Both Magnets produce current in same direction. –BdA
E=
dt
P hysi cs | 22.63
L
VA – VC=VyBl2 –VxBl1 l2=L; l 1=
2
\VA – VC∝ (Vxl2 – Vyl1)
Bω 2 L 3Bω2
2
\Î= L – =
2 2 8
Sol 11 : (A) V =2i
=5 cos θ î + 5 sin θ ˆj =3 î + 4 ˆj Sol 17 : (B) Electric field is induced to left
→ → \it accelerates to right (B)
E= V× B . = 2iˆ × (3ˆj + 4kˆ 3iˆ + 4ˆj
µ0i
Sol 18 : (B) B=
= 6kˆ – 8ˆj 3iˆ + 4ˆj = 32 Volts 2R
dB µ0 di
=
Sol 12 : (A) φ=B.dA dt 2R dt
– µ0 di
x 2 E= . pr2
φ= B0 1 + d 2R dt
a
dφ dφ dx di
E= –L
= . dt
dt dv dt
B0 d2 µ0 πr 2
⇒ L=
= V 0. 2R
a
2 2 . 6 4 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
Previous Years’ Questions Sol 5 : (D) The current-time (i – t) equation in L-R circuit
is given by [Growth of current in L-R circuit]
Sol 1 : (D) Net change in magnetic flux passing through –t/tL
the coil is zero. i=i0( 1 – e ) … (i)
dB
or E(2pr)=pa2 dt for r ≥ a
a2 dB
∴ E=
2r dt
1
Induced electric field ∝
r
P hysi cs | 22.65
dB
E=– NA
dt
1
Also, R ∝
r2
Sol 7: (D) The equations of l1(t), l2(t) and B(t) will take Where R= resistance, r=radius,
the following form : =length.
–k 2t
I1(t)=K1(1 – e ) → current growth in L-R circuit ∴ P ∝ N2r2
–k 2t
B(t)=K3(1– e ) → (t) ∝ I1(t) P2
∴ =4
P1
I2(t)=K4 e –k 2t
At t = 2τ
=q CV (1 − e−2 )
2 1
Sol 14 : (D)
Sol 8 : (D) Electric field will be induced in both AD and r
BC.
R d
2 2 . 6 6 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
Sol 21 : (A)
µ I2 Sol 3 : A=pr2
0
E 4 πL sin θ
tan=
θ = dA dA dr dr
= . =2pr.
λ g λ g dt dr dt dt
πλLg –BdA
⇒ I = 2 sin θ E ⇒=–
µ0 cos θ dt
P hysi cs | 22.67
dr Sol 7 :
=– B2pr . =(0.02) . 2π (4 × 10–2) . (1 × 10–3) =5 mV
dt
µ0i µ0i
Sol 5 : B= =
2r 2b
Area of small coil Ai=pa2
5 1
d
2
d πa .µ0i i= = A
∈= BA = 1 3
dt dt 2b 10 +
1 1
+
πa2µ0 di 10 10
∈= 1
2b dt Current through external resistance is A
3
dQ
∈ =iR = R
dt dB 3 2 dB 3
Sol 8 : E= A = a . = (a)2. 3
2 dt 4 dt 4
dQ πa µ0 di
⇒R = E=3V
dt 2b dt
Emf induced is 3V
πa2µ0 πa2µ0
⇒DQ= ∆i = i
2bR 2bR E 3
Current induced I= = =0.6 B
8 5
E
Sol 6 : Let terminal velocity be V Voltage induced in each side V1=
3
E=– Blv
V1=1 V
b V
I=– Now each side acts like a battery with a resists
R
B2 2 v
Force due to magnetic field fi=iLB=–
R
\VAB=V1=iRAB =1 – 0.6 (1)=0.4 V
Force due to gravity (f2)=mg
f1 + f2=0 dB
Sol 9 : =– 3 × 10–4 (here is taken positive)
dt
B2 2 v Rmg AdB
⇒ mg – =0 ⇒ v= E=–
R B2 2 dt
2 2 . 6 8 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
(ii) P=i2R e=– Blv 0< x < w=0 w < x < 3w=Blvw < x < 4w
P 2
=i = 4.1 × 107 W
R Sol 17 : ∫ B.ds =m0ienc
(iii) Totally unrealistic
B.2pr=m0im in cos wt
w µ0Nim cos ωt
Sol 16 : φ=Blvt 0 < t < B=
v 2πr
(downwards positive) dφ=B.dA=B. h.dr
w 3w µ0N imcos ωt
=Blw <t< dr
v v dφ= h
2π r
4w 3w 4w µ0N imcos ωt
=Blv – t <t< b
v v ⇒ φ= h/n
v 2π a
dφ
e= –dφ wµ0N imhsin ωt b
dt ∈= = ln
dt 2π a
w
⇒ e=– Blv 0 < t <
v µ0N ωhim b
Amplitude= ln
2π a
w 3w
=0 <t<
v v
Sol 18 :
3ω 3ω
=Blv <t<
v v
∈→
F=iB= B
R
– 2B2 V w
⇒ E= 0 < t < dB
R v e= A
dt
w 3w dB
= 0 <t< ⇒ e1= A1
v v dt
dB
– 2B2 v 3w 4w ⇒ e2= A2
= <t< dt
R v v
⇒ e1 is along CD and ⇒ 2 along DC
(here=– )
dB
x=vt \e (A1 – A2) along CD
dt
2 2
A1 – A2= R –
2 4
2 2 dB
\e= R –
2 4 dt
(ii)
–Rt
I= I0 1 – e L
B ωr 2
–Rt
I= 1 – e L
2R
dTm=rdE
iAE=i11 + i21iEF=i13 – i23iBE= i12 +i22
(Tm=torque due to magnetic field)
e1 3
i11= = A dFm=Bidl
1 11
3+
1 Bidr
1+
2
(tm=magnetic force)
2 2
i13= i11= A
2+1 11 d.Tm=Birdr
1 Bir 2
i12=i11 – i13= A ⇒ Tm=
11 2
e2 2
ωB 2 g 4 –
Rt
i22= = A
1 11 ⇒ Tm= 1 – e L
2+ 4R
1
1+
3 fg=mg cos θ (fg=force of graving)
3 3
i23= i22= A fgr r mgr cos(θ)
3+1 22 Tg= = mg cos θ =
2 2 2
1
i21=i22 – i23= A
22 mgr cos θ ωB2r 4 –
Rt
\ T= + 1 – e L
3 1 7 2 4R
iAE= + = A
11 22 22
Sol 21 : e=BLV(V is terminal velocity)
2 3 1
iEf= – = A
11 22 22 e BLV
i= =
R R
1 2 3
iEB= + = A Fm=iLB (fm=force due to magnetic field)
11 11 11
B2L2 V
=
Sol 20 : (i)d∈=Bvdr R
B20 a2 v µ0 I0 a.ln2sin ωt
F m= φ=
R π
dφ µ ωI aln2
fg – fm e=– =– 0 0 cos wt
(c)a= dt π
m
Q=CV
B20 a2 v
mg – dQ dv (µ ω2 I aln2)
dv R i= =C =C 0 0 sin wt
= dt dt π
dt m
µ0 a
dv Imore= CI0w2 ln2
=at π
B20 a2 v – µ0 ωI0 acln2
g– (b) Q=CV= cos wt
mR π
2 2 . 7 2 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
Sol 23 : B=m0 in eM V
. =|f1 – f2|
M L
φ=B.A=m0 in pa2
V=|f1 – f2| ML/eM
φ=m0 npa2 i0 sin wt
–dφ Sol 5 : (B) Here power Supplied=Heat generated as no
∈= =– m0npa2ωI0 cos wt
dt other element is using I,
e. e.2πR Q
Resistance of shell, r5= = ⇒F . V=Q ⇒ F=
A L.d V
∈ Sol 6 : (A) area of loop A=a2
i=
rs
dA da
= 2a = 2a (2V)= 4av
∴I=
(µ ni ω cos ωt)πa (Ld))
0 0
2 dt dt
dA
ρ.2πR B =iR
dt
B
Exercise 2 ⇒ i=
R
=(4aV)
⇒ R=4ar
Sol 1 : (B) Let angular velocity be ω.
Bv
ωe ⇒ i=
i=– r
2π
d i0 is same,
⇒ e= – BAN
dt ⇒ R1=R2
∫ ∈e at
dt=BAN
Time constant t=
L
R
⇒ Li=BAN
tC>tB
i=BAN/L
⇒ L2> L1
1
Sol 10 : (B) B ∝ φ φ t ∈
L Sol 16 : (B) = . = × t=it=Q
R t R R
A ∝ l2 Here charge (B)
2
∴L ∝
L Sol 17 : (A, B, D) For both P, Q it is induced inward
hence clockwise.
Sol 11 : (A) Induced current is along DC for loop DC. iR=0 which is obvious
For loop AB it should be along AB but since area of CD
loop is greater than AB loop, hence current is along BA.
Sol 18 : (A) If i increases B increases, to reduce B, they
(A) repel
–dB
e=
dt
( ACD – A AB ) Sol 19 : (B, C) Antilockwise means field should increase
into plane.
∴A cos DC
Sol 20 : (A, B) Magnetic force fm=iB
Sol 12 : (B, D) Opposite currents (anti parallel currents)
Gravity force fg=mg
repel
fm cos θ=mg sin q
Hence (D)
ilB=mg Tan q
I2 induces opposite current to oppose the increase flux
is show from E to F.
(B)
2 2 . 7 4 | Electromagnetic Induction and Electromagnetic Waves
Sol 2 : (D)
Sol 29 : (D) No current flows. As it doesn’t form a
closed circuit. Cross × magnetic field passing from the closed loop is
increasing. Therefore, from Lenz’s law induced current
Sol 30 : (C) φ= ∫ B.dA will produce dot • magnetic field. Hence, induced
current is anticlockwise.
Case I : A=L2 + l2
P hysi cs | 22.75
1 1 Sol 9 : (B, C)
V2=XCI= I = l=(1061) I
2 πfC –3
2π × 50 × 3 × 10 2
1
Z= R 2 + X 2C = R 2 +
In circuit (t): ωC
V1=IR=(1000) I In case (b) capacitance C will be more. Therefore,
V2=XCI=(1061) I impedance Z will be less. Hence, current will be more.
Therefore the correct options are as under ∴ Option (B) is correct
(A) → r, s, t ; (B) → q, r, s, t ; Further,
(C) → q, p; (D) → q, r, s, t VC= V 2 – VR2 = V 2 – (IR)2
µ0iR 2 2 3
= × a2 × ∴ R e ff =
2 × 8R 3 2 2
10
φsec ondary µ0 a2 Imax =
=M = 3
i 23 × 21/2 R
Imax
µ0 a2 =8
M= Imin
7/2
2 R
1mH 3
Sol 11 : (A, C)
Total flux associate with loop=0 2mH 4
Therefore emf=0 in any case.
dv vB2L2
−mv =
dx R
h
µ0 I µ0 Ih B2L2
∴ v(x) =
v0 − x
=
φ w ∫ =
2πr
2rdr
π mR
0
v 0BL B3L3
i(x)
= − x
µ 0h R mR 2
So, Mutual inductance Mw =
π
v 0B2L2 B 4L4
µ0h di µ0 F(x)
= − x (leftwards)
∴ =
εw = R mR 2
π dt π
Due to rotation there is no change in flux through the
wire, so there is no extra induced emf in the wire. From
Lenz’s Law, current in the wire is rightward so repulsive
force acts between the wire and loop.
2017-18 100 &
op kers
Class 12 T
By E ran culty
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PHYSICS
FOR JEE MAIN & ADVANCED
SECOND
EDITION
Exhaustive Theory
(Now Revised)
Formula Sheet
9000+ Problems
based on latest JEE pattern
PlancEssential
Questions recommended for revision
23. A LT E R N AT I N G
CURRENT
1. INTRODUCTION
A majority of electrical power in the world is generated, distributed, and consumed in the form of 50-Hzor60-Hz
sinusoidal alternating current (AC) and voltage. It is used for household andindustrial applications.
AC has several advantages over DC. The major advantage of AC is the fact that it can be transformedinto any form,
whereas direct current (DC) cannot. A transformer permits voltage to be stepped up or down for the purpose of
transmission. Transmission of high voltage (in terms of KV) implies that less current is required to produce the same
amount of power. Less current permits thinner wires to be used for transmission.
In this chapter, we will introduce a sinusoidal signal and its basic mathematic equation. We will discuss and analyse
circuits where currents i(t) and voltages v(t) vary with time. The phasor analysis techniques will be used to analyse
electronic circuits under sinusoidal steady-state operating conditions. The chapter will conclude with single-phase
power.
2. SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORMS
AC, unlike DC, flows first in one direction, then in the
opposite direction. The most common AC waveform is a RMS value
sine (or sinusoidal) waveform. Peak value
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
It is always advisable to find symmetries in functions while calculating rms and average value to reduce
the period of integration.It helps a lot in avoiding unnecessary calculations when functions are defined
part by part.
Yashwanth Sandupatla (JEE 2012, AIR 821)
∫ fdt t2
t1
Average value of a function,from t1 to t2, is defined as <f>=
t2 − t1
. We can find the value of ∫ fdt graphically if the
graph is simple. It is the area of f-t graph from t2 − t1 . t1
∫ idt
0
Iavg =
t
,where i is the instantaneous value of the current.
∫ dt
0
∫ io sin ( ωτ + θ) dt
Case I: Average value over complete cycle 0 t
. Similarly Vavg = 0
∫ dt
0
t/2
∫ io sin ( ωτ + θ ) dt
0 2io 2 io
Case II: Average value=
over half cycle Iavg = ; Similarly Vavg =
t/2 π π
∫ dt
0
Illustration 1: An electric heater draws 2.5 A current from a 220-V, 60-Hz power supply. Find (JEE MAIN)
(a) The average current
(b) The average of the square of the current
(c) The current amplitude
(d) The supply voltage amplitude
Sol: In AC circuit, the average value of current over a long time interval is zero but I2 is not zero. The r.m.s. value of
Imax Vmax
current and voltage is=
given by Irms = and Vrms .
2 2
(a) The average of sinusoidal AC values over any whole number of cycles is zero.
P hysi cs | 23.3
Im
( c ) Irms = ; So, current amplitude I =
m
= 2 Irms 2 ( 2.5A ) 3.5 A
=
2
Vm
( d) = =
Vrms 220V ; So, supply voltage amplitude
= V m 2 ( Vrms )
= ( 220V ) 311 V.
2=
2
∫ f 2dt
t1
Root mean square value of a function, from t1 to t2 is defined as frms =
t2 − t1
T T
I0 V0
I= =
eff Irms = 0.707 I0 =
Where I0 is the peak value of the current. Similarly Ve f f or Vrms = 0.707 E0 A
2 2
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
RMS value is actually more important because in the context of power transmission,the loss in energy
due to a resistor plays an important role. And the power is given by i2R, where R is the resistance.
Yashwanth Sandupatla (JEE 2012, AIR 821)
π π 3π
Illustration 2:Find the RMS value of current I = Im sin ω t from (i) t=0 to t= (ii)t= to t = (JEE MAIN)
ω 2ω 2ω
Sol: In AC circuit over time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ T the RMS value of current is given by
T T
3π
π 2π
∫
2
ω Im sin2 (ωt)dt
∫ Im2 sin2 (ωt)dt 2
Im I
π 2
Im Im
(i) =
Irms 0
= = m (ii) =
Irms 2
= = A
π 2 2 π 2 2
ω ω
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The RMS value of one cycle or half cycle (either a positive or negative cycle) is same.
GV Abhinav (JEE 2012, AIR 329)
(
= VP1 sin 10t + 1100 = )
Leads V2 VP2 sin 10t − 40
0
( ) … (ii)
by 1500. It is also correct to say that v1lags v2by 2100, since v1 may be written as
= (
V1 VP1 sin 10t − 2500 ) V … (iii)
v
VP
VPsin(t+) Vpsin t
t
-VP
3. POWER IN AC CIRCUITS t
∫ vidt
Average power in alternating current circuit over time t is defined as Pavg = 0
, where V andiare the
t
∫ dt
0
Thus, apparent power = Vrms × irms and true power=apparent power × power factor
For φ = 0o, the current and voltage are in phase. The power is thus, maximum (Vrms × irms). For φ = 90o the power is
zero. The current is then stated wattless. Such a case will arise when resistance in the circuits is zero. The circuit is
purely inductive or capacitive. The case is similar to that of a frictionless pendulum, where the total work done by
gravity upon the pendulum cycle is zero.
We shall discuss more about the power and power factor later, shortly after we define impedance and its properties.
Illustration 3: When a voltage Vs = 200 2 sin (ωt+15o) is applied to an AC circuit, the current in thecircuit is found
to be I=2 sin (ωt+π/4) then average power consumed in the circuit is (JEE MAIN)
=Pav Vrms=
Irms cos φ
200 2 2
2
. =
2
cos 300 ( )
100 6 W
4. SIMPLE AC CIRCUITS
Vm Vrms Vrms2
Im = ⇒ Irms = <P> = Vrms Irms cos φ =
R R R
Vm
= cos=
ωt Im cos ωt
XC
1 V-
T
where X C =
where and is called capacitive reactance. Its unit is Ohm ( Ω ).
ωC t
From the graph of current versus time and voltage versus time,
i
T
it is clear that current attains its peak value at a timebefore the
4
T t
time at which voltage attains its peak value. Corresponding to phase difference.
4
2π T π
= ω� t = = i leadsvcby π / 2 diagrammatically (phasediagram) represented as Figure 23.5
T 4 2 c
V T
t
Vm
Diagrammatically (See Fig. 23.7) it is represented as
Im
iL lags behind VL by π / 2 since φ =90 , <P>=Vrms Irms cos φ =0. The current lags voltage by π / 2 in a purely inductive
0
circuit.
Applied Induced
voltage voltage
5. IMPEDANCE
We have already seen that the inductive reactance XL = ωL and capacitance reactance X=
C 1 / ωL play the role of
an effective resistance in apurely inductive and capacitive circuit respectively. In the series RLC circuit, the effective
( )
2
resistance is the impedance,defined as Z = R + XL − X C …(iv)
The relationship between Z, XL, and XC can be represented by the diagram shown in Fig. 23.9.
Following is a diagrammatic representation of the relationship between Z, XL and XC.
Z
The impedance has SI unit of Ω. In terms of Z the current may be rewritten as I(t) XL - XC
V0
sin ( ωt − φ ) …(v)
=
Z R
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
By now, students should get a clear idea of individual behaviour of inductor, capacitor and resistor and
be able to visualize phasors. They should never get confused whetherinductor, capacitor is leading, etc.
Chinmay S Purandare (JEE 2012, AIR 698)
The upcoming series of circuits would be easy to understand because they are just a superposition of individual
phasor diagrams.
6. MIXED AC CIRCUITS
6.1 LR Circuit
If VR, VL and Vsare the RMS voltage across are R, L and the AC source respectively. Then,
=
VS VR2 =
+ VL2 I2 R 2 + XL2 Where Is is r.m.s value of source current.
VL
R VR
V S VS
L VL
VR IS
(a) (b)
Figure 23.10: (a) AC voltage applied to LR circuit (b) Phasor diagram of voltage drops across R and L
−1 −1 X ωL
The phase angel φ by which the applied voltage leads the current
= is φ tan
= L
tan
R
R
Vrms
R 2 + ( ωL ) . The RMS value of the current is Irms =
2
Sol: Theimpedance of LR circuit is=
Z . In LR circuit, the
Z
ωL
current lags the applied voltage by phase angleφ obtained as φ =tan−1 .
R
The impedence of the L-R series circuit is given by:
1/2 1/2
Z2= R 2 + ( ωL )
2 2 2
= (R ) + ( 2πfL )
P hysi cs | 23.9
1/2
= 62 + ( 2 × 3.14 × 40 × 0.01 )
2
= 6.504 Ω
V 220
(a) RMS value of the current: Irms==
rms
= 33.83 A
Z 6.504
(b) The potential difference across the resistance is given by: VR=Irms × R=33.83 × 6= 202.83 V
(c) Potential difference across the inductance is given by:
( )
VL = Irms × ( ωL ) = 33.83 × 2 × 3.14 × 0.01 = 96.83 V
ωL
(d) Phase angle φ =tan−1 ; so, φ = tan (0.4189=22.46)
-1
R
φ 22.46
Now time lag= = T= = 0.0623 s.
360 360
9
Illustration 5: A H inductor and a 12 Ω resistance are connected in a series to a 225 V, 50 Hz ac source.
100π
Calculate the current in the circuit and the phase angle between the current and the source voltage. (JEE MAIN)
Vrms
R 2 + ( ωL ) . The RMS value of the current is Irms =
2
Sol: Theimpedance of LR circuit is =
Z . In LR circuit, the
Z
ωL
current lags the applied voltage by phase angleφ obtained as φ =tan−1 .
R
9
Here XL= ωL =2 πfL = 2π × 50 × = 9Ω
100π
V 225 −1 XL −1 9 −1
(a) l=
= and (b) φ tan
= 15A = = =
tan =
tan 3 / 4 370o
Z 15 R
12
i.e., the current will lag the applied voltage by 370 in phase.
Illustration 6: A chokecoil is needed to operate an arc lamp at 160 V (RMS) and 50 Hz. The arc lamp has an
effective resistance of 5Ω when running of 10 A (RMS). Calculate the inductance of the choke coil. If the same arc
lamp is to be operated on 160V (dc), what additional resistance is required? Compare the power losses in both
cases.
(JEE ADVANCED)
VL
And as, VL=IXL=I ωL = 2πfLI L=
2πfI
=
152
2 × π × 50 × 10
=4.84 ×10 −2 H
V = V0sin t
Now the lamp is to be operated at 160 V dc; instead of choke, if additional Figure 23.11
resistance r is I put in a series with it, V = I(R+r), i.e. 160 = 10(5+r) i.e. r = 11Ω In
case of AC, as choke has no resistance, power loss in the choke will be zero, while
2 3 . 1 0 | Alternating Current
the bulb will consume P=I2 R=102 × 5=500 W. However, in case of DC,as resistance r is to be used instead of choke,
the power loss in the resistance r will be PL=102 X 11=1100 W
While the bulb will still consume 500 W, i.e., when the lamp is run on resistance r instead of choke, more than
double the power consumed by the lamp is wasted by the resistance r.
6.2 RC Circuits
VR
IS
R VR
V S VC
VS
C -
- VC
(a) (b)
Figure 23.12: (a) AC voltage applied to RC circuit (b) Phasor diagram of voltage drops across R and C
If Vs, VR and VC are RMS voltages across a source, resistance and capacitor respectively
VS 1
Impedance of circuit, Z= = R 2 + X 2C = R2 +
IS 2 2
ωC
−1 −1 X 1
VS leads=
IS by φ tan
=
C
tan
R ωCR
The current leads the applied voltage by angel φ .
Illustration 7:An ac source of angular frequency ω is fed across a resister R and a capacitor C in series. The current
registered is I. If now, the frequency of source is changed to w/3 (but maintaining the same voltage), the current in
the circuit is found to be halved. Calculate the ratio of reactance to resistance at the original frequency w.
(JEE MAIN)
Sol: The impedance of RC circuit is:
2
1 Vrms
=
Z R2 + . The RMS current is Irms =
ωC Z
V V
According to the given problem, I= = … (i)
Z 2 2
1/2
R + ( 1 / C ω )
ω I V
And for frequency of , = … (ii)
3 2 2 2
1/2
R + ( 3 / C ω )
Substituting the value of I from equation (i) in (ii),
1 9 1 3
4 R2 + R2 +
= i.e.. = R2
2 2 2 2 2 2 5
C ω C ω C ω
P hysi cs | 23.11
1/2
3 2
R
X (1 / cω ) 5 3
So that,
= = =
R R R 5
Illustration 8: In an RC series circuit, the RMSvoltage of source is 200V, and its frequency is 50 Hz. If R = 100 Ω
100
and
= C µF , find
π 220V50HZ
(a) Impedance of the circuit (b) Power factor angle
(c) Power factor (d) Current
(e) Maximum current (f) Voltage across R
C R
(g) Voltage across C (h) Max voltage across R Figure 23.13
(i) Maxvoltage cross C ( j)<P>
(k) <PR> (l) <PC> (JEE ADVANCED)
2
2 1
=Z R +
ωC
Vrms XC
The RMS current is Irms = . The phase angle between current and voltage is given by tan φ = . The RMS
Z R
I0 V0
value of current and voltage
= is Irms = and Vrms =
. Power developed in circuit is P Vrms Irms cos φ .
2 2
106
=
XC = 100 Ω
100
π
( )
2 π50
XC
(b) tan=
φ = 1 φ 450
∴=
R
1
(c) Power factor= cos φ =
2
Vrms 200
(d) Current=
Irms = = 2A
Z 100 2
1
( j) <P>= Vrms Irms cos=
φ 200 × 2 × W
2
(k) <PR>Irms 2R=200 W
(l) <Pc>=0
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
We observed here that inductor’s reactance is directly proportional to the frequency used in the circuit
and vice-versa for capacitor. So a combined circuit of them can be used as a frequency filter. High
frequencies can be received by noting the voltage across capacitor and low frequencies can be noted
using the inductor.
Nitin Chandrol (JEE 2012, AIR 134)
Vs = V sint XL
V
V
90
o I
I
XC
L C
(a) (b)
Figure 23.14: (a) AC voltage applied to LC circuit (b) Phasor diagram for voltage drops across L and R
6.3 LC Circuits
( )
From the phasor diagram V = I XL − X C = I Z; φ =900
VR2 + ( VL − VC )
2
For LCR series circuits Vs =
2
2 1
R + ( XL − X C )
2 2
Impedance of circuits Z = = R + ωL −
ωc
1
X − X ωL −
VS leads IS by φ =tan−1 L −1 ωc
= tan
C
R R
R
Power in LCR circuit= Vrms=
Irms cosf V=
rms Irms VR Irms
Z
P hysi cs | 23.13
VL -
R VR
VL-VC
VS
VS L VL
VR IS
C VC VC-
(a) (b)
Figure 23.15: (a) AC voltage applied to LCR circuit. (b) Phasor diagram of voltage drops across L, C and R
1
At a particular angular frequency ωο of the source, when XL = X C or ωο L= , the impedance of the circuit
ω0 C
becomes minimum and equal to R and therefore, the current will be maximum. The circuit is then said to be
current on the other hand, flows mainly along the surface of the conductor.
This effect is known as the skin effect. The reason is that when ac flows through
V0 V
aconductor, the flux change in the inner part of the conductor is higher.
Figure 23.16
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The idea of resonance is used in TV channelsfor clarity: a particular frequency is assignedto a channel
and when this frequency is received by the receiver,the current corresponding to this frequency becomes
maximum. This helps in maximum possible separation of channels, thus increasing their individual clarity.
It is also used by intelligence agencies to intercept the signals of anti-social elements. They generally use
frequency of a very high order.
Nivvedan (JEE 2009, AIR 113)
2 3 . 1 4 | Alternating Current
Illustration 9: In the circuit shown in the Fig. 23.17, find (JEE MAIN)
(a) The reactance of the circuit 200V, 50Hz
(b) Impedance of the circuit
2 100
(c) The current H 100 F
(d) Reading of the ideal AC voltmeters
(These are hot wire instruments and read RMS values) V1 V2 V3
V4
R 2 + ( X C − XL )
2
Sol: In series LCR circuit, the impedance is Z = where XC V5
and XL are the capacitive reactance and inductive reactance respectively. Figure 23.17
2 1
(a) XL = 2πfL = 2π × 50 × = 200Ω XC= =100 Ω
π 100 −6
2π50 × 10
π
∴ The reactance of the circuit X=XL-XC=200-100=100 Ω
vrms 200
(c) The current =
Irms = = 2A
Z 100 2
(d) Readings of ideal voltage
V1 : Irms XL = 200 2 V
V2 : IrmsR = 100 2 V
V3 : Irms X c = 100 2 V
V4 : Irms R 2 + XL2 =
100 10 V
, which also happens to be the voltage of source.
V4 : Irms Z = 200 V,
Illustration 10: A resistance R, inductance L and a capacitor C all are connected in series with ac supply. The
resistance of R is 16 Ω and for a given frequency, the inductive reactance of L is 24 Ω and capacitive reactance of C
is 12 Ω. If the current in the circuit is 5 amp, find: (JEE MAIN)
(a) The potential difference across R, L and C
(b) The impedance of the circuit
(c) The voltage of ac supply
(d) Phase angle
1
2
(16 ) + (12) =
2 2
(b) Z= R 2 + − ωL = 20 Ω
ωC
ωL − ( 1 / ωc )
−1 24 − 12
(d) φ =tan
=
R
tan−1=
16
=
tan
−1
( 0.75) 360 46"
R 2 + ( X C − XL )
2
Sol: In series LCR circuit, the impedance is Z = where XC and XL are the Figure 23.18
capacitive reactance and inductive reactance respectively. The phase angle between voltage
X − XC
and current is given by φ =tan−1 L . Find the current in the series circuit, and multiply the resistance or
R
reactance of each element with the currrent to find the voltage drop across it.
1 1
1. Calculate XC; X
= = =17.68 k Ω
C
ωC 2π ( 60.0Hz ) 0.15µF
( )( )
2. Calculate XL ; XL =ωL = 2π 60.0Hz 25mH = 9.42π Ω
R 2 + ( XL − X C=
) ( 9.9k Ω ) + ( 0.00942k Ω − 17.68k Ω)
2 2 2
=
Z = 20.25 K Ω
Vrms 115 V
4. Divide the voltage by the impedance: =
Irms = = 5.7 mA
Z 20.25 k Ω
= Irms=
5. Multiply the current by the resistance: Vrms.R R 5.68 mA(9.9k =
Ω) 56 V
= Irms=
6. Multiply the current by the inductive reactance: Vrms.L XL 5.68 mA( 9.42k=
Ω) 54 V
= Irms=
Vrms.C X C 5.68 m A(17.68k =
Ω ) 100V
= 0.10 KV
2 3 . 1 6 | Alternating Current
In analysing this circuit, we make use of the results derived before. The current
V(t) V0
in the resistor is IR (t)= = = sin ωt= IR0 sin ωt … (i)
R R
dIL
Where IR0 = V0 /R. The voltage across the inductor is VL (t)
= V(t)
= V0 sin ω=
t L … (ii)
dt
t
V0 V0 V0 π π
which gives=
IL (t) ∫L sinωt'dt'
=
ωL
=
cos ωt
XL
sin ωt −=
IL0 sin ωt −
2 2
… (iii)
0
Similarly, the voltage across the capacitor is VC (t)=V0 sin ωt =Q(t)/c, which implies
dQ V π π
IC (t) = =ωCV0 cos ωt = 0 sin ωt + =IC0 sin ωt + … (iv)
dt XC 2 2
= V0 / XC and X=
where IC0 C 1 / ωL is the capacitive reactance.
Using Kirchhoff’s junction rule, the total current is simply the sum of all three currents.
I(t) = IR (t) + IL (t) + Ic (t) = IR0 sin ωt + IL0 sin ωt − π + IC0 sin ωt + π … (v)
2 2
The current can be represented with the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 23.20
ICO
I0 ICO + ILO
IRO V0
ILO
From the phasor diagram, we see that. I0 = IR0 + IL0 + IC0 … (vi)
2 2
1 1 1 1 1
I0 = I0 = IR0 + IL0 + IC0 = I2R0
+ (Ic0 − I=
L0 ) V0
2
+ ωC − = V0 + − … (vii)
ωL
X C XL
2 2
R R
Note however, since IR(t), IL (t) and IC(t) are not in phase with one another, I0is not equal to the sum of the maximum
amplitudes of the three currents: I0 ≠ IR0 + IL0 + IC0 … (viii)
With I0 = V0 /Z, the (inverse) impedance of the circuit is given by:
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ωC − = + − … (ix)
Z R 2
ω L R 2 X C XL
The relationship between Z, R, XL and XC is shown in Fig. 23.21 which shows a relationship between Z, R, XL and XC
in a parallel RLC circuit.
1/Z 1 -1
XC XL
1/R
As in the series RLC circuit, power is dissipated only through the resistor. The average power is
P(t) Z 1
Power factor = = = = cos φ … (xv)
V02 / 2Z R R
2
1 + RωC −
ω L
2 3 . 1 8 | Alternating Current
Illustration 12: The image shows an inductor (L=0.22 mH) in series with a 15 Ω L R
resistor. These elements are in parallel with a second 15 Ω resistor. An AC generator
powers the circuit with an RMS voltage of 65V. R
In the limit of high frequency, the inductor behaves like a very large resistor. In such a
case, nearly all of the current flows through the branch with the lone resistor. Calculate
the current by dividing the RMS voltage by the single resistor.
Figure 23.22
In the limit of low frequency, the reactance of the inductor approaches zero.
In such a case, the current flows through each resistor equally. Calculate the
equivalent resistor and divide the voltage by the equivalentresistance to determine the current.(JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: For very high source frequency, the reactance of the inductor becomes practically infinite so that the current
doesn’t flow through the inductor. Thus, the inductor acts as an open circuit. For very low source frequency, the
reactance of the inductor becomes practically zero, and theinductor behaves as a short circuit.
Vrms 65 V
1. Calculate the current at high frequency: =
Irms = = 4.3 A
R 15 Ω
−1
1 1 R 15Ω
2. Calculate the equivalent resistance at low frequency: R eq =
+ == = 7.5Ω 3.
R R 2 2
Vrms 65V
Divide the voltage by the equivalent resistance: =
Irms = = 8.7 A
R eq 7.5Ω
Illustration 13: For the circuit shown in Fig. 23.23, current in inductance is 0.8 A while its capacitance is 0.6A. What
is the current drawn from the source? (JEE ADVANCED)
IL
C
I IC
Figure 23.23
V π V π
So, IL= ; IC
sin ωt − =−0.8 cos ωt= sin ωt += 0.6 cos ωt
XC 2 XC 2
So, the current drawn from the source, I =IL + IC =−0.2cos ωt , i.e. I0 = 0.2 A
(b) Power factor is also equal to the ratio of the resistance and the impedance of the Z
ac circuit.
1
R
Thus, cos φ = C
Z
(c) Power factor depends upon the nature of the components used in the circuit.(d) If 0 R
a pure resistor is connected in the ac circuit then, Figure 23.24
E0 I0 E02
=φ 0,cos
= φ 1 ; p=
av = = Erms Irms
2 2R
Thus, the power loss is maximum and electrical energy is converted in the form of heat.
(e) If a pure inductor or capacitor are connected in the ac circuit, then
φ ≠ 90o , cosφ = 0 ∴ Pav =0 (minimum)
Thus is no loss of power.
(f) If a resistor and an inductor or a capacitor are connected in an ac circuit, then φ ≠ 0 or φ ≠ 90o. Thus φ is in
between 0 & 90o.
(g) If the components L, C and R are connected in series in a circuit, then
X ( ωL − 1 / ωC ) R R R
=
tan φ= = and cos φ= = ; Power factor cos φ
R R Z 2 2
1/2 Z
(
R ωL − 1 / ωC )
(h) Power factor is a unit less quantity.
(i) If there is only an inductance coil in the circuit, there will be no loss of power, and energy will be stored in the
magnetic field.
( j) If a capacitor is only connected in the circuit, there will also be no loss of power, and energy will be stored in the
electrostatic field.
(k) In reality, an inductor and capacitor do have some resistance. So, there is always some loss of power.
(l) In the state of resonance, the power factor is one.
8. WATTLESS CURRENT
(a) The component of current whose contribution to the average power is nil, is called wattless current.
(b) The average wattle of power iszero because the average of the second Irms cos
component of instantaneous power for a full cycle will be 0
E
(l0 sinφ) sin ( ωt − π / 2) is a wattless current whose amplitude is l0 sinφ . Irms sin Irms
Figure 23.25
(c) If RMS value of current in the circuit is Irms, then the RMS value of a
wattless current will be Irms, sinφ . A wattless current lags or leads the e.m.f.
by an angle π / 2 . RMS value of wattless current:
2 3 . 2 0 | Alternating Current
l0 l0 X X
Irms=
sin φ sin φ ; = . Since sin φ = , where X is the resultant reactance of the circuit.
2 2Z Z
9. TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a device used to convert low alternating voltage at higher current into high alternating voltage
at lower current, and vice-versa. In other words, a transformer is an electrical device used to increase or decrease
alternating voltage.
K< 1 for step down transformer. In this case, NS < NP and ES < Ep i.e. Ep , and output alternating voltage <input
alternating voltage.
K>1 for step up transformer. In this case, NS > NP and ES > Ep i.e., output alternating voltage is greater than the
input alternating voltage.
For an ideal transformer (in which there in no energy losses), output power= input power .... (iii)
Let Ip and Is be the current in the primary and secondary coil respectively.
Es IP 1
Then output power= Es IS ; input power= Ep Ip ; from equation (iii) Ep = Es or = ; In general, E ∝ . For
Ep IS I
same power transfer, voltage increases with the decrease in current and vice-versa. Thus, whatever is gained in
voltage ratio is lost in the current ratio and viceversa. So, astep-up transformer increases the alternating voltage by
P hysi cs | 23.21
decreasing the alternating current, and a step- down transformer decreases the alternating voltage by increasing
the alternating current.
ouputpower Es IS
For a transformer, efficiency, n= = For an ideal transformer, efficiency, n is 100%. But in a real
inputpower EP IP
transformer, the efficiency varies from 90-99%. This indicates that there are some energy losses in the transformer.
Let us consider a choke coil of large inductance L and low resistance R. Then, the power factor of the given circuit
R R
will be given by cos φ = = (as R<< ωL )
R 2 + ω2L2 ωL
Now, as we know that R<<wL, the power factor is small and hence the power absorbed will be very small. And also,
on account of its large impedance (large inductance), current passing through the coil is very small. Hence, such a
coil is preferred in electrical circuits for the purpose of adjusting the current to any desired value without having a
significant energy waste.
Illustration 14: An ac circuit consists of a 220 Ω resistance and a 0.7 H choke. Find the power absorbed from a 220V
and 50 Hz source connected in this circuit if the resistance and choke are joined, (a) in series (b) in parallel
(JEE ADVANCED)
1 1 1 1
In parallel LR circuit = + . But for a choke, L is very large, so ≈0.
2 2 2 2
Z R ωL ω2L2
Z
(a) in series the impedance of the circuit is: XL
R 22 + ( 2πfL=
))2 (( 220 )2 + ( 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 0.7=
))2 311
2 2 2
=
Z R 22 + ω22=
L22 Ω
=
Z R + ω= L R + ( 2πfL= 220 ) + ( 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 0.7= 311Ω
V 220 Figure 23.27
∴ Irms = Vrms = 220 = 0.707A R 220
∴ Irms = rmsZ = 311 = 0.707A , cos φ= = = 0.707
Z 311 Z 311
=
and the power absorbed in the circuit,
= P Vrmsirms cos φ (=
220 )( 0.707 )( 0.707 ) 110.08 W
(b) When the resistance and choke are in parallel, the entire power is absorbed in resistance, as the choke (having
( 220 )
2
V 2rms
zero resistance) absorbs no power. =
∴P = =220W
R 220
2 3 . 2 2 | Alternating Current
PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS
(a) In this chapter, we have seen how a phasor provides a powerful tool for analysing the AC circuits.
Below are some important tips:
1. Keep in mind the phase relationship for simple circuits.
(i) For a resistor, the voltage and phase are always in phase.
(ii) For an inductor, the current lags the voltage by900.
(iii) For a capacitor, the current leads the voltage by 900.
(b) When circuit elements are connected in series, the instantaneous current is the same for allelements, and
instantaneous voltages across the elements are out of phase. On the otherhand, when circuit elements are
connected in parallel, the instantaneous voltage is the same for all elements, and the instantaneous currents
across the elements are out of phase.
(c) For a series connection, draw a phasor diagram for the voltage. The amplitude of the voltage drop across
all the circuit elements involved should be represented with phasors. In Fig. 23.28, the phasor diagram for a
series RLC circuit is shown for both the inductive case XL > X C and the capacitive case XL < X C . Below is a
phasor diagram for the series RLC circuit for (a) XL > X C (b) XL < X C .
VLO
VLO
V0 VLO +VCO
I0 VRO
I0 VRO VLO +VCO
V0
VCO
VCO
(a) (b)
Figure 23.28: Phase angle between applied voltage and current (a) in RC circuit, (b) in LC circuit
From Fig. 23.28(a), we see that VL0 > VC0 in the inductive case and V 0 leads I0 by a phase φ . On the other
hand, in the capacitive case shown in Fig. 23.28(b), VC0 > VL0 and I0 leads V 0 by a phase φ .
(d) Students should directly learn the formula for reactance, impedance, etc.to solve any problem easily.
(e) For parallel connection, draw a phasor diagram for the currents. The amplitudes of the current across all the
circuit elements involved should be represented with phasors. In the following Fig. 23.29, the phasor diagram
for a parallel RLC circuit is shown for both the inductive case XL > X C and the capacitive case XL < X C .
ICO ICO
I0 ICO + ILO
IRO V0
ICO + ILO IRO V0
I0
ILO ILO
(a) (b)
Figure 23.29
P hysi cs | 23.23
(f) Phasor diagram for the parallel RLC circuit for (a) XL > X C And (b) XL < X C : From Fig. 23.29(a), we see that
IL0 > IC0 in the inductive case and V0 lead I0 by a phase φ .On the other hand, in the capacitive case shown
in Fig. 23.29 (b), IC0 > IL0 and I0 leads V0 by a phase φ .
FORMULAE SHEET
(a) In an AC circuit, sinusoidal voltage source of amplitude V0 is represented as:V(t) =V0 sinwt.
The current in the circuit has amplitude I0 and lags the applied voltage by phase angle φ .
Current is represented as: I(t) = I0 sin ( ωt − φ )
(b) For a single-element circuit (a resistor, a capacitor or an inductor) connected to the AC voltage source, we
summarise the results in the below table:
R R 0
V0
IR =
0 R
L Inductive Reactance
XL = ωL (π/2)
V0
IL = i.e.,current lags
0 XL
voltage by 900
C Capacitive Reactance
1 (- π / 2 )
XC = V0
ωC IC = i.e. current leads
0 XC
voltage by 900
(c) For a circuit having more than one circuit element connected ina series,we summarise the results in the below
table:
R C V0 π
R 2 + XL2 I0 = 0<φ<
2
R + XL2 2
R C V0
2 I0 = π
R + X 2C R 2 + X 2C − < φ < 0
2
R L C φ > 0 if
V0
R + ( XL − X C )
2
2
I0 = XL > X C
R + ( XL − X C )
2 2
φ < 0 if XL < X C
2 3 . 2 4 | Alternating Current
At resonance, the current in the series LCR circuit is maximum, while that in parallel LCR circuit is minimum.
1 1 1
=
φ tan−1 R = − tan−1 R − ωC
X
L XC ωL
(f) The RMS (root mean square) value of voltage and current in an AC circuit are given as
V0 I0
Vrms = , and Irms =
2 2
R
(g) Average power of an AC circuit
= is P(t) Irms Vrms cos φ where cos φ = is the power factor of the circuit.
Z
ω0L 1 L
(h) Quality factor Q of LCR circuit is=
Q =
R R C
V2 N2
(i) For a transformer, the ratio of secondary coil voltage to that of primary coil voltage is =
V1 N1
where N1 is number of turns in primary coil, and N2 is number of turns in secondary coil.
For the step-up transformer, N2 > N1 ; for step down transformer, N2 < N1 .
P hysi cs | 23.25
Solved Examples
R 2 + ( X C − XL )
2
Z= and the power factor of the
Sol: In a series LCR circuit, the impedance of circuit is R
circuit is cos φ = .
R 2 + ( X C − XL ) where XC and XL are the capacitive
2
Z= R 2 + ( XL − X C )
2
and inductive reactances respectively. Phase difference
X − XC We want to find the value of the capacitor to make the
between voltage and current is φ =tan−1 L . circuit’s power factor 1.0
R
Potential drop across resistance is IR and that across (A) Find the value resistance and inductive reactance.
reactance is IX. For a LR circuit, current lags behind voltage in phase.
(a) Potential difference across The power in AC circuit is given as
(i) Resistance VR =I × R =5 × 16 =80 V
V 2rms × cos φ … (i)
( )
(ii) Inductor VL = I × ωL = 5 × 24 = 120 V P=
Z
...(1)
I (1 / ωC ) =5 × 12 =60 V
(iii) Capacitor VC =×
( 220 )
2
V 2rms × cos φ × 0.8
⇒ Z= = = 70.4 Ω
(b) The impedance of the circuit P 550
1
2 R
Power factor cos φ = , so we get value of resistance as
(16 ) + ( 24 − 12)
2 2 2
=
Z R + ωL − = Z
ωC
= 20 Ω R = Z × cos φ = 70.4 × 0.8 = 56.32 Ω
Inductive Reactance is
(c) The voltage of AC supply is given by
E =I × Z =5 × 20 =100 V ω
= L (Z 2 2
− R= ) ( 70.4 ) − (56.32)
2 2
ω=
L 42.2 Ω
(d) Phase angle between voltage & current is
(B) Capacitance needed to be connected in circuit to
ωL − ( 1 / ωC ) 24 − 12 make power factor = 1.0
−1
φ =
tan tan−1
R 16 When the capacitor is connected in the circuit.
Impedance
( )
= tan−1 0.75 = 360 52'
1
2
R 2 + ωL − …(ii)
=
Z ...(2)
ωC
2 3 . 2 6 | Alternating Current
Therefore to make a circuit with power factor = 1, 75 µF XL = 2π × 500 × 8.1 × 10−3 = 25.45 Ω
capacitor is to be connected in a series with resistance
and inductor. Capacitive reactance,
106
=
XC = 25.45Ω
2π × 500 × 12.5
Example 3: A 750 Hz, 20 V source is connected to
a resistance of 100 ohm, an inductance of 0.1803 ⇒ XL =
XC
Henry and a capacitance of 10 microfarad all in series.
Calculate the time in which the resistance (thermal This is the condition of resonance. This means that total
capacity 2J/°C) will get heated by 10°C. potential drop occurs across the resistance only.
( )
2
∴ V = VR2 + VL − VC = VR = 100 V
Sol: For an LCR circuit, the average power dissipated as
2
Vrms The total potential difference across resistance is the
heat is =
Pav × R , where Z is the impedance of the same as the applied voltage across circuit.
2
Z
circuit.
Product of power and time equals the heat generated. Example 5: A 0.21 H inductor and a 12 Ω resistor
are connected ina series to a 20 V, 50 Hz ac source.
XL = ωL = 2πfL = 2π × 750 × 0.1803
= 849.2 Ω and Calculate the current in the circuit and the phase angle
between the current and the source voltage.
1 1
=
X C =
ωC 2πfC
Sol: In series LR circuit, the current lags voltage by phase
1
= = 21.2Ω ωL
2π × 750 × 10−5 angle φ =tan−1 . And RMS value of the current is
R
V
So X = XL − X C = 849.2 − 21.2 = 828 Ω Irms = rms where Z is impedance of the circuit.
Z
(100 ) + ( 828 ) =
2 2
And hence=
Z R2 + X2 = 834Ω Impedance =
Z R 2 + (ωL)2 ;
Phase angle φ
P hysi cs | 23.27
ωL −1 65.94
VR V VL
tan−1 = tan ;
R 12 20
Sol: For dc supply, the coil is purely resistive; inductance Sol: For the LCR circuit, impedance is
does not come into picture. For AC voltage source,the
reactance of the inductor is non-zero. When a capacitor Z= R 2 + (X C − XL )2 .
is connected in a series in a circuit, the impedance of
The phase angle between voltage and current is given
R + ( XL − X C ) .
2 2
circuit is Z =
X − XC
The real power in the circuit is by φ =tan−1 L .
R
V2
P I2=
= R R. (a) P.D. across each component is found below
Z2
12 VL =I XL =5 × 24 =120 V,
Resistance of the coil, R= = 3Ω VR =5 × 16 =80 V
4 VC =I X C =5 × 12 =60 V
( Reactance of inductor in dc circuit is zero)
(b) Using the formula of Impedance
12
Impedance of coil, Z= = 5Ω ;
2.4 Z= R 2 + ( XL − X C )
2
Now, Z=
2
R 2 + ω2L2 ;
(16 ) + ( 24 − 12)
2 2
Z= =20 Ω
2 2
Z −R 4
or=
L = = 0.08 H
ω 50
(c) Voltage of AC source is
Reactance of the capacitor E = IZ = 5 × 20 =
100 V
1 1 (d) Phase angle is
X C= = = 8Ω
ωL 50 × 2500 × 10−6
−1 ( L
X − XC ) 24 − 12
= Φ tan
= tan−1
R 16
∴ When the capacitor is connected in series,
Z = R 2 + ( XL − X C ) = 32 + ( 8 − 4 ) =5 Ω
2 2 ( )
= tan−1 0.75 = 360 87'
circuit is given by
constant.
( )
=i i0 1 − e− t/ τ where τ is one time
(c) The quality factor Q of the circuit
(d) The amplitude of the voltage across the inductor at
(a) Current at any time is given by: the resonant frequency.
−
Rt Sol: When the LCR circuit is set to resonance, the
=i i0 1 − e L ...(1) … (i)
resonant frequency is f = .
1 1
2π LC
Differentiating above equation w.r.t. t, we get
ω0L 1 L
Quality factor is=
Q = .
−
Rt R R C
dI V R − RtL V
=dI V . R e= L ∴ i0 V ...(2) … (ii)
(a) Using formula of resonant frequency
=dt R . L e= ∴ i0 R ...(2)
dt R L R
dI V 200 The resonant frequency, for the circuit is given by
At =
t 0, dI= V= 200= 400 A / s
At =
t 0, dt= L= 0.5= 400 A / s ω0
dt L 0.5 1 1
=f =
L 2π 2π LC
(b) Current after one time constant τ =
R
1 1
From equation (ii) = = 5033Hz
dI
( )(
2π 10 × 10−3 H 100 × 10−9 F )
= 400
= e−1 147.15 A / s
dt (b) At resonance current is Maximum i.e. I0
(c) For steady state t = ∞
V0 200
So from (i) we get i(∞ ) = i0 = 400 A =
I0 = = 10.0 A
R 20.0Ω
Example 9: What is average and RMS current over (c) The quality factor Q of the circuit is given by
half cycle if instantaneous current is given by i=4
sin ωt + 3cos ωt. ?
=
Q
(
ω0L 2π 5033s
=
−1
)(
10.0 × 10−3 H )
R ( 20.0Ω )
Sol: Reduce the given expression of current in standard
( )
=i i0 sin ωt + φ , where i0 is the maximum current
form
= 15.8
in the circuit.
(d) At resonance, the amplitude of the voltage across
Given i = 4 sin ωt + 3cos ωt. the inductor is
4 3
t 5sin ( ωt + α )
= 5 sin ωt + cos ω= VL = I0 XL= I0 ω0L
0
5 5
where cos α =
4 3
and sin α = ;
= ( )(
(10.0A ) 2π 5033 s−1 10.0 × 10−3 H )
5 5 = 3.16 × 103 V
Comparing with
=i i0 sin ωt + φ ( )
Example 2: Consider the circuit shown in figure. The
5 10 sinusoidal voltage source is V (t) = V0 sinωt . If both
i0 = 5 A ; ⇒ irms = A ; iavg = A
2 π switches s1 and s2 are closed initially, find the following
quantities, ignoring the transient effect and assuming
that R, L, V0 and w are known:
JEE Advanced/Boards (a) The current I(t)as a function of time
(b) The average power delivered to the circuit
Example 1: A sinusoidal voltage V(t) = (200 V) sin ωt is
applied to a series LCR circuit with L=10.0 mH, C=100 (c) The current as a function of time, a long time after
nF and R=20.0 Ω . Find the following quantities: only S1 is opened
(a) The resonant frequency
(b) The amplitude of current at resonance
P hysi cs | 23.29
10 V AC
40 = 0.5 × 4 × 105 × L ⇒ L = 2 × 10−4 H
Sol: When two inductors are connected in parallel, the 1
LL
At resonance, XL = XC i.e. ω0L =
net inductance is L = 1 2 . If V is the RMS value of ω0 C
L1 + L2
1 1 1
applied voltage, then RMScurrent through inductor is =
C = = µF
ω20L
( 4 × 10 ) 32
2
V
5
× 2 × 10−4
I= .
XL
When the current lags behind the voltage by = 45o,
=
Let E E0 sin ωt , then current drawn from supply is, XL − X C
using tan φ = , gives
R
π E0 π 1
=I I0 sin ωt −= sin ωt − (Since current lags ωL −
2 ω L 2 1 ω2 L
1= ω C ⇒ R =ωL − =ωL − o
π
by ) R ωC ω
2
= I1 + I2
I =
E0
π
sin ωt −
(
120 ω = 2 × 10−4 ω2 − (4 × 105 )2 )
ωL1 2 VL
Source Voltage
E0 π E π
= sin ωt − + 0 sin ωt − VL - VC
ωL1 2 ω L 2 2
I I I 1 1 15 3
= + = + = = ;
o
⇒ 45
L L1 L2 5 10 50 10 VR
i
10
⇒L= H
3 VC
V 10 1
=
IrmsinL1 =− = ;
ωL1 2π × 50 × 5 50π
P hysi cs | 23.31
Example 5: An inductor of 20mH, a capacitor 100 µF Example 6: A choke coil is needed to operate an arc
and a resistor 50 Ω are connected in a series across lamp at 160 V (rms) and 50 Hz. The lamp has an effective
a source of e.m.f. V=10 sin (314t). Find the energy resistance of 5 Ω when running at 10 A (RMS). Calculate
dissipated in the circuit in 20 minutes. If resistance is the inductance of the choke coil. If the same arc lamp is
removed from the circuit and the value of inductance is to be operated on 160 V (dc), what additional resistance
doubled, then find the variation of current with time in is required? Compare the power losses in both cases.
the new circuit. L R
Sol: For the LCR circuit, the energy dissipated over a Choke Lamp
long
= time is U ( )
Vrms Irms cos φ t . When resistance is VL VR
removed,the circuit becomes LC circuit, the impedance
and hence current changes.
V = V0 sin t
The circuit is as shown in figure. One time cycle
Sol: Choke coil has large inductance and low internal
2π 2π
T= = = 0.02s. So, we have to calculate the resistance, sothere is no power loss in the choke coil.
ω 314 Hence, when alamp of some resistance is connected
average energy at time t>>T. in series with the coil, the net RMS voltage in circuit
(=
Vrms ) ( Vrms )R + ( Vrms )L .
2 2 2
L R C is When the same lamp
=∴U
V02R
=
t I0
V0
= (160 ) − (50 ) =
2 2
152 V
2Z 2
Z
As (=
Vrms ) (irms
= ) XL (irms )( 2πfL ) ;
L
102 × 50 × 20 × 60
=∴U = 864.2 J
2 × 3153.7 ( Vrms )L
∴L =
When resistance is removed,and inductance is doubled, ( 2πf )(irms )
then cos φ = 0 ⇒ φ = π / 2
Substituting the values
Value of impedance is 152
L= = 4.84 × 10−2 H
=
Z'
1
− ωL'
=
1
− 314 × 40 × 10−3 Ω ( )( )( )
2 π 50 10
ωC 314 × 10 −4
When lamp is operated on DC supply with a resistance
=19.3 Ω
R’ in series, then voltage drop across the circuit is
And the current in the circuit is found to be
V i (R + R' ) or 160=10(5+R’);
=
∴ R=' 11Ω
2 3 . 3 2 | Alternating Current
7200
Pav = ...(i) … (i)
Z2
JEE Main/Boards
Q.1 The resistance of coil for direct current (dc)is 10 Ω . Q.6 Is there any device which may control the direct
When alternating current (ac) is sent through it; will its current without dissipation of energy?
resistance increase, decrease or remain the same?
Q.12 Discusses the principle, working and use of a (c) Determine the rms potential drops across the three
transformer for long distance transmission of electrical elements of the circuit. Show that the potential drop
energy. across the LC combination is zero at the resonating
frequency.
Q.13(a) What will be instantaneous voltage for A.C.
supply of 220 V and 50 Hz? Q.22 A circuit containing a 80 mH inductor and a 60 µF
capacitor in series is connected to 230 V, 50Hz supply.
(b) In an A.C. circuit, the rms voltage is 100 2 V , find
The resistance of the circuit is negligible. (a) Obtain
the peak value of voltage and its mean value during a
the current amplitude and rms values. (b) Obtain the
positive half cycle.
rms value of potential drops across each element, (c)
What is the average transferred to the inductor? (d)
Q.14 What should be the frequency of alternating 200 What is the average power transferred to the capacitor?
V so as to pass a maximum current of 0.9 A through an (e) What is the total average power absorbed by the
inductance of 1 H? circuit? [‘average’ ‘implies’ averaged over one cycle;].
Q.15 An alternating e.m.f of 100 V (r.m.s), 50 Hz is Q.23 Answer the following questions: (a) in any A.C.
applied across a capacitor of 10 µF and a resistor of 100 circuit, is the applied instantaneous voltage equal to the
W in series.Calculate (a) The reactance of the capacitor; algebraic sum of the instantaneous voltage across the
(b) The current flowing (c) the average power supplied. series element of the circuit? Is the same true for rms
voltage? (b) A capacitor is used in the primary circuit of
Q.16 The effective value of current in a 50 cycle A.C. an inductor coil. (c) A supplied voltage signal consists
circuit 5.0 A. What is the value of current 1/300s after of a super position of a D.C voltage and A.C. voltage
it is zero? of high frequency. The circuit consists of an inductor
and a capacitor in series. Show that the D.C. signal will
appear across C and the A.C. signal across L. (c) An
Q.17 A pure capacitor is connected to an ac source of
applied voltage signal consists of a superposition of a
220 V, 50 Hz, what will be the phase difference between
D.C. voltage and an A.C. Voltage of high frequency. The
the current and applied emf in the circuit?
circuit consists of an inductor and a capacitor in series.
Show that the D.C. signal will appear across C and the
Q.18 A 100 Ω resistance is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz A.C. signal across L. (e) Why is choke coil needed in the
A.C. supply. use of florescent tubes with A.C. mains? Why can we
(a) What is the rms value of current in the circuit? not use an ordinary resistor instead of the choke coil?
phase difference between voltage across inductor and and minimum current that can flow in the circuit is
capacitor. 10V
.S
( )
Q.27 A step-down transformer converts a voltage of 0.1 H 10
2200 V into 220 V in the transmission line. Number
of turns in primary coil is 5000. Efficiency of the
transformer is 90% and its output power is 8 kW. 10
Calculate (i) Number of turns in the secondary coil (ii)
input power.
(A) 2 Amp (B) 3 Amp
Q.28 What will be the effect on inductive reactance XL (C) 1 Amp (D) Nothing can be concluded
and capacitive XC, if frequency of ac source is increased?
Q.4 The ratio of time constant in build-up and decay in
Q.29 The frequency of ac is doubled, what happens to the circuit shown in figure is
(i) Inductive reactance (ii) Capacitive reactance? R
2R L
Exersice 2
Single Correct Choice Type V
(A) 1:1 (B) 3:2 (C) 2:3 (D) 1:3
Q.1 A rectangular loop with a sliding connector of
length 10 cm is situated in uniform magnetic field
Q.5 A current of 2A is increased at a rate of 4 A/s
perpendicular to plane of loop. The magnetic induction
through a coil of inductance 2H. The energy stored in
is 0.1 tesla and resistance of connecter (R) is 1 Ω. The
the inductor per unit time is
sides AB and CD have resistance 2 Ω and 3 Ωrespectively.
Find the current in the connecter during its motion with (A) 2 J/s (B) 1 J/s (C) 16 J/s (D) 4 J/s
constant velocity of 1 meter/sec.
A D Q.6 The current in the given circuit is increased with a
rate a=4 A/s. The charge on the capacitor at an instant
when the current in the circuit is 2 amp will be:
2 3
E=4V
R
B C R=1
1 1 1 1
( A ) 110 A (B ) 220 A ( C ) 55 A (D ) 440 A
L=1H
)
C=3F
Q.2 For L-R circuit, the time constant is equal to (A) (A) 4 µC (B) 5 µC
Twice the ratio of the energy stored in the magnetic (C) 6 µC (D) None of these
field to the rate of dissipation of energy in the resistance.
(B) Ratio of the energy stored in the magnetic field to Q.7 A coil of inductance 5H is joined to a cell of emf 6 V
the rate of dissipation of energy in the resistance. through a resistance 10 Ω at time t=0. The emf across
(C) Half the ratio of the energy stored in the magnetic the coil at time t= 2 s is:
field to the rate of dissipation of energy in the resistance.
(A) 3V (B) 1.5V (C) 0.75V (D) 4.5V
(D) Square of the ratio of the energy stored in the
magnetic field to the rate of dissipation of energy in Q.8 The network shown in the figure is part of a
the resistance. complete circuit. If at a certain instant, the current I is
5A and it is decreasing at a rate of 103As -1 then VB-VA
Q.3 In the adjoining circuit, initially the switch S is open. equals.
The switch‘s’ is closed at t=0. The difference between
P hysi cs | 23.35
1 + 5 mH L S
A B
I 15 V A B
V=2sin(100t)
10 20
2V 10 0.1H
1 1 1 1
(A) A, A (B) A , A C
15 10 10 15
(A) 400 µF (B) 300 µF
2 1 1 2 (C) 500 µF (D) 200 µF
(C) A, A (D) A , A
15 10 15 25
Q.14 In the circuit, as shown in the figure, if the value
of R.M.S current is 2.2 ampere, the power factor of the
Q.11 In the circuit shown, the cell is ideal. The coil has
box is
an inductance of 4H and zero resistance. F is a fuse zero
resistance and will blow when the current through it
reaches 5A. The switch is closed at t=0. The fuse will 100 C
blow
1/ Henry
fuse
L Box
Sw
-1
Vrms=220 volt, -100 s
2V
1 3 1
(A) Just after t=0 (B) After 2 (A) (B) 1 (C) (D)
2 2 2
(C) After 5s (D) After 10s
Q.15 When 100 V DC is applied across a solenoid, a
Q.12 The circuit shown has been operating for a long current of 1 A flows in it. When 100 V AC is applied
time. The instant after the switch in the circuit labeled across the same coil, the current drops to 0.5 A. If the
S is opened, what is the voltage across the inductor VL frequency of the AC source is 50 Hz, the impedance
and which labeled point (A or B) of the inductor is at a and inductance of the solenoid are:
higher potential? Take R1=4.0 Ω , R2=8.0 Ω and L= 2.5 (A) 100 Ω , 0.93 H (B) 200 Ω , 1.0 H
H.
(C) 10 Ω , 0.86 H (D) 200 Ω , 0.55 H
2 3 . 3 6 | Alternating Current
(A) 6/5 (B) 5/6 (C) 4 (D) 3 3 Q.2 The current I4 through the resistor and voltage vC
3 3 4 across the capacitor are compared in the two cases.
Which of the following is/are true? (2011)
Q.19 The effective value of current i=2 sin100 π t+2 sin
(100 π t+300) is: (a) IRA > IBR (B) IRA < IRB
(A) 2A (B) 2 2 + 3 A B
(C) IC > IC (D) IC < IC
A B
(A) Capacitive i
(B) Inductive A 1 B
15 V 5 mH
(C) Purely resistive
(D) Data insufficient Q.4 An arc lamp requires a direct current of 10 A and 80
V to function. If it is connected to a 220 V (rms), 50 Hz
AC supply, the series inductor needed for it to work is
close to: (2016)
(A) 0.08 H (B) 0.044 H
(C) 0.065 H (D) 80 H
P hysi cs | 23.37
JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1
L R
Q.4 Two resisters of 10 Ω and 20 Ω and an ideal Q.11 In the circuit shown in the figure, the switched
inductor of 10 H are connected to a 2V battery as S1 and S2 are closed at time t=0. After time t = (0.1) In
shown in figure. The key K is shorted at time t=0. Find 2sec, switch S2 is opened. Find the current in the circuit
the initial (t=0) and final (t->∞) current through battery. at time t = (0.2) ln 2sec.
L = 10 H
S1
R = 10 40 S2
20
K 100 V 10
1H
Q.5 An emf of 15 V is applied in a circuit containing
5 H inductance and 10 Ω resistance. Find the ratio of
the current at time t=∞ and t=1 second. Q.12 Find the value of i1and i2
S i1 30
Q.6 In the circuit in shown in figure, switch S is closed i2
at time t=0. Find the charge which passes through the 20
battery in one time constant.
100 V
2 3 . 3 8 | Alternating Current
Exercise 2
Q.14 An LCR series circuit with 100 Ω resistance Single Correct Choice Type
is connected to an ac source of 200 V and angular
frequency 300rad/s. When only the capacitance is Q.1 A square coil ABCD is placed in x-y plane with its
removed, the current lags behind the voltage by 600. centre at origin. A long straight wire, passing through
When only the inductance is removed, the current origin, carries a current in negative Z-direction. Current
leads the voltage by 600. Calculate the current and the in this wire increases with time. The induced current in
power dissipated in the LCR circuit. the coil is
Q.16 A series LCR circuit containing a resister of 120 (A) Clock wise (B) Anti clockwise
Ω has angularresonance frequency 4 × 105 rad s-1. At
resonance, the voltage across resistance and inductance (C) Zero (D) Alternating
are 60V and 40V respectively. Find the values of L and C.
At what frequency current in the circuit lags the voltage Q.2 An electric current i1 can flow in either direction
by 45o? through loop (1) and induced current i2 in loop (2).
Positive i1 is when current is from ‘a’ to ‘b’ in loop (1)
and positive i2 is when the current is from ‘c’ to ‘d’ in
Q.17 In an LR series circuit, a sinusoidal voltage V=V0 loop
sinωt is applied. It is given that
ω Loop (1)
L=
35mH,R =
11Ω, Vrms =
220V, =
50Hz
2π a b
And π =22 / 7 . Loop (2)
c d
P hysi cs | 23.39
(2) In an experiment, the graph of i2 against time ‘t’ is as Q.4 Two identical inductances carry currents that vary
shown below by Figure which one (s) of the following with time according to linear laws (see in figure). In
graphs couldi2have caused i2 to behave as give above. which of the inductances is the self-inductance emf
i2
greater?
i2
(A) 1 (B) 2
(A) t
(A) 0 t (C) Same (D) Data is insufficient to decide
t
1 C
i i2 (C) (D)
i22 LC L
(A) (B)
2
1 t t
t i3 i4
e e
(C) (D)
(A) (B)
t t
t t
LE2 LE2 LE2 LE2R 2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
e e 2R12 2R 22 2R1R 2 2R12
(C) (D)
Q.7 An induction coil stores 32 joules of magnetic
energy and dissipates energy as heat at the rate of 320
t t
watt when a current of 4 amperes is passed through it.
Find the time constant of the circuit when the coil is
joined across a battery.
(A) 0.2s (B) 0.1s (C) 0.3s (D) 0.4s
2 3 . 4 0 | Alternating Current
Q.8 In an L-R decay circuit, the initial current at t=0 is 1. Q.14 The current I, potential difference VL across the
The total charge that has inductor has reduced to one- inductor and potential difference VC across the capacitor
fourth of its initial value is in circuit as shown in the figure are best represented
vectorially as.
(A) LI / R (B) LI / 2R (C) LI / 2R (D) None
VC
VC
Q.9 An inductor coil stores U energy when i current
is passed through it and dissipates energy at the rate (A) I (B)
of P. The time constant of the circuit, when the coil is VL VL I
connected across a battery of zero internal resistance is
4U U 2U 2P
(A) (B) (C) (D) VL
P P P U VL
(C) (D)
I I
Q.10 When a resistance R is connected in series with VC VC
an element A, the electric current is found to be
lagging behind the voltage by angle θ1. When the
same resistance is connected in series with element B, Q.15 In the shown AC circuit in figure, phase difference
current leads voltage by θ2. When R, A, B, are connected between current I1 and I2 is
in series, the current now leads voltage by θ. Assume XC
same AC source in used in all cases. Then:
I1
(A) θ = θ1 − θ2 (B) tan=
θ tan θ2 − tan θ1
I2
θ1 + θ2
(C) θ = (D) None of these XL R
2
Q.17 For L-R circuit, the time constant is equal to (A) The low resistance of P
(A) Twice the ratio of the energy stored in the magnetic (B) The induced-emf in L
field to the rate of the dissipation of energy in the
(C) The low resistance of L
resistance
(D) The high voltage of the battery B
(B) The ratio of the energy stored in the magnetic field
to the rate of the dissipation of energy in the resistance.
Q.20 Two different coils have a self-inductanceof
L
C 8mH and 2mH. The current in one coil is increased at
a constant rate. The current in the second coil is also
VC
VL increased at the same instant of time. The power given
to the two coils is the same. At that time the current,
the induced voltage and the energy stored in the first
(C) Half of the ratio of the energy stored in the magnetic coil are I1 V1 and W1 respectively. Corresponding values
field to the rate of the dissipation of energy in the for the second coil at the same instant are I2, V2 and W2
resistance. respectively . Then:
(D) Square of the ratio of the energy stored in the I1 1 I
(A) = (B) 1 = 4
magnetic field to the rate of the dissipation of energy I2 3 I2
in the resistance.
W1 V2 1
(C) = 4 (D) =
Q.18 An inductor L, a resistor R and two identical bulbs W2 V1 4
B1 and B2 are connected to a battery through a switch S
as shown in the figure. The resistance of the coil having Q.21 The symbol L, C, R represents inductance,
inductance L is also R. Which of the following statement capacitance and resistance respectively. Dimension of
gives the correct description of the happening when frequency is given by the combination.
the switch S is closed?
1
L B1 (A) 1/RC (B) R/L (C) (D) C/L
LC
R B2
Q.22 An LR circuit with a battery is connected at t=0.
Which of the following quantities is not zero just after
E S the circuit is closed?
(A) Current in the circuit
(A) The bulb B2 lights up earlier then B1 and finally both
the bulbs shine equally bright. (B) Magnetic field
(B) B1 lights up earlier and finally both the bulbs acquire (C) Power delivered by the battery
brightness. (D) Emf induced in the inductor
(C) B2 lights up earlier and finally B1 shines brighter
than B2. Q.23 The switches in figure (a) and (b) are closed at t=0
(D) B1 and B2 lights up together with equal brightness C R L R
all the time. )
S
(C) The charge on L just after t=0 is E/R.
(D) The charge on L long after t=0 is EC.
B
2 3 . 4 2 | Alternating Current
Q.24 Two coils A and B have coefficient of mutual Comprehension Type Question
inductance M=2H. The Magnetic flux passing through
coil A changes by 4 Weber in 10 seconds due to the Paragraph 1: A capacitor of capacitance C can be
change in current in B. Then charged (with the help of a resistance R) by a voltage
source V, by closing switch s1 while keeping switch s2
(A) Change in current in B in this time interval is 0.5 A
open. The capacitor can be connected in series with an
(B) The change in current in B in this time interval is 2A inductor ‘L’ by closing switch S2 and opening S1.
(C) The change in current in B in this time interval is 8A V
(D) A change in current of 1A in coil A will produce a
change in flux passing through B by 4 Weber.
R S1
Assertion Reasoning Type
C
is V C
L
Q.26 Statement-I: Peak voltage across the resistance
can be greater than the peak voltage of the source in a
series LCR circuit. Q.29 If the total charge stored in the LC circuit is Q0
then for t>=0
d2Q
(C) The charge on the capacitor is Q = LC
Statement-II: Emf induced in an inductor is given by dt2
di
|e|
∈ =L (A) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true 1 d2Q
dt (D) The charge on the capacitor is Q = −
and statement-II is correct explanation for statement-I. LC dt2
(B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true and statement-
II is not the correct explanation for statement-I.
(C) Statement-I is true, statement-II is false.
(D) Statement-I is false, statement-II is true.
P hysi cs | 23.43
Paragraph 2: In a series L-R circuit, connected with a ways as shown in column II. When a current I (steady
sinusoidal ac source, the maximum potential difference state for DC or rms for AC) flows through the circuit, the
across L and R are respectively 3 volts and 4 volts corresponding voltage V1 and V2 (indicated in circuits)
are related as shown in column I. (2010)
Q.30 At an instant, the potential difference across
Column I Column II
resistor is 2 V. The potential difference in volt, across
the inductor at the same instant will be: (A) I ≠ 0, V1 is (p)
V1 V2
(A) 3 cos30o (B) 3 cos60o Proportional to I
(C) 3 cos45o (D) None of these 6 mH 3 F
3 3 6 mH 3 F
(C) 1 + (D) 2 +
2 2
R3 C
V
2 2 F 1 R5 (D) I ≠ 0, V2 is (t)
R1 E1 V1 V2
Proportional to I
2 12 V 1k 3 F
1 R2
A E2 B
2 S 3V 2 R4
3 V
L
(s)
10 mH V1 V2
in R1.
(b) If Now The switch S is put in position 2 at t=0. Find: V
(D) After time interval 2τ, charge on the capacitor is CV Find the amplitude of current in the steady state and
(1-e-1) obtain the phase difference between the current and
the voltage. Also plot the variation of current for one
cycle on the given graph. (2004)
Q.4 After capacitor gets fully charged, S1 is opened and
S2 is closed so that the inductor isconnectedin series V
with the capacitor, then (2006)
(A) At t=0, energy stored in the circuit is purely in the
form of magnetic energy. t
T/4 T/2 3T/4 T
(B) At any time t>0, current in the circuit is in the same
direction.
(C) At t>0, there is no exchange of energy between the
inductor and capacitor. Q.8 What is the maximum energy of the anti-neutrino ?
(2012)
(D) At any time t>0, instantaneous current in the circuit
(A) Zero
C
may V (B) Much less than 0.8 × 106 eV
L
(C) Nearly 0.8 × 106 eV
Q.5 If the total charge stored in the LC circuit is Q0 then
(D) Much larger than 0.8 × 106 eV
for t ≥ 0 (2006)
PlancEssential Questions
JEE Main/Boards JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1 Exercise 1
Q. 15 Q.21 Q.22 Q. 3 Q.4 Q.7
Exercise 2 Exercise 2
Q. 1 Q.3 Q. 11 Q.2 Q.3 Q.12
Answer Key
Q.18 (a) 2.20A, (b) 484 W Q.23 (a) Yes. The same is not true for rms voltage,
because voltage across different element may not be
Q.19 0.354A in phase.
Q.20 109.5 A (b) The high induced voltage, when the circuit is broken,
Q.21 (a) 50 rad s-1, (b) 40 Ω , 8.1A, (c) VLcms=1437.5 is used to change the capacitor, thus avoiding sparks,
etc.
1
V,Vvcrms=1437.5V,VRms=230 VLCrms= Irms ω0L − = 0 (c) For dc, impedance of L is negligible and C very
ω0 C
high (infinite), so the D.C. signal appears across C. For
Q.22 (a) For
= V V0 sin ωt frequency ac, impedance of L is high and that of C is
low. So, the A.C. signal appears across L.
V0 π
=I sin ω
= t + ; If R 0 (e) A choke coil reduces voltage across the tube without
1 2
ωL − wasting power. A resister would waste power as heat.
ωC
Q.24 1.75 × 10−2 H; 5.5Ω
Where- sign appears if ωL >I/ ωC , and+sign appears
if ωL <I ωC . Q.25 0.04H
=I0 11.6A,I
= rms 8.24A Q.26 Resonant frequency=39.79 Hz
(b) VLCrms =207V, VCrms =437 V (i) 2000 Ω (ii) 100 Ω (iii) 2A
(c) Whatever be the current I in L, actual voltage leads (iv) 900 (v)1800
current by π / 2 . Therefore, average power consumed Q.27 (i) 500; (ii) 8.9kW
by L is zero.
(d) For C, voltage lags by π / 2 . Again average power
consumed by C is zero.
(e) Total average power absorbed is zero.
Exercise 2
Q.1 B Q.2 A Q.3 C Q.4 B Q.5 C Q.6 C
Q.7 A Q.8 B Q.9 C Q.10 A Q.11 D Q.12 D
Q.13 C Q.14 A Q.15 D Q.16 A Q.17 D Q18 D
Q.19 B Q.20 A
JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1
LE2
Q.1 0.8 Q.2 [I]−1 Q.3
2R12
1 1 e2 − 1 EL
Q.4 , Q.5 Q.6
15A 10A e 2
eR 2
KLt2 20
Q.7 q = C Q.8 ≅ 2H Q.10 C = 9.2 .F
R π2
P hysi cs | 23.47
1
Q.15 Z = 100 Ω, VQ = 9.8 V Q.16 0.2 mH, µF,8 × 105 rad / s
32
π 1
Q.17 20A, , ∴ Steady state current=20sin π 100t −
4 4
Exercise 2
Comprehension Type
Q.2 A → r, s, t; B → q, r, s, t; C →q, p; D → q, r, s, t
4
Q.3 B Q.4 D Q.5 C Q.6 R = (r – r )
3 1 2
π
Q.7 Amplitude = 20A, phase difference = Q.8 C
4
Q.9 C, D
2 3 . 4 8 | Alternating Current
Solutions
JEE Main/Boards Im
z
Exercise 1
x
z
Sol 1: In a resistance coil, when an alternating current
is flown, there will be a magnetic field generated across R
Re
the coil and so there will be an inductance induced into
the coil. Hence it will have more impedance compared
Sol 4: As derived above,
to the one withDC current.
ZR = R
Sol 2: We know that power dissipated = VI cosθ. ZL = iωL
R ZC = –i/ωC
cos θ = ⇒ power factor
Z znet=ZR + ZL + ZC (Since they all are in series)
now for an ideal inductor, Z = ωL and R = 0
Now we can write any quantity in phasor notation,
∴ cos θ = 0
for V = V0 cos (ωt + θ)
Hence power = VI (0) = 0
we write this quantity in phasor notation as,
L
Re
R
I = I ∠ – π + θ … (iii) V0 ∠0
0 = I
2 π
ωL∠
π 2
Phase of current = – + θ
2 I V0 ∠ − π
=
π ωL 2
Phase of voltage = –
2 π
⇒ I = I0 ∠ −
∴ Depending upon the ‘θ’ we can speak more about 2
the relation between fV and φI.
Phase of voltage = ∠ 0 = zero
Sol 5: Let V = V0 sin (wt + θ) be an ac voltage source.
Then
1/2
T 2
∫ V dt
V(0)
Vrms = 0
T
dt
∫
0 I
1/2
T 2
2
∫ V0 sin (ωt + θ)
-
2
Vrms = 0 π π
T Phase of current = ∠ − = −
2 2
Hence current lags behind the voltage by an angle of
now for simplifying the calculation,
π
∴ We put θ = 0, and solve; .
2
V
we get Vrms = 0 Sol 8: ω = 2pf
2
Now as derived in Q.4;
2 3 . 5 0 | Alternating Current
−i −i V0
ZC = = ∴ vrms =
ωC 2πfC
2
C V0 = (220) ( 2)
V0 = 311 V.
∴ Imax = 5.0 2 A
I = 200 2∠0
π
2πf∠ Let ∴ I = 5 2 sin(100πt)
2
π 1
I = I ∠ − when t = sec
0
2 300
then
200 2
we want I0 = = 0.9 π 3
2πf I = 5 2 sin = 5 2× 2.5 6 A
=
3 2
200 2
∴f= H ≡ 50 Hz
2π(0.9) Z Sol 17: Vrms = 220
V0 = 2 (Vrms)
Sol 15: V0 = Vrms . 2
V0 = 220 2
100 10f ω = 2pf
V = V0 cos t V= 220 2 ∠ 0
V = V0 cos (t) C
(a) V0 = 100 2
ω = 2π (50) = 100 p
∴ V = 100 2 cos (100 pt) = 100 2 ∠ 0
−i 1 π
ZC = = ∠ − [In phasor notation]
ZR= R = 100 ωC ωC 2
−i −i
ZC = = = –i (318) W 1 π
ωC (100π)(10 × 10−6 ) Z C
= ∠ −
ω C 2
∴ Resistance of capacitor is |ZC| ≈ 318 W
V V0 ∠0
(b) now Znet = ZR + ZC Now I = =
Z 1 π
C
∠ −
Znet = 100 – i (318) ωC 2
I = V ωC∠ π + 0
0
−318 2
Znet= (100)2 + (318)2 ∠ tan−1
100
I = V ωC∠ π
Znet = 334 ∠ –72.5° 0
2
I V= 100 2∠0 = 0.42 ∠72.5=0.527 A
= ∴ Phase of current =
π
Z 334∠ − 72.5 2
(c) Pavg= Vrms Irms cos f Phase of voltage = 0
π π
0.42 ∴ φI– fv= –0=
= (100) . cos(72.5) = 29.9 cos (72.5) 2 2
2
Sol 18: V = 220 2 cos (50 (2π) t)
Pavg = 9 watt
V = 220 2 cos (100 pt)
Sol 16: f = 50 Hz ∴ ω = 2π × 50 = 100 p
=V 220 2∠0
Irms= 5.0 A
2 3 . 5 2 | Alternating Current
10 C
220 V A
50 H
220 V
50 H
(a) ZR = R = 100 ⇔ ZR = 100 ∠ 0
V = I Z
V = 220 2 cos (100pt)
I V= 220 2∠0
= V = 220 2 ∠ 0 … (i)
Z 100∠0
Now let ‘C’ be the capacitance of the circuit;
=I 2.2 2∠0
−i −i 1 π
ZC = = = ∠ − … (ii)
⇒ I = (2.2) 2 cos (100pt) ωC 2πfc 2 πfc 2
ZR = R = 10Ω = 10 ∠ 0 … (iii)
now I0 = (2.2) 2
Now Znet = ZR + ZC
I0 (2.2)( 2)
Irms = = = 2.2 Amp.
2 2 1
Znet= (10 + ZC) = 10 – i
2πfc
(b) Net power over a full cycle
2
1
(Vrms )2 (220)2 |=
Znet | (10)2 +
= = = 484 watt 2πfc
R 100
1
Sol 19: V = 110 2 cos (2π (70) t) − 1
tan θ = 2πfc = −
R 2πfcR
1H
−1
θ = tan–1 2πfRC
110 V
10HZ −1
∴ Z = (10)2 + (X C )2 ∠ tan−1 … (iv)
2πfRC
Now V =
IZ
V = 110 2 cos (140 pt)= 110 2 ∠ 0 …(i)
I = V
ZL = iωL = i (140 π) = i (140 π) Z
|ZL| = 440 W 220 2 −1
=I ∠0 − tan−1
π 100 + X 2C 2πfRC
ZL= 440 ∠ …(ii)
2
220 2
Now I0 =
I V= 110 2∠0
= 100 + X 2C
Z π
440∠ I0 220
2 Irms = =
2 100 + X 2C
1 π 1 π
=I ∠− = cos 140πt −
2 2 2 2 2 2 Irms = 2A (Given)
1 220
I0 = = 0.354 Amp. ⇒2=
2 2 100 + X 2C
P hysi cs | 23.53
100 + X 2C =
(110)2 V = – (813 ∠ 0) (40)
V =
−325∠0
XC = 109.5 A
⇔ V = – 325 cos (50 t)
1 −325
Sol 21: Z = ZR + ZL + Z C = 40 + iωL – Vrms = = −230
ωC 2
1 (b) Inductance:
Z= 40 + i ωL −
ωC
I = 23 2 cos (50t)
= V 230 2 cos(2π(50)t)
4
=V 230 2 cos(100πt)
I = 8.13 cos (50 t)
Now potential drop across =V 230 2 < 0
( )
V = – IR ZL ⇔ 8π <
π
… (i)
2
2 3 . 5 4 | Alternating Current
ω22 2π (50)
(b) Capacitor
X2 = ω2L … (ii)
π 500 π
VC = I( ) ( Z C ) = 11.6∠
2 2 π
∠−
2
(i) ⇒ x1 =
(1) 2π × 200 × L
(2)
(ii) x 2 2π × 50 × L
11.6 × 500
VC = ∠0 x1
3π =4
x2
VC = 616 ∠ 0 → (x2) x1 22
x=
2 = = 5.5 ohm.
4 4
⇔ VC = 616 cos (100 pt + 0)
616
(VC)O = 616 (VC)rms= =4
2
P hysi cs | 23.55
I = V = 250 2∠0 Sol 29: XL = ωL
Znet 100πL x1 ω1 ω2
(22)2 + (100πL)2 ∠ tan−1 ⇒ x2 = . x1
22 =
x2 ω2 ω1
250 2 100πL ⇒ x2= 2x
I = ∠ − tan−1
484 + (100πL) 2 22
−1
xc =
250 2 I0 ωC
I0 = and Irms=
484 + (100πL)2 2 x1 w2 x
= ⇔ x2 = 1
x2 w1 2
250
⇒ Irms = Phasor method:-
484 + (100πL)2
Let V = V0 cos (ωt + q1) be the emf of an AC-source,
Put we are given that Irms = 10 A; then can write this is phasor method as,
250 V = |V| ∠ q1⇔ V = V0 ∠ q1
∴ 10 =
484 + (100πL)2 Now for I = I0cos ( ω t + q2)
484 + (100 πL)2 = 625 ⇔ I = I0 ∠ q2
141
100 πL = 141 ⇒ L = Now let Impedance (Z) ;
100π
11.9 ZRe sis tance = R
⇒L= L = 0.04 H.
100π −i
Z capacitor =
ωC
Sol 26: Current drawn in circuit is maximum when the
(i is iota; complex number)
circuit is in Resonance i.e. the Imaginary part of the
circuit is zero. Zinductor = iωL
Now solve this question exactly as solved in Q. 21. Now in a circuit with series RCL;
i
VS NS Znet
= Z=
R Z C + ZL = =
R + i ωL
Sol 27: = ωC
VP NP
1
220 NS Znet = R + i ωL − → … (i)
= ωC
2200 5000
Now let us write this in phasor notation,
NS = 500 turns.
Znet | Znet | ∠ q
=
Output power
n (efficiency) =
Imput power
2
1
8 kW | Znet=
| R 2 + ωL −
x= ωC
Pi
2 3 . 5 6 | Alternating Current
Exercise 2 10
10
=i = 1 amp
10
Sol 1: (B) Emf induced in rod = BLv At t = ∞
A D 10
2 3 10
R
B C
i1 i2 10
i 10V 10V
=i = = 2 amp.
2
1 Rnet 5
3
∴ Difference = (2 – 1) amp= 1 amp.
(1) E (2)
P hysi cs | 23.57
L 1
Sol 4: (B) T1 (time constant) during build up = ⇒ i = 0.6 ⇒ i = 0.3 amp
2R 2
L
T2 during decay = di
Emf across coil = L
3R dt
T 3
∴ 1 = di di
T2 2 = i0 (– (–2) e–2t) ⇒ = 2 i0 e–2t
dt dt
ln2 −1 1
di E= 6e ⇒E=6× E = 3V
Sol 6: (C) i = 2 amp = 4 amp/s. 2
dt
Applying KVL, Sol 8: (B) i = 5 amp
4V di
= –103 A/S
dt
1
[Since decreasing; –ve sign]
1 5mH
1H A B
3F 15V
di Q di
⇒ 4 – i (1) – L − =0 VA – i(1) + 15 – L = VB
dt C dt
Q di
⇒ 4 – 2 (1) – 1 (4) – =0 VA – VB = i – 15 + L
C dt
⇒Q=–2×3 VA– VB = 5 – 15 + 5 × 10–3 (–10+3)
⇒ Q = 6C.
VA – VB = 5 – 15 – 5 ⇒ VA – VB = –15 V
−Rt
Sol 7: (A)
=i i0 1 − e L
Sol 9: (C) When ‘i’ is reversed,
1 5mH
6V R L
A i B
15V
di
VA + i (1) + 15 – L = VB
dt
6v di
i0
= = 0.6 VA – VB = –i – 15 + L
10 dt
−10t
=i 0.6 1 − e 5 ⇒ i = 0.6 (1 – e )
–2t
= –5 – 15 + 5 (+10-3) × 103
di
[i is decreasing against the direction of KVL. Hence
Put t = ln 2 dt
= 103].
(
⇒ i 0.6 1 − e
= 2 n 2
) VA – VB = – 5 – 15 + 5
n 2−1 =i 0.6 1 − 1 VA – VB = –15 V
⇒ i 0.6 1 − e
= ⇒
2
2 3 . 5 8 | Alternating Current
Sol 10: (A) At t = 0, inductor is open circuited, Sol 12: (D) Just before the switch is opened, let us find
the currents,
at t = ∞, it is short circuited
at t = 0, L i2
A B
i1
12 V R1 R2
10 20
l2 V
i=
Rnet
2V
RR 4×8 8
2V 2 Rnet= 1 2 = = Ω
i=
Rnet
⇒ i1 =
10 + 20 R1 + RL 12 3
12 9
2 1 i= ⇒ i = amp.
i1 =
⇒= amp. 8 2
30 15
3
Finally; at t = ∞ Now just at the instant switch is opened, i would remain
same
L B
A
10 20 12 V R2
R1
2V
9
2V 2 ∴ VR = i R1 = × 4 VR = 18V
i2 = ⇒ i2 = amp 1 2 1
Rnet 20
Now applying KVL;
1 12 + (VB – VA) – 18 = 0 ⇒ VB – VA = 6 V.
i2 = amp.
10
Sol 13: (C) Power factor,
Sol 11: (D) At t = 0, no current flows in the circuit.
R
cos φ =
2 2
Fuse L = 4H (X C − XL ) + R
V=2sin (100t)
S ~
2V
10Ω 0.1H
As time starts, current starts flowing and at t = ∞,
current in the circuit is infinity. C 10 0.1H
Hence at t = 10, i → ∞ so the fuse will get blown
∴ C
[ Infinity is just an unknown number !]
P hysi cs | 23.59
Im I V=
=
220 2
Z 2
z 2 1
(100) + 100 −
100 πC
(XC-XL)
R 1
R 100 −
100 πC
1 π –tan–1 100
cos φ = ⇒ θ=
2 4
| X C − XL | 220
∴ tan φ = ⇒ |XC – XL| = R irms =
R
1 ≡ 2.2
2
(100)2 + 100 −
XL = ωL = (0.1) (100) ⇒ XL = 10 Ω. 100πC
⇒ |XC – XL| = R 2
220 1
= (100)2 + 100 −
1 2.2 100πC
= R + XL
ωC
2
1 1 1
C= ⇒C= ∴ (100) = 100 + 100 −
2 2
ω(R + XL ) 100(20) 100πC
1 1
C= × 10−3 ⇒ C = 500 µF. ⇒ 100 − =0
2 100πC
−1
1 ∴ XC = – 100 ∴ X C =
Sol 14: (A) ZL = iωL = × 100 π = i 100 W ωC
π
1 XC
H 100 C Now power factor; φ = tan–1 R
−100 π
φ = tan–1 100 ⇒ φ = −
4
π 1
Power factor; cos φ = cos =
4 2
ZR = 100 W
Sol 15: (D) For 100 V D.C. source, i =1 amp.
−i −i
ZC
= =
ωC 100πC 100
Hence,=
R = 100Ω
1
Znet = ZR + ZL + Z C
Now for AC source of 100 V
i
Znet = 100 + i (100) –
100πC 100 1 100
i=
Znet ⇒ 2 = Z
net
2
2 1
Znet= (100) + 100 − ⇒ Znet = 200
100πC
Z=
net R 2 + XL2
1
100 −
−1
tan 100 πC ∴ R2 + XL2 = (200)2 ⇒ XL2 = (200)2 – (100)2
100
XL = 174 W
2 3 . 6 0 | Alternating Current
∫ dt i0 = 22 + 22 + 2(2)(2)cos(30°)
O
I12 T i0 =
I20 T + +0 8 + 8 3 ⇒=
i0 2 2 + 3
2 2 I12
Irms = ⇒ Irms
= I20 +
T 2
Phase diagram will be shown as
π π 1
Sol 17: (D) = ωt ;= 100πt ; t = s. o
4 4 400 i2 = 2 sin (100t + 30 )
for CR circuit;
Sol 20: (A) We can speak on nature by observing the
R2 phase of final Impedance. If the phase of Impedance is
cos q2= = 0.5 ... (ii)
2 2 negative then it is capacitive, else it is inductive.
R2 + XC
ω 1
Now when L, C, R of two circuits are joined; ∴ ω' = =
2 2 LC
∴ ZR = R
R1 + R 2
cos θ =
2 2 1 1 L
(R1 + R 2 ) + (X C − XL ) ZL = i ω L = i . .L=i
2 LC 2 C
Given that cos θ = 1
−i −i L
∴ XC = XL = X ZC = = = −2i
ωC 1 C
.C
X 2 LC
tan q1= L
R1 3i L 3i L
X ∴ ZL + Z C =
− ; Znet= R −
tan q2= C 2 C 2 C
R2
−3i L
tan θ1 XL R 2 R 2 Znet= Z 0 ∠ tan−1
= . ≡ 2R R
tan θ2 R1 X C R1
4 ∴ -ve phase
tan q1=
3 Hence capacitive.
P hysi cs | 23.61
Previous Years’ Questions Sol 4: (C) For the lamp with direct current,
V = IR
π ⇒ R =8Ω and P =80 × 10 =800 W
Sol 1: (A) As the current i leads the emf e by , it is an
R–C circuit. 4
For ac supply
1 2
XC π Erms
tan φ = or tan = ω C \ωCR = 1 =P I 2
= R R
rms
R 4 R Z2
(220)2 × 8
As ω = 100 rad/s ⇒ Z2 =
800
1 –1
The product of C–R should be s ⇒ Z=22Ω
100
⇒ R 2 + ω2L2 =(22)2
2
1
Sol 2: (B, C) Z = R 2 + X 2C = R2 + ⇒ ωL = 420
ωC ⇒ L=
0.065 H
In case (b) capacitance C will be more. Therefore,
impedance Z will be less. Hence, current will be more.
∴Option (b) is correct. JEE Advanced/Boards
Further,
Exercise 1
Vc = V 2 – VR2
Sol 1: At t = 0, we can replace the inductor by open
= V 2 – (IR)2 circuit and at t = ∞, the inductor can be short circuited
dI
Sol 3: = 103 A/s
dt 10 4 4
I
A B
1Ω 15 V 5 mH 10
di 10
∴Induced emf across inductance, |e| = L |e| = i1 = = 1 amp.
dt 10
(5 × 10–3) (103) V = 5 V
At t = ∞,
Since, the current is decreasing, the polarity of this emf
6
would be so as to increase the existing current. The
circuit can be redrawn as
10
I = 5A 4 4
A B
1Ω 15 V 5 mH
Now VA – 5 + 15 + 5 = VB 10 10
i2
= = amp
\VA – VB = – 15 V R eff 8
or VB – VA = 15 V i1 1 8
= = = 0.8 amp
i2 10 10
8
2 3 . 6 2 | Alternating Current
L
Sol 2:
RCV
L L
V = IR ⇒ ⇒
RC(IR) R(RC)I 10
Now {RC} = time constant in RC circuit 20
∴ L
[RC] = [T] and = time constant in LR circuit 2V
R
2
I=
∴ L Rnet
= [T]
R
2
I1 =
L [T] −1 10 + 20
∴ = = [I] .
RCV [T] [I] 2
I1 = amp. … (i)
30
Sol 3: Let us calculate the total energy stored in the at t = ∞,
inductor before switch is shifted.
R2
10
20
L
2V
Here the resistor 10 Ω is shorted.
2 2 1
E R1 I2
= = = amp.
Rnet 20 10
1 2
Energy stored in inductor = LI
2 Sol 5: Let us now derive the current in the circuit as a
1 function of time
= L [Iat t = ∞]2
2
R=10 L=5
E
It =∞ =
R1 i
2 V
1 E
∴E= L
2 R1
LE2
E= at time t = t; current = i amp;
2R12
using KVL;
Now this is the total heat produced in R2.
di di
V – iR – L = 0 ⇒ V – iR = L
dt dt
Sol 4: This is similar to the Questions 1 (Ex. I). 1 di
⇒ dt =
At t = 0; Inductor is open circuited, L V − iR
At t = ∞, Inductor is short circuited. Integrating;
At t = 0; 1
t
di
i
L0∫ dt = ∫
i
V − iR
0
⇒ i = i0 1 − e−Rt/L
( )
P hysi cs | 23.63
At t = 0, i = zero E = 2kLt
At t = ∞, i = i0 = constant E 2kL
Current in the coil II is = t
R R
Now R = 10Ω, L = 5
dq
i=
(
i = i0 1 − e−2t
) dt
t
At t = 1 sec 2KL
i −2
q= ∫ i dt ⇒q= ∫ R
t dt
i = i0 (1 – e–2) ⇒ = (1 − e ) t =0
i0
t
2KL t2
i
e2 − 1
= q= .
R 2
⇒ q=
2KL 2
2R
t( )
i0 e2 0
KLt2
Sol 6: i = i0 (1 – e–Rt/L) q= C
R
dq
i= ⇒ q = ∫ i dt
dt
Sol 8: Power factor is cos (θ)
−Rt
=q ∫ i0 1 − e L dt Img
t −RT
=q i0 ∫ 1 − e L dt
XL+XC
t0
t
−Rt R
⇒ q = i0 t − − L e L R
R
0 Given that cos θ = 1 ⇒ θ = 0
−Rt
L
⇒ q = i0 t + L eL
− 0 +
∴ |XL + XC| = 0 ⇒ XL = – XC
R R
XL = ω L
−Rt
⇒ q = i0 t − L 1 − e L XL =
−1
⇒ ωL =
1
R ωC ωC
1 1
i0L −Rt ω = ⇒L=
⇒ q=
i 0t − 1 − e LC ω2C
R L
ω = 2π (50) = 100 p
L
One time constant ⇒ t = 1 20
R L= = = 2H.
(100π) C π2 2
L i0L
⇒ q = i0 . −
R R
(
1 − e−1 ) Sol 9: We know that VR and VL will have a phase
π
i0L i0L 1 i0L difference of .
q= − 1 − ⇒ q = 2
R R e Re
EL Vnet = VR2 + VC2 = 162 + 122 = 20V.
q=
R 2e
Sol 10: Resistance of Lamp = R
Sol 7: Given mutual inductance between coils = M
V 2 100 × 100
And I1 = kt2 R =
= = 200Ω
P 50
dI
∴ EMF induced in second coil= L = L [2kt]
dt Maximum current the lamp can sustain,
2 3 . 6 4 | Alternating Current
50 1
i=
max = amp. 40
100 2 100 V
Now in the given conditions;
(200 V, 50 HZ ) 10
200V
i= = 1 amp which is greater than 0.5 amp. 1H
200Ω
Hence we need to increase the Impedance by using a
capacitor of capacitance ‘C’. Such that ‘ I’ will be equal
to
1
amp.
∴ inew =
100
50
(
1 − e−50t )
2
∴=
Z
1
R +2
2 (
= 2 1 − e−50t
inew ) … (ii)
ωC But this equation; at t’ = 0, we get inew = 0
31
1H inew = 5 + 2
32
(
=i 10 1 − e−10t ) … (i)
inew = 5 +
31
16
amp. = 6.94 amp.
P hysi cs | 23.65
i2 D C
20
100 V 20 ∴ Hence the current in loop ABCD will be amp.
11
And this current will start decaying to zero
∴ At t = ∞, i = zero.
(ii) now at t = ∞ ;
inductor is short circuited, Sol 13: Applying KVL;
10 i1 30 R i(t)
i2
100 20
E L
100
i1 =
Rnet di
E – i (t) R – L =0
dt
100 50
i1 = = amp di
22 11 i(t) = 3 + 5t ⇒ =5
dt
10 i1 i3 30 E = R i(t) + L(5) ⇒ E = 4(3 + 5t) + 5(6)
i2 E = 42 + 20t
and i1= i2 + i3
200 V, ~ 200 V
2i2
2i2 = 3i3 ⇒ i3= 300 rad/s. 300 rad/s
3
2i2 5i2
i 1 = i2 + ⇒ i1 =
3 3
V = 200 2 cos(300t)
3 3 50 30
i2 = i= = amp.
5 1 5 11 11 =V 200 2∠0
20
i3 = amp. Znet
= ZR + ZL
11
(iii) Now when switch is open Znet = R + iωL
XC π −1 −1
tan–1 R = XC
= = = –70W
3 ωC 1 5
× 10 × 10 −6
XC 7
= 3 ⇒ X C = 3 R → (x2)
R
∴ ZP
= (32)2 + (70)2
1 1
=R 3 ⇒ C =
ωC R 3ω | ZP | = 77 ohm,
1 100
C= C
⇒= µF And impedance of coil Q is (68)2 + (XL )2
100. 3 (300) 3 3
1
Now when all together are present XL= ω L = × 105 × 4.9 × 10–3
7
Znet = ZR + ZL + Z C = 100 + iR 3 − iR 3 XL = 70 W
[From X1and X2]
∴ Impedance = (68)2 + (70)2
Znet = 100
| Z Q | = 98 W
Znet
= 100∠0
Znet = 32 – 70 i + 68 + 70 i
I = V 200 2∠0 I 2 2∠0
= ⇒= Znet = 100 W
Z
net
100∠0
=I 10 2 ∠0 ⇒=
I 2
∠0
power = VI
= (200 2) (2 2)cos(0)
100 10
200 2 2 2 2
Pavg = Vrms . Irms =
10
2 2
= . (77)
2
Pavg = 400 W.
VP = 7.7 V
P hysi cs | 23.67
1
Voltage across Q; VQ = (Irms) ( | ZP | ) = (98) 1
10 |XL – XC| = R; ωL − =R
ωC
VQ = 9.8 V.
ω2L − 1
= R ; ω 2L – ωCR – 1 = 0
Sol 16: ωr = 4 × 10 rad/s. 5 ωC
120
Sol 17: V = 220 2 sin (100 pt)
d
a b c
=V 220 2∠0
= ZL + ZR = i (100 π × 35 × 10–3) + 11
Znet
Znet = 11 i + 11
XL+XC di
∴ = constant
cons tant
dt
Hence i1 versus t is as shown.
R di
π Sol 3: (A) Emf induced across inductor = L
Now at θ = dt
4
2 3 . 6 8 | Alternating Current
1 2
Sol 9: (C) LI = U
2
A
I2R = P
Hence both A and B have same square value at every
L 2U
T= = point.
R P
P hysi cs | 23.69
2
1 π
Znet = ωL − ∠
ωC 2
B
i = V ⇒ V0 π
∠−
Z 2 2
Hence irmsA = irmsB net 1
ωL −
ωC
Here we have every value greater than that of Irmsin
VL = i Z L
graph A or graph B.
V0 π π
=VL ∠− ωL ∠
2 2 2
ωL − 1
ωC
∴ (irms)C> IA = IB. π π
VL = V1 ∠ −
2 2
Sol 13: (D) Initially in LR circuit; VC = i Z C
R R π π
cos θ1 = ⇒cos q1= VC= V1 ∠ − −
2 2 R 10 2 2
R + 9R
1 π π
P1 = VC= V1 ∠ − +
10 2 2
Now finally Hence phase difference between VL and VC will be π and
XL – XC = 3R – R = 2R π
between VL and I will be ± . Graph D satisfies all the
conditions. 2
R
cos θ2 =
2 2
R + 4R Sol 15: (A) Let us consider mesh (1);
1
P2 = XC
5
P1 1 P2 i1
⇒ = . 5 ⇒ = 2 (1)
P2 10 P1
i2 (2)
Sol 14: (D) Znet
= ZL + Z C
L C XL R
V V0 < 0
=
1 π
Z=
1 Z=
C ∠−
ωC 2
i V V0 ∠0
=1 =
V = V0 cos t Z 1 1 π
∠−
−i ωC 2
Znet = i ωL +
ωC i1 = V0 ωC∠
π
... (i)
2
1 Now in mesh (2)
⇒ Znet = i ωL −
ωC
Z 2 = ZR + ZL = R + i ω L
2 3 . 7 0 | Alternating Current
ωL B2
Z=
2 R 2 + (ωL)2 ∠ tan−1
R
i V V∠0
=2 = B2
Z 2 ωL
R 2 + (ωL)2 ∠ tan−1
R
i = i1 ∠ − tan−1 ωL
2 0
R
At t = ∞;
π ωL R
Phase difference between i1 and i2= − tan−1
i
B2
2 R
π X
= − tan−1 L R
2 R i
B2
2i
Multiple Correct Choice Type
dq dv
=C Sol 19: (B)
dt dt
dq i1 L i2
Given i = = constant
dt
i
dv
∴ = constant
dt
∴ Graph looks like a straight line.
(1) (2)
dv
i=C
dt Just after switch is closed, Inductor tries to oppose the
8−2 current ‘i1’. Hence i1< i2. As time goes on, the opposition
Slope of the graph = =2 given by inductor reduces.
3
∴ This opposition is due to the induced EMF in ‘L’.
i = 2C = 1 amp
1
C= C = 0.5 C.
2 Sol 20: (B, C, D) Emf induced in coil 1 = L1 di1
dt
L di
Sol 17: (D) Time constant τ = E2 = L2 2
R dt
1 2 di1 di2
Energy stored in magnetic field = LI Given that =
2 dt dt
Power dissipated in resistor = I R 2
E1 L1
∴ = = 4
1 2 E2 L2
LI
∴ 22 = τ V2 1
2
IR ∴ =
V1 4
And also given that power given to the two coils is
Sol 18: (A) At t = 0; same,
∴ Vi i1 = V2 i2
P hysi cs | 23.71
L
Sol 21: (A, B, C) RC and will have the dimensions
R As resistance is increasing, current decreases
1 R
of time and hence and will have dimensions of
RC L ∴ Magnetic field decreases.
frequency.
Hence there will b e a clockwise current in the ring.
Sol 22: (D) When just after battery is connected, current
Sol 26: (D) In an LCR circuit,
is zero in the circuit, and hence will follow magnetic
1 |Z|= R 2 + (XL − X C )2
field energy LI2 and power delivered (I2R) is also
zero. 2
Vmax
imax =
di
EMF induced is L . Hence there is a finite value. R 2 + (XL − X C )2
dt
R . Vmax
(VR)max = ;
Sol 23: (B, D) At time t = 0, capacitor is short circuited, R 2 + (XL − X C )2
Inductor is open circuited. ωL . Vmax
(VL )max =
At t = ∞, capacitor is open circuited, R + (XL − X C )2
2
V = V0 cos t
CV - + CV Znet = R + i ω L
ωL
L | Znet
= | R 2 + ω2L2 ;=
Z net | Z net | ∠ tan−1
R
I V V0 ∠0
= =
At t = 0; energy stored is purely in capacitor.In this type Z ωL
| Znet | ∠ tan−1
of circuits, charge and current will be in the form of sin R
or cos. Thus oscillatory.
V ωL
1 =I ∠ − tan−1
q = Q0 cos t ; Q0 = CV | Znet | R
LC
Now potential difference across resistance,
−1
i= Q0 sin ω t
LC VR = i × Z R
Q0 CV C V ωL
=i = = V = 0 ∠ − tan−1 R∠0
L
LC LC | Znet | R
Hence option D. V0 R ωL
VR
= ∠ − tan−1
| Znet | R
1
Sol 29: (C) q = Q0 cos t V0R
LC (VR)max = ≡ 4 volts (given) … (i)
R 2 + XL2
dq −Q0 1
dt
=
LC
sin t
LC
( VL ) = ( i ) ( Z L )
V X π
d2q −Q0 1 = 0 ∠ − tan−1 L
= cos t ωL∠
dt2 LC LC | Znet | R 2
d2q
= −
1
q, = ( )
VL V0 XL ∠ π − tan−1 XL
2 R
dt2 LC 2
R + XL
2
Hence option ‘C’. V0 XL
(VL )max = ≡3V … (ii)
R 2 + XL2
(i)
(1) R 4
= =
(ii) XL 3
(2)
R 4 3R
∴ = ⇒ XL = … (iii)
XL 3 4
P hysi cs | 23.73
V0R V0R
= 4 ; =4
2
R + XL2 5R
1
4 1
i2
V0 = 1 V 2 12 V
4+3 3
Vsource = Steady current in R4:
2
3
i0 = = 0.6 A
3+2
2 3 . 7 4 | Alternating Current
Time when current in R4 is half the steady value Sol 6: After a long time, resistance across an inductor
L –3
(10 × 10 ) becomes zero while resistance across capacitor
t1/2 = τL (In 2) = n (2) = n (2) becomes infinite. Hence, net external resistance,
R 5
R
= 1.386 × 10–4 s +R
3R
Rnet = 2 =
1 2 1 2 4
U= Li = (10 × 10–3) (0.3)2 = 4.5 × 104J
2 2 2E
Current through the batteries, i =
3R
+r +r
Sol 2: In circuit (p): I can’t be non-zero in steady state. 4 1 2
Given that potential across the terminals of cell A is
In circuit (q): V1 = 0 and V2 = 2I = V (also) zero.
d2Q
\Q = – LC
dt2
P hysi cs | 23.75
7π
•• Current ‘i’ immediately after t = is
6ω
Vc + 50
=i = 10 A
R
Charge flow = 2 × 10−6 C
Q final − Q(7 π /6ω) =
2017-18 100 &
op kers
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PHYSICS
FOR JEE MAIN & ADVANCED
SECOND
EDITION
Exhaustive Theory
(Now Revised)
Formula Sheet
9000+ Problems
based on latest JEE pattern
PlancEssential
Questions recommended for revision
24. MODERN PHYSICS
1. INTRODUCTION
The developments in the post-classical/Newtonian physics, also known as modern physics, has given us revelatory
insights into the structure and nature of fundamental forces/particles in the universe. The wave-particle duality/
paradox, which postulates that every elementary particle exhibits the properties of not only particles, but also
waves is one such insight. For example, when electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by matter, it predominantly
displays particle-like properties. It was de-Broglie who propounded the concept of matter waves, i.e. the particles
exhibiting wave properties. We will be dealing here with the energy, wavelength, and frequency of electromagnetic
waves and the relationship between these quantities. We will also be dealing with the photoelectric effect on which
Einstein’s based his photon theory of light. We will be discussing the Bohr atomic model, the hydrogen spectra, and
the laws describing the characteristics of X-rays.
n
28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 f(10 Hz)
TV & FM
AM Long
Visible
UHF
n
-20 -19 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 (10 m)
3. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
(a) The photoelectric effect was discovered by Wilhelm Ludwig Franz Hallwachs in 1888, the experimental
verification which was done by Hertz.
(b) The photoelectric effect refers to the emission/ejection of electrons from the surface of a metal in response
to incident light (or electromagnetic wave).
(c) The electron ejected due to photoelectric effect is is called a photoelectron and is denoted by e− .
(d) Current produced as a result of the ejected electrons is called photoelectric current.
(e) Photoelectric effect proves quantum nature of light.
(f) Photoelectric effect can not be explained by the classical wave theory of light. The wave theory is incable of
explaining the first 3 obserations of the photoelectric effect.
(g) Photoelectrons, generally, refer to the free electrons that are in the inter-molecular spaces in the metal.
(h) Explanation for Photoelectric effect was successfulyy explained given by Albert Einstein as being the result
of light energy being carried in discrete quantized packets. For this excellent work he was honored with the
Nobel prize in 1921.
(i) The law of conservation of energy forms the basis for photoelectric effect.
Threshold Frequency ( v 0 ): The minimum frequency of the incident light or radiation that will produce a
photoelectric effect i.e., ejection of photoelectrons from a metal surface is known as threshold frequency for that
metal. Its value, though constant for a specific metal, may be different for different metals.
If v = frequency of incident photon & v 0 = Threshold Frequency
Then
(a) If v < v 0 , there will be no ejection of photoelectron and, therefore, no photoelectric effect.
P hysi cs | 24.3
(b) If v = v 0 , photoelectrons are just ejected from metal surface, in this case the kinetic energy of electron is zero.
(c) If v > v 0 , then photoelectrons will come out of the surface along with kinetic energy.
Threshold Wavelength ( λ0 ): The greatest wavelength of the incident light or radiation for a specified surface for
c
the emission of photoelectrons is known as threshold wavelength λ0 = .For wavelengths above this threshold,
v0
there will be no photoelectron emission.
For λ = wavelength of incident photon, then
(a) If λ < λ0 , then photoelectric effect will take place and ejected electron will posses kinetic energy.
(b) If λ = λ0 , then just photoelectric effect will take place and kinetic energy of ejected photoelectron will be zero.
(c) If λ > λ0 , there will be no photoelectric effect.
−19
Illustration 1: The work function of silver is 5.26 × 10 J . Calculate its threshold wavelength. (JEE MAIN)
hc
Sol: For any metal to eject photo electron the work function of surface is given as φ =
λ0
hc 6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 °
Threshold wavelength = λ0 = ; ∴ λ = = 3.764 × 10−7 m ; λ =3764 A
φ 5.26 × 10 −19
Illustration 2: The work function of Na is 2.3 eV. What is the maximum wavelength of light that will cause photo
electrons to be emitted from sodium? (JEE MAIN)
hc
Sol: For any metal to eject photo electron the work function of surface is given as φ =
λ0
hc hc
The threshold wavelength λ0 = ; (=
φ hv=
0 ) ;& hc = 1.24 × 10−6 (eV) m
φ λ0
1.24 × 10−6 °
λ0 = m ; λ0 = 0.539 × 10−6 m = 539 nm; λo =5930 A
2.3
hf
= W + Kmax (Already discussed)
Discussed below is how Einstein’s photon hypothesis overcomes the three objections raised against the wave
theory interpretation of the photoelectric effect.
Objection 1: Intensity of the radiation should have a proportional relationship with the resulting maximum kinetic
energy. This objection is overcome by Einstein’s photon theory because, doubling the light intensity merely doubles
the number of photons, thereby doubling the photoelectric current. It does not, however, change the energy of the
individual photons.
P hysi cs | 24.5
Objection 2: Photoelectric effect should occur for any intense light, regardless of frequency or wavelength. The
existence of a minimum frequency level ( in Einstein’s photon theory) follows from equation hf = W + Kmax . If
Kmax equals zero, then hf0 = W , which implies that the photon’s energy will be barely adequate to eject the
photoelectron and that there will be no residual energy to manifest as kinetic energy. The quantity W is the work
function of the metal/substance. If the frequency f is reduced below f0 , the individual photons, irrespective of how
numerous they are(in other words, no matter what the intensity of the incident light/radiation is), will not have
enough energy to eject photoelectrons.
Objection 3: There should be a delay on the order of seconds between the radiation’s contact with the metal
and the initial release of photoelectrons. The absence of a time lag follows from the photon theory because the
required energy is supplied in packets/bundles. Unlike in the wave theory, the energy is not spread uniformly over
a large area.
Therefore, as far as photoelectricity goes, the photon/particle theory seems to be in total contradiction of the wave
theory of light. Modern physicists have reconciled this apparent paradox by postulating the dual nature of light, i.e.,
light behaves as a wave under some circumstances and like a particle, or photon, under others.
Illustration 3: A light beam of wavelength 4000 Å is directed on a metal whose work function is 2 eV. Calculate the
maximum possible kinetic energy of the photoelectrons. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: According to photoelectric equation the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron after being ejected from
metal is EK = hν − φ
hc 19.8 × 10−19
Energy of the incident photon = . Energy of the incident photon in eV = = 3.09 eV ;
λ 4 × 1.6 × 10−19
Kinetic energy of the emitted electron EK = hν − φ = 3.09 – 2.00 = 1.09 eV
Illustration 4: Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted from a metal with a threshold
wavelength of 5800 Å, if the wavelength of the incident light is 4500 Å. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron with which it is ejected from metal is EK = hν − φ .
2EK
max
Therefore maximum velocity of photoelectron is v max =
me
As the potential V is increased, the electrons experience greater resistance/repulsion, and consequentially, less
number of electrons reach the plate Q. This leads to a decrease in the flow of current in the circuit. At a certain value
V0 , the electrons having maximum kinetic energy (Kmax) also stop flowing and current in the circuit becomes zero.
This is called the stopping potential.
(a) In photoelectric cell, when (+)ve voltage is applied on cathode and negative voltage is applied on anode
applied, then the magnitude of photoelectric current decreases as the potential difference between the two
points (cathode and anode) increases.
(b) The stopping potential is the negative potential ( V0 ) applied to the anode Light
where the current gets reduced to zero or stops flowing in the circuit.
(c) When the magnitude of negative potential on anode is greater than
or equal to magnitude of stopping potential the current in the circuit
becomes zero. i
(d) If emitted electrons do not reach from cathode to anode then stopping P Q G
potential is given by
1 2 h(v − v 0 )
eV0 = mv max or Emax = eV0 ; eV
=0 h(v − v 0 ) ; V0 = V
2 e
(e) Value of stopping potential depends upon frequency of incident light. Figure 24.2: Photoelectric effect
(f) Stopping potential also depends upon nature of metal (or work function)
(g) Stopping potential does not depend upon intensity of light
1 2
(h) Example: Suppose stopping potential = -3 V, then mv max = 3eV
2
1 2
If we apply – 5 V, then also there will be zero current in the circuit but mv max ≠ 5eV
2
Because stopping potential is not equal to 5V which cannot be used in Einstein’s equation.
3.7.1 Graphs
(a) Kinetic energy V/s frequency: At v = v 0 , Emax = 0
E max
V0 V
Figure 24.3
V0 V
Figure 24.4
Current
Figure 24.5
2 4 . 8 | Modern Physics
eV=
0 hv − hv 0
V0
tanθ = slope
h V
= (constant for all type of metals)
e Figure 24.6
Intercept on x-axis = v 0
Intercept on y-axis = v
(e) Potential V/s current: (v : constant) Intensity
I3
Current I2 I3 I2 I1
I1
-V₀ Voltage
Figure 24.7
Current
v1 v3 v2 v1
v2
v3
vo(3)vo(2)vo(1)
Retarding potential
Figure 24.8
Illustration 5: Calculate the value of the stopping potential if one photon has 25 eV energy and the work function
of material is 7 eV. (JEE MAIN)
E − φ0
Sol: The stopping potential required to stop the photoelectrons to reach cathode is V0 =
e
E − φ0 25 − 7 18 eV
Stopping potential is V=
0 = = ⇒ V=
0 18 V
e e e
Derivation: Let us start with the energy of a photon in terms of its frequency v, E = hv
Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity gives a new expression with reference to the velocity of light. This
expression is E = mc2 , where m refers to the relativistic mass of light which is non-zero as it is travelling with
velocity c. If it were at rest, it’s mass would be zero.
c
Now, by equating both the energy equations we get E = hν = mc2 . Also, as seen earlier ν =
λ
h h
Wavelength of a photon. ∴ = mc and λ =
λ mc
P hysi cs | 24.9
Analogously, de Broglie argued that a particle with non-zero rest mass m and velocity v would have a wavelength
h
given λ =
mv
h
Also, mv = p, where p is the particle’s momentum. Substituting p for mv we get λ =
p
Illustration 6: Determine Broglie wavelengths of (a) a 46g golf ball with a velocity of 30 m/s and (b) an electron
with a velocity of 107 m/s. (JEE ADVANCED)
h
Sol: The de-Broglie wavelength of the particle of mass m and moving with velocity v is given by λ = , where h
is Planck’s constant mv
(a) Since v<<c, we can let (effective mass = Rest mass) m =m0 .
h 6.62 × 10−34 J.s
Hence λ = = = 4.8 × 10−34 m.
mv (0.04kg)(30m / s)
Thus, we see that the wavelength of the golf ball is so negligible compared with its dimensions that we would
not be able to observe expect to find any wave aspects in its behavior.
(b) Again v << c, so with m = m0 = 9.1 × 10−31 kg,
h h hc
(g) Wavelength connected to moving photons λ= = =
p mc E
(h) From Point (e) and (f):- Momentum of photon p ∝ m p ∝ E Energy of photons E ∝ m
1 1 1
Wavelength of wave connected to photons λ ∝ ; λ∝ ; λ∝
p m E
(i) Graphs
(i) P P
m E
(ii)
E
P m
(iii)
1/E
1/p 1/m
Figure 24.9
m
Figure 24.10
Illustration 7: A Determine the velocity of a light wave, given that frequency of the photon is ν, energy is hv, and
h
momentum is p = (JEE MAIN)
λ
c
Sol: For light of frequency ν, the energy is E = hν and the frequency of light wave is ν = . Hence speed of light
is easily determined. λ
h
As E = hν and P = ,
λ
hc E
E= = Pc ⇒ c =
λ P
Illustration 8: Determine the mass of a photon witha wavelength of 0.01 A . (JEE MAIN)
h
Sol: Using equation of equivalent mass of photon, m = , we can find the mass of proton.
cλ
E h 6.62 × 10−34
m= = = ; m = 2.21 × 10−30 kg
c2 cλ 8
3 × 10 × 10 −12
P hysi cs | 24.11
Illustration 9: Determine the momentum of a photon with a of frequency 109 Hz. (JEE MAIN)
hν
Sol: The momentum of photon is p =
c
h hν 6.62 × 10−34 × 109
p= = = ; p = 2.2 × 10−33 kg m/s
λ c 3 × 108
Illustration 10: Determine the energy and momentum of a γ-ray photon with a wavelength of 0.01 Å.(JEE MAIN)
hc h E
Sol: For wave of wavelength λ the energy and momentum is given by E = and p= =
λ λ c
hc 1240(eV) × 1 × 10−9
E= = ;
λ 0.01Å
Illustration 11: A body of 10 gm is moving with velocity 2 × 103 m/s. Determine the value of its associated de-
Broglie wavelength. (JEE ADVANCED)
h
Sol: The de-Broglie wavelength associated with particle moving with speed v is calculated as λ = .
mv
h 6.62 × 10−34
de-Broglie wavelength =
λ = ;
mv 10 × 10−3 × 2 × 103
λ = 3.3 × 10−35 m
1 1 1 1
So λ ∝ ; λ∝ λ ∝ λ∝
p E v E
Figure 24.11 E v Figure 24.12
P 1/ E
2 4 . 1 2 | Modern Physics
Moving particle
Charged Uncharged
electrons
protons
-particles, etc.
Photons Neutrons,
Atoms etc.
(b) The kinetic energy of a charged particle having charge q, mass m, accelerated by V volt, and a velocity v is
1
denoted= by E = mv 2 qV
2
2qV 2E
(c) Velocity V = =
m m
h h
(e) Wavelength λ = =
p 2mqV
(Here it is assumed that initial potential given to electron is zero)
h
If the particle is given some initial potential Vi and if final potential is Vf then, λ=
2mq(Vf − Vi )
From above Relation
1
λ∝
V
V
Figure 24.13
1
λ2 ∝
V
V
Figure 24.14
1
λ∝
V
V
Figure 24.15
P hysi cs | 24.13
Cases:
2eV h 12.27
(i) v e = (ii) pe = 2 meeV (iii) λe = = Å
me 2me eV V
(b) If the moving charged particle is a proton, then
2eV h 0.286
(i) vP = (ii) pP = 2mepV (iii) λP = = Å
mp 2mepV V
(c) If the charged particle is an α -particle, then
2(2e)V eV 1
(i) v α = = = vP (ii) Pα = 2mα eα V = 2 × 8mp × eV = 2 2 pp
mα mP 2
h 0.101
(iii)
= λα = Å
16mp eV V
Illustration 12: Determine the potential to be applied to accelerate an electron such that its de-Broglie wavelength
becomes 0.4 Å. (JEE MAIN)
12.27
Sol: The de-Broglie wavelength of an electron in terms of accelerating potential difference is λe = Å
V0
12.27 12.27
Where V is the applied potential on electron to accelerate it. λ = Å ; 0.4 =
V0 V0
h2 h2
E= J= eV
2mλ2 (2mλ2 )e
(d) Energy E of particle (e.g., electron, neutron, or atom) at equilibrium temperature TE = (3/2) KT
Illustration 13: Determine the associated de-Broglie wavelength if the energy of a thermal neutron is 0.02 eV,
(JEE MAIN)
2 4 . 1 4 | Modern Physics
h
Sol: For neutron having kinetic energy K, the associated de-Broglie wavelength is found to be λ =
2mK
h 6.6 × 10−34
de-Broglie Wavelength λ = = ; λ = 2 × 10−10 m = 2Å
2mK 2 × 1.6 × 10 −27
× 0.02 × 1.6 × 10 −19
Detector
Electron
Gun
Incident beam
of electrons Diffracted
Crystal
500
54V
Figure 24.17
P hysi cs | 24.15
I =50o
54
V
Figure 24.18
incident
d o
=90
D 2
Diffracted Wave
Figure 24.19
Illustration 14: In a Davisson-Germer experiment, a, electron beam of wavelength 1.5 Å is normally incident on a
crystal, having 3Å distance between atoms. Determine the angle at which first maximum occurs. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: According to Davison–Germer’s experiment, when electrons accelerating at some potential difference V are
incident on a crystal, they diffract. The angle at which the first maxima of diffraction pattern occurs can be found
by Bragg’s law i.e., D sin θ= nλ
nλ 1 × 1.5 1
D sinθ = nλ ∴ sinθ = = = , θ= 30°
D 3 2
7. ATOMIC MODELS
Model : A model is simply a testable idea or hypothesis based on logical and scientific facts.
Theory : A model becomes a theory when it is verified by rigorous scientific analysis and experiments. . Otherwise,
the model is simply not accepted.
2 4 . 1 6 | Modern Physics
Reason of Failure of model: The discovery of electron by J.J. Thomson (1897) proved that atoms are not indivisible.
Hence, the model is no longer valid.
α -Scattering Experiment:
Results of Experiment:
(a) It was seen that in the experiment that when the α - particles were fired at the gold foil, some of the particles
(<1 in 8000) bounced off the metal foil in all directions, some right back at the source. This should have
been impossible according to Thomson’s model; the alpha particles should have all gone straight through.
Obviously, those particles had encountered an electrostatic force far greater than Thomson’s model suggested
they would, which in turn implied that the atom’s positive charge was concentrated in a much tinier volume
than Thomson imagined. This was possible only in the case when there exists a solid positive mass confining
in a very narrow space.
(b) However, most of the α - particles just flew straight through the foil. This suggested that those tiny spheres
of intense positive charge were separated by vast gulfs of empty space.
Gold foil
Figure 24.21: Scattering of alpha particles by gold nucleus
P hysi cs | 24.17
1
(c) N ∝ ⇒ If θ ↑ then N ↓ , N = No. of particles scattered per unit time
4 θ
sin
2
N Hyperbola
Figure 24.22
Equation indicates that at larger deflection (scattering) angle, number of particles deflected are very-very less.
Figure 24.23
Graph for N & θ show that coulomb’s law holds for atomic distances also.
Illustration 15: In an α - particle scattering experiment using gold foil, the number of particles scattered at 60° is
1000 per minute. What will be the number of particles per minute scattered at 90° angle? (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: In Rutherford’s experiment, the number of particles deflected at an angle θ by the gold atoms per minute are
1
best represented by relation N ∝
θ
sin4
2
Let N = No. of α - particles scattered per minute at an angle 90°.
1
∴ N∝ (1) … (i)
90
sin4
2
1
Given that 1000 ∝ (2) … (ii)
60
sin4
2 60
sin4
Taking ratio of (i) to (ii) we get N = 1000 × 2 = 250 /min
90
sin4
2
Rutherford’s Atomic Model
Uniform distribution of
mass & charge
Solid sphere
(a) The whole positive charge and almost whole mass of an atom (leaving aside the mass of revolving e− in
various circular orbits) remains concentrated in nucleus of radius of the order of 10−15 m.
e
r
Hollow
sphere
Circular orbit
Figure 24.26: Motion of electron in atom
(b) Σq( + )ve on proton in a nucleus = Σq( −)ve on e− in various circular orbits & hence, the atom is electrically
neutral.
(c) The necessary centripetal force for revolving round the nucleus in circular orbit is provided by coulomb’s
mv 2 k(ze)(e)
electrostatic force of attraction =
r r2
Reason of failure of model
(a) It could not explain the line spectrum of H-atom.
Justification: Asper Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, every accelerated moving charged particle emits
energy in the form of electromagnetic waves and, therefore, the frequency of an Modern Physics - Solution (1)
while moving in a circular orbit around the nucleas will steadily decline, resulting in the continuous emission
of lines thereby mandating that the spectrum of an atom be continuous, but in reality, one obtains line
spectrum for atoms.
(b) It could not explain the stability of atoms.
Justification : Since revolving electron continuously radiates energy, the radii of circular path will continuously
decrease and in a time of about 10−8 s the revolving electron must fall down in a nucleus by adopting a spiral
path.
Let at point B, kinetic energy of particle A becomes zero then by the law of conservation of energy at point A & B.
k(z 1e)(z 2e) k(z1e)(z 2e)
TEA = TEB ; KEA + PEA = KEB + PEB ; E+0=0+ (in joule) ∴ r0 = m
r0 E
Illustration 16: Calculate the distance of closest approach where an α -particle with kinetic energy 10 MeV is
heading towards a stationary point-nucleus of atomic number 50. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The nucleus of tin (atomic number 50) being more massive than the
alpha particle, remains stationary. So the kinetic energy of the alpha particle A B
is converted into electric potential energy at the distance of closest
approach. -particle
K × (Z1e) × (Z 2e) z0
The electric potential energy of alpha particle is TEα =
r0
1
where K = and r0 is the distance of closest approach of alpha particle Figure 24.28
4 πε0
from nucleus of tin.
K × (2e)(50e)
TEA = TEB ; ∴ 10 × 106 eV =
r0
−14 −4
r0 1.44 × 10 m =
= ; r0 1.44 × 10 Å
Illustration 17:Find the distance of closest approach for a proton moving with a speed of 7.45 × 105 m/s towards
a free proton originally at rest. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: As the moving proton approaches the free proton originally at rest, it exerts an electric force of repulsion on
the proton at rest. At the distance of closest approach, both the protons move with same velocity along the line
of impact. The initial kinetic energy of moving proton is equal to the final kinetic energy of both the protons plus
Ke2
the electric potential energy at the distance of closest approach, given by . Here r0 is the distance of closest
approach. r0
V1 V2
r0
Proton free proton
after movement
Figure 24.29
7.4.1 Concept of Stable, Stationary, Quantized, Fixed Allowed Radii Orbit, or Maxwell’s
Licensed Orbits
According to Bohr, if an electron revolves in these orbits the electron neither radiates nor absorbs any energy.
v
Total energy, (E) (eV)
Unbound (ionised)
r + atom
0
-0.85 n=5
n=4
Figure 24.30: Bohr radius -1.51 n = 3 Excited
states
-3.40 n=2
Ground state
-13.6 n=1
En2 n2
hc
E = h = = En1 - En2
En1 n1
E E + En1= En2
En1 n1
h
Electron revolves only in those orbits in which its angular momentum is integer multiple of
2π
h
mvr = Iω = n
2π
mv 2 kZe2
=
r r2
mv 2 kZe2
2
kZe2 n2h2 n2 h2
and = ; ∴ m nh = ; rn = v rn =
r r2 2πmr r 4 π2mkZe2 ; Z
×
4 π2mke2
n2
r=
n × 0.529 A
Z
Results:
(1)2
(i) r1
= × 0.529 Å ; ∴ rn = n2r1
z r
n2
Figure 24.34
(ii) ∴ r ∝ n2
r Parabolic
n
Figure 24.35
Illustration 18: The radius of the shortest orbit of a single-electron system is 18 pm. This system can be represented
as (JEE MAIN)
Sol: According to Bohr’s model, the radius of orbit of electron is directly proportional to square of principle quantum
0.529 o
number i.e., rn ∝ n2 . When the electron is in ground state (i.e., for principle quantum number =1) r1 = A
Z
2 4 . 2 2 | Modern Physics
(1)2
For shortest orbit n = 1; rn = n2r1 ; × 0.529 Å = 18 × 10-2 A
Z
3 system is Li2+ since only single e is present.
⇒Z=
Illustration 19: What will be the ratio of the area of circular orbits in doubly ionized lithium atom in 2nd & 3rd Bohr
orbit? (JEE MAIN)
c Z
v= m/s; where c = velocity of light in vacuum = 3 × 108 m/s
137 n
Results:
1
(i) v ∝ (Z = constant)
n
v hyperbolic
n
Figure 24.36
Illustration 20: What will be the ratio of speed of electrons in hydrogen atom in its 3rd & 4th orbit? (JEE MAIN)
Z
Sol: According to the Bohr’s theory v ∝ where v is the speed of electron in its orbit, n is the principle quantum
n
number and Z is the atomic number of the element.
Z v 4
v∝ ∴ 3 =
n v4 3
Illustration 21: What will be the the ratio of speed of electron in 3rd orbit of He+ to 4th orbit of Li++ atom?
(JEE MAIN)
Z
Sol: According to the Bohr’s theory v ∝ , where v is the speed of electron in its orbit n is the principle quantum
n
number and Z is the atomic number of the element.
Here the element in consideration differs in atomic number, i.e., Z(He) = 2 and Z (Li) =3
2
( v3 ) He+ 3 8
∴ = = .
( v 4 ) Li2+ 3 9
4
P hysi cs | 24.23
(c) Total energy of electron: The total energy of an electron in any orbit equals the sum of its kinetic and
KZ e2 KZ e2 KZ e2
potential energy in that orbit. TE = KE + PE = − ; TE = −
2r r 2r
Results:
(i) TE of an electron in atom = (-)ve quantity. (-)ve sign indicates that electron is in bound state.
(ii) If r ↑, TE ↑
(iii) if r = ∞ , TE = 0
PE
(iv) TE = -KE = in any H-like atom
2
k Ze2
TE = −
n2h2
2× 2
4 π mk Ze2
2π2mk 2 Z 2e4 Z2 Z2
TE =
− ⇒ TE =
− R ch ⇒ TE =
−13.6 ev
n2h2 n2 n2
2π2mk 2e4 me4
where R = Rydberg constant = = = 1.097 × 107 m−1
3
ch 8 ∈0 ch3
2
Note: Rydberg constant is not a universal constant. In Bohr calculation, it is determined by assuming the nucleus
to be stationary
For Bohr Rydberg constant,
= R ∞ 1.097 × 107 m−1 , if nucleus is not assumed stationary then
R
R= ,mN = mass of nucleus
me
1 +
mN
decreases.
(c) Total energy of an electron in any orbit in H-like atom = (Total energy of an electron in that orbit in H-atom
×Z 2 )
(d) PE of an electron in any orbit in H-like atom = (PE of an electron in that orbit in H-atom) ×Z 2 (v) KE of an
electron in any orbit in H-like atom= (KE of an electron in that orbit in H-atom) ×Z 2 (vi) ∆En n in any H-like
1 2
atom= ( ∆En n in H-atom) ×Z 2
1 2
In Bohr’s model of the atom, it is stated that the angular momentum of the electron orbiting around the nucleus is
nh
quantized (that is, Ln = ; n = 1, 2, 3,..…). Why is it that the values of angular momentum are only integral
2π
h
multiples of
2π
De Broglie, speculated that nature did not
single out light as being the only matter
which exhibits a wave-particle duality. He
proposed that ordinary ``particles’’ such as
electrons, protons, or bowling balls could Nucleus
also exhibit wave characteristics in certain r
circumstances.C.J. Davisson and L.H. German
later experimentally verified the wave nature
of electron in 1927. It was De Broglie’s
contention (like Bohr) was that an electron in
motion around the nucleas must be seen as a
particle wave. Analogous to waves travelling A standing wave is shown in a circular orbit where four de Broglie
wavelength fit into the circumference of the orbit.
on a string, particle waves too can lead to
standing waves under resonant conditions. Figure 24.38: De broglie model
P hysi cs | 24.25
We know that when a string is peturbed, it generates a number of wavelengths along the length of the string.
Of these, only those wavelengths that have nodes at either ends and form standing waves survive, while other
wavelengths get reflected upon themselves resulting in their amplitudes quickly dropping to zero. Therefore,
standing waves are formed when a wave travels the along the enrire length of the string and back in one, two, or
any integral number of wavelengths. For an electron moving in nth circular orbit of radius rn , the total distance is
the circumference of the orbit, 2πrn .
h
Thus, 2πrn =nλ , n = 1, 2, 3 …….. We have, λ = , where p is the magnitude of the electron’s momentum.
p
If the speed of the electron is much less than the speed of light, the momentum is mvn.
h nh nh
Thus, λ = .; 2πrn = or mv nrn =
mv n mv n 2π
This is the quantum condition proposed by Bohr for the angular momentum of the electron. Thus de Broglie
hypothesis provided an explanation for Bohr’s second postulate for the quantization of angular momentum of the
orbiting electron by postulating the wave nature of matter particles like electrons. The quantized electron orbits
and energy states are due to the wave nature of the electron and only resonant standing waves can persist.
7.4.9 Limitations
(a) The Bohr model is applicable to hydrogenic atoms with a single electron. All attempts to use Bohr’s Model
to analyze atoms with more than one electron failed as Bohr’s model deals only with interaction between
the electron and the positively charged nucleus but does not account for the interaction of an electron with
other electrons as would be the case with multi-electron atoms.(ii) While the Bohr’s model correctly predicts
the frequencies of the light emitted by hydrogenic atoms, it cannot predict the relative intensities of spectral
lines. Some frequencies in the hydrogen emission spectrum, for example, have weak intensity while others
have strong intensity. Bohr’s model is unable to account for the intensity variations.
(a) Ionization energy and ionization potential: The ionization energy is the energy necessary to remove an
electron from the neutral atom. It is a minimum for the alkali metals which have a single electron outside a
closed shell. The ionization potential is the potential through which an electron is accelerated for removal an
electron from the neutral atom is called ionization potential.
I.E. = E∞ − E1 =−E1 = Binding energy of e− ( e∞ assumed to be zero)
(b) Excitation energy and excitation potential: The minimum energy required to excite an atom i.e., alteration
from the condition of lowest energy (ground state) to one of higher energy (excited state) is called excitation
energy of the particular excited state and corresponding potential is called excitation potential.
2 4 . 2 6 | Modern Physics
E2 n=2 E+E1=E2
E E=E2-E1
E1 n=1 Excitation energy
E3 n=3 E+E1=E3
E E=E3-E1
E1 n=1 2nd Excitation energy
E3 n=3 E+E2=E3
E E=E3-E2
E2 n=2 Excitation energy of e- for 1st excited state
E4 n=4 E+E2=E4
E E=E4-E2
E2 n=2 2ndExcitation energy of e- for 2nd excited state
E
E+E1=E=0
E
E=-E1
E1 1 (I.E.)
E
E+E2=E=0
E E=E-E2=-E2
E2 2 (I.E.) of in 1st excited state
Figure 24.40
If excitation energy and ionization energy are represented in eV, then corresponding value in volt is termed as
excitation potential and ionization potential, respectively.
For Example: Excitation energy and ionization energy for H-atom are 10.2 eV and 13.6 eV, respectively and,
therefore, 10.2V and 13.6V are excitation and ionization potential, respectively.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Reduced mass: Both the proton and electron revolve in circular orbits about their common centre of
mass. However, we can account for the motion of the nucleus simply by replacing the mass of electron
m by the reduced mass µ of the electron and the nucleus.
Mm
Here µ = ….(i)
M+m
m
Where M = mass of nucleus. The reduced mass can also be written as, µ =
m
1+
M
Note: If motion of the nucleus is also considered, then m is replaced by µ, where µ = reduced mass of
mM Z2 µ
electron – nucleus system = . In this case, En = ( −13.6eV) .
m+M n2 me
Vaibhav Krishnan (JEE 2009, AIR 22)
P hysi cs | 24.27
8. SPECTRUM
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
1
Total energy of an electron in an atom = × potential energy of electron = − kinetic energy of electron
2
Nivvedan (JEE 2009, AIR 113)
hc Z2 Z2 n2
Then ∆E= hv = = En − En ; E = −Rch J = −13.6 eV En2
λ 2 1
n2 n2
1 v l
RchZ 2 RchZ 2
21
∴ ∆E = − − ⇒ ∆E Rch Z
= − n1
n22 n2 n2 n2 En1
1 1 2
Figure 24.41
hc 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ h=
ν = RchZ 2 − ⇒ ν= = R Z 2 −
λ n2 n2 λ n2 n2
1 2 1 2
1 1 1
For H-atom, Z= 1 & there for,
= R −
λ n2 2
1 n2
3
2
1
Absorption line
Figure 24.42
Last line
or series limit
3
2
First line
1
Emission line
Figure 24.43
1 1 1 4
For 1st line or series beginning n1 = 1 , n2 = 2=
; R − ; λmax = = 1216 Å
λ 12 2
2 3R
1 1 1 1
For series limit or last line n1 = 1 , n2 = ∞=
; R − ; λmin = =912.68 Å
λ 2 2 R
1 ∞
* Remember – Lyman series is found in UV region of electromagnetic spectrum
(b) Balmer series:
Series limit
4
3
First line
2
n=1
Energy level
Figure 24.44
1 1 1
i.e. maximum wavelength 6563Å
= R 2 − 2 ; ∴ λmax =
λmax 2 3
Wavelength of last line or series limit i.e. minimum wavelength
1 1 4
λmin = R − ; λmin = = 3646 Å
2 2 R
2 ∞
* Balmer series is found only in emission spectrum.
* Balmer series lies in the visible region of electromagnetic spectrum. Only the first four lines of Balmer series
lies in visible region. Rest of them lie in the infrared region of EM spectrum.
2 4 . 3 0 | Modern Physics
5
4
3
n=2
n=1
Figure 24.45
1 1 1
n1 3,=
For first line= n2 4 , then R −
=×
2
λmax 3 42
5
4
n=3
n=2
n=1
Figure 24.46
1 1 1 9
n1 = 3 , n2 = ∞ ; = R 2 − 2 ; λmin = = 8107 Å
λmin 3 ∞ R
n1 4,
(d) Brackett series –= = n2 5, 6, 7 . . .∞
6
5
4
3
2
n1=1
Figure 24.47
1 1 1
For first list 40477 Å
= R 2 − 2 ; λmax =
λmax 4 5
P hysi cs | 24.31
1 1 1 16
For last line or series limit = R 2 − 2 ; λmin = = 14572 Å
λmin 4 ∞ R
last line
6
first line
5
4
3
2
n=1
Figure 24.48
n1 = 5 , n2 = 6 , 7, 8, …... ∞
1 1 1
For first line = R 2 − 2 ; λmax = 74515 Å For last line or series limit
λmax 5 6
1 1 1 25
= R − 2 ⇒ λmin = = 22768 Å
λmin 5 ∞ R
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The minimum wavelength of a series (Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Brackett etc.) correlates with the ionization
potential of the electron from that shell.
Chinmay S Purandare (JEE 2012, AIR 698)
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
1
Total energy of an electron in an atom = * Potential energy of electron
2
= - Kinetic energy of electron
* If an electron jumps from then ∆=
E Ehigh − Elow
Where Elow is the low-energy state from where the jump begins and Ehigh is the high-energy state where
the jump ends.
Nitin Chandrol (JEE 2012, AIR 134)
Illustration 22: What will be the two highest wavelengths of the radiation emitted when hydrogen atoms make
transitions from higher states to n = 2 states? (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: For electronic transition from energy state En > E2 (where n = 3, 4, 5…) to E2, the spectral series corresponds
1 1 1
to Balmer series. Therefore the wavelength of this transition is = R 2 − 2 where n = 3, 4 ,5....∞ and R is
λ 2 n
Rydberg’s constant.
The highest wavelength corresponds to the lowest energy of transition. This will be the case for the transition n =
3 to n = 2. The second highest wavelength corresponds to the transition n = 4 to n = 2.
E1
The energy of the state n is En =
n2
13.6eV 13.6eV 13.6eV
Thus, E2 =
− −3.4 eV ; E3 =
= − −1.5eV ; and E4 =
= − −0.85 eV
=
4 9 16
hc 1242eV × 1 nm
The highest wavelength is λ1 = = = 654 nm
∆E (3.4eV − 1.5eV)
1242eV × 1 nm
The second highest wavelength is λ2 = = 487 nm.
(3.4 eV − 0.85eV)
Illustration 23: The particle µ-meson has a charge equal to that of an electron and a mass that is 208 times that
of the electron. It moves in a circular orbit around a nucleus of charge +3e. Assume that the mass of the nucleus
is infinite. Supposing that Bohr’s model is applicable to this system, (a) derive an equation for the radius of the nth
Bohr orbit, (b) find the value of n for which the radius of the orbit is approximately the same as that of the first Bohr
orbit for a hydrogen atom (c) find the wavelength of the radiation emitted when the µ-meson jumps from the third
orbit to the first orbit. (JEE ADVANCED)
n2h2 ε0
Sol: According to Bohr’s theory, the radius of nth Bohr’s orbit is rn = and energy of µ-meson in nth orbit
πme2 Z
mZ 2e4
is En = − . If µ-meson jumps from a higher energy orbit to a lower energy orbit, the energy emitted is
8ε20n2h2
1 1
∆E = Z 2 × 13.6 × − eV . To derive the expression for the nth orbit we have to keep in mind that the electrostatic
nf ni2
2
force of attraction between µ-meson and the nucleus provides the required centripetal force for circular orbit.
h
According to Bohr’s postulate, the magnitude of angular momentum of µ-meson must be integral multiple of .
2π
P hysi cs | 24.33
2
mv 2 Ze2 2 Ze
(a) We have, = or v r = … (i)
r 4 πε0r 2 4 πε0m
nh
The quantization rule is vr =
2πm
m e4
But − e is the ground state energy of hydrogen atom and hence is equal to −13.6 eV .
8ε2h2
0
1872 −25459.2eV
From (iii), En = − × 13.6 eV =
2
n n2
E1
Thus, E1 = - 25459.2 eV and E3 = = -2828.8 eV, The energy difference is E3 − E1 = 22630.4 eV.
9
hc
E3 − E1 =
λ
o
o
hc 12375eV − A
=
⇒λ = = 0.5468 A
E3 − E1 22630.4 eV
Illustration 24: A neutron moving with speed v makes a head-on collision with a stationary hydrogen atom in
ground state. Determine the minimum kinetic energy of the neutron for which inelastic (completely or partially)
collision may take place. The mass of neutron ≈ mass of hydrogen = 1.67 × 10−27 kg . (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: It is important to remember the hydrogen atom will absorb the kinetic energy lost in an inelastic collision,
causing the atom to reach one of its excited states. The quantum of energy thus absorbed by hydrogen atom will
be equal to what is required to reach a possible excited state, and not more. Since the hydrogen atom is initially
in ground state (n = 1), the minimum energy it can absorb will be equal to that required to reach the first excited
state (n = 2). If the colliding neutron’s kinetic energy is less than this minimum energy, no energy will be absorbed,
i.e., inelastic collision may not take place.
Let us assume that the neutron and the hydrogen atom move at speeds v1 and v 2 after the collision. The collision
will be inelastic if a part of the kinetic energy is used to excite the atom. Suppose an energy ∆E is used in this way.
Considering collision to be inelastic, using conservation of linear momentum and energy,
mv mv1 + mv 2 ...(i)
=
2 4 . 3 4 | Modern Physics
1 1 1
And mv 2
= mv12 + mv 22 + ∆E …(ii)
2 2 2
2∆E 2∆E
From (i), v 2 = v12 + v 22 + 2v1 v 2 ; From (ii), v 2 = v12 + v 22 + Thus, 2v1 v 2 =
m m
4 ∆E 4 ∆E
v2 −
Hence, (v1 − v 2 )2 = (v1 + v 2 )2 −4v1 v 2 = ; As v1 − v 2 must be real, ; v 2 − ≥0;
m m
1
or mv 2 > 2∆E .
2
The minimum energy that can be absorbed by the hydrogen atom in ground state to go in an excited state is 10.2 eV.
1 2
Thus, the minimum kinetic energy of the neutron needed for an inelastic collision is mv min 2 × 10.2eV =
= 20.4 eV
2
1
Illustration 25: The potential energy U of a small moving particle of mass m is mω2r 2 , where ω is a constant and
2
r is the distance of the particle from the origin. Assuming Bohr’s model of quantization of angular momentum and
circular orbits, show that radius of the nth allowed orbit is proportional to n . (JEE ADVANCED)
dU
Sol: The force acting on the particle in the radial direction Fr = − provides the necessary centripetal acceleration
dr
for the particle to move in a circular orbit.
dU
The force at a distance r is Fr =− =−mω2r … (i)
dr
mv 2
Suppose the particle moves along a circle of radius r. The net force on it should be along the radius.
r
mv 2
Comparing with (i), =mω2r ⇒ v =rω ... (ii)
r
nh nh
The quantization of angular momentum gives mvr = or, v = … (iii)
2π 2πmr
1/2
nh
From (ii) and (iii), r = .
2πmω
Thus, the radius of the nth orbit is proportional to n.
9. BINDING ENERGY
Binding energy,is amount of energy required to separate a particle from a system of particles or to disperse all
the particles of the system. Conversely it also defined as the energy released when particles are brought together
to form a system of particles. For example, if an electron and a proton are initially at rest and brought from large
distances to form a hydrogen atom, 13.6 eV energy will be released. The binding energy of a hydrogen atom is,
therefore, 13.6 eV, same as its ionization energy.
1 hc
Then mv 2 + =En − En = ∆E
2 λ 2 1 l
h
Recoil momentum of atom = = momentum of photon En n1
λ 1
p2 Figure 24.49
Recoil energy of atom =
2m
Illustration 26: Given that the excitation energy of a hydrogen-like ion in its first excited state is 40.8 eV, determine
the energy needed to remove the electron from the ion. (JEE MAIN)
1
Sol: The excitation energy for hydrogen like ion for (n-1)th excited state (nth orbit) is E = hc × R × Z 2 1 − where
n = 2, 3, 4, ….etc. The energy needed to remove the electron from the ion is E = hc × R × Z 2 . n2
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
−h2 ∂ 2 Ψ ∂ 2 Ψ ∂ 2 Ψ Ze2 Ψ
+ + − EΨ
= ... (ii)
8π2m ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 4 πε0r
Here (x, y, z) refers to a point with the nucleus as the origin and r is the distance of this point from the nucleus. E
refers to energy. The constant Z is the number of protons in the nucleus. For hydrogen, we have to put Z = 1. There
2 4 . 3 6 | Modern Physics
are infinite number of functions Ψ(r ) which satisfy equation (ii). These functions, which are solutions of equation
(ii), may be characterized in terms of three parameters n, l and ml With each solution Ψnl m , there is associated
l
a unique value of the energy E of the atom or the ion. The energy E corresponding to the wave function Ψnl m
l
mZ 2e4
depends only on n and may be written as En = −
8ε20h2n2
12. LASER
12.2 Working
When power is suppliedy and the electric field is established, E2
some of the atoms of the mixture get ionized. These ionized Metastable state
atoms release some electrons which are accelerated by the high
electric field. Consequentially, these electrons collide with helium
atoms to take them to the metastable state at energy E3 . These
atoms collide with a neon atom and transfer the extra energy to E1
it. As a result, the helium atom returns to its ground state and the
Figure 24.51: metastable state of electron
neon atom is excited to the state at energy E2. This process keeps
looping so that the neon atoms are continuously pumped to the
state at energy E2, keeping the population (of atoms) of this state large.
(f) Nuclear Fusion: Powerful and complex arrangements of lasers and optical amplifiers are used to produce
extremely high-intensity pulses of light of extremely short duration. These pulses are arranged to impact
pellets of tritium-deuterium, simultaneously, from all directions, hoping that the compression effect of the
impacts will induce atomic fusion in the pellets.
13. X-RAYS
X-radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10
nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz) and
energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV. X-radiation is also referred to as Röntgen radiation, after Wilhelm Röntgen,
who is usually credited as its discoverer, and who had named it X-radiation to signify an unknown type of radiation
produced when electron collided with the walls of the tube.
The wave nature of X-rays, was established by Laue who demonstrated that they are diffracted by crystals.
13.1 Production
High P.D.
The modern X-ray tube, called Coolidge tube, is shown in the
Fig. 24.52. A heated element emits electronswhich are
accelerated towards a cooled copper anode under a high Target
potential difference. A target metal of high atomic number Filament
Cooled
and high melting point is lodged on the anode. copper anode
Characteristic spectrum
Intensity
Continuous spectrum
min
Figure 24.53: X-Ray spectra
2 3
Now, E = Rhc ( Z − 1 ) = ⇒ h ν R hc ( Z − 1 ) ×
2
=
4
3R c
=v (Z − 1)
4
and I is the intensity after travelling through a distance x, then I = I0 e−µx where µ is called the absorption
coefficient of the material. The atomic number of the material and its absorption coefficient are directly
proportional. This is the basis of radiography.
(e) They cause photoelectric emission.
(f) Electric and magnetic fields have no effect on X-rays as they contain no charged particles.
Note: X-Rays are not affected by electric or magnetic fields. Intensity of X-rays depends on number of electrons
in the incident beam.
P hysi cs | 24.39
PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS
(a) This section of Physics is more fact-based. The key to answering questions of these sections is establish a lonk
between the known and asked quantities
(b) One has to be very conversant with the formulae and standard scientific constants.
(c) In this section, graphical questions seeking relationship between various fundamental quantities are usually
asked. Assign the dependent variable as y and the independent variable as x and then look for a relation
between them.
(d) One must not get confused about approaching the questions from a wave nature or particle nature or try
to combine both. Just solve questions on the basis of the known and asked quantities and the relationship
between the two.
(e) It is important to learn the scientific constants in various units to avoid unnecessary unit conversion. (e.g.,
if energy of a photon is in eV units and wavelength asked in angstrom, one can directly use the relation =
12400/E, here 12400 is the product of Planck’s constant and speed of light.)
(f) Analytical questions pertaining to H-atom can be solved easily if one knows proportionality relation between
quantities. They need not be learnt by heart. They can be derived without bothering about constants appearing
in these relations. (e.g., radius of nth shell is directly proportional to n2 , keeping Z constant.)
FORMULAE SHEET
n2h2 ε0 −10 2
(ii) rn = radius of nth circular orbit = rn = 2
(0.529 Å) n2 ; (1 Å = 10 m) ; rn ∝ n
πme
−13.6eV 1
(iii) En energy of the electron in the nth orbit = i.e. En ∝
2
n n2
2
e
(iv) nth orbital speed v n =
2ε0nh
Note: Total energy of the electron in an atom is negative, indicating that it is bound.
13.6eV
Binding Energy (BE)n = −En =
n2
(iv) En − En = Energy emitted when an electron jumps from n2 orbit to n1 orbit (n2 > n1 ) .
2 1
1 1
∆E = (13.6 eV) −
n12 n22
1 1 1
Wave number= ν = = [no. of waves in unit length (1m)] = R −
λ n12 n22
Bohr radius 2 n2
= rnz × n = (0.529Å) ;
Z Z
Z2
EnZ = ( −13.6) ev
n2
mM
Where µ = reduced mass of electron – nucleus system =
m+M
Z2 µ
In this case, En = ( −13.6 eV) .
2 me
n
En − En
2 1
Excitation potential for quantum jump from n1 → n2 =
electron charge
From Mosley’s Law ν= a(z − b) where b (shielding factor) is different for different series.
1 1 1
For x-rays =R× (Z − b)2 × −
λ n2 2
1 n2
R = R 0 A1/3 . Where R 0 = empirical constant = 1.1 × 10 −15 m ; A = Mass number of the atom.
P hysi cs | 24.41
Solved Examples
Example 2: If the wavelength of the incident light is Sol: The energy of radiation having wavelength λ is
5000 Å and the photoelectric work function of the hc
metallic plate is 1.90 eV, find E=
λ
(a) Energy of the photon in eV Given λmin = 0.65Å = 0.65 × 10−10 m,
(b) Kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted h = 6.63 × 10−34 Js, c = 3 × 108 ms−1
(c) Stopping potential We know, maximum energy of X-ray photon is
hc
Sol: The energy of photon is E = hν = , where λ is hc 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
λ Emax =ν
h max = =
the wavelength of the light. This photon knocks out λmin 0.65 × 10−10 × 1.6 × 10−19
photoelectron from the surface of metal with the
= 19.13 × 103 eV = 19.13 keV
maximum kinetic energy Emax = hν − φ0 = e V where
f0 is the work function of metal and V is the stopping
potential. Example 5: If ultra-violet light of λ =2600 Å is incident
on a silver surface with a threshold wavelength for
(a) Energy of the incident photon, photoelectric emission of λ =3800 Å , calculate:
hc 6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 (i) Work function
E = hν= =
λ 5000 × 10−10 (ii) Maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
−19 photoelectrons.
= 3.96 × 10 joule = 2.47 eV
(iii) Maximum velocity of the photoelectrons.
(b) Kinetic energy of the photo-electrons emitted KEmax
1 hc
= mv 2 = hν − φ0 = (2.47 – 1.90) eV = 0.57 eV Sol: The work function of metal is φ = hν th = . The
2 λ th
(c) e V = KEmax Where V is stopping potential kinetic energy with which the photoelectron is ejected
2 4 . 4 2 | Modern Physics
1
from the metal surface is E = hν − φ = mv 2 hc (6.6 × 10−34 ) × (3 × 108 )
2 =
∴ λ2 =
4.8 × 10−19 4.8 × 10−19
hc 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
(i) φ = hν th = = J
λ th 3800 × 10−10 λ2 4.125 × 10−7 m = 4125 Å
=
5.23 × 10−19
= 5.23 × 10−19 J = eV = 3.27 eV Example 7: A hydrogen-like atom (atomic number Z) in
1.6 × 10−19 a higher excited state of quantum number n can make
a transition to the first excited state by successively
(ii) Incident wavelength λ =2600 Å
emitting two photons of energies 10.20 eV and 17.00
Then KEmax of emitted photoelectrons = hν − φ ; eV, respectively. On the other hand, the atom from the
same excited state can make a transition to the second
hc 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 excited state by successively emitting two photon of
here h=
ν =
λ 2600 × 10−10 energies 4.25 eV and 5.95 eV, respectively. What are the
values of n and Z. (Ionization energy of hydrogen atom
7.65 × 10−19 = 13.6 eV)?
=7.65 × 10−19 J = =4.78 eV
1.6 × 10−19
Sol: For any hydrogen-like atom, the energy released
KEmax= (4.78 – 3.27) eV; = 1.51 eV in transition from a higher excited state to a lower
1 1
KEmax × 2 1.51 × 1.6 × 10−10 × 2 excited state is ∆E = Z 2 × 13.6 × − eV where nf
(iii) Vmax = = m/s.
m 9.1 × 10−31 n2f ni2
and ni are principle quantum numbers of final (lower)
= 7.29 × 105 m / s and initial (higher) energy states respectively.
In first case, the excited atom makes a transition from
Example 6: The photocurrent generated when a nth state to n = 2 state and two photons of energies 10.2
surface is irradiated with light of wavelength 4950 Å, eV and 17.0 eV are emitted. Hence, if Z is the atomic
vanishes if a stopping potential greater than 0.6 V is number of H-like atom, then using
applied across the photo tube. When a different source 1 1
of light is used, it is found that the stopping potential ∆E = Z 2 × 13.6 × − eV ;
has changed to 1.1 V. Determine the work function of n2f ni2
the emitting surface and the wavelength of second 1 1
source. (10.2 + 17.0)eV =Z 2 × 13.6 × − ...(i)
2
2 n2
Sol: The maximum kinetic energy of emitted In second case, the excited atom makes a transition
photoelectron is the product of stopping potential and from nth state to n = 3 state and two photons of
electron charge, given by KEmax = eV = hν − φ , where energies 4.25 eV and 5.95 eV are emitted.
ϕ is the work function of the metal. For two different
stopping potentials we have two different wavelengths 1 1
(4.25 + 5.95) eV =Z 2 × 13.6 × − ...(ii)
2
of light used. 3 n2
Let λ1 = 4950Å, V1 = 0.6 V Dividing equation (i) and (ii), we get
hc hc 27.2 9(n2 − 4) n2 − 4 2n2 − 13
KEmax
= − φ ; KEmax= eV1 ⇒ =
φ − eV=
1 = or = 1.185 or
λ1 λ1 10.2 2 5
4(n2 − 9) n −9
(6.6 × 10−34 ) × (3 × 108 ) 2.185
− 0.6 =
1.9 eV =
4950 × 10−10 × 1.6 × 10−19 0.185
hc or n2 = 36 or n = 6
(b) = φ + eV2 ;
λ2
Putting in equation (i), we get
hc
λ2
( )
=3.04 × 10−19 + 1.6 × 10−19 × 1.1 = 4.8 × 10−19 J 1 1
27.2 = Z 2 × 13.6 − 2 27.2 9
or Z = × = 9
4 36 13.6 2
or, Z = 3.
P hysi cs | 24.43
From the nth state, the atom may go to (n – 1) (i) Find the wavelength of the least energetic and the
th
state, ……, n = 2 state or n = 1 state. So there are most energetic photons in this series.
(n – 1) possible transitions starting from the nth state. (ii) Construct an energy level diagram for this element
The atoms reaching (n – 1)th state may make (n – 2) representing at least three energy levels.
different transitions to reach n = 1 state. In the same
(iii) Determine the ionization potential of this element?
way, for other lower states, the total number of possible
transitions is (n – 1) + (n – 2) + (n – 3) + …. 2+1
n(n − 1) Sol: If wavelength of spectral lines for transitions from
= . n = p to n = 1 are given, then the energy of radiation for
2
hc hc 1
each transition is given as = E = (1 − ) . The
Example 9: For a hydrogen-like, doubly ionized λ 1500 p2
lithium atom with atomic number Z=3, determine least energy is obtained from transition from p = 2 to
the wavelength of the radiation required to excite the p = 1 and maximum energy is obtained from transition
electron in Li2+ from the first to the third Bohr orbit. from p=∞ to p=1. The ionization corresponds to the
The ionization energy of hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV. maximum energy in the spectrum.
u 6.246 × 10 4 m / s
⇒=
Sol: Here we need to consider that the kinetic energy
lost in the inelastic collision will be absorbed by one of
the hydrogen atoms to reach to its next excited state. Example 7: Assuming the potential energy between
As both the hydrogen atoms are initially in ground state
ke2
(n=1), the minimum energy absorbed will be equal to electron and proton at a distance r to be U = ,
that required by one of the atoms to reach the first 3r3
excited state (n=2). If the kinetic energy of the colliding use Bohr’s theory to obtain energy levels of such a
hydrogen atom is less than this minimum energy, no hypothetical atom.
energy will be absorbed, i.e. inelastic collision may not
take place. Sol: The negative of gradient of potential energy
is equal to force on the electron. This force provides
Let u be the velocity of the hydrogen atom before the necessary centripetal acceleration to the electron
collision and v the velocity of the two atoms moving to move in a circular orbit around the proton. The
together after collision. By the principle of conservation magnitude of angular momentum of electron is
of momentum, we have: Mu + M × 0 = 2Mv quantized. The mass of the proton is very large as
compared to the mass of electron, so it will not be
u
or v = . The loss in kinetic energy ∆E due to collision accelerated due to the force exerted on it by the
2
1 1 electron, hence it is assumed to be stationary.
is given by =∆E Mu2 − (2M)v 2
2 2 As we know that negative of potential energy gradient
u is force for a conservative field.
As v =
2 dU ke2
2 − = F. It is given that U = … (i)
1 1 u dr 3r3
∆E
we have = Mu2 − (2M)
2 2 2 dU d ke2 ke2
Hence, force F = − = − =
=
1 1 1
Mu2 − Mu2 = Mu2 dr dr 3r3 r4
2 4 4
According to Bohr’s theory this force provides the
This loss in energy is due to the excitation of one of the
necessary centripetal force for orbital motion.
hydrogen atoms. The ground state (n = 1) energy of a
hydrogen atom is: ke2 mv 2
= … (ii)
r4 r
E1 = −13.6eV
Also quantizing angular momentum,
The energy of the first excited level (n = 2) is:
nh
E2 = −3.4 eV mvr = ... (iii)
2π
nh
Thus the minimum energy required to excite a hydrogen Hence, v = ... (iv)
atom from ground state to first excited state is: E2 − E1 2πmr
= [– 3.4 – (–13.6)] eV = 10.2 eV = 10.2 × 1.6 × 10−19 J Substituting this value in Eq.(ii), we get
= 16.32 × 10−19 J mn2h2 ke2 4 π2me2k
= or r =
As per problem, the loss in kinetic energy in collision is 4 π2m2r3 r4 n2h2
due to the energy used up in exciting one of the atoms.
Thus. ∆E = E2 − E1 Substituting this value or r in Eq. (iv), we get
1 n3h3
Or Mu2 = 16.32 × 10−19 v=
4 8π3km2e2
4 × 16.32 × 10−19 Total energy E = KE + PE
Or u2 =
M
The mass of the hydrogen atom is 1.0078 amu or 1.0078 1 ke2
× 1.66 × 10−27 kg = mv 2 −
2 3r3
2 4 . 4 8 | Modern Physics
JEE Main/Boards
Q.3 Two metals A and B have work functions 2eV and Q.9 The following graphs
5eV respectively. Which metal has lower threshold shows the variation of P Q
wavelength? stopping potential V0 with V0
the frequency v of the
Q.4 de-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron incident radiation for two
accelerated through a potential difference V is λ . What photosensitive metals P 0.5 1.0 (x1015s-1)
v
will be its wavelength when the accelerating potential and Q:
is increased to 4 V? (i) Explain which metal has smaller threshold wavelength.
(ii) Explain, giving reason, which metal emits
Q.5 Sketch a graph between frequency of incident photoelectron having smaller kinetic energy.
radiations and stopping potential for a given
photosensitive material. What information can be (iii) If the distance between the light source and metal
obtained from the value of the intercept on the P is doubled, how will the stopping potential change?
potential axis?
A source of light of frequency greater than the Q.10 The stopping potential in an experiment on
threshold frequency is placed at a distance of 1 m from photoelectric effect is 1.5V. What is the maximum
the cathode of a photo-cell. The stopping potential is kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted?
found to be V. If the distance of the light source from
the cathode is reduced, explain giving reasons, what Q.11 An α -Particles and a proton are accelerated from
change will you observe in the rest by the same potential. Find the ratio of their de-
(i) Photoelectric current Broglie wavelengths.
Q.14 Draw a plot showing the variation of photoelectric Q.23 The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is
current with collector plate potential for two different –13.6eV. What are the kinetic and potential energies of
frequencies, v1 > v 2 ,of incident radiation having the electron in this state?
same intensity. In which case will the stopping potential
be higher? Justify your answer. Q.24 In a Geiger-Marsden experiment, calculate the
distance of closest approach to the nucleus of Z = 80,
Q.15 A proton and an electron have same kinetic when an α -particle of 8 MeV energy impinges on it
energy. Which one has greater de-Broglie wavelength before it comes momentarily to rest and reverse its
and why? direction.
How will the distance of closest approach be affected
Q.16 Define the terms (i) ’cut-off voltage’ and (ii) when the kinetic energy of the α -particle is doubled?
’threshold frequency’ in relation to the phenomenon of
photoelectric effect.
Q.25 A photon and electron have got the same de-
Using Einstein’s photoelectric equation show how the Broglie wavelength. Which has the greater total energy?
cut-off voltage and threshold frequency for a given Explain.
photosensitive material can be determined with the
help of a suitable plot/graph. Q.26 If the intensity of incident radiation of a metal
surface is doubled, what happens to the kinetic energy
Q.17 Derive the expression for the radius of the ground of the electrons emitted?
state orbit of hydrogen atom, using Bohr’s postulates.
Calculate the frequency of the photon, which can excite Q.27 The wavelength of a spectral line is 4000 Å.
the electron to –3.4 eV from –13.6 eV. Calculate its frequency and energy. Given,
c = 3 × 108 ms−1 and =
h 6.6 × 10−34 Js .
Q.18 A stream of electrons travelling with speed ‘v’ m/s
at right angles to a uniform electric field ‘E’, is deflected Q.28 Calculate the longest wavelength of the incident
e v2 radiation, which will eject photoelectrons from a metal
in a circular path of radius ‘r’. Prove that = .
m rE surface, whose work function is 3 eV.
Q.3 If the frequency of light in a photoelectric Q.8 By increasing the intensity of incident light keeping
experiment is doubled, the stopping potential will frequency (v > v 0 ) fixed, on the surface of metal
(A) Be doubled (A) Kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increase
(B) Be halved (B) Number of emitted electrons increases
(C) Become more than doubled (C) Kinetic energy and number of electrons increase
(D) Become less than doubled (D) No effect
Q.4 The stopping potential for the photoelectron Q.9 A proton and an electron accelerated by same
emitted from a metal surface of work function 1.7 eV is potential difference have de-Broglie wavelength λp
10.4 V. Identify the energy levels corresponding to the and λe
transition in hydrogen atom which will result in emission
(A) λe =λp (B) λe < λp
of wavelength equal to that of incident radiation for the
above photoelectric effect. (C) λe > λp (D) None of these
(A) n = 3 to 1 (B) n = 3 to 2
Q.10 An electron with initial kinetic energy of 100eV is
(C) n = 2 to 1 (D) n = 4 to 1 accelerated through a potential difference of 50V. Now
the de-Broglie wavelength of electron becomes
Q.5 Radiation of two photon energies twice and
(A) 1Å (B) 1.5 Å (C) 3Å (D) 12.27Å
five times the work functions of metal are incident
successively on the metal surface. The ratio of the
maximum velocity of photoelectrons emitted is the two Q.11 If h is Planck’s constant in SI system, the
cases is momentum of a photon of wavelength 0.01 Å is:
(A) 1 : 2 (B) 2 : 1 (C) 1 : 4 (D) 4 : 1 (A) 10−2 h (B) h (C) 102 h (D) 1012 h
Q.6 Cut off potentials for a metal in photoelectric effect Q.12 Let K1 be the maximum kinetic energy of
for light of wavelength λ1 , λ2 and λ3 is found to be photoelectrons emitted by a light of wavelength λ1
V1 , V2 and V3 volts if V1 , V2 and V3 are in Arithmetic and K 2 corresponding to λ2 . If λ1 = 2λ2 , then:
Progression and λ1 , λ2 and λ3 will be: K
(A) 2K1 = K 2 (B) K1 = 2K 2 (C) K1 < 2 (D) K1 > 2K 2
2
(A) Arithmetic Progression
(B) Geometric Progression Q.13 Imagine a Young’s double slit interference
experiment performed with waves associated with fast
(C) Harmonic Progression moving electrons produced from an electron gun. The
(D) None distance between successive maxima will decrease
maximum if
Q.7 In a photoelectric experiment, the collector plate (A) The accelerating voltage in the electron gun is
is at 2.0V with respect to the emitter plate made of decreased
copper φ=4.5eV). The emitter is illuminated by a source (B) The accelerating voltage is increased and the
of monochromatic light of wavelength 200nm. distance of the screen from the slits is decreased
(A) The minimum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons (C) The distance of the screen from the slits is increased
reaching the collector is 0.
(D) The distance between the slits is decreased.
(B) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
reaching the collector is 3.7ev.
Q.14 If the electron in a hydrogen atom was in the
(C) If the polarity of the battery is reversed then answer energy level with n = 3, how much energy in joule would
to part A will be 0. be required to ionize the atom? (Ionization energy of
(D) If the polarity of the battery is reversed then answer H-atom is 2.18 × 10−18 J):
to part B will be 1.7eV. (A) 6.52 × 10–16 J (B) 2.86 × 10–10 J
(C) 2.42 × 10–19 J (D) 3.56 × 10–19 J
2 4 . 5 2 | Modern Physics
Q.15 In hydrogen and hydrogen like atoms, the ratio of theory of hydrogen atom,
difference of energies E4n − E2n and E2n − En varies with
(A) fr 2L is constant for all orbits
its atomic number z and n as:
(B) frL is constant for all orbits
z2 z4 z
(A) (B) (C) (D) z 0n0
n2 n4 n (C) f 2rL is constant for all orbits
(D) frL2 is constant for all orbits
Q.16 In a hydrogen atom, the electron is in nth excited
state. It may come down to second excited state by
Q.22 Radius of the second Bohr orbit of singly ionized
emitting ten different wavelengths. What is the value
helium atom is
of n?
(A) 0.53 Å (B) 1.06 Å (C) 0.265 Å (D) 0.132 Å
(A) 6 (B) 7 (C) 8 (D) 5
Q.18 In a sample of hydrogen like atoms all of which Q.24 An electron is in an excited state in hydrogen-like
are in ground state, a photon beam containing photons atom. It has a total energy of –3.4eV. If the kinetic energy
of various energies is passed. In absorption spectrum, of the electron is E and its de-Broglie wavelength is λ ,
five dark lines are observed. The number of bright then
lines in the emission spectrum will be (Assume that all (A) E = 6.8eV, λ =6.6 × 10−10 m
transitions take place)
(B) E = 3.4eV, λ = 6.6 x 10−10 m
(A) 5 (B) 10 (C) 15 (D) None of these
(C) E = 3.4eV, λ = 6.6 x 10−11 m
Q.19 When a hydrogen atom, initially at rest emits, a (D) E = 6.8eV, λ = 6.6 x 10−11 m
photon resulting in transition n = 5 → n = 1, its recoil
speed is about Q.25 If radiation of all wavelengths from ultraviolet
−4 −2 to infrared is passed through hydrogen a gas at room
(A) 10 m/s (B) 2 × 10 m/s
temperature, absorption lines will be observed in the:
−2
(C) 4.2 m / s (D) 3.8 × 10 m/s
(A) Lyman series (B) Balmer series
Q.20 The electron in a hydrogen atom makes a (C) Both (A) and (B) (D) Neither (A) nor (B)
transition from an excited state to the ground state.
Which of the following statement is true? Q.26 In the hydrogen atom, if the reference level of
potential energy is assumed to be zero at the ground
(A) Its kinetic energy increases and its potential and
state level, choose the incorrect statement.
total energies decrease.
(A) The total energy of the shell increases with increase
(B) Its kinetic energy decreases, potential energy
in the value of n.
increases and its total energy remains the same.
(B) The total energy of the shell decrease with increase
(C) Its kinetic, and total energies decrease and its
in the value of n.
potential energy increases.
(C) The difference in total energy of any two shells
(D) Its kinetic, potential and total energies decrease.
remains the same.
Q.21 The magnitude of angular momentum, orbit (D) The total energy at the ground state becomes
radius and frequency of revolution of electron in 13.6 eV.
hydrogen atom corresponding to quantum number
n are L, r and respectively. Then according to Bohr’s
P hysi cs | 24.53
Q.27 Choose the correct statement(s) for hydrogen and Q.3 If elements with principal quantum number n >
deuterium atoms (considering motion of nucleus) 4 were not allowed in nature, the number of possible
elements would be (1983)
(A) The radius of first Bohr orbit of deuterium is less
than that of hydrogen (A) 60 (B) 32 (C) 4 (D) 64
(B) The speed of electron in the first Bohr orbit of
deuterium is more than that of hydrogen. Q.4 Consider the spectral line resulting from the
transition n = 2 → n = 1 in the atoms and ions given
(C) The wavelength of first Balmer line of deuterium is
below. The shortest wavelength is produced by (1983)
more than that of hydrogen
(A) Hydrogen atom
(D) The angular momentum of electron in the first Bohr
orbit of deuterium is more than that of hydrogen. (B) Deuterium atom
(C) Singly ionized helium
Q.28 In a Coolidge tube experiment, the minimum
wavelength of the continuous X-ray spectrum is equal (D) Doubly ionized lithium
to 66.3 pm, then 4
Q.5 Equation: 411 H →2 He2+ + 2e− + 26 MeV
(A) Electron accelerate through a potential difference of
12.75 kV in the Coolidge tube represents (1983)
(B) Electrons accelerate through a potential difference (A) b – decay (B) g – decay
of 18.75 kV in the Coolidge tube
(C) Fusion (D) Fission
(C) de-Broglie wavelength of the electrons reaching the
anticathode is of the order of 10µm. Q.6 For a given plate voltage, the plate current in a
(D) de-Broglie wavelength of the electrons reaching the triode valve is maximum when the potential of (1985)
anticathode is 0.01Å. (A) The grid is positive and plate is negative.
Q.29 The potential difference applied to an X-ray tube (B) The grid is zero and plate is positive.
is increased. As a result, in the emitted radiation: (C) The grid is negative and plate is positive
(A) The intensity increases (D) The grid is positive and plate is positive
(B) The minimum wave length increases
Q.7 The X-ray beam coming from an X-ray tube will be
(C) The intensity decreases
(1985)
(D) The minimum wave length decreases
(A) Monochromatic
(B) Having all wavelengths smaller than a certain
Previous Years’ Questions maximum wavelength
Q.1 The shortest wavelength of X-rays emitted from an (C) Having all wavelengths larger than a certain
X-ray tube depends on (1982) minimum wavelength
(A) The current in the tube (D) Having all wavelengths lying between a minimum
and a maximum wavelength
(B) The voltage applied to the tube
(C) The nature of the gas in tube Q.8 Statement-I: If the accelerating potential in
(D) The atomic number of the target material an X-ray tube is increased, the wavelengths of the
characteristic X-rays do not change.
Q.2 Beta rays emitted by a radioactive material are Statement-II: When an electron beam strikes the target
(1983) in an X-ray tube, part of the kinetic energy is converted
(A) Electromagnetic radiations into X-ray energy. (2007)
(B) The electrons orbiting around the nucleus (A) If Statement-I is true, statement-II is true; statement-
II is the correct explanation for statement-I.
(C) Charged particles emitted by the nucleus
(B) If Statement-I is true, statement-II is true; statement-
(D) Neutral particles II is not a correct explanation for statement-I.
2 4 . 5 4 | Modern Physics
(C) If statement-I is true; statement-II is false. Q.14 If a strong diffraction peak is observed when
electrons are incident at an angle ‘i’ from the normal to
(D) If statement-I is false; statement-II is true.
the crystal planes with distance ‘d’ between them (see
figure), de Broglie wavelength λdB of electrons can be
Q.9 To produce characteristic X-rays using a tungsten calculated by the relationship (n is an integer) (2008)
target in an X-ray generator, the accelerating voltage
should be greater than…… V and the energy of the (A) d sin i = nλdB (B) 2d cos i = nλdB
characteristic radiation is ………. eV. (1983) (C) 2d sin i = nλdB (D) d cos i = nλdB
(The binding energy of the innermost electron in
tungsten is 40 keV). Q.15 In an experiment, electrons are made to pass
through a narrow slit of width ‘d’ comparable to their
Q.10 The radioactive decay rate of a radioactive element de Broglie wavelength. They are detected on a screen
is found to be 103 disintegration/second at a certain at a distance ‘D’ from the slit (see figure). (2008)
time. If the half-life of the element is one second, the
decay rate after one second is ………… and after three
seconds is……… (1983)
y=0
d
Q.11 The maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted D
in the photoelectric effect is linearly dependent on the
……….. of the incident radiation. (1984)
Which of the following graph can be expected to
Q.12 In the uranium radioactive series the initial represent the number of electrons ‘N’ detected as a
nucleus is 238 206 function of the detector position ‘y’(y = 0 corresponds
92 U and the final nucleus is 82 Pb . When
the uranium nucleus decays to lead, the number to the middle of the slit)?
y
of α -particles emitted is ………. and the number of y
β -particles emitted is………. (1985)
(A) d (B) d
N N
Directions : Q.13, Q.14 and Q.15 are based on the
following paragraph.
y y
Wave property of electrons implies that they will show
diffraction effects. Davisson and Germer demonstrated
this by diffracting electrons from crystals. The law (C) d (D) d
N
governing the diffraction from a crystal is obtained by N
requiring that electron waves reflected from the planes
of atoms in a crystal interfere constructively (see in
figure). Q.16 Two points P and Q are maintained at the
potentials of 10V and -4V respectively. The work done
Incoming
Electrons
Outgoing in moving 100 electrons from P to Q is (2009)
Electrons
i
(A) –19×10–17 J (B) 9.60×10–17 J
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is Kmax. Statement-II: If electrons have wave nature, they can
When the ultraviolet light is replaced by X-rays, both V0 interfere and show diffraction. (2012)
and Kmax increase.
(A) Statement-I is false, statement-II is true
Statement-II: Photoelectrons are emitted with speeds
(B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is false
ranging from zero to a maximum value because of
the range of frequencies present in the incident light. (C) Statement-I is true, statement-II is the correct
(2010) explanation for statement-I
(A) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true; statement-II (D) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true, statement-II
is the correct explanation of statement-I. is not the correct explanation for statement-I.
(B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true; statement-II
is not the correct explanation of statement-I. Q.22 A diatomic molecule is made of two masses
m1 and m2 which are separated by a distance r. If we
(C) Statement-I is false, statement-II is true. calculate its rotational energy by applying Bohr’s rule
(D) Statement-I is true, statement-II is false. of angular momentum quantization, its energy will be
given by (n is an integer) (2012)
Q.19 If a source of power 4 kW produces 1020 photons/ (m1 + m2 )2 n2h2 n2h2
second, the radiation belong to a part of the spectrum (A) (B)
called (2010) 2m12m22r 2 2(m1 + m2 )r 2
Q.20 This question has Statement-I and Statement-II. Q.23 The anode voltage of a photocellis kept fixed.
Of the four choices given after the statements, choose The wavelength λ of the light falling on the cathode is
the one that best describes the two statements. gradually changed. The plate current I of the photocell
varies as follows : (2013)
Statement-I: A metallic surface is irradiated by a
monochromatic light of frequency v > v0 (the threshold I I
frequency). The maximum kinetic energy and the
stopping potential are Kmax and V0 respectively. If the (A) (B)
frequency incident on the surface doubled, both the
Kmax and V0 are also doubled (2011)
O O
(B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true; statement-II Q.24 In a hydrogen like atom electron make transition
is not the correct explanation of statement-I. from an energy level with quantum number n to another
with quantum number (n – 1). If n>>1, the frequency of
(C) Statement-I is false, statement-II is true.
radiation emitted is proportional to : (2013)
(D) Statement-I is true, statement-II is false.
1 1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D)
n n 2 3
n n3
Q.21 This question has statement-I and statement-II. Of
2
the four choices given after the statements, choose the
one that best describes the two statements Q.25 The radiation corresponding to 3 → 2 transition
of hydrogen atoms falls on a metal surface to produce
Statement-I: Davisson – germer experiment established
photoelectrons. These electrons are made to enter a
the wave nature of electrons.
magnetic field of 3 × 10–4 T. If the radius of the largest
circular path followed by these electrons is 10.0 mm,
2 4 . 5 6 | Modern Physics
JEE Advanced/Boards
the figure. Estimate the value of work function of the Q.10 In a photoelectric effect set-up, a point source
cesium and Planck’s constant. of light of power 3.2 × 10−3 W emits mono energetic
photons of energy 5.0 eV. The source is located at a
distance of 0.8 m from the center of a stationary metallic
sphere of work function 3.0 eV & of radius 8.0 × 10−3 .
Stopping potential (volt)
Q.16 A neutron with kinetic energy 25 eV strikes a transition are λ1 , λ2 and λ3 . The value of λ3 in terms
stationary deuteron. Find the de Broglie wavelengths of λ1 and λ2 is given by _______.
of both particles in the frame of their center of mass.
E3 n=3
Q.17 Assume that the de Broglie wave associated with
1
an electron can form a standing wave between the E2 n=2
atoms arranged in a one dimensional array with nodes
2
at each of the atomic sites. It is found that one such
3
E1 n=1
standing wave is formed if the distance ‘d’ between the
atoms of the array is 2 Å. A similar standing wave is
Q.23 Imagine an atom made up of a proton and a
again formed if ‘d’ is increased to 2.5 Å but not for any
hypothetical particle of double the mass of an electron
intermediate value of d. Find the energy of the electrons
but having the same charge as the electron. Apply the
in electron volts and the least value of d for which the
Bohr atom model and consider a possible transition of
standing wave of the type described above can form.
this hypothetical particle to the first excited level. Find
the longest wavelength photon that will be emitted λ
Q.18 A stationary He+ ion emitted a photon (in terms of the Rydberg constant R.)
corresponding to the first line its Lyman series. That
photon liberated a photoelectron from a stationary
Q.24 In a hydrogen atom, the electron moves in an orbit
hydrogen atom in the ground state. Find the velocity of
of radius 0.5 Å making 1016 revolutions per second. The
the photoelectron.
magnetic moment associated with the orbital motion
of the electron is __________.
Q.19 A gas of identical hydrogen like atom has some
atom in the lowest (ground) energy level A & some
Q.25 A hydrogen like atom has its single electron
atoms in a particular upper (excited) energy level B
orbiting around its stationary nucleus. The energy
& there are no atoms in any other energy level. The
excite the electron from the second Bohr orbit to the
atoms of the gas make transition to a higher energy
third Bohr orbit is 47.2 eV. The atomic number of this
level by the absorbing monochromatic light of photon
nucleus is ________________.
energy 2.7eV. Subsequently, the atom emit radiation of
only six different photon energies. Some of the emitted
photons have energy 2.7eV. Some have energy more Q.26 A single electron orbits a stationary nucleus of
and some have less than 2.7eV. charge Ze where Z is a constant and e is the electronic
charge. It requires 47.2eV to excite the electron from
(i) Find the principle quantum of the initially excited
the 2nd Bohr orbit to 3rd Bohr orbit. Find
level B.
(i) The value of Z
(ii) Find the ionization energy for the gas atoms.
(ii) Energy required to excite the electron from third to
(iii) Find the maximum and the minimum energies of
the fourth orbit
the emitted photons.
(iii) The wavelength of radiation required to remove the
electron from the first orbit to
Q.20 A hydrogen atom in ground state absorbs a
photon of ultraviolet radiation of wavelength 50nm. (iv) Infinity the Kinetic energy, potential energy and
Assuming that the entire photon energy is taken up by angular momentum in the first Bohr
the electron, with what kinetic energy will the electron
(v) Orbit the radius of the first Bohr orbit.
be ejected?
Q.28 Find the binding energy of an electron in the Q.6 An electrons collides with a fixed hydrogen atom
ground state of a hydrogen like atom in whose in its ground state. Hydrogen atom gets excited
spectrum the third of the corresponding Balmer series and the colliding electron loses all its kinetic energy.
is equal to 108.5 nm. Consequently the hydrogen atom may emit a photon
corresponding to the largest wavelength of the Balmer
Q.29 Which level of the doubly ionized lithium has series. The min. K.E. of colliding electron will be
the same energy as the ground state energy of the (A) 10.2eV (B) 1.9 eV
hydrogen atom? Find the ratio of the two radii of
(C) 12.1 eV (D) 13.6 eV
corresponding orbits.
Single Correct Choice Type (D) Perfectly inelastic collision cannot take place.
Q.1 10−3 W of 5000 Å light is directed on a photoelectric Q.8 An electron in hydrogen atom first jumps from
cell. If the current in the cell is 0.16 µA, the percentage second excited state to first excited state and then,
of incident photons which produce photoelectrons, is from first excited state to ground state. Let the ratio of
wavelength, momentum and energy of photons in the
(A) 0.4% (B) 0.04% (C) 20% (D) 10% two cases be x, y and z, then select the wrong answer(s):
1 9 5 5
Q.2 Photons with energy 5eV are incident on a cathode (A) z = (B) x = (C) y = (D) z =
x 4 27 27
C, on a photoelectric cell. The maximum energy of the
emitted photoelectrons is 2 eV. When photons of energy
6 eV are incident on C, no photoelectrons will reach the Multiple Correct Choice Type
anode A if the stopping potential of A relative to C is
Q.9 In photoelectric effect, stopping potential depends on
(A) 3V (B) –3V (C) –1 V (D) 4 V
(A) Frequency of the incident light
Q.3 In a hydrogen atom, the binding energy of the (B) Intensity of the incident light by varying source
electron of the nth state is En , then the frequency of (C) Emitter’s properties
revolution of the electron in the nth orbit is:
(D) Frequency and intensity of the incident light
2En 2Enn En Enn
(A) (B) (C) (D)
nh h nh h
Q.10 Two electrons are moving with the same speed v.
One electron enters a region of uniform electric field
Q.4 Difference between nth and (n+1)th Bohr’s radius
while the other enters a region of uniform magnetic
of ‘H’ atom is equal to it’s (n – 1)th Bohr’s radius. The
field, then after sometime if the de-Broglie wavelengths
value of n is:
of the two are λ1 and λ2 , then:
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
(A) λ1 =λ2 (B) λ1 > λ2
(C) λ1 < λ2 (D) λ1 > λ2 or λ1 < λ2
Q.5 Electron in a hydrogen atom is replaced by an
identically charged particle muon with mass 207 times
that of electron. Now the radius of K shell will be Q.11 A neutron collides head-on with a stationary
hydrogen atom in ground state. Which of the following
(A) 2.56 × 10−3 Å (B) 109.7 Å
statements are correct (Assume that the hydrogen
(C) 1.21 × 10−3 Å (D) 22174.4 Å atom and neutron has same mass):
2 4 . 6 0 | Modern Physics
(A) If kinetic energy of the neutron is less than 20.4 eV (A) A minimum wavelength
collision must be elastic.
(B) A continuous spectrum
(B) If kinetic energy of the neutron is less than 20.4 eV
(C) Some discrete comparatively prominent wavelength
collision may be inelastic.
(D) Uniform density over the whole spectrum
(C) Inelastic collision may be take place only when initial
kinetic energy of neutron is greater than 20.4 eV.
Assertion Reasoning Type
(D) Perfectly inelastic collision cannot take place.
Q.13 A particular hydrogen like atom has its ground (B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is NOT the correct
state binding energy 122.4eV. It is in ground state. explanation for statement-I.
Then: (C) Statement-I is true, statement-II is false.
(A) Its atomic number is 3 (D) Statement-I is false, statement-II is true.
(B) An electron of 90eV can excite it.
(C) An electron of kinetic energy nearly 91.8eV can be Q.17 Statement-I: Two photons having equal
almost brought to rest by this atom. wavelengths have equal linear momenta.
(D) An electron of kinetic energy 2.6eV may emerge Statement-II: When light shows its photons character,
from the atom when electron of kinetic energy 125eV h
each photon has a linear momentum λ = .
collides with this atom. p
(A) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true and
statement-II is correct explanation for statement-I.
Q.14 A beam of ultraviolet light of all wavelengths
pass through hydrogen gas at room temperature, in (B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is NOT the correct
the x-direction. Assuming all photons emitted due explanation for statement-I.
to electron transition inside the gas emerge in the (C) Statement-I is true, statement-II is false.
y-direction. Let A and B denote the lights emerging
from the gas in the x and y directions respectively. (D) Statement-I is false, statement-II is true.
Q.6 the ionization energy of a hydrogen like Bohr atom Q.11 The wavelength of light emitted in the visible
is 4 Rrydberg. region by He+ ions after collisions with H-atoms is
(2008)
(a) What is the wavelength of the radiation emitted
when the electron jumps from the first excited state to (A) 6.5 × 10−7 m (B) 5.6 × 10−7 m
the ground state? (1984)
(C) 4.8 × 10−7 m (D) 4.0 × 10−7 m
(b) What is the radius of the first orbit for this atom?
1 rH
Now, as r ∝ Radius of first orbit of this atom, r1 = 1 Q.12 The ratio of the kinetic energy of the n = 2 electron
Z Z for the H atom to that of He+ ion is (2008)
0.529
= = 0.2645 Å
2 1 1
(A) (B) (C) 1 (D) 2
4 2
Q.7 A doubly ionized lithium atom is hydrogen-like
with atomic number 3. Q.13 Some laws/processes are given in column I. Match
(a) Find the wavelength of the radiation required to these with the physical phenomena given in column II.
excite the electron in Li2+ from the first to the third (2006)
Bohr orbit. (Ionization energy of the hydrogen atom
equals 13.6 eV.)
Column I Column II
(b) How many spectral lines are observed in the emission (A) Nuclear fusion (p) Converts some
spectrum of the above excited system? (1985) matter into energy.
(B) Nuclear fission (q) Generally possible
Q.8 There is a stream of neutrons with a kinetic energy for nuclei with low
of 0.0327 eV. If the half-life of neutrons is 700s, what atomic number
fraction of neutrons will decay before they travel a
(C) (r) Generally possible
distance of 10 m? (1986) β -decay
for nuclei with higher
atomic number
Q.9 A particle of charge equal to that of an electron (D) Exothermic (s) Essentially proceeds
–e, and mass 208 times of the mass of the electron nuclear reaction by weak nuclear
(called a mu-meson) moves in a circular orbit around a forces
nucleus of charge +3e. (Take the mass of the nucleus to
be infinite). Assuming that the Bohr model of the atom
is applicable to this system. (1988) Q.14 The threshold wavelength for photoelectric
emission from a material is 5200 Å. Photoelectrons
(a) Derive an expression for the radius of the nth Bohr will be emitted when this material is illuminated with
orbit. monochromatic radiation from a (1982)
(b) Find the value of n for which the radius of the orbit (A) 50W infrared lamp (B) 1 W infrared lamp
is approximately the same as that of the first Bohr orbit
(C) 50W ultraviolet lamp (D) 1W ultraviolet lamp
for the hydrogen atom.
(c) Find the wavelength of the radiation emitted when
Q.15 The allowed energy for the particle for a particular
the mu-meson jumps from the third orbit to the first
value of n is proportional to (2009)
orbit. (Rydberg’s constant = 1.097 × 107 m−1 )
(A) a-2 (B) a-3/2 (C) a-1 (D) a2
+
Paragraph 1: (Q.10-Q.12) In a mixture of H − He gas
( He+ is single ionized He atom), H atoms and He+ Q.16 If the mass of the particle is m = 1.0 ×10−30 kg and
ions excited to their respective first excited states. a = 6.6 nm, the energy of the particle in its ground state
Subsequently, H atoms transfer their total excitation is closest to (2009)
energy of He+ ions (by collisions). Assume that the
(A) 0.8 MeV (B) 8 MeV (C) 80 MeV (D) 800 MeV
Bohr model of atom is exactly valid.
Q.21 A pulse of light of duration 100 ns is absorbed Given that c = 3 × 108 m s-1 and e = 1.6 × 10-19 C,
completely by a small object initially at rest. Power of Planck’s constant (in units of J s) found from such an
the pulse is 30 mW and the speed of light is 3 × 108 experiment is
m/s. The final momentum of the object is (2013)
(A) 6.0 × 10-34 (B) 6.4 × 10-34
(A) 0.3 × 10 -17
kg ms -1
(B) 1.0 × 10
-17
kg ms -1
(C) 6.6 × 10-34 (D) 6.8 × 10-34
(C) 3.0 × 10-17 kg ms-1 (D) 9.0 × 10-17 kg ms-1
Q.26 Highly excited states for hydrogen-like atoms
Q.22 The work functions of Silver and Sodium are 4.6 (also called Rydberg states) with nuclear charge Ze are
and 2.3 eV, respectively. The ratio of the slope of the defined by their principal quantum number n, where n
stopping potential versus frequency plot for Silver to >> 1. Which of the following statement(s) is(are) true?
that of Sodium is (2013) (2016)
(A) Relative change in the radii of two consecutive
Q.23 Consider a hydrogen atom with its electron in the orbitals does not depend on Z
nth orbital. An electromagnetic radiation of wavelength
(B) Relative change in the radii of two consecutive
90 nm is used to ionize the atom. If the kinetic energy
orbitals varies as 1/n
of the ejected electron is 10.4 eV, then the value of n is
(hc = 1242 eV nm) (2015) (C) Relative change in the energy of two consecutive
orbitals varies as 1/n3
Q.24 For photo-electric effect with incident photon (D) Relative change in the angular momenta of two
wavelength λ , the stopping potential is Vo. Identify the consecutive orbitals varies as 1/n
correct variation(s) of V0 with λ and 1/ λ . (2015)
Q.27 A hydrogen atom in its ground state is irradiated
V0 V0 by light of wavelength 970A. Taking hc/e = 1.237 × 10-6
eVm and the ground state energy of hydrogen atom as
(A) (B) –13.6 eV, the number of lines present in the emission
spectrum is (2016)
Q.28 A glass tube of uniform internal radius (r) has
V0 V0
a valve separating the two identical ends. Initially,
(C) (D)
2 4 . 6 4 | Modern Physics
(B) Air from end 1 flows towards end 2. Volume of the to (Take h = 2π × 10−34 Js)
soap bubble at end 1 decreases (A) 2.76 ×10−46 kg m2 (B) 1.87 ×10−46 kg m2
(C) No changes occurs (C) 4. 67 ×10−47 kg m2 (D) 1.17 ×10−47 kg m2
(D) Air from end 2 flows towards end 1. volume of the
soap bubble at end 1 increases Q.32 In a CO molecule, the distance between C (mass =
12 a.m.u) and O (mass = 16 a.m.u.),
5
Q.29 Photoelectric effect experiments are performed where 1 a.m.u. = × 10−27 kg, is close to
3
using three different metal plates p, q and r having
work functions φp = 2.0 eV, φq = 2.5 eV and φr = 3.0 eV, (A) 2.4 ×10−10 m (B) 1.9 ×10−10 m
respectively. A light beam containing wavelengths of (C) 1.3 ×10−10 m (D) 4.4 ×10−11 m
550 nm, 450 nm and 350 nm with equal intensities
illuminates each of the plates. The correct I-V graph for
Q.33 A silver sphere of radius 1 cm and work function
the experiment is (Take hc = 1240 eV nm) (2009)
4.7 eV is suspended from an insulating thread in free
l l space. It is under continuous illumination of 200 nm
P
q wavelength light. As photoelectrons are emitted, the
r sphere gets charged and acquires a potential. The
(A) (B) Pq maximum number of photoelectrons emitted from the
r sphere is A ×10z (where 1 < A < 10). The value of ‘Z’ is
V V (2011)
l r l
q Q.34 Two bodies, each of mass M, are kept fixed with a
(C) P (D) rq separation 2L. A particle of mass m is projected from the
midpoint of the line joining their centres, perpendicular
P to the line. The g ravitational constant is G. The correct
V V statement(s) is (are) (2013)
Paragraph for questions 30 to 32 (2010) (A) The minimum initial velocity of the mass m to
The key feature of Bohr’s theory of spectrum of hydrogen escape the gravitational field of the two bodies is 4
GM
atom is the quantization of angular momentum when L
an electron is revolving around a proton. We will extend (B) The minimum initial velocity of the mass m to escape
this to a general rotational motion to find quantized
the gravitational field of the two bodies is GM
rotational energy of a diatomic molecule assuming it to 2
L
be rigid. The rule to be applied is Bohr’s quantization
condition. (C) The minimum initial velocity of the mass m to escape
2GM
the gravitational field of the two bodies is
Q.30 A diatomic molecule has moment of inertia I. By L
Bohr’s quantization condition its rotational energy in
the nth level (n = 0 is not allowed) is (D) The energy of the mass m remains constant.
P hysi cs | 24.65
PlancEssential Questions
JEE Main/Boards JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1 Exercise 1
Q.10 Q.17 Q.23 Q.4 Q.8 Q.10
Q.27 Q.28 Q.19 Q.22 Q.30
Exercise 2 Exercise 2
Q.2 Q.4 Q.7 Q.1 Q.6 Q.8
Q.12 Q.13 Q.14
Q.16
Answer Key
JEE Main/Boards
Exercise 1
λ
Q.1 (iii)1.49 × 10−19 J Q.4 Q.8 Line B represent a particle of
smaller mass. 2
Q.9 (i) Metal Q, (ii) Metal P, (iii) Stopping potential remains unchanged.
Q.10. 1.5 eV Q.11 1 : 2 2 Q.17 2.46 × 1015 Hz
Q.21 (i) –1.7 eV (ii) 972.54 Å Q.23 +13.6 eV, –27.2 eV Q.24 28.8 × 10−15 m
Q.27 7.5 × 1014 Hz, 3.094 eV Q.28 4137.5 Å
Exercise 2
JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1
15
Q.1 (a) 0.6 V, (b) 2.0 mA Q.2 5.76 × 10−11 A Q.3 V
8
5 1019
Q.4 , Q.5 2eV, 6.53 × 10−34 J s Q.6 4.8×1016, 4.0 cm
16 8 π
Q.7 2 eV, 0.754 V Q.8 1.1 × 1012
5 5
Q.9 (i) photon/s, (ii) electrons/s Q.10 (a) 105 s−1 ; (b) 286.76 ; (d) 111.1s
16 1600
P hysi cs | 24.67
h
Q.11 (a) 2.25 eV, (b) 4.2 eV, (c) 2.0 eV, 0.5 eV Q.12 −
eEt2
Q.13 487 nm Q.14 4.26 m/s, 13.2 eV Q.15 7 : 36
Q.26 (i) Z = 5, (ii) E= 16.5 eV, (iii) λ=36.4 A, (iv) K.E = 340 eV, P.E = –680 eV, (v) Radius r = 0.1058 Å
Exercise 2
Q.7 A Q.8 B
Q.14 A, C, D Q.15 A, B, C
kgm2
Q.1 (a) 5 (b) 16.53 eV (c) 36.4 Å (d) 340 eV, –680 eV, –340 eV, 1.05 × 10−34 (e) 1.06 × 10−11 m
s
Q.5 6.6 × 10−34 J s Q.6 (a) 300 Å (b) 0.2645 Å Q.7 (a) 113.74 Å (b) 3
n2h2 ε0
Q.8 3.96 × 10−6 Q.9 (a) rn = (b) n = 25 (c) 0.546 A
624 πmee2
Solutions
JEE Main/Boards
Exercise 1 l2 =
h
=
h
=
λ1
=
λ
2mKE2 2me × 4v 2 2
12400 h
E= = 4.13 eV Sol 8: λ =
3000 2meV
h h h ⇒ mB < m A
ld = =. .=
p 2mKE 2meV
Sol 9: (i) Metal P has greater threshold wavelength
6.6 ×10−34 12.27 because P has lower threshold frequency.
=. = Å
2 × 9.1 ×10−31 ×1.67 ×10−19 × V V (ii) KEmax = hν – hν0
For Davisson and Germer’s experiment, refer theory. Metal P emits electrons with less kinetic energy as P has
less threshold frequency.
hc
Sol 3: φA = 2 eV = (iii) If distance is doubled, there is no change in stopping
λA potential.
hc
φB = 5 eV =
λB Sol 10: KEmax = eV = 1.5 eV
λA > λB
λα h h
Sol 11: = ÷
Sol 4: K.E. = eV λp 2mα (KE)α 2mp (KE)p
h h
l1 = = =λ
2mKE1 2meV mp (KE)p 1 eV 1
= = · =
mα (KE)α 4 2eV 2 2
P hysi cs | 24.69
lp < le
Sol 23: T.E. = – 13.6 eV
Sol 16: (i) Cut-off voltage is the negative potential KE = |T.E.| = 13.6 eV
applied to the anode at which the current gets reduced P.E = 2T.E = – 13.6 × 2 = –27.2 eV
to zero.
K × (2e)(80e)
Refer theory for second part of question. Sol 24: 8 × 106 =
r
e
I = charge flowing per sec
= ω Sol 28: Longest wavelength ⇒ minimum frequency
2π
photon = n0
eω evr
=
µ × πr 2 = 12400
2π 2 = 4137.5 Å
3
2 4 . 7 0 | Modern Physics
hc hc 2hc 2hc
+ = = φ + K2
λ1 λ3 λ2 λ1
Sol 8: (B) hν = hn0 + KE Sol 15: (D) In some Hydrogen like atom
Kinetic energy depends only on the energy of incident 13.6 13.6 2
photon. Number of emitted electrons ∝ intensity of light. E4n – E2n = − + Z
2 2
(4n) (2n)
h h
Sol 9: (C) λp= = 13.6 Z 2 1
pp 2mp (KE)p
= − + 1
4n2 4
h h
λe= = 3 ×13.6 Z 2
pe 2me (KE)e =
16n2
mp > me
As proton and electron both are accelerated by same 13.6 13.6 2
E2n – En = − + Z
potential difference so KEp = KEe (en)
2
n2
lp < le
13.6 z 2 1 3 ×13.6 Z 2
= − + 1 =
n2 4 4n2
Sol 10: (A) Initial KE is 100 eV
After accelerating through potential difference of 50 v E4n − E2n 1
Ratio = =
final KE is 150 eV. E2n − En 4
λ1 (n – 2) (n – 1) = 20,
l2 =
2 n=6
2 4 . 7 2 | Modern Physics
Sol 17: (A) Ten different wavelengths are emitted so So P.E. will decrease
n(n − 1) −13.6 Z 2
= 10 ⇒ n (n – 1) = 20 T.E. =
2
n2
⇒n=5
T.E. will decrease with decrease in n.
1 1
Energy of incident radiation is 13.6 − nh
12 52 Sol 21: (B) Angular momentum = = mvr
2π
24 1
= ×13.6 = 13.056 eV f ∝
25 n3
12400
λ= = 949.75 Å r ∝ n2
13.056
1
f rL ∝ × n2 × n =1 ⇒ independent of n.
3
Sol 18: (C) Five dark line corresponds to transitions so n
highest state of electron is n = 6
n(n − 1) 0.529n2 0.529 × 4
So no of lines in emission spectrum = Sol 22: (B) r = = = 1.058 Å
2 Z 2
6× 5
= = 15 −13.6
2 Sol 23: (A) Energy En = = – 3.4 (n = 2)
n2
n=6 nh 2h h
n=5 angular momentum = = =
n=4 2π 2π π
n=3 −13.6
Sol 24: (B) En = −3.4 =
= T.E.
n=2 n2
n=2
n=1
Kinetic energy = |T.E.| = 3.4 eV
1 1
Sol 19: (C) Energy of photon = 13.6 − h 6.6 ×10−34
12 25 =λ =
2mKE 2 × 9.1 ×10−31 × 3.4 × 1.6 × 10−19
24
= × 13.6 eV
25 6.6 ×10−34 25
= ×10
= 6.6 × 10 –10 m
Momentum of photon 9.9
Mass of dueterium > mass of hydrogen Sol 6: (D) For a given plate voltage, the plate current
in a triode valve is maximum when the potential of the
⇒ rd < rh
grid is positive and plate is positive
Velocity is same for both.
Energy of dueterium > Energy of hydrogen Sol 7: (C) The X-ray beam coming from an X-ray tube
will be having all wavelengths larger than a certain
⇒ Wavelength of dueterium < wavelength of
minimum wavelength
hydrogen
nh Sol 8: (B) Cut-off wavelength depends on the
Angular momentum =mvr =
2π accelerating voltage, not the characteristic wavelengths.
is independent of mass. Further, approximately 2% kinetic energy of the
electrons is utilized in producing X-rays. Rest 98% is
hc 12420 lost in heat.
Sol 28: (B) lmin = = Å
eV V
Sol 9: Minimum voltage required is corresponding to n
12420
=V = 18.75kV = 1 to n = 2. Binding energy of the innermost electron
0.663 is given as 40 keV i.e., ionization potential is 40 kV.
Therefore,
12420
Sol 29: (D) λmin =
V 1 1
40 × 103 2 − 2
If V increase lmin will decrease. Vmin
= 1 2
= 30 × 103 V
1 1
2 −
1 ∞
hυ – hυ0 = e × ∆v
2d cos i = nλ
hυ hυ0
h V0 = –
2d cos i = e e
2meV
'υ ' is doubled
v = 50 volt
KEmax = 2hυ – hυ0
Sol 14: (B) 2d cos i = nλdB 2hυ hυ0
V0' = ( ∆V)' = –
e e
Sol 15: (D) Diffraction pattern will be wider than the
KEmax
slit. may not be equal to 2
KEmax
hυ hυ0
Sol 17: (B) V= –
e e
1 2 hc 1240evnm
mv= eV= 1.68 eV ⇒ h=
ν = = 3.1 eV ⇒ 3.1 eV= W + 1.6 eV
2 o
λ 400nm Sol 21: (C)o Davisson – Germer experiment showed that
1240evnm electron beams can undergo diffraction when passed
= 3.1 eV ⇒ 3.1 eV
= Wo + 1.6 eV through atomic crystals. This shows the wave nature
400nm
of electrons as waves can exhibit interference and
∴ Wo = 1.42 eV
diffraction.
hv φ 2m1m2r 2
V=
0 −
e e
So, K.Emax and V0 both increases. Sol 23: (D) As λ is increased, there will be a value of λ
above which photoelectrons will be cease to come out
But K.E ranges from zero to K.Emax because of loss of so photocurrent will become zero. Hence, (D) is correct
energy due to subsequent collisions before getting answer .
ejected and not due to range of frequencies in the
incident light.
P hysi cs | 24.75
r = 0.05 nm = 5 × 10–11 m 1
= = 4.81 × 1016
10 −11 2 16π × 2.58 ×1.6 ×10−19
(i) Intensity of light = × π (5 × 10 )
4 π (0.1)2 hν = hn0 + KE
= 250 × 25 × 10–22
E = hν
= 6250 × 10–22
E = hn0
= 6.25 × 10–19 J
1
12400 mv 2 = hν – hn0 = E – E0
Energy of photon = = 12.52 eV 2
990 12400
− 1.17
= 20 × 10–19 J 4800
6.25 ×10−19 1
5 m v 2 = 2.58 – 1.17 = 1.41 eV …. (i)
Average no. of photon = = 2 e
20 ×10−19 16
2.82 ×1.6 ×10−19
v2 =
10 1 1 9.1 ×10−31
(ii) No. of electron = × ×
4 π (0.1)2 −19
(20 × 10 J) 100 v2 = 0.495 × 1012
12400 n=5
l3 = 6216 Å; E3 = eV = 1.99 eV E1
6216 n=4
E2
φ = 2.3 eV n=3
E2 > E1
−3
3.6 ×10
Intensity I1 = I2 = I3 = Wm–2 × 10–4
3 = 0.8 × 10–7 = 8 × 10–8 W
= 1.2 × 10–7 W
8 ×10−8
No electrons will be emitted by 6216 Å wavelength No. of photons =
5 ×1.6 ×10−19
photons as E3 < φ.
N = No. of electrons
No. of photons in light of wavelength l2 is
1.2 ×10−7
= 3 × 1011 photons / sec 8 ×10−8
2.49 ×1.6 ×10 −19 = = 105 s−1
106 × 5 ×1.6 ×10−19
No of photons in light wavelength l1 is
h
(b) ld =
1.2 ×10 −7 mv
= 2.5 × 1011 photons / sec
2.99 ×1.6 ×10−19 p2
KE = 2eV =
2m
No of electrons liberated in 2 seconds
p2 = 2 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 2 × 9.1 × 10–31
= 2 (3 + 2.5) × 10 11
p2 = 58.24 × 10–50
= 11 × 10 electrons.
11
p = 7.63 × 10–25
(d) KE = hν – hφ =5 eV – 3 eV = 2 eV EB = φB + Tb
K.E. = eV = 2 eV φB = 4.7 – 0.5 = 4.2 eV
V = 2 volts
Sol 12: Force on electron = eE
Potential at the surface of sphere
eE
Kq K(Nt) ×1.6 ×10−19 9 ×109 × 105 t ×1.6 ×10−19 Acceleration =
= = = m
r 8 × 10−3 8 × 10−3 eE
Velocity = t ; p = eEt
= 9 × 0.2 × 10–2 × t m
h
2 = 1.8 × 10–2 × t ld =
p
2
t
So time required= ×100 = 111.1 sec dλ d h dp −heE −heE −h
1.8 =– = = =
dt p 2 dt (eEt)2 2 2 2
eE t eEt2
Sol 11: For metal A
13.6
Energy of photons = 4.25 eV Sol 13: B.E. = 0.85 eV =
n2
Maximum KEA = Ta
n=4
de Broglie wavelength = la
For metal B 1 1 1 1 1
= R − = R −
2
λ 2 2
4 4 16
KEB max = Tb = Ta – 1.5
Energy of photons = 4.7 eV 1 12R 3R 16R
= = ⇒ λ= = 487 nm
De-Broglie wavelength = lb = 2la λ 4 ×16 16 3
2
p2 h 1
KE =
= × Sol 14: 5th excited state
2m λd 2m
h
2 ⇒n=6
1
=Ta ×
λ 2m m = mass of atom
a
2 v = velocity of atom
h 1
=Tb ×
2λ 2m (mv 2 ) hc 13.6
a + = E6 − E0 = – + 13.6
2m λ 36
Tb = Ta – 1.5 35
= ×13.6
2 36
h 1 h2 1 h
× − × −1.5
= Momentum conservation, = mv
2λa 2m λa 2m
2
λ
2
h
2
×
1 3
× =−1.5
1 h hc
+
2m λ λ
=
35
36
×13.6 × 10−19 ×1.6 J ( )
λ
a 2m 4
⇒ λ = 939.4 Å
Ta ÷ 2 = 1
Energy = 13.2 eV
Ta = 2 eV
h
Tb = 2 – 1.5 = 0.5 eV v= ⇒ v = 4.26 m/s
mλ
From metal A
13.6
Sol 15: Energy of series limit of Balmer is = 3.4
EA = φA + Ta 4
φA = 4.25 – 2 = 2.25 eV hc
λB =
For metal B 3.4
P hysi cs | 24.79
1 1 h 6.6 ×10−34
Energy of first line of Paschen is 13.6 2 − 2 λ1 = = = 8.6 pm
3 4 mv1cm 1.67 × 10−27 × 4.6 ×10 4
hc 13.6 × 7
= = 0.661 h 6.6 ×10−34
λp 9 ×16 l2= = =8.6 pm
2mv 2cm 2 × 1.67 ×10−27 × 2.3 ×10−4
hc
λP =
0.661 nλ
Sol 17: = 2Å
2
λB 0.661 7
Ration = =
λP 3.4 36 (n + 1)λ λ
= 2.5 Å ⇒ = 0.5 Å
2 2
1 h
Sol 16: 25 eV = m v2 ⇒ λ = 1Å ⇒ λ =
2 n p
6.6 ×10−34
V p= = 6.6 × 10–24
−10
m 2m 1 ×10
1 1 1 n(n − 1)
=mV 2 mV12 + 2mV22 Sol 19: (i) =6
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
(iii) Maximum energy= 13.6 Z2 − ; 4 → 1 Sol 26: 47.2 = 13.6 Z2 −
2
12 42 2 32
(i) Z = 5
1 1
Minimum energy = 13.6 Z2 − ; 4 → 3
32 42 1 1
(ii) E = 13.6 × 25 − = 16.5 eV
9 16
Sol 20: λ = 500 Å
1 1
12400 (iii) E = 13.6 × 25 −
Energy = = 24.8eV 1 ∞2
2
500
Energy required to take out electron from atom = 13.6 E = 13.6 × 25 eV
eV E = 340 eV
KE = 24.8 – 13.6 = 11.2 eV 12400
λ= = 36.4 Å
340
Sol 21: Energy of photon = 13.6 Z2 (iv) KE = |T.E.|
= 13.6 × 4 = 54.4 KE = 13.6 Z2 = 13.6 × 25 = 340 eV
12400 eV P.E. = – 2 |T.E.|
Wavelength = = 227.94 Å = 22.8 nm
54.4 eV
P.E. = – 2 × 340 = – 680 eV
h
Sol 22: E3 – E2 + E2 – E1 = E3 – E1 (v) Angular momentum = mvr = Iω = n
2π
12400 12400 12400 0.529n2
+ = Radius = = 0.1058 Å
λ1 λ2 λ3 z
1 1 1 λ λ
+ = ⇒ λ3 = 1 2 Sol 27:
λ1 λ2 λ3 λ1 + λ2
n n
n1 n2
Sol 23: Energy of new atom = 2 × energy of hydrogen
n=2 n=3
atom
Energy gap between quantum states n and 2 is
hc 1 1
=13.6 × 2 − 22.95 + 5.15 = 28.1 eV
λ 22 32
Energy gap between quantum state n and 3 is
1 1 1 18
= 2R − ⇒ λ = 2.4 + 8.7 = 11.1 eV
λ 2 2
2 3 5R
Energy gap between n = 2 and n = 3 is
1 1 Exercise 2
Sol 28: E = 13.6 Z2 2 − 2
2 5
Single Correct Choice Type
12400 1 1
= 13.6 Z 2 − 10−3
1085 22 52 Sol 1: (B) No. of photons =
Energy of 1photon
12400 21 12400
= 13.6 Z 2 Energy of 1 photon = = 2.48 eV
1085 100 5000
⇒ Z2 = 4 ⇒ Z = 2 10−3
np = No. of photons =
Binding energy = 13.6 Z2 = 13.6 × 4 = 54.4 eV 2.48 ×1.6 ×10−19
= (2n + 1) 0.529 = (n – 1)2 × 0.529 field as in magnetic field kinetic energy does not
change. Kinetic energy of electron in electric field may
⇒ (n – 1)2 = 2n + 1
increase, remain same or decrease that’s why l2 can
n2 + 1 – 2n = 2n + 1 ⇒ n2 = 4n increase or decrease.
⇒n=4
λ1 > λ2 or λ2 < λ1 or λ1 = λ2
2 2 2
n h e0 0.529n
Sol 5:=
(A) rn =
pme2 Z Z Sol 11: (A, C) Minimum energy required for transition
to happen from ground state is 10.2 eV.
n =1, Z = 1
If the total loss in energy is less than 10.2 eV no transition
0.529n2 o will occur. Either there can be loss of energy greater
For mean r’n = = 2.56 × 10–3 A than 10.2 eV or no loss in energy since the energy of
207 Z
neutron is 20.4 eV the maximum loss in energy due
to inelasticity will be less then 10.2 eV. Therefore only
Sol 6: (C) Hydrogen emit a photon corresponding to
option is no loss in energy which means elastic collision.
the largest wavelength of the Balmer series. This implies
So (A and C).
electron was excited to n = 3
Energy required for transition n = 1 → 3 is
Sol 12: (A, C, D) Photon of energy 2.55 eV is emitted
1 1 13.6 × 8 when transition is from n = 4 to n = 2
13.6 − = = 12.088 eV
2 2
1 3 9 So other photon corresponds to n = 2 → n = 1
Minimum kinetic energy = 12.1 eV Energy absorbed by hydrogen atom = 10.2 + 2.55 =
12.75 eV
Sol 7: (A) Refer Q-11 (in Exercise II JEE Advanced) Minimum Kinetic energy of photon is when
collision is perfectly inelastic i.e. when
1 1 5 K = 25.5 eV
Sol 8: (B) n = 3 → 2; E1 = 13.6 − = ×13.6
4 9 36
Refer Q. 11
1 3
n = 2→ 1; E2 = 13.6 1 − = ×13.6
4 4 Sol 13: (A, C, D) 13.6 Z2 = 122.4
hc hc Z=3
λ1 = ; λ2 =
E1 E2 For n = 1, E1 = – 122.4 eV
λ1 E2 3 27 n = 2 E2 = – 30.6 eV
x= = = × 36 =
λ2 E1 4 ×5 5 E2 – E1 = 91.8 eV
E1 5 If 125 eV energy electron collides with this atom then
Z
= =
E2 27 122.4 eV will be used to take out the electron and
kinetic energy of electron will be 125 – 122.4 = 2.6 eV
p1 h / λ1 λ2 5
y
= = = =
p2 h / λ2 λ1 27
Sol 14: (A, C, D) Some incident wavelengths will be
absent in A as some of them will be absorbed by
Multiple Correct Choice Type the hydrogen atom. B will emit photons of Energy
Corresponding to transitions in the hydrogen atom.
Sol 9: (A, C) Stopping potential ∝ kinetic energy This energy will lie in visible and infrared region.
Sol 16: (D) For frequency less than no no electrons are (d) In first orbit, total energy = –340eV
emitted. so Statement-I is/false. Kinetic energy = +340 eV
The corresponding wavelength would be, Number of neutron = mass number – atomic number
= 13
hc 6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 But note that in the nucleus number of electron will be
λ= =
E 340 × 1.6 × 10−19 zero.
2 4 . 8 4 | Modern Physics
h ≈ 6.6 × 10 −34 J s− s 1 2
From K = mv
2
Sol 6: (a) 1 Rydberg = 2.2 × 10−18 J = Rhc
2 × 0.0327 × 1.6 × 10−19
Ionisation energy is given as 4 Rydberg or v = ≈ 2.5 × 103 m / s
1.675 × 10−27
8.8 × 10−18 Time taken by the neutrons to travel a distance of 10 m:
= 8.8 × 10−18 J = = 55 eV
1.6 × 10−19
d 10
t= = = 4.0 × 10−3
∴ Energy in first orbit E1 = −55eV v 2.5 × 103
Energy of radiation emitted when electron jumps from Number of neutrons decayed after time t
first excited state (n = 2) to ground state (n = 1):
N = N0 (1 − e−λt )
E 3
E21 =1 − E1 =− E1 =41.25eV
(2)2 4 ∴ Fraction of neutrons that will decay in this time
interval
∴ Wavelength of photon emitted in this transition
ln(2)
would be, N − × 4.0 × 10−3
= = (1 − e−λt ) = 1 – e 700 = 3.96 × 10−6
12375 N0
λ= = 300 Å
41.25
(b) Let Z be the atomic number of given element. Then Sol 9: If we assume that mass of nucleus >> mass of
mu-meson, then nucleus will be assumed to be at rest,
( 13.6)(Z 2 ) or Z ≈ 2
E1 = ( −13.6)(Z 2 ) or −55 =− only mu-meson is revolving round it.
1 (a) In nth orbit, the necessary
Now, as r ∝
Z centripetal force to the mu-
Radius of first orbit of this atom, meson will be provided by the
rH electrostatic force between the
0.529 +Ze - m = 208 me
r1 = 1 = = 0.2645 Å nucleus and the mu-meson.
Z 2
Z2
Sol 7: Given Z = 3 : En ∝
n2
(a) To excite the atom from n = 1 to n = 3, energy of
P hysi cs | 24.85
(b) The radius of the first Bohr orbit for the hydrogen Sol 11: (C) Visible light lies in the range, λ1 = 4000 Å to
λ2 = 7000 Å. Energy of photons corresponding to these
h2 ε0
atom is: wavelength (in eV) would be:
πmee2
12375
E1 =
Equating this with the radius calculated in part (a), we 4000 = 3.09 eV
n2 ≈ 624 or n ≈ 25
12375
mv 2 Ze2 E2 =
(c) Kinetic energy of atom = = 7000 = 1.77 eV
2 8πε0r
From energy level diagram of He+ atom we can see that
Ze2 in transition from n = 4 to n = 3, energy of photon
and the potential energy = −
4 πε0r released will lie between E1 and E2.
−Ze2
∴ Total energy En = ∆E43 =−3.4 − ( −6.04) = 2.64 eV
8πε0r
Substituting value of r, calculate in part (a), Wavelength of photon corresponding to this energy,
12375
1872 mee
4
λ=
264 Å = 4687.5 Å = 4.68×10 m
-7
=En −
n2 8ε02h2
1 1
∴ E3 − E1 =−25459.2 − =22630.4 eV Sol 14: (C, D) For photoemission to take place,
9 1
wavelength of incident light should be less than the
∴ The corresponding wavelength, threshold wavelength. Wavelength of ultraviolet light <
5200Å while that of infrared radiation > 5200 Å.
12375
λ(ln)=
A = 0.546 A
22630.4 nλ 2a
Sol 15: (A) a = ⇒λ=
2 n
2 4 . 8 6 | Modern Physics
h h
λdeBroglie = λ=
p mv
⇒ v
= 331.776 × 1013 1.92
⇒ h = × 10−33 =6.4 × 10−34
3
P hysi cs | 24.87
Sol 26: (A), (B), (D) Orbital radius rn = n2c [c = constant] m2d m1d
r1 = and r2 =
Angular momentum = nh = L m1 + m2 m1 + m2
hc 1.237 × 10 –6 1237 Kq
== = × 10eV V
= = 1.5
λ 970 × 10 –10 970 r
PHYSICS
FOR JEE MAIN & ADVANCED
SECOND
EDITION
Exhaustive Theory
(Now Revised)
Formula Sheet
9000+ Problems
based on latest JEE pattern
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
1. INTRODUCTION
Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei. Nuclear
physics is the field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei. Nuclear physics is the
field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei.
2.1 Composition
All nuclei contain protons and neutrons except ordinary hydrogen atom which has only single proton. Proton has
change +e and neutron is neutral.
Mass no. of nuclei ( A )= Z + N
Where Z = no. of protons in the nucleus; N = no. of neutrons
A
Symbolically atomic nuclei is represented as ZX
Illustration 1: How many electrons, protons, and neutrons are there in nucleus of atomic number 11 and mass
number 24? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The atomic number Z of atom represents the number of protons present in the nucleus. The number of
electrons in an atom are same as the number of protons. The Atomic mass number A is sum of proton number Z
and neutron number N.
Number of protons in nucleus = Atomic number = 11
Number of electrons = Number of protons = 11
Number of neutrons = Mass number A – atomic number Z N = 24 – 11 = 13
2 5 . 2 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
2.2 Mass
Nuclear mass has been measured accurately by using mass spectrometer. It is convenient to express mass in terms
1
of amu which is defined as the mass of carbon isotope 126 C
12
= 1.66 × 10−27 kg
1amu
According to Einstein’s equation E = mc2 1amu can be expressed as energy
( )
2
1.66 × 10−27 × 3 × 108
Energy
= equivalence of 1 amu = eV 931MeV
1.6 × 10−19
27 125
Illustration 2: The ratio of the radii of the nuclei 13 Al
and 52 Te
is approximately. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The radius of the atomic nuclei is directly proportional to the cube root of atomic mass number.
( 27 ) =
1/3
3 6
R Al / R Te= =
5 10
(125)
1/3
64
Illustration 3: The radius of the 30 Zn
nucleus is nearly (in fm) (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The radius of any atomic nucleus is given by R = R 0 A1/3 where Ro = 1.2 × 10−15 is the Fermi radius.
1.2 × 10−15 × ( 64 )
1/3
R=R 0 A1/3 = 1.2 × 10−15 × 4 =
= 4.8fm A ∝ R 3
1.66 × 10−27 × 16
Use ρ =mass / volume = = 2.35 × 1017 kgm−3
( )
2
( 4 / 3) π 3 × 10 −15
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Keep in mind that less stable means more radioactive and more stable means less radioactive.
We want to know why there is radioactivity. What makes the nucleus a stable one? There are no concrete
theories to explain this but there are only general observations based on the available stable isotopes.
It appears that neutron to proton (n/p) ratio is the dominant factor in nuclear stability. This ratio is close
to 1 for atoms of elements with low atomic number and increase as the atomic number increases. Then
how do we predict the nuclear stability? One of the simplest ways of predicting the nuclear stability is
based on whether nucleus contains odd/even number of protons and neutrons:
•• Nuclides containing odd numbers of both protons and neutrons are the least stable means more
radioactive.
2 5 . 4 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
•• Nuclides containing even numbers of both proton and neutrons are most stable means less
radioactive.
•• Nuclides contain odd number of protons and even numbers of neutrons are less stable than
nuclides containing even numbers of protons and odd numbers of neutrons.
In general, nuclear stability is greater for nuclides containing even numbers of protons and neutrons or
both.
Yashwanth Sandupatla (JEE 2012, AIR 821)
4. NUCLEAR FORCE
The force that controls the motions of atomic electrons is the familiar 40
electromagnetic force. To bind the nucleus together, however, there must be
n-p(system)
a strong attractive nuclear force of a totally different kind, strong enough to 20
overcome the repulsive force between the (positively charged) nuclear protons
U(r) (MeV)
and to bind both protons and neutrons into the tiny nuclear volume. The nuclear 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 r (frn)
force must also be of short range because its influence does not extend very far
beyond the nuclear “surface”. Its range is of the order of 2fm. The present view -20
is that the nuclear force that binds neutrons and protons in the nucleus is not a
-40
fundamental force of nature but is a secondary, or “spillover”, effect of the strong
force that binds quarks together to form neutrons and protons. In much the
-60
same way, the attractive force between certain neutral molecules is a spillover
effect of the Coulomb electric force that acts within each molecule to bind it Figure 25.1
together. This strong force is independent of the charge. This means that the
strong force of proton-proton, neutron-neutron, proton-neutron interactions is the same, apart from the additional
repulsive Coulomb force for the proton-proton interaction. It is customary to talk of the potential energy when
we talk of nuclear forces. Here, the potential energy of interaction of a proton and a neutron is shown in Fig 25.1.
5. MASS DEFECT
It has been observed that actual mass of the nucleus (determined by mass spectrometer of high resolving power)
is always less than the sum of masses of proton and neutrons in Free State.
P hysi cs | 25.5
Illustration 5: Consider the decay of radium (A=226) atom into an alpha particle and radon (A=222). Then, what
is the mass defect of the reaction.
Mass of radium -226 atom = 226.0256u; Mass of radon -222 atom = 222.0715u and Mass if helium – 4 atom =
4.0026u (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Mass defect is the difference in masses of parent and daughter nuclei. Mass defect is given by
∆m M(Ra226 ) − M(Rn222 ) − M(α )
=
∆m M(Ra226 ) − M(Rn222 ) − M(α ) = 226.0256 − 222.0175 − 4.00026 = 0.0053u
Mass defect=
6. BINDING ENERGY
It is defined as energy released during formation nucleus as a result of disappearance of mass i.e., mass defect.
( ∆m) c2
Binding energy = (∆m)c ;
2
Binding energy per nucleon=
A
Illustration 6: If mass equivalent to one mass of proton is completely converted into energy then determine the
energy produced? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: When one proton is converted into its equivalent energy, the energy released during this conversion is given
by E = mc2
1.49 × 10−10
( )( )
2
mc2 =
E= 1.66 × 10−27 3 × 108 1.49 × 10−10 J =
J= MeV =
931.49 MeV 1amu = 931.49MeV
1.6 × 10−13
Illustration 7: Binding energy per nucleon of an α-particle from the following data:
Mass of the helium nucleus = 4.001265amu; Mass of proton = 1.007277amu
Mass of neutron = 1.00866amu; (1amu=931.4812MeV) (JEE MAIN)
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The energy differences in allowed energy levels of a nucleus are generally large of the order of MeVs.
Hence, it is difficult to excite the nucleus by usual method of supplying energy as heat.
GV Abhinav (JEE 2012, AIR 329)
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Having too many neutrons do not account for higher stability as many of these neutrons won’t have
pairing with protons. It will in fact decrease the stability.
The fact that the binding energy curve “drops” at both high and low mass numbers has very important
practical consequences.
Anurag Saraf (JEE 2011, AIR 226)
P hysi cs | 25.7
RADIOACTIVITY
1. INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of spontaneous disintegration of nuclei of unstable atoms is defined as radioactivity. Generally
it is exhibited by atoms with A>192 and Z>82. It was discovered by Henry Becqurel. Lead isotope is the stable end
product of any natural radioactive series Radio activity is a nuclear process and not an atomic process Radioactivity
is not associated with the electron configuration of the atom.
Becquerel, in 1896, discovered accidently that uranium salt crystals emit an invisible radiation which affected a
photographic plate even though it was properly covered. Further investigations by Marie and Pierre Curie and
other workers showed that many other substances also emitted similar radiations. This property of spontaneous
emission of radiation is called radioactivity. Subsequent works, notably of Rutherford, suggested that radioactivity
was, in fact, due to decay or disintegration of unstable nuclei.
Emission of α particles: During α -particle emission atomic no. reduces by 2 while mass no. reduces by 4 i.e.
A A−4
Zx → Z −2 y + 42He
Emission of β-particle: When Nuclei has excess neutrons, it emits β -particle to bring n/p ratio into stable region. A
neutron gets converted into proton and β -particle, therefore atomic mass remains constant white atomic number
increases by 1.
γ-Radiation: After emission of α or β particle nuclei are left in excited state, Nucleus comes to stable state by
emitting electromagnetic radiation known as γ radiation. There is no change in A or Z during this process, α and
β emission don’t take place simultaneously while γ radiation can emit along with any of them.
Illustration 8: A count-rate meter is used to measure the activity of a given sample. At one instant the meter shows
4750 counts per minute. Five minutes later it shows 2700 counts per minute. Find:
(a) Decay constant (b) the half-life of the sample. (JEE MAIN)
loge 10 N0
Sol: The decay constant of radioactive element is given by λ = where N0 is the number of radioactive
log
t Nt
nuclei at t=0 and Nt is the number of radioactive nuclei at time t. The half-life of the radioactive element is
0.693
t1/2 = .
λ
Initial activity, A0 = dN / dt at t = 0
Final activity, A t = dN / dt at t = t
dN dN 4750 N0
= IN0 & = INt ; =
dt t =0 dt t =5 2700 Nt
P hysi cs | 25.9
Mean life ( τ ) : Mean life of radioactive substance is defined as sum of life times of all radioactive nuclei divided by
total no. of nuclei.
or τ
=
∫=t dN ∫ tdN
1
or τ = … (iv)
∫ dN N0 λ
= τ ; N N=
if t = ( ) 0.37N
−λ 1/ λ
0e 0
Illustration 9: The mean lives of a radioactive substance are 1620 and 405 years for α emission and β emission
respectively. Find out the time during which three fourth of a sample will decay if it its decaying both the α emission
and β emission simultaneously. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: When substance decays by α and β emission simultaneously, the average rate of λav disintegration is given
by λav = λ α + λβ ; Where λ α and λβ are disintegration constant for α emission and β emission respectively. The
N
average time of the disintegration is given by λav tav =2.303 log o where No is the number of atoms present at
Nt
time t=0 s. And Nt is the number of disintegration atoms present at the time t s.
1 1 1 1 1
Mean life is given by: τm = 1/ λ ; λav = λ α + λβ ; = + = + = 3.08 × 10−3
τav τα τβ 1620 405
100 100
⇒ λav t 2.303 log = ; (3.08 × 10−3 ) t 2.303 log
25 25
1
⇒ t=
2.303 × log 4 =
499.24 years
3.08 × 10−3
Activity of a Radioactive Isotope: The activity of a radioactive substance (or radioisotope) means the rate of
dN
decay per second or the number of nuclei disintegrating per second. It is generally denoted by A. ⇒ A =
dt
If a time t=0 sec, the activity of a radioactive substance is A ο and after time t=t sec it is observed to be A t , then:
dN dN
Aο = = λN0 A t = = λN
dt t =0 dt t =t t
Units of Rate of Decay or Activity: A number of units have been used to express the activity of a radioactive
sample. The more commonly used ones are the following:
(a) Curie (Ci): The activity of a radioactive sample is said to be one curie when 3.7 × 1010 decays take place per
second. Thus 1Ci ≡ 3.7 × 1010 decays / s
This is the approximate activity of 1 g of radium. In practice, the smaller units milli curie and micro curie are
used. 1 mCi ≡ 3.7 × 107 decays / s ; 1 µ Ci ≡ 3.7 × 10 4 decays / s
(b) Becquerel (Bq): The Si unit of activity is called the Becquerel and it represents 1 decay per second. Thus 1 Bq
= 1 decay/s We thus have 1Ci ≡ 3.7 × 1010 Bq
2 5 . 1 0 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
(c) Rutherford (Rd): Another unit for activity is Rutherford and it represents 106 decays per second.
1Rd = 106 decays / s
Illustration 10: Radioisotopes of phosphorus P32 and P38 are mixed in the ratio 2:1 of atoms. The activity of the
sample is 2 m Ci. Find the activity of the sample after 30 days, t1/2 of P32 is 14 days and, t1/2 of P38 is 25 days.
(JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: When the radio isotopes are mixed in the proportion 2:1, the compound activity of mixture over time t is given
0.693 × N
by A
= t A1t + A2t . The activity A of any radioactive substance with half-life τ is defined as A =λN = .
τ
Let A ο be the initial activity of the sample,
Let A1ο be initial activity of isotope 1 and A2ο be the initial activity of sample 2
A
= ο A1ο + A2ο
−λ t −λ t
Similarly for final activity (Activity after time t), A t =
A1t + A2t At =
A1ο e 1 + A2ο e 2
Now in the given equation Ao = 2 m Ci ⇒ A0 = A1ο + A2ο = 2 m Ci ... (i)
Initial ratio of atoms of isotopes=2:1
We know from definition of activity, A = λ N here λ is the decay constant and N is number of radioactive nuclei
present at time instant t s.
A1ο N1ο T2 A1ο 2 25 25
= × where T represents half-life; = × = … (ii)
A2ο N2ο T1 A 2ο 1 14 7
−λ1t −λ2t
On solving equation (i) and (ii), we get, A1ο = 25 / 16 and A2ο = 7 / 16 =
; A t A1ο e + A 2ο e
0.693 × 30
How to solve expression like this? For example, consider the first exponential term exp − =e−1. 485
14
Let y = e−1.485 Therefore, ln y = −1.485 ; log y = − (1.485 / 2.303
= ) y antilog ( −1.485 / 2.303)
−x
So, from above calculations you can derive a general result i.e. e− x = antilog
2.303
25 7
At = × 0.2265 + × 0.4353 = 0.5444 Ci .
16 16
Important Formulae
A M
2.3027log10 ο 2.3027log10 ο
(e) λ = A (f) λ = M
t t
τα τβ
(g) λ = λ α + λβ (h) τ = (when two particles decay simultaneously)
τα + τβ
Nο Nο Aο
(i) =
N + ( j) A =
n T T
2
T T
2 1/2 2 1/2
P hysi cs | 25.11
Mο
(k) M =
T
T
2 1/2
2. ALPHA DECAY
In alpha decay, the unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle reducing its proton number Z as well as its neutron N
by 2. The alpha decay process may be represented as
A A−4
ZX → Z −2Y + 42He .
As the proton number Z is changed, the element itself is changed and hence the chemical symbol of the residual
nucleus is different from that of the original nucleus. The nucleus before the decay is called the parent nucleus and
resulting after the decay is called the daughter nucleus. An example of alpha decay is 212 208 4
83Bi → 81Tl + 2 He
.
(a) Characteristics of α -decay:
(i) The spectrum of α -particles is a discrete line spectrum.
(ii) Spectrum of α -particles has fine structure i.e. every spectral line consists of a number of fine lines.
(iii) The α - emitting nuclei have discrete energy levels i.e., energy levels in nuclei are analogous to discrete
energy levels in atoms.
(iv) α -decay is explained on the basis of tunnel effect.
(v) Geiger-Muller law- loge λ= A + Bloge R For radioactive series B is same whereas A is different
(b) Size of the nucleus decreases by α emission
3. BETA DECAY
Beta Decay: Beta decay is a process in which either a neutron is converted into a proton or a proton is converted
into a neutron. Thus, the ratio N/Z is altered in beta decay. If a nucleus is formed with more number of neutrons
than needed for stability, a neutron will convert itself into a proton to move towards stability. Similarly, if a nucleus
is formed with more number of protons than needed for stability, a proton will convert itself into a neutron. Such
transformations take place because of weak forces operating within a neutron or a proton. When a neutron is
converted into a proton, an electron and a new particle named antineutrino are created and emitted from the
nucleus n → p + e + v
1
0
n
= 1
1
p+ 0
−1
e β particle 1=
p
1
1
0
n + 0e
1
(β particle)
+
(e) The energy of β -particles emitted by the same radioactive material may be same or different.
(f) The number of β -particles with energy E = E0 (end point energy) is zero.
2 5 . 1 2 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
4. GAMMA DECAY
In gamma decay, a nucleus changes from a higher energy state to a lower energy state through the emission of
electromagnetic radiation (photons). The number of protons (and neutrons) in the nucleus does not change in this
process, so the parent and daughter atoms are the same chemical element. In the gamma decay of a nucleus, the
emitted photon and recoiling nucleus each have a well-defined energy after the decay. The characteristic energy is
divided between only two particles. The process is similar to that in a hydrogen atom when an electron jumps from
a higher energy orbit to a lower energy orbit emitting a photon.
5. RADIOACTIVE SERIES
(a) Elements beyond Bismuth are all radioactive in nature. These radioactive elements disintegrate to give new
elements which further disintegrate to form other elements and so on. The process is continued till a non-
radioactive end product is reached.
(b) The whole chain of such elements starting from the parent radioactive elements to the end non-radioactive
element is called “radioactive series or a family.”
( 4n + 1) is artificial series & 4n, ( 4n + 2 ) , ( 4n + 3) are natural series.
S.No. Series Name of the series Initial Final element Nature of No of α & β
element series particles emitted
1. 4n+2 Uranium series 238 206 Natural
U pb 8α ,6β
92 82
208 216 -
Ti Ac
- 81 - - -
85
208 212 216
Pb Bi Po
82 83 84
212 - - 212 -
- Po Pb
84 82
Figure 25.3
222(radon)
Rn
86
-
210 214
- Ti - - Pb -
81 214 85
210 218
Pb Bi Po
82 214 83 218 84
- Po - - At -
84 85
-
206
- Ti -
81 206
210
Bi Bi
83 210 82
- Po -
84
Figure 25.4
2 5 . 1 4 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
146 U238
144 Th234
Pa234
142 U234
140 Th230
138 Ra226
136 Rn222
134 Po218
Pt218
132 Pb214 Pn218
Bi214
130 Pb214
Pl210
128 Pb210
Bi210
126 Po210
Ti206
124 Bd206 (Stable nucleus)
Z
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92
The mass number of each element in the series is equal to 4n+3. Where n is a positive integer.
Figure 25.6
P hysi cs | 25.15
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
(a) In all series one element of zero group is present (atomic no=86) in gaseous state which is called
emanation.
208
(b) In all series last product is an isotopes of lead Pb , 206 Pb , 207 Pb respectively.
Pb is found in nature as a mixture of these three isotopes.
(c) The (4n+1) series (Neptunium series):-
• Except the last member all other members of this series have been obtained by artificial
means.
• The series does not contain gaseous emanation.
• The last member of the series is an isotope of Bi and not an isotope of Pb.
Vijay Senapathi (JEE 2011, AIR 71)
6. ELECTRON CAPTURE
Electron capture is a process in which a proton-rich nuclide absorbs an inner atomic electron, thereby changing
a nuclear proton to a neutron and simultaneously causing the emission of an electron neutrino. Various photon
emissions follow, as the energy of the atom falls to the ground state of the new nuclide.
Electron capture is the primary decay mode for isotopes with a relative superabundance of protons in the nucleus,
but with insufficient energy difference between the isotope and its prospective daughter (the isobar with one less
positive charge) for the nuclide to decay by emitting a positron. Electron capture is an alternate decay mode for
radioactive isotopes with sufficient energy to decay by positron emission. It is sometimes called inverse beta decay,
through this term can also refer to the interaction of an electron anti-neutron with a proton.
A free proton cannot normally be changed to a free neutron by this process the proton and neutron must be part
of a larger nucleus. In the process of electron capture, one of the orbital electrons, usually from the K or L electron
shell (K-electron capture, also K-capture, or L-electron capture, L-capture) is captured by a proton in the nucleus
forming a neutron and emitting an electron neutrino.
A − A1
y=
2
(
− Z − Z1 =
2
)
238 − 206
− ( 92 − 82 ) = 16 − 10 = 6β − particles
16 14 15 13
( VIA ) (IVA ) ( VA ) (IIIA )
(b) β-particle emission: When an β -particle emits the position of daughter element is one place right in the
periodic table from parent element.
27 27 0 14 14 0
Examples: Mg → Al + e C → N + e
12 13 −1 6 7 −1
(IIA ) (IIIA ) (IV A ) ( VA )
8. RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES
The isotopes of elements which spontaneously decay by emitting radioactivity radiations are defined as radioactive
isotopes.
They are two types.
(a) Natural radioactive isotopes (b) Artificial radioactive isotopes
(b) Natural radioactive isotopes: Those radioactive isotopes which exist naturally are known as natural radioactive
isotopes. e.g. Th232 , Pu240 etc.
(c) Artificial radioactive isotopes: Those isotopes, which are prepared artificially by bombarding fundamental
particles like α , β , γ , p, n etc. no matter, are known as artificial isotopes.
High energy particles from outer space, called cosmic rays, induce nuclear reactions in the upper atmosphere and
create carbon-14. The carbon dioxide molecule of the earth’s atmosphere has a constant ratio (≈1.3 × 10−12 ) of
C14 and C12 isotope. All living organisms also show the same the same ratio as they continuously exchange CO2
with their surroundings. However, after its death, an organism can no longer absorb CO2 and the ratio C14 / C12
decrease due to the β -decay of C14 Thus by measuring the β -activity per unit mass, it is possible to estimate the
age of a material.
Using such techniques samples of wood, sample of wood, charcoal, bone, etc., have been identified to have lived
from 1000 to 25000 years ago.
(f) Alpha ray produces scintillation (flashes of light) when it strikes certain fluorescent materials, such as barium
platinocyanide.
(g) It causes ionization in gases.
Let us estimate the actual masses before and after the fission reactions.
P hysi cs | 25.19
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The drooping of the binding energy curve at high mass numbers tells us that nucleons are more tightly
bounded when they are assembled into two middle-mass nuclei rather than a single high-mass nucleus.
In other words, energy can be released in the nuclear fission.
Shrikant Nagori (JEE 2009, AIR 30)
Figure 25.7
E2
10.1.1 Fission Chain Reaction
Fission chain reaction occurs because
of interactions between neutrons and E1
fissile isotopes (such as 235U ). The
Energy
chain reaction requires both the release
released
of neutrons from fissile isotopes
E3
undergoing nuclear fission and the
subsequent absorption of some of Initial Intermediate Final
these neutrons in nuclear fission, a few Figure 25.8
2 5 . 2 0 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
neutrons (the exact number depends on several factors) are ejected from the reaction. These free neutrons will then
interact with the surrounding medium, and if more fissile fuel is present, some may be absorbed and cause more
fission. Thus, the cycle repeats to give a reaction that is self-sustaining.
Cold water
Pump
Control Turbine
rod Moderator Steam Electric power
Generator
Cold water
Figure 25.10
P hysi cs | 25.21
236 140 94
And a number of the other combination 92 U → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 2n
238
Suppose, used uranium rods, which contain only U , are kept in or around a uranium-reactor core. Also suppose,
238
the geometry is such that out of the average 2.5 neutrons produced in fission, one neutron is absorbed by a U
239 239
nucleus in these rods resulting in Pu . Then we produce as much nucleus in these rods resulting in Pu . Then
239 235
we produce as much nuclear fuel in the form of Pu as we consume in the form of U . If more than one
238
neutron can be absorbed by these U rods per fission then we produce more fuel than what we consume. Thus,
apart from nuclear energy, these reactors give us fresh nuclear fuel which often exceeds the nuclear fuel used. Such
a reactor is called a breeder reactor.
K. Such high temperature can be produced by first inducing a fission event. A fusion reaction is therefore also
called a thermonuclear reaction. This is the basic hydrogen bomb.
(c) Unlike the highly radioactive fission fragments, the end product of the fusion of hydrogen nuclei is safe, non-
radioactive helium.
(d) Unfortunately a sustained and controllable fusion reactor that can deliver a net power output is not yet a
reality. A great deal of effort is currently under way to resolve various difficulties in the development of a
successful device. Nevertheless controlled fusion is regarded as the ultimate energy source because of the
abundant availability of its main fuel: water.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The drooping of the binding energy curve at low mass number tells us that energy will be released if
two nuclei of small mass numbers combine to form a single middle-mass nucleus. This is nuclear fusion.
Ankit Rathore (JEE Advanced 2013, AIR 158)
2
Illustration 11: In the nuclear fusion reaction: H + 4 He ⇒ 2 3H in a nuclear reactor, of 200 MW rating. If the
1 2 1
energy from above reaction is used with a 25% efficiency in the reactor, how many grams of deuterium will be
needed per day? (The masses of 3 H and 4 He are 2.0141 and 4.0026 amu respectively) (JEE ADVANCED)
1 2
Sol: The energy absorbed during the nuclear fusion reaction is calculated using Q value equation i.e.
Q =−mc2 =−m × (931) MeV . The number of deuterium atoms required during this reaction is obtained by
Power Required
N= .
Efficiency × (energy released from one fusion reaction)
Let us first calculate the Q value of nuclear function, Q =−mc2 =−m × (931) MeV
Q=
(2 × 2.0141 − 4.0026) × 931MeV = 23.834 × 106 eV. Now efficiency of reactor is 25%
23.834MeV =
So effective energy used = 0.25 × 23.834 × 106 × 1.6 × 10−19=
J 9.534 × 10−13 J
Now 9.534 × 10−13 J energy is released by fusion of 2 deuterium.
= 200 × 106 J / s per second= 200 × 106 × 86400 J / s for 1 days.
Requirement is 200MW
In which K is the average kinetic energy of the interacting particles, k is the Boltzmann constant, and the temperature
T is in kelvins. Thus, rather than saying,
Fusion in Sun: Among the celestial bodies in which energy is produced, the sun is relatively cooler. There are stars
with temperature around 108 K inside. In sun and other stars, where the temperature is less than or around 107 K ,
fusion takes place dominantly by proton-proton cycle as follows:
1
H + 1H → 2H + e+ + ν
2
H + 1H → 3He + γ
3
He + 3He → 4 He + 2 1H
4 1H → 4 He + 2e+ + 2ν + 2γ
Note that the first two reactions should occur twice to produce two 3He nuclei and initiate the third reaction. As
a result of this cycle, effectively, four hydrogen nuclei combine to form a helium nucleus. About 26.7 MeV energy
is released in the cycle. Thus, hydrogen is fuel which ‘burns’ into helium to release energy. The sun is estimated to
have been radiating energy for the last 4.5 × 109 years and will continue to do so till all the hydrogen in it is used
up. It is estimated that the present store of hydrogen in the sun is sufficient for the next 5 × 109 years.
PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS
1. Problems from this section do not need any mathematically difficult involvement. One only needs to focus on
exponential functions and its properties.
2. Questions related to energy can easily be solved by thinking.
3. For e.g. consider energy as money and think of it in terms of loss and gain, But overall total money is conserved
i.e. total energy is conserved; only it is exchanged. One must not be worried with the relation E = mc2 at this
stage and just consider mass and energy as equivalent. So, if more clearly stated this equivalent quantity is
conserved in every process.
4. Mostly, questions related to basic understanding of Nuclear force are asked rather than which involve
complicated calculations.
5. Statistics must always be kept in mind while solving a problem of radioactive decay.
FORMULAE SHEET
N0 N0 e−λt =
=− N0 (1 − e−λt )
1
The corresponding graph is as shown in Fig. 25.13.
5. Half-life and mean life are related to each other by the relation,
= t1/2 0.693t
= av or tav 1.44 t1/2
Time
6. As we said in point number (2), number of nuclei decayed in time
t are N0 (1 − e−λt ) . This expression involves power of e. So to avoid Figure 25.15
it we can use, ∆N =λN∆t where, ∆N are the number of nuclei decayed in
time ∆t , at the instant when total number of nuclei are N. But this can be applied only when ∆t << t1/2 .
7. In same interval of time, equal percentage (or fraction) of nuclei are decayed (or left un decayed).
1. R = R 0 A1/3 2. ∆=
Ebe ∑ (mc2 ) − Mc2 (binding energy)
∆Ebe dN
3. ∆Eben = (binding energy per nucleon.) 4. = −λdt
A N
1
5. N = N0 e−λt (radioactive delay), 6. τ =
λ
ln2
7. Τ1/2 = = τ ln2.
λ
Solved Examples
JEE Main/Boards ∆E
using ∆m = where ∆E is the amount of energy
c2
Example 1: Sun radiates energy in all direction. The released during the day.
average energy received at earth is 1.4 kW/ m2 . The
The sun radiates energy in all directions in a sphere. At a
average distance between the earth and the sun is
distance R, the energy received per unit area per second
1.5 × 1011 m . If this energy is released by conversion of
is 1.4 KJ (given). Therefore the energy released in area
mass into energy, then the mass lost per day by sun is
approximately (use 1 day = 86400 sec) 4 πR 2 per sec is 1400 × 4 πR 2 J the energy released per
day = 1400 × 4 πR 2 × 86400 J
Sol: The sun produces energy by fusion reaction of
R 1.5 × 1011m , thus
Where =
hydrogen atoms. The loss in mass of sun is calculated E 1400 × 4 × 3.14 × (1.5 × 1011 )2 × 86400
∆=
2 5 . 2 6 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
The energy produced per second is Example 4: The mean lives of a radioactive material
for α and β radiations are 1620 years and 520 years
106
= 1000 × 103 J = eV = 6.25 × 1024 eV respectively. The material decays simultaneously for α
−19
1.6 × 10 and β radiation. The time after which one fourth of the
material remains un-decayed is
The number of fissions should be,
6.25 × 1024 Sol: The mean life of the radioactive material for
=N = 3.125 × 1016
200 × 106 τα τβ
simultaneous α and β decay is τ = . The time in
τα + τβ
40
Example 3: A star initially has 10 deuterons. It 2.303
2 2 3 1
which the 3/4th of material decayed is t = log10 4 .
produces energy via the processes 1 H + 1 H → 1H +1 p λ
1
and 12H +13 H →24 He +10 n . If the average power radiated We know that λ ∝ .
τ
by the star is 1016 W , in how much time the deuteron τα τβ 1620 × 520
supply of the star get exhausted? =τ = = 394 years
τα + τβ 1620 + 520
where N is the deuteron used per reaction. Sol: The mass of radioactive element decaying after
N0 M0
Adding the two processes, we get time t is given=by N = ; M where M is the
n
2 2n
mass (in kg) of the radioactive element. As half-lives
3 12H → 4
2 He + 11p + 10n are given, value of n is found as, number of half-life
P hysi cs | 25.27
Example 2: In the interior of the sun, a continuous Example 3: The element curium 248 has a mean
96 Cm
process of 4 protons, fusing into a helium nucleus and
life of 1013 seconds. Its primary decay modes are
pair of positron, is going on. Calculate
spontaneous fission and α − decay, the former with a
(a) The release of energy per process probability of 8% and the latter with probability of 92%.
Each fission releases 200 MeV of energy. The masses
(b) Rate of consumption of hydrogen to produce 1 MW
involved in are as follows:
power.
248
Given 1H1 = 1.007825 a.m.u. (atom) 99 Cm = 248.07220u
244
4
= 4.002603 a.m.u. (atom) 94 Pu = 244.064100u
2 He
4
And 2 He = 4.002603u
m
= + m
= − 5.5x10−4 a.m.u.
e e
(Neglect the energy carried away by neutrons)
Calculate the power output from a sample of 1020 Cm
Sol: The energy produced in sun during one fusion MeV
atoms. 1amu = 931
reaction is E = ∆mc2 J =∆m × 931.5 MeV . Take the c2
P hysi cs | 25.29
Sol: The energy released in each transformation is At the time of formation of the rock, both isotopes
found by E =∆m × c2 J. As the probabilities of each have the same number of nuclei N0 . Let λ1 and λ2 be
fission is given the total energy Et released in respective the decay constants of the two isotopes. If N1 and N2
transformation is Probability × E where E is the energy are the number of their nuclei after a time t, we have
liberated during any one fission reaction. And the N1
= e( 1 2 )
λt λ t λ −λ t
power liberated during the entire process is given by N1 = N0 e 1 and N2 = N0 e 2 … (i)
N2
E
P = T where ET is the total energy released during
τ Let the masses of the two isotopes at time t be m1 and
fission of all the molecules of the sample. m2 and let their respective atomic weights be M1 and
α - decay of Cm takes place as follows: M2 . We have m1 = N1M1 and m2 = N2M2
248 N1 m1 M2
96 Cm → 94Pu244 + 2He4 = … (ii)
N2 m2 M1
∴ Mass defect = m (M)
∆m ; ∆= − (M) + Mα
Substituting the value given in the problem, we get
cm pu
=∆m ( 248.07220 ) − 244.064100 + 4.002603 N1 100 1 100
= × =
N2 1 1.02 1.02
∆m =
0.005517u
Let t1 and t2 be the mean lives of the two isotopes.
Energy released per α − decay
1 1
= ( 0.005517 )( 931) MeV = 5.136 MeV Then t1
= = and t2
λ1 λ2
Probability of spontaneous fission=8%
t1 − t2 2 × 109 − 4 × 109
Probability of α − decay = 92% Which gives λ1=
− λ2 =
96 Cm
−0.25 × 10−9
=
= ( 0.08 × 200 + 0.92 × 5.136 ) MeV = 20.725 MeV
Setting this value in Eqn. (i), we get
Energy released by 1020 atoms
0.25×10−9 t
N1 1 100
= 20.725 × 1020 MeV = e = ⇒t loge
N2 0.25 × 10 −9 1.02
Mean life time = 1013 sec
= 18.34 × 109 year
20.725 × 1020 MeV
power =
1013 sec Example 5: A small quantity of solution containing
7
= 20.725 × 10 × 1.6 × 10( −13
) joule
= 3.316 × 10−5 watt.
sec
24
11 Na
radioactive nuclei (half-life 15 hours) of activity
1.0 µ Ci is injected into the blood of a person. A sample
of the blood of volume 1 cc taken after 5 hours showed
Example 4: In the chain analysis of a rock, the mass an activity of 296 disintegrations per minute. Determine
ratio of two radioactive isotopes is found to be 100:1. the total volume of blood in the body of the person.
The mean lives of the two isotopes are 4 × 109 year and Assume that the radioactive solution mixed uniformly
2 × 109 year respectively. If it is assumed that at the in the blood of the person.
time of formation of the rock, both isotopes were in
(1 Curie =3.7× 1010 disintegration per second)
equal proportion, calculate the age of the rock. Ratio of
atomic weights of the two isotopes is 1.02:1. Sol: The activity of the radioactive nuclei is given
by Ao = λN0 where λ is the decay constant of the
(log10 1.02 = 0.0086 ) . radioactive nuclei. Find the number of radioactive nuclei
N0 present initially. Also find the number of nuclei in
Sol: The number of the radioactive nuclei remaining
the sample of the blood initially. The ratio of these two
at time t is given as Nt = No e−λt . Here the ratio of the
gives the volume.
masses are given. The ratio of number of atoms are
N m M 0.693
given by 1 = 1 2 . Find the value of t from the ratio We know that T1/2 = or
N2 m2 M1 λ
Nt1 0.693 0.693
.
Nt2 =λ = = 1.283 × 10−5 / sec. ... (i)
T 15 × 3600 1/2
2 5 . 3 0 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
dN ∆N
Now activity Ao = = λNo … (ii) 1 second is found by = λN here λ is the decay
dt ∆t
constant and N is the number of nuclei present in 1 g
Where Ao = 1 micro curie = 1× 3.7 × 10 4 sample of radium.
= 3.7 × 10 4 disintegrations / sec Number of atoms in 1g sample is
From equation (ii) we have 1
N = (
6.02 × 10
226
23
)
=2.66 × 1021 atoms.
3.7 × 10 4 = 1.283 × 10 −5 × N0
3.7 × 10 4 The decay constant is
N0
= = 2.883 × 109
1.283 × 10−5 0.693 0.693
=λ = = 1.35 × 10−11s−1
Let the number of radioactive nuclei present after 5
T1/2 (1620 ) (3.16 × 10 7
)
hours be N1 in 1 cc sample of blood.
Taking 1 yr = 3.16×107 s;
dN 296 0.693
Then = λN1 or = N
dt 60 15 × 3600 1
296 × 15 × 3600
Now,
∆N
∆t
( )(
= λN = 1.35 × 10−11 2.66 × 1021 )
or
= N1 = 3.844 × 105
60 × 0.693 = 3.6 × 1010 s−1
Let N0′ be the number of radioactive nuclei in per cc of Thus, 3.6 × 1010 nuclei decay in one second.
sample, then
JEE Main/Boards
force.
(c) 94 Be (p, α ) ........
Q.20 Calculate the energy, released in MeV, in the
30 30
following nuclear reaction (d) 15 P →14 S + .........
238 234
Th + 24 He + Q Massof 238U = 238.05079 u
92 U →90
92 (e) 13 H →32 He + .........
Massof 234 4
90 Th = 234.043630 u Massof 2 He = 4.002600 u
2
(f) 43
20 Ca ( ∝,...... ) →2146 Sc
1u = 931.5MeV / c
Q.21 Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ration 1:8. Q.29 The activity of the radioactive sample drops to
What is the ration of their nuclear radii? 1/64 of its original value in 2 hr find the decay constant
(λ).
P hysi cs | 25.33
Q.30 The nucleidic ration of 3 H to 11H in a sample of bones. This nuclide has a half-life of 28.1 year. Suppose
water is 8.0 × 10−18 : 1. Tritium undergoes decay tritium one microgram was absorbed by a new-born child,
atoms would 10.0 g of such a sample contains 40 year how much Sr 90 will remain in his bones after 20 years?
after the original sample is collected?
210 206
Q.39 (i) Po decays with α − particle to 82 Pb
with a
125 84
Q.31 The half-life period of I is 60 days. What % of 210
53 half-life of 138.4 day. If 1.0 g of Po is placed in a
84
radioactivity would be present after 240 days? sealed tube, how much helium will accumulate in 69.2
day? Express the answer in cm3 at 1atm and 273K. Also
Q.32 At any given time a piece of radioactive material
210
report the volume of He formed if 1 g of Po is used.
( t1/2 = 30 days ) contains 1012 atoms. 84
Calculate the activity of the sample in dps. (ii) A sample of U238 (half-life = 4.5 × 109 yr) ore is found
to contain 23.8 g of U238 and 20.6 g of Pb206 . Calculate
Q.33 Calculate the age of a vegetarian beverage whose
tritium content is only 15% of the level in living plants. the age of the ore.
1.0087 in amu. Q.2 The surface area of a nucleus varies with mass
number A as
Q.37 (a) Calculate number of α − and β -particles
(A) A2/3 (B) A1/3 (C) A (D) None
238 206
emitted when 92 U
changes into radioactive 82 Pb
.
Q.3 Consider the nuclear reaction X 200 → A110 + B90
(b) Th234 disintegrates and emits 6β − and 7 α − particles
If the binding energy per nucleon for X,A and B is
to form a stable element. Find the atomic number and
7.4 MeV, 8.2. MeV and 8.2 MeV respectively, what is the
mass number of the stable product.
energy released?
Q.38 One of the hazards of nuclear explosion is the (A) 200 MeV (B) 160 MeV
generation of Sr 90 and its subsequent incorporation in (C) 110 MeV (D) 90 MeV
2 5 . 3 4 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
Q.4 The binding energy per nucleon for C12 is 7.68 Radioactivity
13
MeV and that for C is 7.5 MeV. The energy required
Single Correct Choice Type
to remove a neutron from C13 is
27 29
(A) 5.34 MeV (B) 5.5 MeV Q.11 13 Al
is a stable isotope. 13 Al is expected to be
(C) 9.5 MeV (D) 9.34 MeV disintegrated by
(A) α emission (B) β emission
Q.5 The binding energies of nuclei X and Y are E1 and
(C) Positron emission (D) Proton emission.
E2 respectively. Two atoms of X fuse to give one atom
of Y and an energy Q is released. Then:
Q.12 Loss of a β − particle is equivalent to
Q 2E1 − E2
(A) = (B) Q
= E2 − 2E1
(A) Increase of one proton only
Q 2E1 + E2
(C) = Q 2E2 + E1
(D) =
(B) Decrease of one neutron only
Q.6 There are two radio-nuclei A and B. A is (C) Both (A) and (B)
an alpha emitter and B is a beta emitter. Their (D) None of these
disintegration constants are in the ratio of 1:2. What
should be the ratio of number of atoms of two at
Q.13 Two radioactive material A1 and A2 have decay
time t = 0 so that probabilities of getting α − and
constant of 10λ0 and λ0 . If initially they have same
β − particles are same at time t=0.
1
(A) 2:1 (B)1:2 (C)e (D) e−1 number of nuclei, then after time the ratio of
9λ0
number of their undecayed nuclei will be
Q.7 A certain radioactive substance has a half-life of 5
1 1 1 e
years. Thus for a particular nucleus in a sample of the (A) (B) (C) (D)
element, the probability of decay in ten years is e 2
e 3
e 1
(A) 50% (B) 75% (C) 100% (D) 60% Q.14 The half-life of a radioactive isotopes is three
hours. If the initial mass of the isotope were 256 g, the
Q.8 Half-life of radium is 1620 years. How many radium mass of it remaining undecayed after 18 hours would
nuclei decay in 5 hours in 5 gm radium? (Atomic weight be
of radium = 223) (A) 16.0 g (B) 4.0 g (C) 8.0 (D) 12.0 g
12 15
(A) 9.1× 10 (B) 3.23 × 10
1 2 k k
(C) 1.72 × 1020 (D) 3.3 × 1017 Q.15 A consecutive reaction A → B → C is
characterised by
Q.9 The decay constant of the end product of a (A) Maxima in the concentration of A
radioactive series is (B) Maxima in the concentration of B
(A) Zero (C) Maxima in the concentration of C
(B) Infinite (D) High exothermicity
(C) Finite (non zero)
(D) Depends on the end product. Q.16 Consider the following nuclear reactions:
238
92 M →YX N + 2 24He; XY N →BA L + 2β +
Q.10 A radioactive nuclide can decay simultaneously The number of neutrons in the element L is
by two different processes which have decay constants
λ1 and λ2 . The effective decay constant of the nuclide is (A) 142 (B)144 (C)140 (D)146
λ , then :
Q.17 The half-life of a radioisotope is four hours. If
(A) λ = λ1 + λ2 λ 1 / 2 ( λ1 + λ1 )
(B)= the initial mass of the isotope was 200 g, the mass
1 1 1 remaining after 24 hours undecayed is
(C) = + (D) λ = λ1λ2
λ λ1 λ2 (A) 1.042 g (B) 2.084 g (C) 3.125 g (D) 4.167 g
P hysi cs | 25.35
Q.18 Helium nuclei combines to form an oxygen Q.23 The ratio of 14C to 12C in a living matter is measured
nucleus. The binding energy per nucleon of oxygen 14
C −12
nucleus is if m0 = 15.834 amu and mHe = 4.0026 amu to be =1.3 X 10 at the present time. Activity of
14
C
(A) 10.24 MeV (B) 0 MeV 12.0 gm carbon sample is 180 dpm. The half-life of 14C
(C) 5.24 MeV (D) 4 MeV is nearly _________x 10−12 sec. [Given: NA = 6x1023 ]
(A) 0.18 (B) 1.8 (C) 0.384 (D) 648
Q.19 A radioactive element gets spilled over the floor
of a room. Its half-life period is 30 days. If the initial Q.24 Which of the following processes represent a
activity is ten times the permissible value, after how gamma – decay?
many days will it be safe to enter the room?
A A
(A) 1000 days (B) 300 days (A) X + y → X + a+b
Z Z −1
(i) The half-life period of a radioactive element X is same (A) Fpp > Fpn =
Fnn (B) Fpp
= Fpn
= Fnn
as the mean-life time of another radioactive element Y.
Initially both of them have the same number of atoms. (C) Fpp > Fpn > Fnn (D) Fpp < Fpn =
Fnn
Then Y will decay at a faster rate than X.
(ii) The electron emitted in beta radiation originates Q.26 The average (mean) life at a radio nuclide which
from decay of a neutron in a nucleus decays by parallel path is
λ
(iii) The half-life of 215 at is 100 ms. The time taken for 1
A → B; λ1 = 1.8x10 −2 sec−1
the radioactivity of a sample of of 215 At to decay to
1/16th of its initial value is 400 us. λ
2 → C; λ = 10 −3 sec −1
2A 2
(iv) The volume (V) and mass (m) of a nucleus are
related as V ∝ m. (A) 52.63 sec (B) 500 sec
(v) Given a sample of Radium-226 having half-life of (C) 50 sec (D) None
4 days. Find the probability. A nucleus disintegrates
within 2 half-lives is ¾
Q.27 Two radioactive nuclides A and B have half lives
Select the correct code for above. of 50 min respectively. A fresh sample contains the
(A) TTTTT (B) TFTTF nuclides of B to be eight time that of A. How much
time should elapse so that the number of nuclides of A
(C) FTFTF (D) FTTTF becomes double of B
(A) 30 (B) 40 (C) 50 (D) None
Q.22 The radioactive sources A and B of half-lives of t
hours respectively, initially contain the same number of
radioactive atoms. At the end of t hours, their rates of Q.28 A sample of 14 CO2 was to be mixed with ordinary
disintegration are in the ratio: CO2 for a biological tracer experiment. In order that
(A) 2 2 : 1 (B) 1:8 10 cm3 of diluted gas should have 10 4 dis/min, what
activity (in µ Ci) of radioactive carbon is needed to
(C) 2 : 1 (D) n:1
2 5 . 3 6 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
prepare 60 L of diluted gas at STP. [1 Ci= 3.7x 1010 dps] Q.4 During a negative beta decay (1987)
(A) 270mCi (B)27mCi (C) 2.7mCi (D)2700mCi (A) An atomic electron is ejected
(B) An electron which is already present within the
nucleus is ejected
Q.29 Wooden article and freshly cut tree show activity of
7.6 and 15.2 min−1 gm−1 of carbon ( t1/2 = 5760 years) (C) A neutron in the nucleus decays emitting an electron
respectively. The age of article in years. Is (D) A part of the binding energy of the nucleus is
converted into an electron
15.2
(A) 5760 (B) 5760x
7.6
Q.5 A star initially has 10 40 deuterons. It produces
7.6
(C) 5760 × (D) 5760 x (15.2-7.6) 2
energy via the processes 1H + 1H2 → 1H3 p and
15.2
2 3 4
1H + 1H → 2He + n. If the average power radiated by
Q.30 A radioactive sample had an initial activity of the star is 1016 W, the deuteron supply of the star is
56 dpm (disintegration per min it was found to have
an activity of 28 dpm. Find the number of atoms in a exhausted in a time of the order of (1993)
sample having an activity of 10 dpm. (A) 106 s (B) 108 s (C) 1012 s (D) 1016 s
(A) 693 (B) 1000 (C) 100 (D) 10,000
Q.6 Fast neutrons can easily be slowed down by(1994)
Q.31 The radioactivity of a sample is R1 at a time T1 (A) The use of lead shielding
and R 2 at a time T2 . If the half-life of the specimen is
T, the number of atoms that have disintegrated in the (B) Passing them through heavy water
time (T2 − T1 ) is proportional to (C) Elastic collisions with heavy nuclei
(A) (R1T1 − R 2 T2 ) (B) (R1 − R 2 ) (D) Applying a strong electric field
(C) (R1 − R 2 ) / T (D) (R1 − R 2 ) T/ 0.693
Q.7 Consider α -particles, β -particles and λ -rays each
Previous Years’ Questions having an energy of 0.5 MeV. In increasing order of
penetrating powers, the radiations are (1994)
(A) α , β, γ (B) α , γ , β (C) β, γ , α (D) γ , β, α
Q.1 The half-life of the radioactive radon is 3.8 days. The
time, at the end of which 1/20th of the radon sample will
remain undecayed, is (given log10 3 =0.4343) (1981) Q.8 A radioactive sample S1 having an activity of 5 µ Ci
has twice the number of nuclei as another sample S2
(A) 3.8 days (B) 16.5 days
which has an activity of 10 µ Ci. The half lives of S1 and
(C) 33 days (D) 76 days S2 can be (2008)
(A) 20 yr and 5 yr, respectively
Q.2 Beta rays emitted by a radioactive material are
(B) 20 yr and 10 yr, respectively
(1983)
(C) 10 yr each
(A) Electromagnetic radiations
(D) 5 yr each
(B) The electrons orbiting around the nucleus
(C) Charged particles emitted by the nucleus
Q.9 The radioactive decay rate of a radioactive element
(D) Neutral particles is found to be 103 disintegration /second at a certain
time. If the half-life of the element is one second, the
Q.3 The equation ; (1987) decay rate after one second is ……………. And after three
seconds is ………….. (1983)
4 11H → 42He2+ + 2e− + 26 Me V represents
(A) β -Decay (B) γ -Decay Q.10 In the uranium radioactive series the initial
238 206
(C) Fusion (D) Fission nucleus is 92 U
and the final nucleus is 92 Pb
. When
P hysi cs | 25.37
Statement–II: For heavy nuclei, binding energy per (C) 4 →2 (D) 5→3
nucleon increases with increasing Z while for light
nuclei it decrease with increasing Z. (2008) Q.16 The binding energy per nucleon for the parent
nucleus is E1 and that for the daughter nuclei is E2.
(A) Statement-I is false, statement-II is true.
Then (2010)
(B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true; statement-II
(A) E2 = 2E1 (B) E1 > E2
is correct explanation for statement-I.
(C) E2 > E1 (D) E1 = 2E2
(C) Statement-Iis true, statement– 2 is true; statement-II
is nota correct explanation for statement-I.
Q.17 The speed of daughter nuclei is (2010)
(D) Statement-I is true, statement-II is False.
∆m 2∆m
(A) C
c (B) cC
Q.13 Suppose an electron is attracted towards the M + ∆m M
origin by a force k/r where ‘k’ is a constant and ‘r’ is the
∆m ∆m
distance of the electron from the origin. By applying (C) cC (D) C
c
Bohr model to this system, the radius of the nth orbital M M + ∆m
of the electron is found to be ‘rn’ and the kinetic energy
of the electron to be Tn. Then which of the following is
Q.18 A radioactive nucleus (initial mass number A and
true? (2008)
atomic number Z) emits 3 a-particles and 2 positrons.
(A) Tn ∝1/n2, rn ∝n2 (B) Tn independent of n, rn ∝n The ratio of number of neutrons to that of protons in
the final nucleus will be (2010)
(C) Tn ∝1/n, rn ∝n (D) Tn ∝1/n, rn ∝n2
A–Z–8 A–Z–4
(A) (B)
Q.14 The above is a plot of binding energy per nucleon Z–4 Z–8
Eb, against the nuclear mass M; A, B, C, D, E, F correspond
to different nuclei. Consider four reactions: (2009) A – Z – 12 A–Z–4
(C) (D)
Z–4 Z–2
(i) A + B →C + ε
(ii) C →A + B + ε Q.19 Energy required for the electron excitation in Li++
(iii) D + E →F + ε and from the first to the third Bohr orbit is: (2011)
where ε is the energy released? In which reactions is ε (C) 122.4 eV (D) 12.1 eV
positive?
2 5 . 3 8 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
Q.20 The half life of a radioactive substance is 20 Q.23 As an electron makes a transition from an excited
minutes. The approximate time interval (t2 – t1) between state to the ground state of a hydrogen - like atom/ion:
2 1 (2015)
the time t2 when of it has decayed and time t1 and
3 3 (A) its kinetic energy increases but potential energy and
of it had decayed is : (2011) total energy decrease
(A) 14 min (B) 20 min (C) 28 min (D) 7 min (B) kinetic energy, potential energy and total energy
decrease
Q.21 Hydrogen atom is excited from ground state to (C) kinetic energy decreases, potential energy increases
another state with principal quantum number equal to but total energy remains same
4. Then the number of spectral lines in the emission
spectra will be (2012) (D) kinetic energy and total energy decrease but
potential energy increases
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 5 (D) 6
Q.24 Half-lives of two radioactive elements A and B are
Q.22 Assume that a neutron breaks into a proton and 20 minutes and 40 minutes, respectively, Initially, the
an electron. The energy released during this process is samples have equal number of nuclei. After 80 minutes,
(Mass of neutron = 1.6725 x 10–27 kg; mass of proton the ratio of decayed numbers of A and B nuclei will be :
= 1.6725 x 10–27 kg; mass of electron = 9 x 10–31 kg) (2016)
(2012)
(A) 4 : 1 (B) 1 : 4 (C) 5 : 4 (D) 1 : 16
(A) 0.73 MeV (B) 7.10 MeV
(C) 6.30 MeV (D) 5.4 MeV
JEE Advanced/Boards
Q.12 A body of mass m0 is placed on a smooth Q.18 Nuclei of a radioactive element A are being
horizontal surface. The mass of the body is decreasing produced at a constant rate α . The element has a
exponentially with disintegration constant λ . Assuming decay constant λ . At time t=0, there are N0 nuclei of
that the mass is ejected backward with a relative velocity the element.
u. Initially the body was at rest. Find the velocity of body
(a) Calculate the number N of nuclei of A at time t
after time t.
(b) If α = 2N0 λ , calculate the number of nuclei of A after
one half-life of A & also the limiting value of N as t → ∞
Q.13 Show that in a nuclear reaction where the
outgoing particle is scattered at an angle of 900 with
the direction of the bombarding particle, the Q-value is Q.19 In hydrogenation reaction at 25o C , it is observed
expressed as that hydrogen gas pressure falls from 2 atm to 1.2 atm
in 50 min. Calculate the rate of reaction in molarity per
mp m1 sec. R=0.0821 litre atm degree −1mol−1
Q = Kp 1 + − K1 1 +
Mo Mo
238
Q.20 U by successive radioactive decays changes
Where, I=incoming particle, P=product nucleus, 92
T=target nucleus, O=outgoing particle. 206
to Pb . A sample of uranium ore was analyzed and
82
2 5 . 4 0 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
found to contain 1.0g of U238 and 0.1g of PB206 . (B) Captures a γ -ray photon of energy 2 MeV
Assuming that all the PB206 had accumulated due to (C) Emits a γ -ray photon of energy 3 MeV
decay of U238 , find out the age of the ore.
(D) Captures a γ -ray photon of energy 3 MeV
238 9
(Half life of U = 4.5x10 years)
Q.2 A certain radioactive nuclide of mass number mx
disintegrates, with the emission of an electron and γ
218 214
Q.21 Po (t /12 = 3.05 min) decay to Pb (t
(t/12 radiation
3.05 min)
== 3.05 only, to give second nuclide of mass number
84 82 /12
my . Which one of the following equation correctly
min) by α -emission, while Pb214 is a β − emitter . In an
relates mx and my ?
218
experiment starting with 1 gm atom of Pure Po , how (A) m= m + 1 (B) m
= m −2
y x y x
that isotope. Then the probability that this surviving formation of Y against time would look like
nucleus will survive the next half-life :
1 1 1 5
(A) (B) (C) (D)
32 5 2 2 (A) (B)
Y
Q.8 The activity of a sample reduces from A0 to A0 3
t t
in one hour. The activity after 3 hours more will be
A0 A0 A0 A0
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3 3 9 9 3 27 (C) (D)
Y
Y
Q.9 The activity of a sample of radioactive material is
t t
A1 at time t1 and A2 at time t2 (t2 > t1 ) . Its mean life
is T.
(E)
Y
A1 − A2
(A) A1t1 = A2 t2 (B) =constant
t2 − t1
t
Q.10 A fraction ƒ1 of a radioactive sample decays in (A) Is smaller than that of element
one mean life, and a fraction ƒ2 decays in one half-life. (B) Is greater than that of element
(A) ƒ1 > ƒ2 (C) Is equal to that of element
(B) ƒ1 < ƒ2 (D) Will be smaller or greater depending upon whether
(C) ƒ1 = ƒ2 the solution is weak or concentrated.
(A) (R1T1 − R 2 T2 ) (B) (R1 − R 2 )T Q.17 A free neutron is decayed into a proton but a free
proton is not decayed into a neutron. This is because-
(C) (R1 − R 2 ) / T (D) (R1 − R 2 )(T1 − T2 ) (A) Neutron is a composite particle made of a proton
and an electron whereas proton is a fundamental
Q.13 The radioactive nucleus of an element X decays particle
to a stable nucleus of element Y. A graph of rate of (B) Neutron is an uncharged particle whereas proton is
2 5 . 4 2 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
Q.18 When a nucleus with atomic number Z and mass (B) AB indicates electrostatic repulsion
number A undergoes a radioactive decay process: (C) BC indicates nuclear attraction
(A) Both Z and A will decrease, if the process is α decay (D) BC represents electrostatic interaction
(B) Z will decrease but A will not change, if the process
is β+ decay Q.23 In β -decay, the Q-value of the process is E. Then
(C) Z will decrease but A will not change, if the process (A) K.E. of a β -particle cannot exceed E.
(D) Z and A will remain unchanged, if the process is γ (C) N/X ratio of the nucleus is altered.
decay. (D) Mass number (A) of the nucleus is altered.
Q.19 When the atomic number A of the nucleus Q.24 Consider the following nuclear reactions and
increases select the correct statements from the option that
(A) Initially the neutron-proton ratio is constant=1 follow.
Q.27 For nuclei with A>100 cause and the result can be
(A) The binding energy of the nucleus decreases on an (A) A nucleus of excess nucleons is α − active
average as A increases
(B) An excited nucleus of excess protons is β− active
(B) The binding energy per nucleon decreases on an
(C) An excited nucleus of excess protons is β+ active
average a A increases
(D) An nucleus of excess neutrons is β− active
(C) If the nucleus breaks into two roughly equal parts
energy is released
Assertion Reasoning Type
(D) If two nuclei fuse to form a bigger nucleus energy
is released (A) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true and
statement-II is correct explanation for statement-I.
Q.28 A radioactive sample has initial concentration no. (B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true and statement-
of nuclei- II is NOT the correct explanation for statement-I
(A) The number of undecayed nuclei present in the (C) Statement-I is true, statement-II is false.
sample decays exponentially with time (D) Statement-I is false, statement-II is false.
(B) The activity (R) of the sample at any instant is
directly proportional to the number of undecayed Q.32 Half-life for certain radioactive element is 5 min.
nuclei present in that sample at that time Four nuclei of that element are observed a certain
(C) The no. of decayed nuclei grows exponentially with instant of time. After five minutes
time Statement-I: It can be definitely said that two nuclei
(D) The no. of decayed nuclei grow linearly with time will be left undecayed.
Statement-II: After half-life i.e. 5minutes, half of total
Q.29 A nuclide A undergoes α decay and another nuclei will disintegrate. So only two nuclei will be left
nuclide B undergoes β− decay- undecayed.
(A) All the α -particles emitted by A will have almost
the same speed Q.33 Statement-I: Consider the following nuclear of
14
(B) The α -particles emitted by A may have widely an unstable C6 nucleus initially at rest. The decay
different speeds 14 0
C →14 N + e + ν . In a nuclear reaction total energy
6 7
(C) All the β -particles emitted by B will have almost −1
can transform into lithium nucleus 3 Li7 under suitable Q.34 Statement-I: It is easy to remove a proton from
conditions, after emitting : 40
20 Ca
nucleus as compared to a neutron
(A) 4 protons and 3 neutrons
Statement-II: Inside nucleus neutrons are acted on
(B) 5 protons and 1 negative beta particle
only by attractive forces but protons are also acted on
(C) 1 alpha particle and 2 gamma particles by repulsive forces.
(D) 1 alpha particle, 4 protons and 2 negative beta
particles Q.35 Statement-I: It is possible for a thermal neutron
(E) 4 protons and 4 neutrons to be absorbed by a nucleus whereas a proton or an
α−particle would need a much larger amount of energy
for being absorbed by the same nucleus.
Q.31 The instability of the nucleus can be due to
various causes. An unstable nucleus emits radiations if Statement-II: Neutron is electrically neutral but proton
possible to transform into less unstable state. Then the and α− particle are positively charged.
2 5 . 4 4 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
Comprehension Type
Column I Column II
Column I Column II
Radioactivity
Q.44 The half-life of Tc99 is6.0hr . The delivery of a (B) 24 He is formed due to emission of beta particle
sample of Tc99 that must be shipped in order for the from tritium 13 H .
n
lab to receive 10.0 mg? (C) When positron (o+1e) is emitted, ratio increases.
p
(A) 20.0 mg (B) 15.0 mg (D) In general, adsorption is exothermic process.
(C) 14.1 mg (D) 12.5 mg
Comprehension Type
Q.45 A sample contains 0.1 gram-atom of radioactive
Paragraph 1: Nuclei of a radioactive element ‘A’ are
isotope AZ X ( t1/2 = 5days ) . How many number of atoms being produced at a constant rate, α . The element has
a decay constant, λ . At time, t=0, there are N0 nuclei
will decay during eleventh day? [ NA =Avogadro’s of the element.
number]
− 0.693×11 −
0.693×10 Q.49 The number of nuclei of A at time‘t’ is
(A) 0.1 −e 5 +e 5
α
(A) (1 − e−λt ) (B) N0 . eλt
0.693×11 0.693×10 λ
(B) 0.1 −e 5 +e 5
N0 .α λ −λt
1
(C) [α − (α − λ N0 )e−λt ] (D) 1− 1 − e
− 0.693×11 0.693×10 λ λ α
−
(C) 0.1 −e 5 +e 5 NA
Q.50 If =α 2N0 λ , the number of nuclei of A after one
0.693×11 0.693×10 half-life of A becomes
(D) 0.1 −e 5 +e 5 NA
(A) Zero (B) 2N0 (C) 1.5N0 (D) 0.5N0
Multiple Correct Choice Type Paragraph 2: Mass defect in the nuclear reactions
may be expressed in terms of the atomic masses of the
Q.46 Which of the following statements are correct parent and daughter nuclides in place of their nuclides
about half-life period? in place of their nuclear masses.
(A) It is proportional to initial concentration for zero-th
order. Q.51 The mass defect of nuclear reaction:
10
(B) Average life=1.44 half-life for first order reaction 4 Be → 5B10 + e is
= ( )
m 42He 4.003u;m
= 1
1H( ) 1.008u. (1991)
Find the time at which Ny is maximum and determine
the populations X and Z at that instant. (2001)
Q.4 A small quantity of solution containing Na24 radio
nuclide (half-life=15h) of activity 1.0 microcurie is Q.9 A rock is 1.5 × 109 yr old. The rock contains 238 U
injected into the blood of a person. A sample of the
which disintegrates to from 206 Pb . Assume that there
blood of volume 1 cm3 taken after 5h shows an activity
was no 206 Pb in the rock initially and it is the only
of 296 disintegrations per minute. Determine the total
volume of the blood in the body of the person. Assume stable product formed by the decay. Calculate the ratio
that the radioactive solution mixes uniformly in the of number of nuclei of 238 U to that of 206 Pb in the rock.
blood of the person.
10
Half-life of 238
(
U is 4.5 × 109 yr. 21/3 =
1.259 )
(2004)
(1 curie= 3.7 × 10 disintegrations per second) (1994)
P hysi cs | 25.47
Q.10 To determine the half-life of a radioactive element, a Q.14 Assume that two deuteron nuclei in the core of
fusion reactor at temperature T are moving towards
dN ( t ) dN ( t )
student plots a graph of ln versus t. Here each other , each with kinetic energy 1.5kT, when the
dt dt separation between them is large enough to neglect
is the rate of radioactive decay at time t. If the number Coulomb potential energy. Also neglect any interaction
of radioactive nuclei of this element decreases by a from other particles in the core. The minimum
factor of p after 4.16yr, the value of p is (2010) temperature t required for them to reach a separation
of 4 × 10−15 m is in the range (2009)
6
5 Q.15 Assume that the B/A
InldN(t)dt
Q.18 A nuclear power plant supplying electrical power Q.23 For a = 0, the value of d (maximum value of ρ as
to a village uses a radioactive material of half life T shown in the figure) is (2008)
years as the fuel. The amount of fuel at the beginning is 3Ze 3Ze 4Ze Ze
such that the total power requirement of the village is (A) (B) (C) (D)
3 3 3
4 πR πR 3πR 3πR 3
12.5 % of the electrical power available form the plant
at that time. If the plant is able to meet the total power Q.24 The electric field within the nucleus is generally
needs of the village for a maximum period of nT years, observed to be linearly dependent on r. This implies.
then the value of n is (2014) (2008)
(A) 2 (B) 5 (C) 3 (D) 4 R 2R
(A) a = 0 (B) a = (C) a = R (D) a =
2 3
Q.19 Match the nuclear processes given in column I
with the appropriate option(s) in column II (2015) Q.25 To determine the half-life of a radioactive element,
dN(t)
a student plots a graph of log
n versus t. Here
Column I Column II dt
dN(t)
(A) Nuclear fusion (p) Absorption of thermal is the rate of radioactive decay at time t. If the
neutrons by 235 U dt
92
number of radioactive nuclei of this element decreases
(B) Fission in a nuclear (q) 60
Co nucleus by a factor of p after 4.16 years, the value of p is (2009)
27
reactor
6
(C) (r) Energy production
β -decay
in stars via hydrogen 5
conversion to helium 4
(D) (s) Heavy water
γ -ray emission 3
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
12
Q.20 The isotope 5
B having a mass 12.014 u Years
12 12
undergoes β decay to 6 C
. 6 C
has an excited state Q.26 What is the maximum energy of the anti-neutrino?
(2012)
of the nucleus ( 12
6 C
*) at 4.041 MeV above its ground
(A) Zero
12 12
state. If 5
B decays to 6 C
*, the (1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2),
(B) Much less than 0.8 × 106 eV
where c is the speed of light in vacuum) (2016) (C) Nearly 0.8 × 106 eV
(D) Much larger than 0.8 × 106 eV
Q.21 A radioactive sample S1 having an activity 5µCi
has twice the number of nuclei as another sample S2
which has an activity of 10 µCi. The half lives of S1 and Q.27 If the anti-neutrino had a mass of 3eV/c2 (where c
S2 can be (2008) is the speed of light) instead of zero mass, what should
be the range of the kinetic energy, K, of the electron?
(A) 20 years and 5 years, respectively (2012)
(B) 20 years and 10 years, respectively (A) 0 < K < 0.8 × 106 eV
(C) 10 years each (B) 3.0 eV < K < 0.8 × 106 eV
(D) 5 years each (C) 3.0 eV < K < 0.8 × 106 eV
(D) 0 < K < 0.8 × 106 eV
Q.22 The electric field at r = R is (2008)
(A) Independent of a Q.28 The radius of the orbit of an electron in a
(B) Directly proportional to a Hydrogen-like atom is 4.5 a0 where a0 is the Bohr radius.
3h
(C) Directly proportional to a2 Its orbital angular momentum is . It is given that
2π
(D) Inversely proportional to a h is Planck’s constant and R is Rydberg constant. The
P hysi cs | 25.49
PlancEssential Questions
JEE Main/Boards JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1 Exercise 1
Q.5 Q.13 Q.28 Q. 7 Q.8 Q.13 Q.14
Q.31 Q.34 Q.40 Q.15 Q.17 Q.19 Q.23
Exercise 2
Exercise 2 Q.1 Q.12 Q.13 Q.22
Q.6 Q.11 Q.23 Q.27 Q.37 Q.38 Q.39
Q.24 Q.26 Q.27 Q.43 Q.44 Q.40 Q.49
Q.29 Q.50
Answer Key
JEE Main/Boards
Exercise 1
Nuclear Physics
Radioactivity
Q.27 114
49 In,
odd number of neutrons Q.28 ( a) 11H, (b ) 01n, ( c ) 63Li, ( d) +01e, ( e) −01e, ( f ) +11p
−1
Q.29 λ =2.078hr Q.30 5.05×106 atoms
40 40
Q.33 33.67 years Q.34 (i) 19 K → 18 Ar +10 e + v (ii) 2.8 × 109 years
Q.38 6.13 × 10−7 g Q.39 (i) 31.25 cm3 ,27.104 cm3 (ii) 4.5 × 109 year
Exercise 2
Nuclear Physics
Radioactivity
JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1
Nuclear Physics
40 40 9
Q.1 23.6 Mev Q.2 (i) 19 K → 18 Ar +10 e + v (ii) 4.2 × 10 years
ln5
Q.3
= t τ Q.4 2.73×1018sec Q.8 1.7 × 1010 years
ln2
Q.9 5196 yrs Q.10 28 Mev Q.11 9.00×106 eV
α
0.2E0 αt − 1 − e−λι
λ
( )
Q.12 v=-uλt Q.13 ∆T =
ms
Radioactivity
3N0
Q.18 (a) N
=
1
λ
( )
α 1 − e−λι + λN0 e−λι (b)
2
,2N0
Q.19 0.833×10-5mol/lit sec
Q.22 (a) 1.143 × 109 year , (b) 7.097 × 108 year Q.23 3.43 × 10−18 mol
Exercise 2
Nuclear Physics
Comprehension Type
Q.36 B Q.37 C Q.38 B Q.39 D
Radioactivity
Comprehension Type
Q.49 C Q.50 C Q.51 A Q.52 D
Q.1 3.96 × 10−6 Q.2 120.26 g Q.3 1823.2 MeV Q.4 V=5.95 L Q.5 3.32 × 10−5 W
Q.37 C
2 5 . 5 4 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
Solutions
ln2
Sol 1: t1/2 = = 10 1
λ 1
= = sec
λ
ln2 −
( ln3 )
ln2
⇒λ= (days)–1 2
10
N 1 1
Now, = and N = N0e–λt = = 6.9 ≈ 7 sec
N0 50 0.6931 − (1.0986)
2
1
⇒ e–λt = ⇒ ln 50 = lt
50
dN dN
10 × ln50 Sol 4: (a) = α – lN ⇒ + lN = a
⇒t= = 56.44 days dt dt
ln2
⇒ ∫ d N.eλt = ∫ α.e
λt
. dt
1 1
Sol 2: l1 = years–1 and l2 = years–1 t t
1620 405 ⇒ N.eλt = α .eλt / λ
0 0
dt 20 40 60 80
dN 1.2 1 Mass numbers A
⇒ = × 1021 = × 1021
dt 8.4 7
Now higher the BE/nucleon higher the stability.
dN 1 BE
Now, = lN = × 1021 So light nuclei try to get high ratio by going
dt 7 Nucleon
1 through nuclear fusion and hence increasing their
⇒ λ.N0.e–lt = × 1021
7 atomic number.
1 1
⇒ N0 = × 1021 × elt .
7 λ Sol 8: Now number of particles decaying is directly
ln2 ×693 proportional to the number of particles present in the
1 1
= × 1021 × e138.6 × ×138.6 reaction.
7 ln2
dN
i.e. ∝N
= 28.56 × 32 × 10 21
dt
N0= 9.13 × 1023 ⇒ This is equated by a constant known as decaying
constant.
No
Now, number of moles = = 1.52 dN
6 × 1023 = λN
dt
So mass = 1.52 × 210 gm = 319.2 gm (i) X-rays and gamma rays both electromagnetic.
Initial activity = lN0 (ii) γ-rays
ln2 (iii) γ-rays
= × 9.13 × 1023 = 4.6 × 1021 days-1
138.6
(iv) β-rays (Both (–) ve)
Sol 12: Mass defect = 2.0141 + 6.0155 – 2x (4.0026) Sol 16: Activity = rate of change of number of particles
in a disintegration reaction.
= 0.0244 m
dN
So energy transferred to KE SI unit ⇒
dt
= (0.0244) × 931 MeV
⇒ SI Unit = sec–1
= 22.7164 MeV
So energy for each particle
Sol 17: (i) Graph
22.7164
= = 11.36 MeV
2
= 11.36 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 106
Potential energy (MeV)
= 18.176 × 10–13 = 1.8176 × 10–12 J
100
−3
2.2 × 10
Sol 13: Number of moles =
11 0
= – [234.043630 + 4.002600] + 238.05079 If mass No. of an isotope > mass no. of most stable
isotope
= 0.00456 u
Then isotope is a beta emitter → n/p ratio increases
So energy released = 0.00456 × 931.5 MeV = 4.25 MeV otherwise positron emitter → n/p ratio decreases
49 30 94
Sol 21: Radius = R0[A]1/3 20 Ca ; 13 Al ; 36 Cr → beta emitter
1/3
R1 [A1 ]1/3 R1 1
So, = ⇒ = Sol 27: Odd no. of neutrons
R2 [A2 ]1/3 R2 8
14
R1 1 Sol 28: (a) 7 N + 24 He → 17
8 O + 11H
=
R2 2
(b) 24 Be + 24 He → 12
6 C + 10 n
Sol 22: (a) It is because of the fact that the binding (c) 94 Be (p, α) → 36 Li + 24 He + 10 P
energy of the particle has to be (+) ve. [i.e. every
system tries to minimise its energy] some of its mass is 30 30 0
converted into energy. (d) 15 P → 14 S + +1e
V × mPoO
Sol 34: t1/2 = 1.4 × 109 (ii) V’ = 2
= 27.104 cm3
mPo
Nuclear reaction: -
(iii) U238 t1/2 = 4.5 × 109 yrs
40 40
(i) 19 K → 18 Ar +10 e+v
–0.1 mole U238 0.1 mole Pb206
(ii) Age = 2t1/2 = 2.8 × 1018 years Age of ore = t1/2 = 4.5 × 109 yr.
Sol 5: (B) 2X → Y + Q Sol 9: (A) The end product of radioactive series is stable
and hence the decay constant is zero.
Binding energy is the (–) ve energy
1
From energy conservation C
k dN
ln 1 Sol 22: (C) R = = -lN
dt
tmax. = k 2 = ln(k 2 / k1 )
(k1 − k 2 ) (k 2 − k1 ) ln2 λ t1/2
2
l= ; 1 = =2
t1/2 λ2 t1/2
1
Sol 15: (B) Reaction need not be exothermic. N1 N/2
=
N2 N/ 2
x
Sol 16: (B) 238 4
92 M → y N +2 2 He ; xy N → BA L + 2 10 β+
R1 λ1N1 1
= =2× = 2
X = 230 A = 230 R2 λ2N2 2
Y = 88 B = 86
Neutrons = 230 – 86 = 144 ln2 180
Sol 23: (A) ×N=
t1/2 60
t t H2 + 1H3 → 2He4 + n
+4 t t 1
250 = 210 ⇒ - = -4 31H2 → 2He4 + n + p
50 10
4t Mass defect
= 40 ⇒ t = 50 min
50 Dm = (3×2.014– 4.001–1.007–1.008) amu
3
60 × 10 = 0.026 amu
Sol 28: (B) A = 104 ×
10 Energy released = 0.026 × 931 MeV
= 6 × 107 dis/min = 106 dps
= 0.026 × 931 × 1.6 × 10–13 J
6
10
Activity = Curie = 27 µCi = 3.87 × 10–12 J
3.7 × 1010
This is the energy produced by the consumption of
Sol 29: (A) Age = t1/2 three deuteron atoms.
∴ Total energy released by 1040 deuterons
Sol 30: (B) t1/2 = 69.3 min. 10 40
= × 3.87 × 10–12 J
0.693 1 3
λ= = min-1 = min-1
69.3 100 = 1.29 × 1028 J
lN = 10; N = 10/λ = 1000 atoms The average power radiated is P = 1016 W or 1016 J/s
Therefore, total time to exhaust all deuterons of the star
Sol 31: (D) R1 = lN1 will be
R2 = lN2 1.29 × 1028
t= = 1.29 × 1012 s ≈ 1012 s
Atoms disintegrated = (N1 – N2) 1016
R − R2 R1 − R 2
= 1 = T Sol 6: (B) Heavy water is used as moderators in nuclear
λ ln2 reactors to slow down the neutrons.
Previous Years’ Questions Sol 7: (A) Penetrating power is maximum for γ-rays,
then of β-particles and then α-particles because
basically it depends on the velocity. However, ionization
Sol 1: (B) Using N = N0e–lt power is in reverse order.
ln2 ln(2) N –
ln(2)
t
where λ = = ∴ 0 =N0 e 3.8 1
t1/2 3.8 20 Sol 8: (A) Activity of S1 = (activity of S2)
2
Solving this equation with the help of given data we 1 λ N
or l1N1 = (l2N2) or 1 = 2
find: t = 16.5 days 2 λ2 2N1
T1 2N1 ln2
Sol 2: (C) Beta particles are fast moving electrons which or = (T = half-life= )
are emitted by the nucleus. T2 N2 λ
T1
Given N1 = 2N2 ∴ =4
Sol 3: (C) During fusion process two or more lighter T2
nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus.
∴ Correct option is (A).
1 M 2
∴ R = 103 = 500 disintegration/s ∆mc2 =V
2 2 1
At t = 3s, n = 3
2∆mc2
3 = V12
1 M
R = 103 2 = 125 disintegration/s
2∆m
V1 = c
M
Sol 10: Number of α-particles emitted
238 – 206 Sol 18: (B) In positive beta decay a proton is transformed
n1 = =8 into a neutron and a positron is emitted.
4
and number of β-particles emitted are say n2, then 92 p+ → n0 + e+
– 8 × 2 + n2 = 82 no. of neutrons initially was A – Z
\ n2 = 6 no. of neutrons after decay (A – Z) – 3 x 2 (due to alpha
particles) + 2 x 1 (due to positive beta decay)
Sol 11: Q = (Dm in atomic mass unit) × 931.4 MeV
The no. of proton will reduce by 8. [as 3 x 2 (due to
= (2 × mass of 1H2 – mass of 2He4) × 931.4 MeV alpha particles) + 2(due to positive beta decay)]
= (2 × 2.0141 – 4.0024) × 931.4 MeV Hence atomic number reduces by 8.
Q ≈ 24 MeV Z2
Sol 19: (B) En = –13.6
n2
Sol 12: (D) Binding energy per nucleon increases for 9
lighter nuclei and decreases for heavy nuclei. E ++= –13.6 ×= –122.4eV
Li 1
9
k mv 2 E = –13.6 ×= –13.6eV
Sol 13: (B) = Li+++ 9
r r
∆E =–13.6 – (–122.4)
mv2 = k (independent or r)
h 1 2 = 108.8 eV
n = mvr ⇒ r ∝ n and T = mv is independent
2π 2
of n. Sol 20: (B) t 1 = 20 minutes
2
−λt2
N N0 e
= λt1 ln3
=
Sol 14: (A) 1st reaction is fusion and 4th reaction is
fission. 2 −λt2 1
= N0 N= 0e t1 ln3
1 3 λ
1
Sol 15: (D) IR corresponds to least value of −
n2 n2 2 −λt
1 2 N = N0 e 2
3 0
i.e. from Paschen, Bracket and Pfund series. Thus the
1 3
transition corresponds to 5 →3. t2 = ln
λ 2
Sol 16: (C) After decay, the daughter nuclei will be 1 3 1 1 0.693
t2 − =
t1 ln − ln3
= ln =
= 20 min
more stable hence binding energy per nucleon will be λ 2 λ 2 λ
more than that of their parent nucleus.
M M
Sol 17: (B) Conserving the momentum 0 = V1 – V2 Sol 21: (D) Number of spectral lines from a state n to
2 2
V 1 = V2 … (i) n(n– 1)
ground state is = =6
2
1 M 2 1 M 2
∆mc2 = ⋅ V + ⋅ ⋅V … (ii)
2 2 1 2 2 2 Sol 22: (A) ∆m(mp + me ) – mn = 9 x 10–31 kg.
P hysi cs | 25.63
dN NU
Sol 3: = R – lN 238 ( λ1−λ2 )t
dt = e
NU
dN 235
+ lN = R
dt 140 ( λ −λ )t
Given = e 1 2
N,t t 1
⇒ ∫
0,0
(
d N.eλt ) = ∫ R.e
0
λt
.dt ⇒ ln 140 = (l1 – l2) × t
2 5 . 6 4 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
dN
Sol 7: We have, = lN = λ.N0.e–lt ⇒ 50 = KEµ+ + 2m + c2KE
dt µ µ+
⇒ 50 = KEµ+ + 200KEµ+
Sol 8: We have Number of particles
1 − e−36λ 100
⇒ v = u. (–lt) = – ult =
1− e −108 λ 111
So v is opposite to u.
Let e–36λ = t e–108λ = t3
m0
1− t 100
Px =
Sol 13: mI mT mp Px 1− t 3 111
111 – 111 t = 100 – 100 t3
Py 100 t3 – 111 t + 11 = 0
From the conservation of momentum the above (t – 1) (100 t2 + 100 t – 11) = 0
diagram can be deduced
t ≠ 1 t = –1/2 + 3/5
Now, Q = K.E. after collision – K.E. before collision
t = 1/10
=
Py 2
+
(P x
2
+ Py 2 )– Px 2 1
2m0 2mp 2mI e–36λ = ⇒ –36λ = –ln 10
10
=
Py 2
+
Px 2
–
Px 2
+
(P x
2
+ Py 2 )– Px 2 λ=
ln10
36
2m0 2m0 2m0 2mp 2mI
ln2
P 2 + P 2 m P 2 P 2 T1/2 = × 36
ln10
=
x y
. 1 + p – x – x
2mp m0 2m0 2mI T1/2 = 10.8 sec
mp P 2 mI A 1
= Kp . 1 + – x 1 + Sol 16: =
m 2mI
0 m0 A0 21/3
mp mI 296
Q = Kp . 1 + – KI . 1 + 60 1
m0 m0 =
1 21/3
3.7 × 10 4 ×
V
Radioactivity
3.7 × 10 4 × 60
V= ⇒ V = 5952.753 cm3
296 × 21/3
Sol 14: 90Th232 → 82Pb208 + 6 2He4 + 4 0+ β
V = 5.592 m3
1.01325 × 105 × 8 × 10−5 × 10−6
nHe =
8.314 × 273 0.693
Sol 17: l1 = = 2.84 × 10-5 yr-1
nHe = 3.571 × 10 -9 2.44 × 10 4
A = l1 N1 + l2 N2 dm d(n / v) 1 dPH
= =
6 × 10 =6.02×10
9 23
dt dt RT dt
9 × 10−13 × x 3.61× 10−12 (1 − x) 1
+ = × - 0.0102 × 1.2
239 240 RT
90x 361(1 − x) 0.0102 × 1.2
1= + =– molarity/min
239 240 0.0821× 298
−64679x + 86279 = 0.833 × 10-5 molarity/sec.
1=
239 × 240
1 0.1
x = 0.447 Sol 20: nU = , nPb =
238 206
%239Pu = 44.7% t
t1/2 n0
%240Pu = 55.3% 2 =
n
dN t ln(n0 / n)
Sol 18: (a) = α - lN =
dt t1/2 ln2
dn t1/2 × ln(n0 / n)
= dt
α − λN t1 =
l ln2
α − λN n
ln = –lt n 0 1/ 238
α − λN n = ln =0.119
0 1/ 238 − 0.1/ 206
α − λN
= e−λt 4.5 × 109 × 0.1227
α − λN0 t=
ln2
1
N= [α – (α – lN0) e–lt] t = 7.75 × 108 years
λ
(b) t = t1/2 214 214
218 λ1 λ2
Sol 21: 84 Po →82 Pb →83 Pb + −1ο β
1 (α − λN0 )
N= α −
dN
λ 2 = l1N1 – λ 2N
dt
1 α λN0 1 dN −λ t
= + = (1.5 lN0) = λ1No e 1 − λ2N
λ 2 2 λ dt
N = 1.5 N0
N=
λ1N0 e ( −λ1t
−e
−λ2t
)
α (λ2 − λ1 )
lim N
= = 2No
t →∞ λ dN
=0
dt
dPH
Sol 19: = - kPH ⇒ l1N0 e
−λ1t
= l2 N
dt
1.2
−50
t1/2 l1N0
−λ t
e 1 =
λ1λ2N0 e ( −λ1t
−e
−λ2t
)
= 2 (λ 2 − λ1 )
2
2 50 −λ1t −λ1t −λ2t
ln = ln 2 (l2 – l1) e = l2 e - l2 e
1.2 t1/2
−λ1t −λ2t
50 ln2 (l1) e = l2 e
t1/2 = = 67.84 min
ln(2 / 1.2) λ1
( λ1−λ2 )t
e =
ln2 λ2
k= = 0.0102
t1/2 ln(λ1 / λ2 )
t=
(λ1 − λ2 )
P hysi cs | 25.67
Now, the rate constant of radioactive decay is Sol 5: (B) In the uranium radioactive series the initial
0.693 0.693 nucleus is 8 alpha and 6 beta particles are released as it
=λ = = 0.010404 h−1 is a 4n + 2 series.
t1 66.6 h
2 dN
Now using the integrated rate expression Sol 6: (D) Activity = =N×l
dt
n0 − nconsumed λt So λ . N0 . e–lt = acitivity (R)
log = − ,
n0 2.303
– λ t2
R2 λ.N0 .e λ (t1− t2 )
n0 − 2.3818 × 10 −19
mol = = e
We get log R1 λ.N0 .e
– λt1
n0
(0.010404 h−1 ) (6.909 h) Sol 7: (C) Just like tossing of a coin, S heads won’t
=
− − 0.03121 or
=
2.303 change probability of next outcome, after any half-life,
1
n0 − 2.3818 × 10−19 mol there is probability of any atom surviving.
= 0.9306 2
n0
2 5 . 6 8 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
A0 dN
Sol 8: (B) = A0.e–lt = A0.e–l Sol 13: (E) Rate = = lN(t) = lN0.e–lt ⇒(E)
3 dt
1
⇒λ= ln3 Sol 14: (C) depends on the number of elements and
2
activities inside nucleus.
Activity = lN = lN0.e–4λ = A0.e–4λ = A0/9
dN
A1 So = – lN + R
So = e
λ (t2 − t1)
⇒ A2 = A1 . e
(t2 − t1)/T dt
A2
R
⇒ N= . 1 − e−λt
λ
Sol 10: (A) f1 > f2 ⇒ 63º decays in mean life At steady state, t → ∞,
R 103
dN ⇒ N= = = 24 × 105
Sol 11: (C) = R – lN λ 1/ 2400
dt
dN Sol 16: (B) at t = 0, N and at t → ∞, N = const.
⇒ lN + =R
dt
N,t t
Sol 17: (C) Because neutron has larger rest mass than
⇒ ∫ d N.eλt = ∫ R.eλt .dt proton.
0,0 0
10 (D)
⇒10 = 1 − e− t/2
1/ 2
Sol 19: (A, C) Refer theory.
⇒ e–t/2 = 1/2
⇒ ln2 = t/2
Sol 20: (C, D) Due to mass defect (which is finally
⇒ t = 2ln2 = 0.693 responsible for the binding energy of the nucleus),
mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of masses
Sol 12: (B) R1 = λ.N0. e
−λT1
and R2 = λ.N0. e
−λT2 of its constituent particles.
20
10 Ne is made up of 10 protons plus 10 neutrons.
ln2 ln2 20
t1/2 = T = ⇒ λ= Therefore, mass of 10 Ne nucleus, M1 < 10 (mp + mn)
λ T
Also, heavier the nucleus, more is the mass defect.
Number of atoms disintegrated = N1 – N2
Thus, 20(mn + mp) – M2 > 10(mp + mn) – M1
−λT1 −λT2
= N 0. e – N0. e Or 10(mp + mn) > M2 – M1
Or M2< M1 + 10(mp + mn)
R1 − R 2 T(R1 − R 2 )
= = Now since M1 < 10(mp + mn)
λ ln2
∴ M2 < 2M1
P hysi cs | 25.69
0.693
Sol 21: (A,=
C) T = 2 (C) N = N0(1 – e–lt)
λ
(D)
∴ Decay time = n × Half life.
8
∴ n= = 2n Sol 29: (A, D) A → A−4
+ 24 He2+
ZA z −2 A
N 41 1
∴ = = A A
N0 2 4 ZB → z +1B + β+ ν
Sol 24: (A, B, C) (A) free neutron is unstable Now mass number should be same
(C) B–and B+ decay (So the products should have mass number = 8) (D)
and (E)
(D) both are possible ABC
Now charge also has to balance in D and E.
Sol 25: (C, D) (A) as 24 He2+ has charge in it 1α ⇒ 2 + 4 – 2 = 4
(B) as (+) 1 charge is there in neutron Similarly, (E) is also correct and 4Pº + 2B
(C) γ decay (no charge transfer) So (D), (E)
(D) inside the atom, no change in charge.
Sol 31: (A, C, D) (A) more nucleons ⇒ release of
(C, D) nucleons as α particles
(B) Protons in excess ⇒ B+ release ⇒ (C) is
Sol 26: (C, D)
(D) β– is reduced then protons are increased and
(C)
neutrons are decreased in a nucleus.
(D)
⇒ (A), (C), (D)
Because there is comparatively more distance between
protons inside the nucleus, electric repulsion is more Assertion Reasoning Type
because nuclear forces are small as compared to
electrostatic when distance is high. Sol 32: (D) Because the statement is valid for large
number of nuclei
Sol 27: (B, C)
(B) Sol 33: (C) Remaining energy is given to the anti-
neutrino particles
(C) At high A, BE /nucleon is more
Sol 45: (C) N11 = 0.1 e–l×11 α – lN = (α – lN0) e-lt ⇒ lN = α – (α – lN0) e-lt
N10 = 0.1 e–l×10 1
⇒N= [α – (α – lN0) e-lt]
Atoms decaying during 11th day λ
(A)
Previous Years’ Questions
Sol 48: (C, D) (A) Within the atom not nucleus
Sol 1: Speed of neutrons
(B) 13 H → 32 He + 0
−1β
(C) 11P → 0
+1β + 10 n 2K 1
= from=
K mν2
∴ n/p ratio increases m 2
Sol 2: Mass defect in the given nuclear reaction: Total binding energy of daughter products
Dm = 2(mass of deuterium) – (mass of helium) = [92× (mass of proton) + (232 – 92) (mass of neutron)
– (mγ) – (mα)] ×931.48 MeV
= 2(2.0141) – (4.0026) = 0.0256
= [(92×1.008) + (140)(1.009) – 228.03 – 4.003]
Therefore, energy released
×931.48 MeV
∆E = (Dm)(931.48)MeV = 23.85 MeV
= 1828.5 MeV
= 23.85 × 1.6 × 10–13 J = 3.82× 10–12J
∴ Binding energy of parent nucleus
Efficiency is only 25%, therefore,
25 = binding energy of daughter products –
25% of ∆E = (3.82 × 10 ) J
–12
r 2B2q2 (0.11)2 (3)2 (2 × 1.6 × 10 –19 )2 Sol 5: The reaction involved in α-decay is
Kα = =
2m 2 × 4.003 × 1.67 × 10 –27 × 1.6 × 10 –13 248 244
96 Cm → 94 Pu + 24 He
= 5.21 MeV
Mass defect
From the conservation of momentum, 248 244
Dm = mass of 96 Cm – mass of 94 Pu – mass of 24 He
or pγ = pα or 2K γ mγ = 2K αmα (248.072220 – 244.064100 – 4.002603) u
m = 0.005517 u
4.003
∴Kγ = α Kα = ×5.21=0.09 MeV
mγ 228.03 Therefore, energy released in α-decay will be
Eα = (0.005517 × 931) MeV = 5.136 MeV
∴ Total energy released = Kα +Kγ = 5.3 MeV
Similarly, Efission = 200 MeV (given)
P hysi cs | 25.73
3 N0 λ X – λY t – λX t
N= N or lX(N0 e– λ X t ) = lY [e – e ]
2 0 λX – λY
(ii) Substituting α = 2lN0 and t → ∞ in Equation (i), we λX – λY e
– λY t
λX ( λ X – λ Y )t
get or = – 1 ; = e
λY – λX t λY
e
α
N= = 2N0 or N = 2N0 λ
λ or (lX – lY)t ln(e) = ln X
λY
Sol 7: The reactor produces 1000 MW power or 109 1 λ
J/s. The reactor is to function for 10 yr. Therefore, total or t = ln X
λX – λY λY
energy which the reactor will supply in 10 yr is
E = (power)(time) Substituting the values of lX and lY, we have
NX = N0 e– λ X t = (1020)e–(0.1)(16.48) 1
dN
NX = 1.92 ×1019 Sol 11: Activity – = lN = × N
dt tmean
NX λ X
NY = [From Equation (iv)] dN
λY ∴ N = – × tmean = Total number of atoms
dt
(0.1)
= (1.92 × 1019) = 5.76 × 1019 Mass of one atom is 10–25 kg = m(say)
(1/ 30)
∴ Total mass of radioactive substance
NZ = N0 – NX – NY = 1020 – 1.92 × 1019 – 5.76 × 1019
= (number of atoms) × (mass of one atom)
or Nz = 2.32 × 1019
dN
= – (tmean)(m)
dt
Sol 9: Let N0 be the initial number of nuclei of 238U.
Substituting the values, we get
n
After time t, NU = N0 1 Total mass of radioactive substance = 1 mg
2
∴ Answer is 1.
Here n = number of half-lives
t 1.5 × 109 1 Sol 12: A → p, q; B → p, r; C → p, s; D → p, q, r
= = =
t1/2 4.5 × 10 9 3
1/3 Sol 13: (D) It is only due to collision between high
NU = N0 1 energy thermal deuterons which get fully ionized and
2 release energy which increases the temperature inside
1/3 the reactor
and NPb = N0 – NU = N0 1– 1
2
Sol 14: From conservation of mechanical energy, we
1/3
1 have
NU
2
∴ = = 3.861 Ui + Ki = Uf + Kf
NPb 1
3
1– 1 (e)(e)
0 + 2(1.5 KT) = . +0
2 4πε0 d
Substituting the values, we get
dN
Sol 10: = |Activity of radioactive substance| T = 1.4 × 109 K
dt
= lN = lN0e–lt
Sol 15: (B, D) If (BE)final −(BE)initial > 0
Taking log both sides
Energy will be released.
dN
ln = ln(lN0) – lt
dt Sol 16: (B) nt0 > 5 ×1014 (as given)
dN
Hence, ln versus t graph is a straight line with
dt Sol 17: (D) f = (1– e−λt ) = 1– e−λt ≈ (1 − λt) = λ t
slope – λ. From the graph we can see that, f = 0.04
1 Hence % decay ≈ 4%
λ= = 0.5 yr–1
2
t
Now applying the equation, A 1 T
Sol 18: (C) =
N = N0e–lt = N0e–0.5 × 4.16 A0 2
N0 Where, A0 is the initial activity of the radioactive material
= N0e–2.08 = 0.125 N0 =
8 and A is the activity at t.
t
i.e., nuclei decreases by a factor of 8.
12.5 1 T
So, = ∴ t = 3T
Hence, the answer is 8. 100 2
P hysi cs | 25.75
Rest energy of 12
* = 12 × 931.5 MeV + 4.041 MeV Then KEν = Q – KEp ≅ Q
6 C
12
Energy of 5 B = 12 × 931.5 MeV + 0.014 × 931.5 Sol 27: (D) 0 < KE − < Q – KEP – KEν
β
∴ Value of the reaction = 13.041 MeV – 4.041 MeV = 0 < KE <Q
β−
9 MeV
Maximum e- energy = 9 MeV Sol 28: (A, C) Given data
n2
ln2 4.5a0 = a0 … (i)
Sol 21: (A) 5µCi = (2N0 ) Z
T1
ln2 nh 3h
10µCi = (N0 ) = … (ii)
T2 2π 2π
So n = 3 and z = 2
Dividing we get T1= 4T2
So possible wavelength are
Sol 22: (A) The electric field at r = R 1 1 1 9
= RZ 2 = – ⇒ λ1
KQ λ1 2
1 3 2 32R
E=
R2 1 1 1 1
= RZ 2 = – ⇒ λ2
Q Total
= charge within then nucleus Ze λ2 2
1 2 2 3R
KZe 1 1 1 9
So, E = = RZ 2 = – ⇒ λ3
R 2 λ3 22 2
3 5R
1 Q
From graph, λ = per year = 69.925325+ 81.916709 - 151.919803 = -0.077769 < 0
2 C2
0.693 So this reaction is not possible
t1/2
= = 1.386 year
1/ 2
4.16 yrs = 3t1/2 Sol 30: (A) 210
→24 He +82
206
84 Po Pb
∴p=8
Q = (209.982876 – 4.002603 – 205.97455)C2
= 5.422 MeV
2 5 . 7 6 | Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
(BE)15 = 8 mp + 7 mn − m15
105 O N
⇒ K =
5.422 8 8
103 1
⇒ ∆(BE) = (mn +mp )+ m15 − m15
∴ K1 = 5.319MeV = 5319 KeV 8 O 7 N
= 0.00084 + 0.002956 = 0.003796 u
Sol 31: (C) P → (ii); Q → (i); R → (iv); S → (iii)
3 14 × 1.44 MeV fm
15 ⇒ × R
=
8 O →15
7 N +10 β (Beta decay) 5 0.003796 × 931.5 MeV
238 234
Th + 24 He (Alpha decay) ⇒R =
3.42 fm
92 U →90
185
83 Bi →184 1
82 Pb +1 H (Proton emission)
Sol 37: (C) Activity A ∝ N (Number of atoms)
239
94 Ph →140
57
99
La +37 Rb (fission) n
1
N = N0
λCu Z − 1
2 2
Sol 32: (B) = Mo
λMo Z − 1 where n → Number of half lives
Cu
N0
nh 3h If N =
Sol 33: (B) mvr
= = 64
2π 2π
n
de-Broglie Wavelength 1 N
N0 = 0
h 2πr 2π a0 (3)
2 2 64
λ= = = = 2πa0 n 6
mv 3 3 zLi 1 1 1
= =
2 64 2
1 1
Sol 34: (B) λP = ;λ = n=6
τ Q 2τ
RP (A0 λP )e
−λP t time = n × T1/2
=
RQ −λQ t time = 6 × 18 days = 108 days
A0 λQ e
RP 2
At t = 2τ ; =
RQ e
2017-18 100 &
op kers
Class 12 T
By E ran culty
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S fP r es
o titut
Ins
PHYSICS
FOR JEE MAIN & ADVANCED
SECOND
EDITION
Exhaustive Theory
(Now Revised)
Formula Sheet
9000+ Problems
based on latest JEE pattern
SEMICONDUCTOR
1. INTRODUCTION
Certain substances like germanium, silicon etc. are neither good conductors like copper nor insulators like glass. In
other words, the resistivity of these materials lies in between conductors and insulators. Such substances are classified
as semiconductors. These substances have crystalline structure and are formed by covalent bonds. An important
property of a semiconductor is that by adding a controlled amount of suitable impurity to it, its conductivity can
be changed appreciably. This useful property is responsible for the widespread use of semiconductors in electronic
devices. In this chapter, we shall discuss the electrical properties of semiconductors.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS
On the basis of electrical conductivity ( σ ) or resistivity ( ρ= 1 / σ ) , the solids can be classified into the following
three classes:
(a) Metal conductors. These are those solids which possess high conductivity or low resistivity. This is due to the fact
that metals have a large number of free electrons. The conductivity of metal conductors lies between 102 and 108
Sm-1 while their resistivity is in between 10-2 and 10-8 Ω m. Examples of metal conductors are: Al, Cu, Ag, Au, etc.
(b) Insulators. These are those solids which possess very low conductivity or very high resistivity. This is due to the
fact that insulators have practically no free electrons. The conductivity of insulators lie between 10-11 and 10-19
Sm-1 while their resistivity is between 1011 and 1019 Ω m. Examples of insulators are: glass, rubber, plastic etc.
(c) Semiconductors. These are those solids which possess conductivity and resistivity in between metallic
conductors and insulators. This is due to the fact that semiconductors have very few free electrons at room
temperature and can be regarded as insulators for all practical purposes. The conductivity of semiconductors
lies between 10-5 and 100 Sm-1 while their resistivity in between 105 and 0.5 Ω m. Examples of semiconductors
are: germanium, silicon, carbon, etc.
(d) Electrical conduction in solid can take place only when electron remains present in its conduction energy
band.
(e) The minimum energy required for exciting an electron from valence
energy band to conduction energy band is known as forbidden energy
( )
gap ∆Eg ; ∆=Eg CEBmin − VEBmax Conduction band
Band energy
We have seen that energy levels of an isolated atom are converted into
corresponding energy bands when the atom is in solid form. There is no Forbidden
appreciable modification in the energy levels of electrons in the inner energy
gap
orbits but there is a considerable modification of energy levels of valence
electrons. It is because valence electrons are shared by more than one atom
Valence band
in the crystal. Therefore, valence electrons can be considered to be in either
of the two energy bands viz lower valence band or upper or conduction
band as shown in Fig. 26.1. No electron can have energy in the forbidden
Figure 26.1
energy gap between two bands. Normally, the electrons reside in the
valence band where they are held rather tightly to the individual atoms.
(a) Valence band. The range of energies (i.e. band) possessed by valence electrons is known as valence band.
The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence electrons. In a normal atom, valence
band has the electrons of highest energy. This band may be completely or partially filled. For instance, in case
of inert gases, the valence band is full whereas for other materials, it is only partially filled. The partially filled
band can accommodate more electrons.
(b) Conduction band. In certain materials (e.g. metals), the valence electrons are loosely attached to the nucleus.
Even at ordinary temperature, some of the valence electrons may get detached to become free electrons.
In fact, it is these free electrons which are responsible for the conduction of current in a conductor. For this
reason, they are called conduction electrons.
The range of energies (i.e. band) possessed by conduction band electrons is known as conduction band.
All electrons in the conduction band are free electrons. If a substance has empty conduction band, it means
current conduction is not possible in that substance. Generally, insulators have empty conduction band. On
the other hand, it is partially filled for conductors.
(c) Forbidden energy gap. The separation between conduction band and valence band on the energy level
diagram is known as forbidden energy gap (Eg).
No electron of a solid can stay in a forbidden energy gap as there is no allowed energy state in this region. The
width of the forbidden energy gap is a measure of the bondage of valence electrons to the atom. The greater
the energy gap, more tightly the valence electrons are bound to the nucleus. In order to push an electron
from valence band to the conduction band (i.e.to make the valence electron free), external energy equal to
the forbidden energy gap must be supplied.
4. SEMICONDUCTORS
These are solids in which the forbidden energy gap
between the valence band the conduction band is small, of Conduction
the order of 1eV. At 0 kelvin, the valence band is completely band
filled and the conduction band is completely empty. At -le V } Forbidden } }
0K, it behaves like an insulator (electron cannot absorb in band
infinitesimal energy because there is a forbidden gap just Valence
at the top of the valence band). At a finite temperature, band
(room temperature), some electrons gain energy due to
OK TK
thermal motion and jump from the top of the valence
band to the conduction band. These electrons contribute Figure 26.2
to the conduction of electricity in a semiconductor.
P hysi cs | 26.3
The forbidden gap in a semiconductor is small ~ 1eV. At finite temperature, some valance electrons go to conduction
band. Then the formlessly is in middle of the gap
The energy gap is some semiconductors is as follows:
∆Eg ( Silicon) =
1.12eV ; ∆Eg ( germanium) =
0.7 eV
∆Eg ( Indium antimonide ) =
0.17 eV ; ∆Eg ( Gallium arsenide ) =
1.43eV ; ∆Eg ( Tellurium )=
0.33eV
The energy gap decreases slightly with increases in temperature.
Eg (diamond) ~ 6 eV
3. At room temperature, all electrons At room temperature, electrons do At room temperature, many
remains in the partially filled valence not get sufficient thermal energy to electrons have sufficient energy to
band or over lapped band cross over and the forbidden energy go to the conduction band.
band remains empty
4. Conducts electric current. Very small Does not conduct electric current May conduct electric current but
resistivity (negligible conduction) very large conduction is small. Medium
ρ ( ohm meter ) resistively (ohm meter) resistivity and medium conductivity
ρ ( glass ) 1011 − 1012 Ωm ρ ( Si )= 2100Ωm ρ ( Ge ) = 0.47Ωm
ρ ( Cu) =1.7 × 10 −8 Ωm
ρ ( diamond) 10 Ωm 14
σ ( Ge ) 2.13 σ ( Si ) 4.7 × 10 −4
ρ ( Ag) =1.6 × 10−2 Ωm
very low conductivity (ohm/m).
The conductivity is high
−10 −14
σ 10 to 10 Ωm
σ ≈ 107 to 10−9 ohm / m
(or Siemen/m) very low conductivity
σ 10−10 to 10−15 ohm / m (or
Siemen/m)
5. Only electrons are the current carrier No current carrier (the electric Both electrons and holes contribute
Number of free electrons (in Cu) conduction is almost zero for all to current conduction. Number of
1028 per m3 practical purposes, see σ mentioned free electrons (at room temperature)
before) is in Ge 1019 per m3 in Si 1016
per m3
6. Conductivity decreases with Conductivity negligibly small Conductivity increases with
temperature. however increases slightly at very temperature (the resistivity /
high temperatures. resistance decreases with
temperature). The temperature
Conductivity coefficient of resistance of a
semiconductor is negative
(Resisivity)
Temperature
Temperature
Temperature
2 6 . 4 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Where ne(0) is electron density in conduction band, ne(0) is hole density in valance
band and ni is the density of intrinsic charge carriers.
At absolute zero temperature, all the valence electrons are tightly bound and
no free electron is available for electrical condition. In the band picture, at
absolute zero temperature, the conduction band is completely empty while,
the valence band is fully filled. The semiconductor behaves as a perfect
insulator at absolute zero temperature. At room temperature (~300K), some
of the electrons may gain sufficient thermal energy and moved away from the
influence of the nucleus, i.e. the covalent bond may be broken. The electron,
so obtained is free to move in the crystal and conduct electricity (see Fig 26.4).
The vacancy created in the covalent bond is called a hole.
Figure 26.3
Conduction
Free electrons band
Conduction
band Empty
Gap Eg
Eg (gap)
Valence band
with holes Filled
Valence band
Holes
Figure 26.4
When a covalent band is broken, the electron hole pair is created. Thus, in an intrinsic semiconductor, Number of
holes=number of free electrons nh=ne
In an intrinsic semiconductor the current flow occurs due to the motion of both, the electrons and the holes. Let
e=magnitude of charge on the electrons, nh= number density of holes, µe =mobility of electrons an µh =mobility of
holes, then the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor is= σ e (neµe + nh + µh ) Consider a block of semiconductor
of length area of cross section A and having density of electron and holes as ne as and nh respectively when a
potential difference say V is applied across it, current I flows through it as shown in Fig. 26.6 The current I is made
of electron current Ie and hole current Ih.
Thus, I = Ie + Ih … (i)
v
If ve is drift velocity of electrons, Then Ie =ene Ave …(ii)
Similarly, the hole current is given by Ih= ene Avh … (iii) Area ‘A’
-
If R is the resistance offered by the semiconductor to the flow of current, then
l
V V
I= or = eA (neve+nhvh) … (v) Figure 26.6
R R
V
The electric field set up across the semiconductor is given
= by E =or V E
l
El E
Therefore, equation (v) becomes = eA (neve+nhvh) or E = e (neve+nhvh)
R A
R
l
A E
But R =ρ = resistivity of the material of the semiconductor. Therefore = e (neve+nhvh) … (vi)
l ρ
Mobility of electrons or holes is defined as the drift velocity acquired per unit electric field.
ve vh
Therefore mobility of electrons and holes is given =
by µe and
= µh
E E
From equation (iv), we have
1 ve v
= e ne . + nh . h or σ =e (ne µ e+nh µ h) … (vii)
ρ E E
1
Where σ =e is called conductivity of the material of the semiconductor and µe , µh are electron and hole
ρ
mobilities respectively.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
•• In pure semiconductors, at any temperature t, the carrier concentration ne=nh=n and the conductivity
is determined by the value of Eg (width of the forbidden band)(see relations given above).
•• In metal, however, the value of n is almost the same at different temperatures. The resistance arises
due to interaction of free (conduction) electrons with the lattice vibrations.
•• At absolute zero temperature, n=0, σ =0 i.e., the pure semiconductor behaves like a perfect insulator.
However, as temperature increases both n and σ increases. In germanium at T ≈ 300K, ne = nh
= 2.5 × 1019 per m3. The higher is the temperature, higher is the conductivity and lower is the resistivity.
•• The temperature coefficient of the resistance of a semiconductor is negative.
•• Pure semiconductors are of little use (may be used as heat or light sensitive resistance).
Vaibhav Krishnan (JEE 2009, AIR 22)
2 6 . 6 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Illustration 1: Which one is more sensitive to heat, germanium or silicon? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The band gap between conduction band and valance band in germanium (0.68 eV) is less than silicon
(1.1 eV). Thus the electron in the valance band in germanium require less thermal energy (Order of KT) to transit
from valance band to conduction band compared to silicon.
Germanium is more sensitive to heat. Electrons from the valence band of germanium require less energy to move
from valence band to conduction band.
Conduction
band Free holes
Minority - - -
electrons
- - -
Acceptor level
p-type semi conductor
Immobile negative
Majority ions (impurity)
Valence band Holes
Figure 26.11
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
When temperature is increased, covalent bonds break. This increases minority charge carriers. At very
high temperature, it may happen when number of electron-hole pair obtained from bond breaking, far
exceeds the charge carriers from impurities. Then the semiconductor behaves like intrinsic semiconductor.
The critical temperature at which this happens is 850C germanium and 2000C for silicon.
Chinmay S Purandare (JEE 2012, AIR 698)
Illustration 2: Calculate the conductivity and the resistivity of silicon crystal at 300K. It is given that µe =1350 cm2 / V s,
10
µh = 480 cm2/ V s, and at 300K, the election- hole pair concentration is 1.072 × 10 per cm3. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The conductivity of silicon is given as σ = e × (neµe + nµh ) where ne and nh are electron and hole densities
1
respectively. Here ne = nh = ni is the hole-electron pair concentration. The resistivity of the silicon is ρ = .
σ
The conductivity for intrinsic semiconductor is σ = e × (neµe + nµh )
2 6 . 8 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Illustration 3: The concentration of acceptor atoms in a p-type germanium crystal is 4 × 1015 per cm3. Find the
conductivity of the crystal at 300K. The µh for germanium at 300K is 1900 cm2 / V s. It is assumed that all the
acceptor atoms are ionized at this temperature. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: In p-type germanium hole density is greater than electron density. The conductivity of the p-type germanium
is given by=σ nh eµh
σ nh eµh
For extrinsic semiconductor (p-type)=
Given σ= nh = 4 × 1015 per cm3 = 4 × 1021 per m3
µh =1900cm2 /volt –sec
Thus σ= 4 × 1021 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.190= 1.216 × 102 ohm / m = 1.21.6 siemen / m
Illustration 4: An intrinsic germanium has a resistivity of 0.47 Ω m at room temperature. Find the intrinsic carrier
concentration if the mobility of electrons and holes are 0.39 m2/ V s, and 0.19 m2/volt-sec respectively. (JEE MAIN)
1
Sol: The resistivity of the intrinsic semiconductor is ρ = . Here σ is conductivity of the germanium and is given by
σ
σ ni ( µe + µh )
= where ni is the concentration of electron-hole pair
Let ni be the intrinsic carrier concentration.
1 1 σ
Electrical conductivity, σ= = σ ni ( µe + µh ) Or ni =
Now =
ρ 0.47 e ( µe + µh )
1
ni
= = 2.3 × 10−19 / m3
0.47 × 1.6 × 10 −19
( 0.39 + 0.19 )
Illustration 5: The resistivity of n-type germanium is 0.01 Ω m at room temperature. Find the donor concentration
if the mobility of electrons 0.39m2 /volt-sec. (JEE MAIN)
1
Sol: For n-type germanium the donor concentration is given by nd =
e ρµe
1
Let nd be the donor concentration. nd =
e ρµe
1 1
Conductivity, σ= = = 100S / m Now σ = e Nd µ ……….n-type semiconductor
ρ 0.01 e
Or =
nd σ 100
= = 1.6 × 10−21 / m3
e µe 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.39
Illustration 6: Mobilities of electrons and holes in a sample of intrinsic germanium at room temperature are
0.36m2 / V s and 0.17 m2 / V s respectively. If the electron and hole densities are each equal to 2.5 × 1019 /m3 ,
calculate the conductivity. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor is given by= σ e (neµe + nhµh ) where ne and nh are the electrons
and hole densities. As here both are equal then n=i n=
e nh and conductivity is given by=σ ni e ( µe + µh ) .
The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by;=σ ni e ( µe + µh )
Here ni = 2.5 × 10−19 / m3 ;e = 1.6 × 10−19 C; µe = 0.36 m2 / volt-sec; µh =0.17m2 / volt-sec
σ 2.5 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10−19 ( 0.36 + 0.17=
= ) 2.12 S/ m
Illustration 7: A semiconductor is known to have an electron concentration of 8 × 1013 per cm3 and a hole
concentration of 5 × 1012 per cm3.
(i) Is the semiconductor n-type or p-type?
(ii) What is the resistivity of the sample if the electron mobility is 23000 cm2/ V s and hole mobility is 100 cm2/ V s?
(JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: For the semiconductor sample, if the hole density is less than electron density the semiconductor is N type in
1
nature. The resistivity of the sample is given as ρ = where σ is the conductivity of the sample.
σ
( ) (
(i) Since electron density ne = 8 × 1013 per cm3 is greater than the hole density nh = 5 × 1012 per cm3 , the )
semiconductor is n-type.
σ e (neµe + nhµh )
(ii) The conductivity of the sample is given by;=
2 6 . 1 0 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Illustration 8: Determine the number density of donor atoms which have to be added to an intrinsic germanium
semiconductor to produce an n-type semiconductor of conductivity 5 Ω -1cm-1, given that mobility of conduction
electrons in n-type Ge is 3900 cm2/ Vs. Neglect the contribution of holes to conductivity. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: In n type semiconductor the number density of electrons is much greater than number density of holes. Thus
we can neglect the number density of holes. Thus to produce the n type semiconductor, the donor of number
= ene µe .
density to added is found by σ
(
σ e neµe + nhµh
The conductivity of a semiconductor is given by;= )
= eneµ=
Neglect the contribution of holes to conductivity, we have, σ e eNdµe
N=
d ne
Illustration 9: Suppose a pure Si crystal has 5 × 1028 atoms m-3. It is doped by 1 ppm concentration of penta-valent
impurity of Arsenic (As). Calculate the number of electrons and holes. Given that ni = 1.5 × 1016 m-3.
(JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: The arsenic contains the 1 free electron in its conduction band and acts as donor impurity. The number of
electron given by As to the semiconductor is given by
Number of Si atom in parent crystal × 10−6
N= .
| y ppm|
ni2
The number of holes in the semiconductor sample is given by nh = here ni is the concentration of holes and
electron pair.
ne
1
1 ppm =1 part per million =
106
5 × 1028
∴ Number of penta-valent atoms doped in Si crystal= = 5 × 1022 m−3
6
10
As one penta-valent impurity atom donates 1 free election to the crystal,
22 −3
∴ Number of free elections in the crystal is ne = 5 × 10 m
(1.5 × 10 )=
2
16
ni2
∴ Number of holes, n=
h = 4.5 × 109 m−3
ne 5 × 1022
Illustration 10: The mean free path of conduction electrons in copper is about 4 × 10−8 m. Find the electric field
which can give, on an average, 2 eV energy to a conduction electron in a block of copper. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: The band gap between conduction and valance band is given as 2 eV. The work done to lift electron from
P hysi cs | 26.11
conduction band to the valance band is given by W= F × d where F=qE, the electric force applied on the electron.
Mean free path, d= 4 × 10−8 m; energy of electron =2eV
If E is the required electric field, then force on the electron is F=eE
The work done by the electric field on electron before it collides with copper atom is Fd. This work done is equal to
the energy to the energy transferred to electron.
2V 2V
∴ Fd=2 eV or eE ×d =2eV∴ E= = = 5 × 107 V / m
d 4 × 10 −8
O O O O
= - - - -
-
-
Figure 26.12
5. P-N JUNCTION
When a piece of p-type material and piece of n-type material are joined in such a manner that crystal structure
remain continuous at the boundary, then a pn junction is formed. It is also called a pn junction (PN junction) diode.
2 6 . 1 2 | Semiconductor and Communication System
AP-N junction cannot be made by simply pushing the two pieces together as it would not lead to a single crystal
structure. There are special fabrication techniques to form a PN junction.
Immediately after a PN junction is formed, the following processes are initiated:
(a) The negative ions on P-sides and positive ions on N-sides are immobile. The majority holes from P region
diffuse into N region, and the majority electrons from N region diffuse into P region,
(b) Due to the above, the electrons and holes at the junction region recombine and disappear (i.e. covalent bonds
are completed).
(c) As a result, a layer of negative ions on P-side and a layer of positive ions on N-side is formed at the junction.
In this region, due to recombination of electrons and holes, depletion of free charge carriers occurs. So this
region is called depletion region. The charge density on the two sides of the junction (due to ion layers) is
shown in Fig. 26.13 (A).
(d) The uncompensated ion layers in the depletion region generate an electric field in this region. The electric
field points from N side to P side. This electric field prevents further diffusion of holes from P-sides. It also
prevents further diffusion of electrons from the N side to P side. The electric field is called barrier electric field.
(e) The barrier electrical field gives rise to a difference of potential from one side to the other side. This is called
barrier potential (or potential barrier). For silicon PN junction the barrier potential is about 0.7 V while for
germanium PN junction, it is about 0.2V.
P N-type
P-type
P-type V N-type P-type V N-type
+
(A) (B) (C)
Depletion
- region Electron static potential Potential barrier for
energy barrier for holes electrons
Charge density (potential barrier for holes)
Figure 26.13
(f) For holes the potential on the N-sides is higher. Holes cannot cross the depletion region because of this
barrier potential. Figure 26.13 (B). For electrons the potential barrier is shown in Figure 26.13 (C).
(g) On the average the potential barrier height in PN junction is ~0.5V and the width of the depletion region
V 0.5
1µ m or 10−6 m. The barrier electric field is thus E= =
~ = 5 × 105 Volt / m
d 10−6
-
-
(b) The holes are repelled from the positive terminal and completed to
O - -
+ - -
-
move towards the junction. The electrons are also repelled from the
O
- - - -
-
O
negative terminal and move towards the junction. This reduce the - -
-
(c) The potential barrier is reduced. More charge carriers diffuse across
the junction.
(d) In the P-type material, near the positive terminal, an electron breaks Depletion region
the covalent bond and goes to the battery. As a result a hole is + -
created in P-sides. At the same time an electron enters the N sides Figure 26.14
from the negative terminal. The current in the P-region arises due
to flow of the holes while the current in the N-region is due to electrons.
P hysi cs | 26.13
(e) The electric field at the barrier, due to the Battery is from P side to N side (forward bias). This is an opposition
to the barrier electric field.
(f) If battery potential is increased, the potential barrier is further reduced. More majority carriers diffuse across
the junction and the current increases.
- - - - -
-
-
(c) The barrier potential increases, this makes it more difficult for the O - -
+ - -
-
majority carriers to diffuse across the junction. -
O
-
- -
-
O
(d) A very little current called reverse saturation current flows due to - -
-
- -
minority carrier flow. It is of the order nano amperes (10-9 A) for
O
- - - -
-
silicon and micro amperes (10-6 A) for germanium PN-diodes.
(e) In reverse bias situation, the junction behaves like a high resistivity
material sandwiched in between two regions. Depletion region
+ -
(f) The effective capacitance of PN junction in the reverse bias condition
is of the order of few pico farads. Figure 26.15
v
6. SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE + - l
+ -
6.1 Forward and Reverse Bias Characteristics + P N -
+
Forward bias characteristics: The circuit diagram for studying the V-I - R
characteristics of a PN junction diode in forward bias is shown in the
Fig. 26.16.
In forward bias the depletion region decreases, the barrier potential
decrease, and the current flows due to diffusion of charge carriers Figure 26.16
across the junction. Majority holes from P side cross over to N side,
and majority electrons from N sides cross over to P sides. The current l
voltage characteristic is shown in Fig. 26.17. (mA)
The diode current is negligibly small for first few tenths of a volt. The 0.7 V 0.2 V
reason is that the diode does not conduct till the external voltage V, for Si
overcomes the barrier potential. The voltage at which the current starts for Ge
to increase rapidly is called cut-in or knee voltage (V0) of the diode. For (Volt)
O V
a silicon diode V0~0.7 volt for germanium V0~0.2 volt junction diode in
reverse bias is shown in Fig. 26.18. Figure 26.17
v
- + l
- +
P N+
-
- A
+
R
P N
Figure 26.18
2 6 . 1 4 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Reverse Bias characteristics: In reverse bias state, the depletion region increases and
potential barrier also increases. The majority holes in P region and majority electrons P N
in N region, now do not cross the junction. This does not give rise to any current. Easy direction for
conventional current
In reverse bias a very small current flows. This arises due to the flow of minority charge
carriers across the junction. The reverse current is only few µ A for germanium diodes
and only a few nA for silicon diodes. It remains small and almost constant for all Figure 26.19
reverse bias voltages less than the break down voltage Vz. At breakdown, the current
increases rapidly for small increase in voltage. The full characteristics, forward and v2 v
reverse bias are shown in the Fig. 26.19. The PN junction diode thus is a unidirectional O
device. Large current (mA) flows in one direction, but negligible current flows in the
reverse direction. l
Reverse (A)
The symbol used for PN junction diode is shown in Fig. 26.20.
breakdown
(
µ I Iο eeV /kT − 1
The equation for diode current is= )
Where Iο is called saturation current, V is positive for forward and negative reverse bias, Figure 26.20
k is Boltzmann constant, T is temperature and e= 1.6 × 10 −19 C .
Illustration 11: In a pure germanium sample, the electron and hole mobilities at room temperature are
3600cm2 / V s, 1700 cm2/ V s respectively. If the electron-hole concentration is 2.5 × 1019 m−3 , then the conductivity
of Ge is (JEE MAIN)
σ nie ( µe + µn )
Sol: As the electron-hole concentration is given the conductivity of the germanium is given by =
where µe and µh are electron and hole mobilities respectively.
σ nie ( µe + µn ) ; ( ni = pi )
=
Input
+ +
input a.c. The output voltage is obtained across the O t
- 2 -
load resistance RL. Upper end of the secondary coil
becomes negative and lower and becomes positive.
So the junction diode is reverse biased. Hence the Output
junction does not conduct and we get no output +
t
across the load resistance during negative half of O 2 D.C Output
input a.c.
Figure 26.23
Disadvantages:
(a) Since the output signal is discontinuous, so the efficiency of half wave rectifier is small.
(b) The output is not pure d.c. but it is a fluctuating (or pulsating a.c.) which contains a.c. components or ripples
also.
Expression for output d.c. voltage: Output d.c. voltage = Mean load current × load resistance i.e. Vd.c=Id.c. × RL
Iο I
But Id.c. = , where Iο is the maximum value of the secondary half wave current∴Vd.c. =ο × RL
π π
Input
+ +
resistance (RL). O t
- 2 3 - 4
During negative half cycle of input a.c. signal. Diode D1 is reverse A.C at S2
biased and diode D2 flows through the circuit in a direction + +
shown by arrows (below RL). The output voltage is obtained t
- 2 3 - 4
across the load resistance (RL).
D1 D2 D3 D4
Since both the halves of input a.c. (wave) are rectified, so the
Output
junction diode is called a full wave rectifier.
t
O 2 3 4
Advantage: In full wave rectifier, output is continuous, so its
efficiency is more than that of the half wave rectifier. D.C. Output
However, the output is again fluctuating (or pulsating d.c.) Figure 26.25
which can be smoothened by using a filter circuit.
Expression for output d.c. voltage: Output d.c. voltage=Mean load current × load resistance i.e. Vd.c.
= Id.c. × RL
2Iο
But Id.c. = , where Iο is the maximum value of the secondary full wave current
π
I
∴Vd.c. =ο × RL
π
Thus, output d.c. voltage in case of full wave rectifier is twice the output d.c. voltage in case of half wave rectifier.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Iο 2Iο
1. Iac
= Idc
= Iac =
π π
Vο 2Vο
2. E=
ac E=
dc Eac =
π π
0.406 rp 0.812 rp
4. =η ;1+ =η ;1+
rp RL rp RL
6. Ripple frequency =w 2w
The forward voltage (VF) across the junction diode is increased from zero in steps and the corresponding
values of forward current (IF) through the diode are noted. If we plot the graph between VF and IF we get the
forward characteristic OAB of the junction diode as shown in Fig. 26.26 (B). The shape of this curve can be
explained as under:
When the applied forward voltage is zero i.e. circuit is open at K, the barrier potential V0 at the junction does
not permit current flow. Therefore, the forward current IF is zero as indicated by point 0 in Fig. 26.26 (b). As the
forward voltage is increased from zero, the forward current increases very slowly (curve 0A) until the forward
voltage across the diode reaches V0 (=0.7V for silicon diode and 0.3V for germanium diode) at the knee of
the curve. The forward voltage corresponding to knee of the curve is called knee voltage. Once the applied
forward voltage exceeds the knee voltage, the forward current increases rapidly (curve AB).
The forward voltage at which the current through the diode starts to increase rapidly with increase in forward
voltage is called knee voltage. For silicon diode, knee voltage=0.7V while for germanium diode, knee voltage=
0.3V.
Below the knee voltage, the curve is non-linear. But once the forward voltage exceeds the knee voltage, the
diode behave like an ordinary conductor. Therefore, forward current rises sharply with increase in forward
voltage (curve AB). The curve is now almost linear.
(b) Reverse characteristics. It is the graph between the reverse voltage (VR) applied across the junction diode
and the reverse current (IR) through the diode. Figure 26.27(A) shows the circuit arrangement for determining
the reverse characteristics of a junction diode. Note that the diode is reverse biased.
The reverse voltage (VR) across the junction diode is increased from Fig. 26.27 (B) zero in steps and the
corresponding value of reverse current (IR) are noted. If we plot the graph between VR and IR, we get the
reverse characteristics OCD of the junction diode as shown in Fig. 26.27(B). The shape of reverse characteristic
of the diode can be explained as under:
Since the diode is reverse biased, its resistance is very high and practically no current flows through the circuit.
2 6 . 1 8 | Semiconductor and Communication System
However, in practice, a very small reverse current (of the order of µA ) flows with reverse bias as shown in Fig.
26.27(B). This is called reverse saturation current because its value practically remains constant until reverse
breakdown voltage (VBR) is reached. The reverse saturation current is due to minority carriers. It may be
recalled that are a few free electrons in p-type material and a few holes in n-type material. These undesirable
free electrons in p-type and hole in n-type are called minority carriers. To these minority carriers, the applied
reverse bias appears as forward bias. Therefore, a small reverse current (IR) flows in the circuit.
15 10 5
VR(volts)
O
K VBR C 100
V
200
V V Breakdown
D voltage 300
400
lR(A)
(A) (B)
Figure 26.27
As shown in Fig. 26.27(b) when the reverse voltage becomes equal to reverse breakdown voltage VBR, the
reverse current increases very rapidly. Now reverse voltage remains approximately constant at VBR but reverse
current IR increases very sharply resulting in overheating and possible damage. This large value of IR is due to
the fact that the kinetic energy of electrons (minority carriers) becomes high enough to knock out electrons
from semiconductor atoms. Thus there is sudden decrease in resistance of the junction and abrupt rise of
reverse current.
The a.c. forward resistance is more significant as the diodes are generally used with lF
alternating voltages. The a.c. forward resistance can be determined from the forward
characteristic as shown in Fig. 26.28. If P is the operating point at any instant, then
forward voltage is ob and forward current is OE. To find the a.c. forward resistance, F
vary the forward voltage on both sides of the operating point equally as shown in E
D
Fig. 26.28. where AB=BC. It is clear from this figure that:
For forward voltage OA, circuit current is OD. For forward voltage OC, circuit current
vF
is of. O ABC
∴ a.c.
change in forward voltage OC−−oa
oc OA acAC Figure 26.28
forward resistance
= is; rf = = = =
change in forward current OF−−od
of OD dfDF
It may be mentioned here that forward resistance of a crystal diode is very small. Ranging from 1 to 25 Ω. Note that
above the knee point in the forward characteristic, the curve is linear. Therefore, above knee point, r, is independent
of the forward applied voltage.
A.C. reverse resistance. The a.c. reverse resistance of a junction diode is very large and may be considered infinite
for all practical purposes. For reason, a reverse diode practically conducts no current.
P hysi cs | 26.19
8. ZENER DIODE
A property doped P-N junction diode which works in the breakdown region without damaging itself is called a
zener diode.
Zener diode is also known as breakdown diode. It is mainly as a voltage regular.
Symbolic representation of zener diode is made as
The breakdown voltage zener voltage Vz depends on the concentration of doping. Both n and p regions of zener
diode are heavily doped. The depletion layer is very thin. Since electric field,
E=-dV/dr, the electric field across the junction will be very high.
Volt-ampere characteristics of zener diode
+V - -V +
+
mA
- A
- +
+ - - +
RS
Fluctuating or Constant
voltage voltage
VZ RL output
(Input)
Figure 26.31
(b) Now suppose that input voltage is constant but the load resistance RL decreases. This will cause an increase
in load current. The extra current cannot come from the source because drop in RS (and hence source current
2 6 . 2 0 | Semiconductor and Communication System
I) will not change as the zener is within its regulating range. The additional load current will come from a
decrease in zener current Iz. Consequently, the output voltage stays at constant value.
RS l RL RS l RL
- -
Ein RL EO Ein VZ EO
RL
lZ
+ +
(i) (ii)
Figure 26.32
9. PHOTO DIODE
The junction diode which conducts when charge carriers are generated by the photons i.e., light incident on it is
known as optoelectronic junction device.
A reverse biased special p-n junction diode having transparent window is known as photo diode and when it is
illuminated with light, the reverse diode current varies linearly with the light flux.
Construction: A reverse biased p-n junction diode is enclosed in a clear plastic envelope. Light is allowed to fall on
the surface of the plastic facing the diode. The output voltage is taken across the load resistance RL.
Symbolic representation of a photo diode is shown in the Fig. 26.33.
Principle. When a rectifier diode is reverse biased, it has a very small reverse leaked current. Cathode
The same is true for a photo-diode. The reverse current is produced by thermally generated
electron-hole pairs which are swept across the junction by the electric field create by the
reverse voltage. In a rectifier diode, the reverse current increases with temperature due
to an increase in the number of electron hole pairs. A photo-diode differs from a rectifier
diode in that when its pn junction is exposed to light, the reverse current increases with the Anode
increase in light intensity and vice-versa. This is explained as follows. When light (photons)
falls on the pn junction, the energy is imparted by the photons to the atoms in the junction. Figure 26.33
This will create more free electrons (and more holes). These additional free electrons will
increase the reverse current. As the intensity of light incident on the pn junction increases,
the reverse current also increases. In other words, as the incident light intensity increases, the resistance of the
device (photo-diode) decreases. Figure 26.33 shows the schematic symbol of a photo-diode. The inward represent
the incoming light.
Photo-diode operation. Figure 26.33 shows the basic photo-diode circuit. The circuit has reverse biased photos-
diode, resistor R and d.c. supply. The operation of photo-diode is as under:
(a) When no light is incident on the pn junction of photo-diode, the reverse current Ir is extremely small. This is
called dark current.
The resistance of photo-diode with no incident light is called dark resistance (RR).
VR
Dark resistance of photo-diode, RR =
Dark current
(b) When light is incident on the junction of the photo-diode, there is a transfer of energy from the incident light
P hysi cs | 26.21
(photons) to the atoms in the junction. This will create more free electrons (and more holes). These additional
free electrons will increase the reverse current.
(c) As the intensity of light increases, the reverse current IR goes on increasing till it becomes maximum. This is
called saturation current.
Reverse current versus illumination curve. lR(A)
Figure 26.34 shows the graph between reverse lR
current (IR) and illumination (E) of a photo-diode.
The reverse current is shown on the vertical 100
axis and is measured in µ A. The illumination is R
30
indicated on the horizontal axis and is measured v
in m W/cm2. Note that graph is a straight line VR 10
passing through the origin.
mW
E
m E Where m= slope of the straight line
2
∴ IR = 0 1 3 10 cm
The quantity m is called is called the sensitivity
Figure 26.34
of the photo-diode.
Volt- ampere characteristics of photo diode. When photo diode is reverse biased,
then a constant current known as saturation current I0 due to thermally generated
minority carriers flows in the circuit. This current is also known as dark current.
When light of energy (hv) more than the energy gap (Eg) of semiconductor falls on the Photo diode
photo-diode, additional electron-hole pairs are formed. The electron-hole pairs formed
Figure 26.35
are proportional to the intensity of the incident light or the number of incident photons.
These electrons holes diffuse through the junction and hence current Is also flows in
addition to the dark current I0. Thus the electric current I0 is proportional to the intensity
of incident light. Hence, the total reverse current is given by. I=I0+Is
RL
Total reverse current in a photo-diode increase with the increase in the intensity of the
incident light.
Figure 26.37
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
RL p Junction
Nickel plated
contact
Figure 26.40
Action:
(a) When solar energy or light energy falls on the cells, electron-hole pairs are
Electric current
generated in both n-region and p-region of the junction in diode.
(b) The electrons from p-region diffuse through the junction to n-region and holes
from n-region diffuse through the junction to the p-region due to electric field
of depletion layer.
(c) If p-n junction diode is open circuited, then holes and electrons will collect or Intensity of sun light
accumulate on the two sides of the junction. This gives rise to an open circuit
voltage V0. Figure 26.41
Illustration 12: A diode used in the circuit shown in Fig. 26.43. has a constant R
voltage drop of 0.5 V at all currents and a maximum power rating of 100 mW.
What should be the value of resistance R connected in series with diode for
obtaining maximum current? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The power dissipated across diode is given by Pmax = V.Imax where Imax is the
maximum current through the diode. The value of resistance across the diode
is given by Ohm’s law.
Figure 26.43
Applied voltage, E=1.5V
Voltage drop across diode Vd = 0.5V
Max. Power rating of diode, Pmax=100 mW =0.1 W
Pmax 0.1
The maximum current (Imax) that diode can carry safely is Imax
= = = 0.2A
Vd 0.5
Voltage drop across resistance R=E-Vd=1.5-0.5=1.0V
Voltage drop across R 0.1
∴R= = =5Ω
Imax 0.2
2 6 . 2 4 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Illustration 13: A battery of 2 V is connected across the points A and B as shown in Fig. 26.44. Find the current
drawn from the battery if the positive terminal is connected to (i) The points A and (ii) The point B. Assume that the
resistance of each diode is zero in forward bias and infinite in reverse bias. (JEE ADVANCED)
2V 2V
A B
Figure 26.44
Sol: When the diode is connected in forward bias condition the resistance of diode is zero and hence the current
through the diode is maximum. While the diode is in the reverse biased condition the resistance is infinite thus the
circuit acts as open circuit. Thus the effective current in the circuit is obtained using Ohm’s Law.
(a) When positive terminal of the battery is connected to point A, diode D1 is forward biased and offers zero
resistance while diode D2 is reverse biased and offers infinite resistance therefore, diode D1 may be replaced
by a wire while diode D2 is open- circuited.
The circuit then reduced to that shown in Fig. 26.44.
2V
∴ Current drown from battery, I = 0.2A
10Ω
(b) When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to point B, diode D1 is reverse biased and offers infinite
resistance while diode D2 is forward biased and offers zero resistance. The circuit then reduces to that shown
in Fig. 26.44.
2V
∴ Current drown from battery, I = 0.1A
20Ω
Illustration 14: In Fig, 26.45 what is the voltage needed at the source, to maintain 15 V across the load resistance
RL of 2k Ω , assuming that the series resistance R is 200 Ω and the zener requires a minimum current of 10 mA to
work satisfactory? What is the zener rating required? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Current through the load resistor of resistance 2k Ω is found using Ohm’s law. As
10 mA current is still flowing through the zener when it is connected in reverse biased
condition while the rest of current passes through load resistor, the rating of the zener
lR
R
diode should be higher than total current passing through the zener. The rating is given
by IR+IL.
Voltage across RL, is VL=15 V lZ vZ RL lL
VL 15
Current through RL , IL= = 7.5 10−3 A =
=× 7.5mA
RL 2 × 10 −3
Illustration 15: An a.c. supply of 230 V is applied to a half-wave rectifier circuit through a transformer of turn ratio
10:1 Find (i) The output d.c. voltage and (ii) The peak inverse voltage. Assume the diode to be ideal.
(JEE ADVANCED)
P hysi cs | 26.25
Sol: The transformer is the step down transformer, thus the 10 : 1 Ideal
secondary voltage will be less than primary voltage applied. The
DC output voltage obtained at the end of secondary coil is given
N2
by V=
sm Vpm × where Vpm is peak voltage at the primary coil.
N1
340 V RL
The inverted DC voltage obtained at the secondary coil is given by
Vsm
′ =
Vdc .
π
Primary to secondary turns is [see fig.26.46] Figure 26.46
N1
= 10 R.M.S primary voltage =230 V
N2
∴ Maximum primary voltage is V
=pm ( 2 ) × r.m.s. primary voltage = ( 2 ) × 230 = 325.3V Max. Secondary voltage
is
N2 1
Vsm = Vpm × = 325.3 × = 32.53V
N1 10
Vsm 32.3
(i) =′
Vdc = = 10.36V
π π
(ii) During the negative half-cycle of a.c. supply, the diode is reverse biased and hence conducts no current.
Therefore, the maximum secondary voltage appears across the diode.
∴ Peak inverse voltage = 32.53 V
Illustration 16: A crystal diode having internal resistance ri=20 Ω is used for half-wave rectification. If the applied
voltage
= V 50 sin ωt and load resistance = RL 800 Ω, find:
(i) Im, Idc, Irms (ii) a.c. power input and d.c power output (iii) d.c output voltage (iv) Efficiency of rectification
(JEE MAIN)
Sol: The equation of AC voltage is given by= V Vo sin ωt where Vo is the maximum voltage from the source. As
a load resistance is applied in series to the supply, the current through the resistance and output voltage are
obtained by Ohm’s law. The power is given by = P Ieff2 × R eff where Reff is the effective resistance in the circuit. The
PDC
efficiency of the diode is given by ε = where PDC and PAC are DC and AC powers dissipated in the circuit.
PAC
0.301
(v) Efficiency of rectification== × 100= 39.5%
0.763
2 6 . 2 6 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Illustration 17: A full wave rectifier uses two diodes, the internal resistance of each diode may be assumed
constant at 20 Ω. The transformer r.m.s secondary voltage from center tap to each end of secondary is 50 V and
load resistance is 980 Ω find.
(i) The mean load current (ii) The r.m.s. value of load current (JEE MAIN)
2Im
Sol: Mean load current is given by Idc = where Im is the maximum current through load and rms current is
π
Im
given by Irms
= = 0.707 Im .
2
Vm 70.7V
=
Max. Load current, Im = = 70.7mA
rf + RL ( 20 + 980 ) Ω
2Im 2 × 70.7
(i) Mean load current, =
Idc = = 45mA
π π
Im 70.7
(ii) R.M.S value of load current is Irms
= = = 50mA
2 2
Illustration 18: In the center- tap circuit shown in Fig. 26.47, the diodes are assumed to be ideal i.e. having zero
internal resistance. Find:
(i) d.c output voltage (ii) peak inverse voltage (JEE ADVANCED)
2Vm
Sol: The average dc current in the circuit is Idc = where Vm is the maximum voltage across secondary coil
πRL
of center tap circuit. And thus the DC output voltage is obtained using Ohm’s law. The peak inverse voltage is
Illustration 19: In a zener regulated power supply, a zener diode with Vz= 6V is used for regulation. The load
current is to be 4.0 mA and unregulated input is 10.0 V what should be the value of series resistor Rs?
(JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: The current through the series resistance is =I I z + IL where IZ is the zener current and IL is the current through
Veff
load resistance. The value of resistance is R S = where Veff is the effective resistance across the resistance.
I
Here, IL=4.0 mA; Vz=6V; Ein =10.0 V; Rs=?
P hysi cs | 26.27
For good regulation, the value of Rs should be such that current through the zener diode is much larger than the
load current. Choosing zener current Iz to be 5 times the load current,
Iz=5IL= 5 × 4.0 =
20mA ; ∴ Current through Rs, is I = I z + IL = 20 + 4 = 24 mA
Voltage across R s 4V
Voltage across R s =Ein − Vz =10.0 − 6.0 = 4; ∴ R s = = = 167Ω
I 24mA
Illustration 20: Figure 26.48 .shows the forward characteristic of a junction diode. Determine the d.c. and a.c.
resistance of the diode when it operates at 0.3 V. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The DC resistance of the diode is obtained by the slope of the curve at 0.3 C
V. The ac resistance is obtained by taking the ratio of the voltage difference at 6
two point with their corresponding current. B
4
Referring to Fig. 26.48 when VF =0.3 V; IF=4.3 mA=4.3 ×10 −3 A.
lF (mA)
A
VF 0.3VA
∴ D.C resistance rdc =
= = 69.77Ω 2
IF 4.3 × 10 −3
Referring to Fig. 26.48, ∆VF = VC − VA and ∆IF = IC − I A 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
∆VF VC − VA 0.35 − 0.25 VF(volts)
∴ A.C. resistance, rac= = = = 33.33Ω
∆IF IC − I A ( 6 − 3) × 10−3 Figure 26.48
The small current which leaves the base terminal B is called the ‘iB’ ‘base-current’ the larger current which leaves
the collector terminal is called the ‘collector-current’ iC. Both these currents combine to enter the emitter terminal
E and constitute the emitter-current iE. Clearly, iE=iB+iC
The base being very thin, the number of hole-electron combinations in it is very small, and almost all the holes
entering the base from the emitter reach the collector. Hence the collector-current iC is only very slightly less than
the emitter current iE.
P n P
E C
(A) (B) (B)
p-n-p
B
- + - +
Figure 26.51
+ - + - + -
+ -
(A) Common-base (B) Common-emitter
p-n-p
E
B C Output
Input
- + - +
(C) Common-collector
Figure 26.54
When a transistor is to be operated as amplifier, three different basic circuit connections are possible, as illustrated
in Fig. 26.54. These are
(a) Common-base
(b) Common emitter and
(c) Common-collector circuits.
2 6 . 3 0 | Semiconductor and Communication System
∆iC
α( ac ) =
∆iE VCB
The value of α is slightly less than 1 (actually there is a little current loss).
(b) ac Voltage Gain: It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output voltage to the change in the input
voltage, and is denoted by AV.
Suppose, on applying ac input voltage signal, the emitter current changes by ∆iC and correspondingly the
collector-current changes by ∆iC . If Rin and Rout the resistances of the input and the output circuits respectively,
then
Now, ∆iC / ∆iE is the ac current-gain and R out / R in is called the ‘resistance gain’
A v = α × Resistance gain
P hysi cs | 26.31
Since the resistance gain is quite high, AV is also quite high although a is slightly less than 1.
(i) ac Power Gain: It is defined as the ratio of the change in the output power to the change in the input power.
Since power=current × voltage, we have
ac power gain =ac current gain×ac voltage-gain= α2 ×resistance gain
RL
B VCB - iC
iB VCC
Input + Output
ac ac
Signal + - Signal
iE iC
VEB
Figure 26.56
The input (base-emitter) circuit is forward-biased by a low-voltage battery VBE so that the resistance of the input
circuit is small. The output (collector-emitter) circuit is reverse-biased by means of a high voltage battery VCC so
that the resistance at the output circuit is high. RL is a load resistance connected in the collected-emitter output
circuit. The weak input ac signal is applied across the base-emitter circuit and the amplified output signal is across
the collector-emitter circuit.
Let iE, iB and ic be the emitter-current, base-current and collector-current irrespective when no ac voltage signal is
applied to the input circuit. (The arrows represent the direction of hole current, that is conventional current which
is opposite to the direction of electron current). By Kirchhoff’s first law, we have iE=iB+iC ... (i)
C
iB B n-p-n
RL
E iC
VCE
+ VCC
iE Output
Input - ac
ac Signal
+ - iB iC
Signal VBE
Figure 26.57
Due to the collector-current ic, (which is only slightly smaller that iE ), the voltage drop across RL is iC RL. Therefore,
the collector-to-base voltage (potential difference between collector and base) VCB would be given by VCE = VCC - ic
R …. (ii)
When the input ac voltage signal is applied across the emitter-base circuit, it changes the emitter-base voltage
and hence the emitter-current iE which, in turn, changes the collector current iC .consequently the collector to base
voltage VCE varies in accordance with equation (ii). This variation in VCE, when the input signal is applied, appears as
an amplified output.
2 6 . 3 2 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Phase Relationship between input and output voltage signals: In a common-emitter amplifier the input voltage
signal and the output voltage signal obtained across the collector and the emitter are out of phase with each other.
The output voltage signal is 180o out of phase with the input voltage signal in the common-emitter amplifier.
C iC
iB B p-n-p
RL
E iC
VCE
VCC Output
iE -
Input + ac
ac Signal
- + iB iC
Signal VBE
Figure 26.58
500
Thus β ( dc ) = = 50
10
(b) ac current Gain: It is defined as the ratio of the collector-current to the change in the base-current at a
constant collector to emitter voltage, and is denoted by β(ac) .
∆iC
Thus β ( ac ) =
∆iB VCE
(c) Voltage gain: Suppose, on applying ac input voltage signal, the base-current changes by ∆iB and
correspondingly the output collector-current change by ∆ic . If Rin and Rout be the resistance of the input and
the output circuits respectively,
∆iC × R out ∆iC R out
then A
= v = × ... (i)
∆iE × Rin ∆iE Rin
Now, ∆iC / ∆iE is the ac current-gain (ac) and R out / R in is the ‘resistance gain’
β(ac) × resis tance gain
∴ Av = ... (ii)
Since β(ac) >>a (ac), the ac voltage gain in common-emitter amplifier is larger compared to the common-
base amplifier., although the resistance gain is smaller.
From equation (i) and (ii), it follows that A v =gm ×R out
(d) ac power gain: It is defined as the ratio of the change in the output power to the change in the input power.
Since power=current×voltage, we have
P hysi cs | 26.33
Since β(ac) >> α(ac) , the ac power gain in common-emitter amplifier is extremely large compared to that in
common-base amplifier.
(e) Trans conductance: (gm) is defined as the ratio of small change in the output current (i.e., collector current)
to the corresponding small change in the voltage (VB) at constant output voltage (Vc).
∆I ∆IB ∆Ic ∆V
= C × But βa.c. and B =
= input resistance (Ri) ∴ gm =
βa.c. / R i
∆IB ∆VB ∆VB ∆IB
R0
Since voltage gain, A V =
βa.c. × ∴ Using eqn. (i), we have AV =
gm × R 0 For R 0 =RL ∴ A V =gmRL
Ri
IC ∆Ic
configuration of a transistor. αdc= ; αac=
IE ∆IE
CE current gain (β): CE current gain (β) is the ratio of the output current to the input current in emitter configuration
IC ∆Ic
of the transistor. βdc= ; βac=
IB ∆IB
The CB current gain a and CE current gain b are related by the following relations.
1 1 β α
= 1+ ; α= ; β=
α β β +1 1−α
The above relations are applicable for both dc and ac current gains.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The value or a is always less than 1.a~0.9 to 0.99 or more. The value of b is always much greater than 1.
b ~ 95 to 99 or so.
Chinmay S Purandare (JEE 2012, AIR 698)
Illustration 21: The dc current gain of a resistance in CB configuration is 0.99. Find its dc current gain in CE
configuration. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: As the gain in common base configuration αdc is given, the gain in common emitter configuration is given by
α
βdc = dc .
1 − αdc
2 6 . 3 4 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Illustration 22: In certain resistance αdc =0.98 and IE =1 mA. Find the corresponding values of base current and
collector current. (JEE MAIN)
C I
Sol: The collector current is found by αdc = . In the circuit the base current is IB= IE − IC .
IE
IC IC
=
(i) αdc or 0.98
= Thus IC =0.98mA
IE I (mA )
(ii) Using IB =
IE − IC ; we get IB = (
1 − 0.98 mA = )
0.02mA
Illustration 23: In a common base connection, current amplified factor is 0.9. If the emitter current is 1mA,
determine the value of base current. (JEE MAIN)
C I
Sol: The collector current is found by αdc = . In the circuit the base current is IB= IE − IC .
IE
IC
Here α = 0.9, IE = 1 mA. Now α = Or IC =α IE =0.9 × 1 =0.9mA . Also IE= IB + IC
IE
lC
∴ Base current, IB =IE − IC =1 − 0.9 =0.1 mA RB C RC
B
vO
lB E
vi VCC
Illustration 24: For a CE amplifier (see Fig. 26.59), the audio lE
VBB
signal voltage across the collector resistance = R C 2.0 k Ω is
2.0 V. Suppose the current amplification factor of the transistor is
100. What should be the value RB in series with VBB supply of 2.0 V
if d.c. base current has to be to 10 time the supply current? Also
calculate the d.c. collector current. (JEE ADVANCED) Figure 26.59
ic
Sol: In the CE configuration the base current is obtained as ib = where ic is the AC collector current. The DC base
β
and collector current are obtained as i=
B 10 × ib and IC = β IB .
Illustration 25: In an NPN transistor, 1010 electrons enter the emitter in 10-6s. If 2% electrons are lost in the base,
calculate the current transfer ratio and current amplification factor. (JEE MAIN)
IC IC
Sol: The amplification factor is given by β = and current transfer ratio is given by .
IB IE
P hysi cs | 26.35
C I 1.568
∴ Current transfer ratio=
= = 0.98
IE 1.6
IC 1.568
Current amplification factor, β= = = 49
IB 0.032
(a) Transistor as open switch. In Fig. 26.62 (a), the base-emitter junction is not forward biased. Therefore, base
( )
current IB=0. As a result, collector current IC = β I is also zero. Under this condition, the transistor behaves
B
as an open switch. In other words, there is an open between the collector and emitter as indicated in Fig.
26.62(a).
(b) Transistor as closed switch. In Fig. 26.62.(b), the base-emitter junction is sufficiently forward biased so that
base current IB is made large enough to cause maximum collector current to flow. This maximum value of
collector current is called saturation current IC(sad). Under this collector and emitter as shown in Fig. 26.62.
Illustration 26: An LC oscillation has a tank circuit with L1= 58.6 µ H and C1=300 PF. Calculate the frequency of
oscillations. (JEE MAIN)
1
Sol: The frequency of oscillation is given by f = .
2π L1C1
1 1
The frequency of oscillations f is given
= by; f = Hz
2π L1C1 2π 58.6 × 10−6 × 300 × 10−12
lC
Illustration 27: In Fig. 26.63, the VBB supply can RB B C RC +
be varied from 0V to 5.0 V. The Si transistor has vO
lB E -
βdc = 250 and RB = 100kΩ, R C = 1kΩ, VCC = 5.0 V . Assume that vi VCC
lE
when the transistor is saturated, VCE=0V and VBE =0.8V. Calculate VBB
(a) the minimum base current for which the transistor will reach
saturation. Hence (b) determine Vi when the transistor is switched
on. (c) Find the range of Vi for which the transistor is switched off
and switched on. (JEE ADVANCED) Figure 26.63
P hysi cs | 26.37
VCC − VCE
Sol: When the transistor reach saturation the collector current is maximum and given by IC = . The base
RC
IC
current is IB = where βdc is the DC gain of the circuit. The value of Vi is obtained by applying Kirchhoff’s law to
βdc
the circuit.
(a) When the transistor is saturated, the collector current is maximum at saturation, it is given that VCE=0V; VBE=0.8
V.
VCC − VCE (5.0 − 0 ) V
Now, V=CC V CE + I R
C C ∴= I C = = 5.0 mA
RC 1kΩ
IC 5.0mA
Corresponding to saturation current IC=5.0 mA, the base current IB is I=
B = = 20 µA
βdc 250
(b) The input voltage at which the transistor goes into saturation is
V=
i IBRB + VBE= 20µA × 100 kΩ + 0.8= 2.8V
(c) We know that for Si transistor; the transistor will remain off if Vi is less than 0.6 V. Therefore, between 0Vand 0.6
V, the transistor will be in the switched off state. However, between 2.8V and 5.0 V, the transistor will be in switched
on state.
Input Output
AB Y
00 0 A
Y = A+B
B
01 1
Figure 26.64
10 1
11 1
(b) The AND gate: The output of an AND gate attains the state 1 if and only if all the inputs are in state
A
Logic symbol of AND gate B
Y = AB
Figure 26.65
2 6 . 3 8 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Input Output
AB Y
00 0
01 0
10 0
11 1
(c) The NOT gate: The output of a NOT gate attains the state 1 if and only input does not attains the state 1.
Logic Symbol of NOT gate:
Input Output
A B
0 1
1 0
Combination of Gates: The three basic gates (OR, AND and NOT) when connected in various combinations give
us logic gates such as NAND gates, which are the universal building blocks of digital circuits.
AB Y
00 1
01 1
10 1
11 0
A
(b) The NOR gate: Logic symbol of NOR gate Y = A+B
B
The Boolean expression of NOR gate is Y= A + B Figure 26.68
Truth table of a NOR gate
Input Output
AB Y
P hysi cs | 26.39
Input Output
00 1
01 0
10 0
11 0
Universal gates: The NAND or NOR gate is the universal building block of all digital circuits. Repeated use of
NAND gates (or NOR gates) gives other gates. Therefore, any digital system can be achieved entirely from NAND
or NOR gates. We shall show how the repeated use of NAND (and NOR) gates will gives use different gates.
(a) The NOT gate from a NAND gates: When all the input of a NAND gate are connected together, as shown
in the figure, we obtain a NOT gate
A
Truth table of signal-input gate Y
B
A B Y’ Y
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
A y
(d) The NOT gate from NOR gate: When all the inputs of a NOR gate are connected
together as shown in the figure, we obtain a NOR gate. B
Figure 26.72
2 6 . 4 0 | Semiconductor and Communication System
(e) The AND gate from NOR gates: If we invert A and B and
then apply them to the NOR gate, the resulting circuit is an A
AND gate. Y
B
(f) The OR gate from NOR gate: If a NOR gate is followed by
a single input NOR gate (NOT gate), the resulting circuit is an Figure 26.73
OR gate.
A
Y
XOR AND XNOR gate: (i) The exclusive-OR gate (XOR gate) B
The output of a two-input XOR gate attains the state 1 if one and input Figure 26.74
attains the state 1.
Figure 26.75
Truth table of a XOR gate
Input Output
AB Y
00 0
01 1
10 1
11 0
Exclusive: NOR gate (XNOR gate). The output is in state 1 when it’s both input are the same that is, both 0 or
both 1. A
Y
(a) Logic symbol of XNOR gate: The Boolean expression of XNOR B
Figure 26.76
gate is Y=A.B+ Y= A.B or Y= A ⊕ B
Input Output
A B Y
00 1
01 0
10 0
11 1
Law of Boolean algebra: Basic OR, AND, and NOT operations are given below:
OR AND NOT
A+0=A A.0=0 A+ A =1
A+1=1 A.1=A A. A =0
A+A=A A. A=A A. A=A
Boolean algebra obeys commutative, associative and distributive laws as given below:
P hysi cs | 26.41
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The NAND gate is a universal gate because its repeated use can produce other logic gates.
Ankit Rathore (JEE Advanced 2013, AIR 158)
Illustration 28: The output of an OR gate is connected to both the inputs of a NAND gate. Draw the logic circuit
of this combination of gates and write its truth table. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: When output of OR gate is connected to the input of NAND gate the circuit behaves as NOR gate.
The logic circuit of the combination of the two gates is shown in Fig.26.77. It is clear that: Y ' =
A + B and Y =
A +B
This means that NOR gate is formed. The truth table of the given logic circuit is given below:
A B Y’=A+B Y= A •B A
y’
0 0 0 1
y
B
1 0 1 0
Figure 26.77
0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0
Illustration 29: The output of an OR gate is connected to both the inputs of a NOR gate. Draw the logic circuit of
this combination of gates and write its truth table. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: When output of OR gate is connected to the input of NOR gate the circuit behaves as NAND gate.
The logic circuit of the combination of two gates is shown is Fig. 26.78. It is clear that:
Y ' = A + B and Y = (A + B) + (A + B) = A + B
A B Y’ Y A y’ = A+B y’ = A+B
0 0 0 1 or nor
B
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 Figure 26.78
1 1 1 0
Illustration 30: Identify the logic gates marked X, Y in Fig. 26.79. Write down the output at y, when A=1, B=1 and
A=0, B=0. (JEE ADVANCED)
A B Y’ Y
A
1 1 0 1 X Y y
B y’
0 0 1 0
Figure 26.79
Sol: The gate X is AND gate while the gate Y is NOT gate.
The logic gate marked as X is NAND gate while the gate marked as Y is NOT gate. It is clear that:
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
1. INTRODUCTION
In the most fundamental sense communication involves the transmission of information from one point to another
through a series of processes. In the early 1900s radio communications – the transmission and reception of voice
and music through the air was probably the only application of electronics of any significance. The telephones at
our hands, the radios and televisions in our living rooms, the computer terminals in our offices and homes are all
capable of providing communications from every corner of the earth. In this chapter, we shall focus our attention
on the principles of communication.
Noise
Figure 26.80
P hysi cs | 26.43
Generally, the transmitter is located at one place and the receiver at some other place. The communication channel
is links the transmitter and the receiver.
(a) Transmitter. The function of the transmitter is to transform the message or information (e.g. music, speech,
picture, written message etc.) into a suitable form and transmit it over the communication channel. Generally,
the information is not electrical in nature. The transmitter first converts the message into equivalent electrical
variations. It is then called signal. The signal modulates a high frequency wave called carrier wave and the
resultant waves are called modulated waves. The actual method of modulation varies from one communication
system to another. After modulation the modulated waves are transmitted over the communication channel.
(b) Communication channel. It is the medium by which the modulated waves are transmitted from the transmitter
to the receiver. The communication channel or transmission medium may be free space, transmission lines or
optical fibers. For example, in case of radio and TV transmission, the communication channel is the free space.
However, in case of telegraphy and telephony, communication channel is transmission lines.
In the process of transmission, signals are contaminated by noise signals. This is called channel noise. Noise
is unwanted energy usually of random character generated by numerous natural or man-made events e.g.
lightning, turning on or off electrical equipment etc.
(c) Receiver. The function of the receiver is to receive the modulated waves transmitted by the transmitter and
to do demodulation or detection or decoding. In this process, the original signal is separated from the carrier.
This process is called demodulation or detection and is the reverse of the modulation process done in the
transmitter. The recovered signal is then utilized as the situation demands.
Basic modes of communication: There are two basic modes of communication viz.
(i) Point-to-Point communication mode
(ii) Broadcast mode
(i) In Point-to-point communication mode the message is transmitted over a link between a single transmitter
and single receiver. Conversation between two persons through a telephone is an example of point-to-point
communication.
(ii) In broadcast mode (or point-to-many points communication) there is a single transmitter and a large number
of receivers. Radio broadcasting and television telecast are the examples of this mode of communication.
repeater (see figure). Obviously, a repeater is a combination of receiver, amplifier and transmitter. Repeaters
are used to extend the range of a communication system. A communication satellite is essentially a repeater
station in space.
4. BANDWIDTH OF SIGNALS
In electronic communication, message signals converted in the electrical form are transferred from one point to
another point. These message signals are of two types viz.
1. Analog signals 2. Digital signals
(a) Bandwidth of analog signals. An analog signal is that in which the voltage or current varies continuously
with time. In analog communication, the information or message to be transmitted is generally in continuous
waveform. The range of frequencies which are necessary for satisfactory transmission of information or
message contained in the analog signal is called Bandwidth of the analog signal.
Examples of analog signals are speech, music, sound produced by vibrating strings, picture (video) signals etc.
These analog signals are converted into electrical form with suitable transducers and then transmitted to the
required destination.
Different types of analog signals require different bandwidths.
(i) Bandwidth of speech signals. Speech signals contain frequencies between 300 Hz. And 3100 Hz.
Therefore, speech signals require bandwidth=3100 Hz-300 Hz=2800 Hz.
(ii) Bandwidth of music signals. The audio range of frequencies produced by musical instruments is from
20 Hz to 20 kHz. Therefore, music signals require a bandwidth of about 20 kHz (20 kHz-20 Hz).
(iii) Bandwidth of video signals. For transmission of pictures, the video signals require a bandwidth of about
4.2 MHz. Since a TV signal contains both audio and video signals, it is usually allocated a bandwidth of
6 MHz for the transmission of TV signals.
(b) Bandwidth of digital signals. A digital signal
Fundamental wave
is that in which voltage or current can have only
Voltage/Current
Harmonic wave
two discrete values. Therefore, a digital signal
is in the form of rectangular / square waves
or pulses. Each pulse has two levels of voltage
or current represented by 0 and 1. Examples
of digital signals are: letters printed in a book,
out-put of digital computer etc. 0
Time
Ionosphere
layer
temperature in troposphere decreases
with height at the rate of about 6.50C per
kilometer to a value of about -500C at its
Kennelly
upper boundary. The density of air falls
heaviside
from ρ to ρ /10.
layer 400 km
(b) Stratosphere: Above the troposphere
lies the stratosphere. This region is from Thermosphere
12km to 50km from the earth’s surface. An
important part of stratosphere is the ozone Mesosphere
layer which extends from 30km to 50km
Ozone layer 80 km
from the earth surface. The ozone layer
contains ozone in abundance. It absorbs Stratosphere 50 km
most of the ultraviolet radiation coming
from the sun. The temperature falls from Troposphere 12 km
280 K to 220 K and the density of air falls
Earth surface
from ρ /10 to ρ /1000.
(c) Mesosphere: This region is from 50km to Figure 26.84
80km from the earth’s surface. Temperature
falls from 220 K to 180 K. Density of air falls from ρ /1000 to ρ /105.
(d) Ionosphere: This region extends from 80 km to 400 km from the earth’s surface. In this region, the constituent
gases are ionized by ultraviolet radiation and X-rays from the sun. There are main layers viz, Heavy side layer
and Appleton layer, in this region. The heights of these layers vary with the season and the day. Further, the
layers are not fixed, but are irregular and of varying thickness.
Layers of Ionosphere: The ionosphere plays an important role Outer atmosphere
in the propagation of radio waves in space communication.
Because of the variation of the composition of air, there
are several regions of varying ionization density within the
ionosphere, dividing the ionosphere into several layers. The F2 layer
important layers of ionosphere are D, E, F1 and F2 layers as shown
in figure. The ionization density (i.e. number of ions or electrons F1 Layer
per unit volume) of each layer varies with time of the day, season, km
220
altitude etc. km E1 Layer
110 D Layer
(a) The lowest layer, called D layer, exists only in the day time
at an altitude of 50 to 90 km above the earth’s surface. Troposphere
Ionization in this region is relatively weak and does not Earth
affect the direction of travel of radio waves. Figure 26.85
(b) The next layer, the E layer, is in a region of about 90-140 km
above the surface of earth. It has a maximum density at noon but is only weakly ionized at night.
(c) The last layer, the F layer, is quite variable. At night, it exists as a single layer in a region of about 140-400 km
above the earth’s surface. However in day time, it splits into two layers F1 and F2 as shown in figure.
When radio waves from a transmitter are directed towards the ionosphere, then radio waves in the frequency
range 2 MHz to 40 MHz are reflected back to earth by the ionosphere. However, radio waves of frequencies greater
than 40 MHz are not reflected back to earth by the ionosphere; they penetrate into ionosphere and escape. Thus
ionosphere acts as a reflector for certain types of radio waves and helps in the long distance transmission of radio
waves.
2 6 . 4 8 | Semiconductor and Communication System
7. SPACE COMMUNICATION
The phenomenon of sending, receiving and processing information through space is called space communication.
In space communication, the signal is carried by high frequency electromagnetic wave (called carried wave) from
the transmitter to the receiver in free space. Since no wires are used, it is also called wireless communication.
The frequencies used in space communication lie in the range 104 Hz to 1011 Hz. Radio, television and satellite
communication fall under this category.
Types of radio wave propagation. In space communication, the radio waves travel from the transmitting antenna
to the receiving antenna in free space. Depending upon the frequency of radio waves, the distance between the
transmitter and receiving antennas and the path (or paths) by which radio waves reach the receiving antenna, the
radio wave propagation can be carried out in the following three ways.
(a) Ground or surface wave propagation
(b) Sky wave or ionosphere wave propagation
(c) Space wave or direct wave or tropospheric propagation.
increase in frequency. Moreover, ground wave is also attenuated due to diffraction effect. As the wave propagates
over the earth, it gradually tilts over. At some appreciable distance from the transmitting antenna, the wave lies
down and dies.
We have seen that loss of power of a ground wave increases rapidly with the increase in frequency as well as with
the increase in distance from the transmitting antenna. Therefore, ground wave propagation is limited to low
frequency signals (500 kHz to 1500 kHz) and for short range communication. It cannot be used for high frequency
and long range transmission.
(a) Below 500 kHz, reliable communication can be obtained over distance upto 1500 km by ground waves alone.
(b) Amplitude modulated radio waves in the medium frequency band are transmitted primarily via ground waves.
Advantages: Ground wave propagation has the following advantages:
(a) Ground wave propagation has excellent reliability.
(b) Reception is not affected by changing atmospheric conditions :
(c) Given enough transmitting power, ground wave communication can be maintained with any place in the
world.
Disadvantages: Ground wave propagation has the following disadvantages:
(a) Ground wave propagation requires high transmitting power.
(b) Ground losses increase very rapidly with the increase in frequency of the signal.
(c) Ground losses very with surface material and composition.
Since the critical frequency depends on the density of ionization, it will clearly vary with the time of day
and season of the year. Furthermore, it is possible for a particular frequency to pierce the E layer but still be
returned from the F layer because it has higher density of ionization. Of course, a still higher frequency will
pierce both layers and be lost. The value of critical frequency (ƒc) is given by ; ƒc = 9 (Nmax ) 1/ 2 Where Nmax =
maximum electron density of ionosphere.
(b) Critical angle. As the vertical angle of the sky wave w.r.t. earth is increased, the ionosphere layers are no
longer capable of reflecting sky waves back to earth. For a given frequency, the vertical angle above which the
sky wave no longer returns to earth but travels outward into space is called critical angle.
Sky waves at or above critical angle may be refracted (bent) by ionosphere but they are not reflected back to
earth. The critical angle primarily depends on density of ionization and on the frequency of the wave.
(c) Maximum usable frequency (MUF). It is defined as the highest frequency of the radio waves which when
sent at a certain angle towards the given layer of ionosphere gets reflected from that layer and returns to
earth. It is given by ;
ƒc
Maximum usable frequency, MUF
= = ƒc sec θ
cos θ
Where θ = Angle between normal and direction of incident waves.
Since the maximum usable frequency (MUF) depends on the density and height of ionosphere layers, it will
vary from hour to hour, from day to day and from location to location.
(d) Skip distance. The distance between the transmitting aerial and the point where the sky wave is first received
after returning to earth is called skip distance.
(e) Fading. When signals are received via sky waves, it often happens that the signal strength will increase and
decrease periodically. In certain cases, the signal may be lost completely or may be drowned in the noise level.
It is called fading. Fading is caused due to the following reasons:
(i) Multiple-path reception. For example, consider a receiving antenna that receives ground waves as well
as sky waves. The signal strength will be the resultant of the two. This interference causes fading of the
signal.
(ii) Ionospheric conditions. As the conditions in the ionosphere change, the phasing of sky wave will shift,
and the resultant strength of the signal will also vary. This condition leads to fading of the signal.
(iii) Receiving antenna at the edge of skip distance. Fading also occurs when the receiving antenna is
located at the edge of the skip distance. A slight change in the conditions of ionosphere may place the
receiving antenna inside or beyond the skip distance. As a result, fading of signal may take place.
Clearly, if the signal is to be received beyond the horizon, then the height of the receiving antenna must be
large enough to intercept the space or direct waves. However, space wave communication is greater than 100
km is hardly used in commercial communication. For an example, if hT and hR are 100m each, then using above
formula, dM comes out to be 71.4 km only. Sometimes, the range of TV transmission is increased by using repeater
transmitting stations.
8. MODULATION
As discussed earlier, a high carrier wave is used to carry the audio signal. The question arises how the audio signal
should be “added” to the wave. The solution lies in changing some characteristic of carrier wave in accordance with
the signal. Under such conditions, the audio signal will be contained in the resultant wave. This process is called
modulation and may be defined as under:
The process of changing some characteristic (e.g. amplitude, frequency or phase) of a carrier wave in accordance
with the intensity of the signal is known as modulation. Modulation means “to change”. In modulation, some
characteristic of carrier wave is called modulated wave or radio wave and contains the audio signal.
Need for modulation. Audio signals have a frequency range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. These low frequency signals
cannot be transmitted directly (i.e. without modulation) into space for the following reasons:
(a) Practical antenna length. For efficient transmission and reception, the transmitting and receiving antennas
must have a length at least equal to λ / 4 where λ is the wavelength of the signal. For an audio signal of 15
kHz, the length of the antenna required will be:
c 3x108 λ 20000
Wavelength, λ= = = 20000m. ∴ Length of antenna, l= = = 5000m
ƒ 15x103 4 4
To set up a vertical antenna of this length is practically impossible. However, if a carrier wave of 1 MHz is used
to carry the signal (i.e. modulation is done), the length of the antenna comes out of be 75 m only and this
size can be easily constructed. Length of the antenna comes out to be 75m only and this size can be easily
constructed.
(b) Effective power radiated by antenna. For a linear antenna of length l, it has been found that
2
l
Power radiated, P ∝ .Therefore, for the same antenna length l, the power radiated will be large for signals
λ
of shorter wavelength or higher frequency. For good transmission, we need high powers. This requires the
transmission to be carried out at high frequencies. For this reason, we use high frequency carrier wave to carry
the audio signal.
(c) Mixing up of signals from different transmitters. All the audio signals from different transmitters have
the same frequency range i.e. 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Therefore, if the audio signals from various transmitters are
P hysi cs | 26.53
transmitted directly, they will get mixed up and there is no way to distinguish between them. This difficulty is
solved by allotting different carrier frequencies to different transmitting stations. The above discussion shows
the need for frequency transmission. For this purpose, the audio signal is superimposed on the high frequency
waves. Hence modulation permits the transmission to occur at high frequency while it simultaneously allows
the carrying of the audio signal.
The amplitude of the carrier wave varies at signal frequency fs. Therefore, the amplitude of AM wave is given by
The following points may be noted from the above equation of amplitude modulated wave:
(a) The AM wave is equivalent to the summation of three sinusoidal e
waves; one having and the third having amplitude EC and
frequency fc., the second having amplitude ma EC / 2 and
frequency fc+fs) and the third having amplitude ma EC / 2 and
frequency (fc – fs).
EC
(b) The AM wave contains three frequencies viz. fc., (fc + fs). The
first frequency is the carrier frequency. Thus, the process of
MaEC
modulation does not change the original carrier frequency but
produces two new frequencies (fc + fs) and (fc – fs) which are 2
called sideband frequencies. 0 fC - fS fC fC + fS
From trigonometry, we have the expansion formula: Frequency
2cos A cosB
= cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)
Figure 26.95
ωc ωc + ωs ωc − ωs
ƒc
= , ƒc +=
ƒs , ƒc −=
ƒs
2π 2π 2π
(c) The sum of carrier frequency and signal frequency i.e., ƒc − ƒs i.e., the difference between carrier and signal
frequencies.
( ) (
Bandwidth: In an AM wave, the bandwidth is from ƒc − ƒs to ƒc + ƒs i.e., 2 ƒs . Thus in the above example, )
bandwidth is form 399 to 401 kHz which is twice the signal frequency. Therefore, we arrive at a very important
conclusion that in amplitude modulation, bandwidth is twice the signal frequency. The tuned amplifier which is called
upon to amplify the modulated wave must have the required bandwidth to include the sideband frequencies. If the
turned amplifier has insufficient bandwidth, the upper sideband frequencies may not be reproduced by the radio
receiver.
(=
E / 2)
2
C E2C
Carrier power =
PC … (i)
R 2R
(m E ) + (m E )
2 2
a C /2 2 a C /2 2 m2a E2C ma2 EC2 ma2 EC2
Total power of =
sidebands PS = + = … (ii)
R R 8R 8R 4R
2 6 . 5 6 | Semiconductor and Communication System
E2 m2 E2 E2 m2 E2 2 + m2a
Total power of AM wave P=T PC + PS ; =C + a C =C 1 + a or PT = C …. (iii)
2R 4R 2R 2 2R 2
As the signal is contained in the sideband frequencies, therefore, useful power is in the sidebands. Inspection of
exp. (iv) reveals that sideband power depends upon the modulation factor ma. The greater the value of ma, the
greater is the useful power carried by the sidebands. This emphasizes the importance of modulation factor is
Expression (v) gives the relation between total sideband power PS ( ) and carrier power (PC ) .
8.2.4 AM Modulator
A circuit which does amplitude modulation is called AM modulator. Figure shows the circuit of a simple AM
modulator. It is essentially a CE amplifier having a voltage gain of A. the carrier signal is the input to the amplifier.
The modulating signal is applied in the emitter resistance circuit.
Working: The carrier voltage ec is applied at the amplifier and the modulating signal es is applied in the emitter
resistance circuit. The amplifier circuit amplifies the carrier by a factor “A” so that the output is Aec. Since the
modulating signal is a part of the biasing circuit, it produces low-frequency variations in the emitter circuit. This in
turn causes *variations in “A”. The result is that amplitude of the carrier varies in accordance with the strength of
the signal. Consequently, amplitude modulated output is obtained across RL. It may be noted that carrier should
not influence the voltage gain A; only the modulating signal should be this. To achieve this objective, carrier should
have a small magnitude and signal should have a large magnitude.
+VCC
(b) Low efficiency: In amplitude modulation, useful power is in the sidebands as they contain the signal. As
discussed before, an AM wave has low sideband power. For example, if modulation is 100%, the sideband
power is only-third of the total power of AM wave. Hence the efficiency of this type of modulation is low.
(c) Small operating quality. Due to low efficiency of amplitude modulation, transmitters employing this method
have a small operating range i.e., message cannot be transmitted over larger distances.
(d) Lack of audio quality: This is a distinct disadvantage of amplitude modulation. In order to attain high-fidelity
reception, all audio frequencies up to 15 kHz must be reproduced. This necessitates bandwidth of only 10 kHz
to minimize the interference from adjacent broadcasting stations. This means that the highest modulating
frequency can be 5 kHz which is hardly sufficient to reproduce the music properly.
8.3 Demodulation
The process of recovering the audio signal from the modulated wave is known as demodulation or detection.
At the broadcasting station, modulation is done to transmit the audio signal over larger distance to a receiver.
When the modulated wave is picked up by the radio receiver, it is necessary to recover the audio signal from it. This
process is accomplished in the radio receiver and is called demodulation.
Necessity of demodulation. It was noted that Receiving
amplitude modulated wave consists of carrier aerial
and sideband frequencies. The audio signal is
contained in the sideband frequencies which
are radio frequencies. If the modulated wave Station R.F.
after amplification is directly fed to the speaker No sound
selector Amplifier
as shown in figure, no sound will be heard. It
is because diaphragm of the speaker is not at
all able to respond to such high frequencies. Figure 26.97
Before the diaphragm is able to move in one
direction, the rapid reversal of current tends to move it in the opposite direction i.e. diaphragm will not move at all.
Consequently, no sound will be heard.
From the above discussion, it follows that audio signal must be separated from the carrier at a suitable stage in the
receiver. The recovered audio is then amplified and fed to the speaker for conversion into sound.
(b) It separates the audio signal from the carrier. The rectified modulated wave contains the audio signal and
the carrier. It is desired to recover the audio signal. This is achieved by a filter circuit which removes the carrier
frequency and allows the audio signal to reach the load i.e., speaker.
L L1 C
Speaker
Rectified Audio
A.M. Wave
current pulses output
Figure 26.99
The rectified modulated wave contains radio frequency and the signal cannot be fed to the speaker for sound
reproduction. If done so, no sound will be heard due to the inertia of speaker diaphragm. The r.f. (radio frequency)
component is filtered by the capacitor C shunted across the speaker. The value of this capacitor is sufficiently large
to present low reactance to the r.f. (radio frequency) component while presenting a relatively high reactance to the
audio signal. The result is that the r.f. (radio frequency) component is by-passed by the capacitor C and the signal
is passed on to the speaker for sound reproduction.
Illustration 1: Calculate the length of a half-wave dipole antenna at (i) 30 MHz (ii) 300 MHz and (iii) 3000 MHz.
What inference do you draw from the results? (JEE MAIN)
c
Sol: The wavelength of half-wave dipole antenna at certain frequency is given by λ =
f
Speed of radio waves, c = 3x108 ms−1
c 3x10 −8
(i) λ= = = 10m ∴ Length of half-wave dipole antenna is l=
λ/2=
10 / 2 =
5m
ƒ 30x106
3x108
(ii) λ= c = = 1m ∴ Length of half-wave dipole antenna is l =
λ/2=
1/2=
0.5m
ƒ 300x106
3x108
(iii) λ= c = = 0.1m ∴ l =
λ/2=
0.1 / 2 =
0.05m
ƒ 3000x106
It is clear that length of the dipole antenna decreases as the frequency of carrier wave increase.
Illustration 2: The maximum peak-to-peak voltage of an amplitude modulated wave is 16 mV and the minimum
peak-to-peak voltage is 4 mV. Calculate the modulation factor. (JEE MAIN)
Vmax − Vmin
Sol: The modulation factor is ma = .
Vmax + Vmin
P hysi cs | 26.59
Figure 26.100
Illustration 3: An AM wave is represented by the expression:
=V 5(1 + 0.6 cos6280 t) sin 211x10 4 t Volts (JEE ADVANCED)
(i) What are the minimum and maximum amplitudes of the AM wave?
(ii) What frequency components are contained in the modulated wave and what is the amplitude of each component?
Sol: Comparing the equation with standard wave equation V =EC (1 + ma cos ωs t) sin ωc t we get the maximum
carrier amplitude EC, the modulation factor ma and ω. Using this we get the minimum and maximum amplitude of
ω
the wave as Ec − maEc and Ec + maEc respectively. The frequency is given by f = .
2π
V 5(1 + 0.6 cos 6280 t) sin 211x10 4 t volts
The AM wave equation is given by = … (i)
Illustration 4 : An 50 kW carrier is to be modulated to a level of (i) 80% (ii) 10%. What is the total sideband power
in each case? (JEE MAIN)
1 2
Sol: The power used in modulation ma is given by Ps = m P where PC is the power of carrier wave.
2 a c
1 2 1 2
(i) Ps
= =m P (0.8)
= x50 16kW
2 a c 2
1 2 1 2
(ii) Ps
= = ma Pc (0.1)
= x50 0.25kW
2 2
2 6 . 6 0 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Note the effect of modulation factor on the magnitude of sideband power. In the first case (ma = 80%), we generated
and transmitted 50 kW carrier in order to send 16 kW of intelligence. In the second case (ma = 10%), the same
carrier of operation decreases rapidly as modulation factor decreases. For this reason, in amplitude modulation, the
value of ma is kept as close to unity as possible.
Illustration 5: Consider an optical communication system operating at λ =800nm . Suppose, only 1% of optical
source frequency is the available channel bandwidth for optical communication. How many channels can be
accommodated for transmitting (i) audio signals requiring a bandwidth of 8 kHz (ii) video TV signals requiring an
approximate bandwidth of 4.5 MHz? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The number of the channels for audio or video signal is obtained as
Total bandwidth 0.01 × c
N= . The total bandwidth is obtained as 0.01 × f = .
Bandwidth of signal λ
=
Optical wavelength, λ = 8x10−7 m
800nm
3x108
Frequency of optical source is ƒ= c= = 3.75 x1014 Hz
λ 8x10 −7
Disadvantages
(a) A much wider bandwidth is required by FM. The bandwidth required is 7 to 8 times as large as for AM.
(b) FM transmitting and receiving equipment’s are complex, particularly for modulation and demodulation.
Therefore, FM is more expensive than AM.
(c) FM reception is limited to line-of-sight.
PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS
1. For long distance transmission, we use electrical signals because they can be transmitted at very high speeds
( = 3x10 ms )
8 −1
2. The energy of a wave is directly proportional to its frequency. This permits modulated waves to carry the
signals to long distances.
3. In amplitude modulation (AM), the amplitude of high frequency wave is changed in accordance with the
intensity of the signal.
5. In AM, the power level of the carrier is not affected by the modulation index m.
6. In phase modulation, the phase angle of the high frequency wave (carrier) is changed in accordance with the
strength of the modulating signal.
2 6 . 6 2 | Semiconductor and Communication System
FORMULAE SHEET
1. In an n-type semiconductor, ne ≅ Nd >> nh where Nd is the number density of donor atoms.
3. In frequency modulation (FM), the frequency of high frequency wave (carrier) is changed in accordance with
the intensity of the signal.
12. For a transistor, where lE = lB + lC is emitter current, lB is base current and lC is collector current.
13. Gains in Common-Base Amplifier
The various gains in a common-base amplifier are as follow:
(i) ac Current Gain: It is defined as the ratio of the change in the collector-current to the change in the
emitter-current at a constant collector-to-base voltage, and is denoted by α .
∆i
Thus α(ac) = C
∆i
B VCE
The value of α is slightly less than 1 (actually, there is a little current loss).
(ii) ac Voltage Gain: It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output voltage to the change in the input
voltage, and is denoted by A.
Suppose on applying an ac input voltage signal, the emitter current changes by ∆i and correspondingly
the collector-current changes by ∆iC . If Rin and R out be the resistances of the input and output circuits
respectively, then
∆iC xR in ∆iC R in
=AV = x
∆iE xR out ∆iE R out
Now, ∆iC / ∆iE is the ac current-gain and R in / R out is called the ‘resistance gain’.
∴ Av = α × Resistance gain
Since the resistance gain is quite high AV is also high although α is slightly less than 1.
(iii) ac Power Gain: It is defined as the ratio of the change in the output power to the change in the input
power.
Resistance gain
(i) dc current Gains: It is defined as the ratio of the collector current to the base current, and is denoted by
iC
β ( dc ) =
iB
In a typical transistor, a small base-current ≈ 10µA ( ) ( )
produces a large collector-current ≈ 500µA . Thus
500
β ( dc ) = = 50
10
(ii) ac Current Gain : It is defined as the ratio of the change in the collector-current to the change in the base-
current at a constant collector to emitter voltage, and is denoted by
∆iC
β(ac) . Thus β ( ac ) =
∆iB VCE
(iii) Voltage gain : Suppose, on applying an ac input voltage signal, the input base-current
Charges by ∆iB and correspondingly the output collector-current changes by ∆iC . If Rin and
R out be the resistance of the input and the output circuits respectively, then.
2 6 . 6 4 | Semiconductor and Communication System
(iv) ac Power gain : It is defined as the ratio of the change in the output power to the change in the input
power.
Since power=current x voltage, we have ac power gain = ac current gain × ac voltage gain
β(ac) × {β(ac) × resis tance gain} =
β(ac) × A v =
= β2 (ac) × resis tance gain
Since β(ac) >> α(ac) , the ac power gain in common-emitter amplifier is extremely large
Compared to that in common-base amplifier.
1
15. The frequency of oscillations is given by v =
2π LC
ƒc
17. Maximum usable frequency, MUF
= = ƒc sec θ
cos θ
( ) (
20. In an AM wave, the bandwidth is form ƒc − ƒs to ƒc + ƒs i.e, 2ƒs . )
21. Power In AM Wave
The power dissipated in any circuit is a function of the square of voltage across the circuit and the
effective resistance of the circuit. Equation of AM wave reveals that it has three components of amplitude
EC ,ma EC / 2 and ma EC / 2. Clearly, power output must be distributed among these components.
=
Carrier power, PC
(=
E / 2)
C E2c
… (i)
R 2R
(=
m E / 2 2) (m E )
2 2
a C a C /2 2 m2 E2 m2 E2 m2 E2
a C a C a C
Total power of =
sidebands PC = + = …. (ii)
R R 8R 8R 4R
Solved Examples
= eneµ=
σ e 1.6x10−19 x1019 x0.12
= 0.192 ohm m−1
Example 2: The base current is 100 µA and collector
1 current is 3 mA.
The resistivity=
is ρ = 5.2ohm meter
0.192
(a) Calculate the values of β and α
Example 9: What will be the antenna current when (b) A change of 20 µA in the base current produces a
modulation is 40%? change of 0.5mA is the collector current. Calculate βac
2
=µe 0.135m
= / Vs; µh 0.048m2 / Vs and
(b) Here ∆lb = 20µA = 0.02mA ; ∆lc =0.50mA
16 −3
n
=i 1.5 × 10 m For germanium,
∆lc 0.5 2
∴ β=
ac = = 25 =µe 0.39m= / Vs , µh 0.19m2 / Vs and
∆lb 0.02
ni 2.4 × 1019 m−3 .
=
Example 3: The Concentration of hole – electron pairs
in pure silicon at T=300 K is 7 × 1015 per cubic meter. Sol: The electron and hole current in semiconductor
Antimony is doped in silicon in proportion of 1 atom in block is given by=le neeAµe Ε and=lh nheAµhΕ where
107 Si atoms. Assuming that half of the impurity atoms A is the area, ne and nh are the number densities of
contribute electron. In the conduction band, calculate electron and holes and µe and µh are electron and
the factor by which the number of charge carriers
hole mobilities, in the semiconductor block. The total
increases due to doping the number of silicon atoms
current is given by I=Ie+Ih.
per cubic meter is 5 × 1028 .
e.m.f. 2
=
Sol: The factor to increase the number of charge carriers Electric field = l 0.1
n − ninitial = 20Vm−1
from initial to final is given by final where nfinal
ninitial
Cross-sectional area, A = 1× 10−4 m2
and ninitial are the charge concentration after and before
For silicon block
doping the silicon with antimony.
In pure semiconductor electron-hole pair = 7 × 1015 ; ne= nh= n=
i 1.5 × 1016 m−3
ninitial = nh + ne = 14 × 1015 = µe 0.135m= 2
/ Vs; µh 0.048m2 / Vs
After doping: Donor Impurity, Electron Current,
5 × 1028 21
ND = = 5 × 10 νe
107 le neeA=
= νe neeAµe Ε µ
=
e
Ε
ND
According to question n=
e = 2.5 × 1021
2 = (1.5 × 1016 ) × (1.6 × 10−19 ) × (1× 10−4 ) × 0.135 × 20
so nfinal
= nh + ne
=0.648 × 10−16 A =0.648µA
Here ne >> nh
Hole current,
so nfinal ≈ ne ≈ 2.5 × 1021
νh
nfinal − ninitial 2.5 × 1021 lh nheA=
= νh nheAµhΕ µ
=
Factor = ≈ 1.8 × 105
=
h
Ε
ninitial 14 × 1015
= (1.5 × 1016 ) × (1.6 × 10−19 ) × (1× 10−4 ) × 0.048 × 20
Example 4: In Figure below a battery of e.m.f. 2V is
used. The length of the block is 0.1 m and the area is
0.23 × 10−16 A =
= 0.23µA
1× 10−4 m2 . If the block is of intrinsic silicon at 300 K,
Total current l = le + lh = 0.648 + 0.23 = 0.878µA
find the electron and hole current. What will be the
magnitude of total current if germanium is used instead For germanium block
of silicon? For silicon
ne = nh = ni = 2.4 × 1019 m−3 ; µe = 0.39m2 / Vs; µh
l = 0.1 m
= 0.19m2 / Vs
le neeAµe Ε
Electron Current, =
2V
2 6 . 6 8 | Semiconductor and Communication System
JEE Main/Boards
A
Q.17 Two semiconductor materials X and Y shown
(Inputs) in the given figure, are made by doping germanium
crystal with indium and arsenic respectively. The two
B are joined end to end and connected to a battery as
shown.
X Y
Q.12 With the help of a labeled circuit diagram, explain
how an n-p-n transistor can be used as an amplifier in
common emitter configuration. Explain how the input
and output voltages are out of phase by 180° for a
common-emitter transistor amplifier. OR
For an n-p-n transistor in the common-emitter
configuration, draw a labeled circuit diagram of an
arrangement for measuring the collector current as a
function of collector-emitter voltage for at least two (i) Will the junction be formed biased or reverse biased?
different values of base current. Draw the shape of the
curves obtained. Define the terms: (i) output resistance (ii) Sketch a V-I graph for this arrangement.
and (ii) current amplification factor.
Q.18 Draw the circuit diagram of a common emitter
Q.13 On the basis of the energy band diagrams amplifier using n-p-n transistor. What is the phase
distinguish between metals, insulators and difference between the input signal and output voltage?
semiconductors. State two reasons why a common emitter amplifier is
preferred to a common base amplifier.
Q.21 The input A and B are inverted by using two NOT Q.27 (i) Identify the logic gates marked P and Q in the
gates and their outputs are fed to the NOR gate as given logic circuit.
shown below.
A
P
A (1) B Q X
(ii) Write down the output at X for the inputs A=0, B=0
B (2)
and A=1, B=1.
Analyses the action of the gates (1) and (2) and identify Q.28 What happens to the width of depletion layer of
the logic gate of the complete circuit so obtained. p-n junction when it is (i) forward biased, (ii) reverse
Given its symbols and the truth table. biased?
Q.22 Draw the labeled circuit diagram of a common- Q.29 Draw a labeled diagram of a full wave rectifier
emitter transistor amplifier. Explain clearly how the circuit. State its working principle. Show the input-
input and output signals are in opposite phase. Or output waveforms.
State briefly the underlying principle of a transistor
oscillator. Draw a circuit diagram showing how the Q.30 You are given a circuit below. Write its truth
feedback is accomplished by inductive coupling. table. Hence, identify the logic operation carried out
Explain the oscillator action. by this circuit. Draw the logic symbols of the gate it
corresponds to.
Q.23 Give the logic symbol of NOR gate.
A X
Q.24 With the help of a suitable diagram, explain the
formation of depletion region in p-n junction. How Z
does its width change when the junction is (i) forward
biased, and (ii) reverse biased? B
Y
Q.25 Give a circuit diagram of a common emitter Q.31 Describe briefly with the help of a circuit diagram,
amplifier using an n-p-n transistor. Draw the input and how the flow of current carriers in a p-n-p transistor
output waveforms of the signal. Write the expression is regulated with emitter-base junction forward biased
for its voltage gain. and base-collector junction reverse biased.
Q.26 (a) Draw the circuit diagrams of p-n junction Q.32 (a) Describe briefly, with the help of diagram, the
diode in (i) forward bias, (ii) reverse bias. How are these role of the two important processed involved in the
circuits used to study to study the V-I characteristics. formation of a p-n junction.
(b) What is a light emitting diode (LED)? Mention (b) Name the device which is used as a voltage regulator.
two important advantages of LED’s over conventional Draw the necessary circuit diagram and explain its
lamps. Or working.
(a) Draw the circuit arrangement for studying the input
and output characteristics of an n-p-n transistor in CE Q.33 (a) Explain briefly the principle on which a
configuration. With the help of these characteristics transistor-amplifier works as an oscillator. Draw the
define (i) input resistance, (ii) current amplification necessary circuit diagram and explain its working.
factor.
(b) Describe briefly with the help of a circuit diagram (b) Identify the equivalent gate for the following circuit
how an n-p-n transistor is used to produce self- and write its truth table.
sustained oscillations.
P hysi cs | 26.71
Q.7 In p-type semiconductor holes move in (i) -10 V, -5 V (ii) -5 V, -10 V (iii)-4 V, -12 V
(A) Forbidden region (B) Conduction band (A) (i)<(ii)<(iii) (B) (iii)<(ii)<(i)
(C) Valence band (D) all the above regions (C) (ii)=(iii)<(i) (D) (i)=(iii)<(i)
Q.8: Fermi level of energy of intrinsic semiconductor Q.13 Which is the correct diagram of a half-wave
lies- rectifier –
(A) In the middle of forbidden gap +
(B) Below the middle of forbidden gap (A)
(C) Above the middle of forbidden gap
-
(D) Outside the forbidden gap +
(B)
Q.9 The electron mobility in N-type germanium is 3900
cm2 / V .s and its conductivity is 6.24 mho/cm, then
-
impurity concentration will be if the effect of cotters is +
negligible-
(C)
(A) 1015 cm3 (B) 1013 / cm3
(C) 1012 / cm3 (D) 1016 / cm3 -
+
Q.17 For the given combination of gates, if the logic Q.23 Which of the following frequencies will be
states of inputs A,B, C are as follows A=B=C=0 and suitable for beyond-the horizon communication using
A=B=1, C=0 then the logic states of output D are- sky waves?
A
B G G2 D A
1
A’
C
Y
(A) 0, 0 (B) 0, 1 (C) 1, 0 (D) 1, 1
B’
B
Q.18 Which of the following gates will have an output
of 1- (A) 10 kHZ (B) 10 MHz
(C) 1 GHz (D) 1000 GHz
1 (B) 0
(A)
0 1
Q.24 Frequencies in the UHF rage normally propagate
0
(C) 1 (D) 0 by means of :
1
(A) Ground waves (B) Sky waves
Q.19 This symbol represents- (C) Surface waves (D) Space waves
A y
B
(A) NOT gate (B) OR gate
Previous Years’ Questions
(C) AND gate (D) NOR gate Semiconductor
Q.20 Two identical capacitors A and B are charged to Q.1 Photoelectric effect experiments are performed
the same potential V and are connected in two circuits using three different metal plates p, q and r having
at t=0 as shown in Figure The charge of the capacitors work functions= φp 2.0 eV,=φq 2.5eV,and= φr 3.0 eV ,
2 6 . 7 4 | Semiconductor and Communication System
respectively. A light beam containing wavelengths of (C) It is a pnp transistor with R as emitter
550 nm, 450 nm and 350 nm with equal intensities
(D) It is an npn transistor with R as collector
illuminates each of the plates. The correct I-V graph for
the experiment is (Take hc=1240 eV nm) (2009)
Q.4 In the circuit below, A and B represent two inputs
and C represents the output. The circuit represents
l p l
q (2008)
(A) r
(B) p A
q
r
V V
l l
r B
q
(C) p (D) r
q
p (A) NOR gate (B) AND gate
V V
(C) NAND gate (D) OR gate
Q.2 Truth table for system of four NAND gates as shown
in Figure is (2010) Q.5 A p-n junction (D) shown in the figure can act as a
rectifier. An alternating current source (V) is connected
A in the circuit. (2009)
Y
D
R
B v
A B C A B Y A B Y A B Y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 i 0 1 0 i
(A) (B)
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
r r
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 i 1 1 1 i
(C) (D)
(A) (B) (C) (D)
r r
B Y A B Y A B Y
Q.6 The logic circuit shown below has the input
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 waveforms ‘A’ and ‘B’ as shown. Pick out the correct
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 output waveform. (2009)
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 A
Y
B) (C) (D)
B
Q.3 A working transistor with its three legs marked P,
Q and R is tested using a multi meter. No conduction Input A
is found between P and Q. By connecting the common
(negative) terminal of the multi meter to R and the
other (positive) terminal to P or Q, some resistance is Input B
seen on the multi meter. Which of the following is true
for the transistor? (2008)
(A) It is an npn transistor with R as base (A) (B)
(B) It is a pnp transistor with R as collector
(C) (D)
P hysi cs | 26.75
Q.7 The combination of gates shown below yields Q.12 A signal of 5 kHZ frequency is amplitude
(2010) modulated on a carrier wave of frequency 2 mHz. The
A frequencies of the resultant signal is/are : (2015)
(A) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true; statement-II (A) Linear increase for Cu, exponential increase for Si
is the correct explanation of statement-I. (B) Linear increase for Cu, exponential decrease for Si
(B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true; statement-II (C) Linear decrease for Cu, linear decrease for Si
is not the correct explanation of statement-I.
(D) Linear increase for Cu, linear increase for Si
(C) Statement-I is false, statement-II is true.
(D) Statement-I is true, statement-II is false. Q.15 Choose the correct statement : (2016)
(A) In amplitude modulation the frequency of high
Q.9 A radar has a power of 1 Kw and is operating at a frequency carrier wave is made to vary in proportion to
frequency of 10 GHz. It is located on a mountain top the amplitude of the audio signal
of height 500 m. The maximum distance upto which it
can detect object located on the surface of the earth (B) In frequency modulation the amplitude of the high
(Radius of earth = 6.4 x 106 m) is (2012) frequency carrier wave is made to vary in proportion to
the amplitude of the audio signal.
(A) 80 km (B) 16 km (C) 40 km (D) 64 km
(C) In frequency modulation the amplitude of the high
frequency carrier wave is made to vary in proportion to
Q.10 The magnetic field in a travelling electromagnetic the frequency of the audio signal
wave has a peak value of 20 nT. The peak value of
electric field strength is : (2013) (D) In amplitude modulation the amplitude of the high
frequency carrier wave is made to vary in proportion to
(A) 3V/m (B) 6V/m (C) 9V/m (D) 12 V/m the amplitude of the audio signal
Q.11 The forward biased diode connection is (2014) Q.16 Arrange the following electromagnetic radiations
per quantum in the order of increasing energy: (2016)
+2 V -2 V
(A)
A : Blue light B : Yellow light
+3 V -3 V C : X-ray D : Radio wave
(B)
(A) A, B, D, C (B) C, A, B, D
2V 4V
(C) (C) B, A, D, C (D) D, B, A, C
-2 V +2 V
(D)
2 6 . 7 6 | Semiconductor and Communication System
b
v v
a
(A) (B) x
(A) AND (B) OR
(A) Zener diode, simple diode, Light dependent
resistance, Solar cell (C) NAND (D) NOT
(B) Solar cell, Light dependent resistance, Zener diode,
simple diode Q.19 For a common emitter configuration, if α and β
have their usual meanings, the incorrect relationship
(C) Zener diode, Solar cell, Simple diode, Light between α and β is. (2016)
dependent resistance
β β
(D) Simple diode, Zener diode, Solar cell, Light (A) α = (B) α =
1– β 1+ β
dependent resistance.
β2 1 1
(C) α = (D) = +1
2 α β
1+ β
Q.18 If a, b, c, d are inputs to a gate and x is its output,
then, as per the following time graph, the gate is:
(2016)
JEE Advanced/Boards
Q.1 If resistivity of pure silicon is 3000 ohm-meter and Q.4 A silicon transistor amplifier circuit is given below:
the mobilities of electrons and holes are 0.12 m2 / V − s If the current amplification factor β =100 , determine:
and 0.025 m2 / V − s respectively, find
(a) Base current iB
(i) The resistivity of a specimen of the material when
1019 atoms phosphorous added per ms, (b) Collector current iO
(ii) The resistivity of specimen if further 2 × 1019 boron (c) Collector –emitter voltage
atoms per m3 are also added. (d) Collector base-voltage.
Take the voltage drop between drop between base and
Q.2 Determine the current i in the circuit shown in emitter as 0.7 V.
Figure Assume diodes are made of silicon (V0 = 0.7V). n-p-n
R1=8.6k R2=100
iB
2k D1 4V 10V
20.7V D2 5V iE
P hysi cs | 26.77
Q.5 Construct the truth table for the function Y of A and Q.20 State the function of a Zener diode in a circuit.
B represented by Figure.
Q.21 What type of charge is on n-type semiconductor?
On p-type semiconductor? Why?
Q.7 What type of impurity is added to obtain n-type Q.24 Which logic gate is represented by Boolean
semiconductor?
expression Y= A + B?
(a) (b)
Q.14 Name of the type of charge carriers in p-n junction
diode when forward biased?
A
Y Y
B
Q.15 Which type of biasing result in very high resistance of
a p-n-junction diode? Draw a diagram showing
(a) this bias. (b)
+5V Rb
7V
0V R
(A) 100kΩ (B) 200kΩ
-5V (C) 300kΩ (D) 400kΩ
Exercise 2 A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
Semiconductor X 0 1 1 1
Single Correct Choice Type (A) NAND (B) OR (C) AND (D) XOR
Q.1 A potential barrier of 0.50 V exists across a P-N Q.7 In the circuit shown in 12 V
junction. If the depletion region is 5.0 × 10−7 m wide, the figure, Voltage V0 is
intensity of the electric field in this region is-
(A) 1.0 × 106 V / m (B) 1.0 × 105 V / m
Si Ge
(C) 2.0 × 105 V / m (D) 2.0 × 106 V / m
V0 2.2k
Q.2 The main cause of avalanche breakdown is
(A) Collision ionization
(A) 11.7 volt (B) 11.3 volt
(B) High doping
(C) 0 (D) None
P hysi cs | 26.79
10 V Si l 30 V 10K 10K
10
Si B
Top p-Type germanium (A) New holes and conduction electrons are produced
continuously throughout the material
Front
(B) New holes and conduction electrons are produced
continuously throughout the material except in the
Applied voltage depletion region
(C) Holes and conduction electrons recombine
continuously throughout the material
What effect will occur at the surface of the cube? (D) Holes and conduction electrons recombine
continuously throughout the material except in the
(A) The top surface of cube will become negatively
depletion region
charged
(B) The front surface of the cube will become positively
Assertion Reasoning Type
charged
(A) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true and
(C) The front surface of the cube will become negatively
statement-II is correct explanation for statement-I.
charged
(B) Statement-I is true, statement-II is true and statement-
(D) Both top and front surface of cube will become
II is NOT the correct explanation for statement-I.
positively charged.
(C) Statement-I is true, statement-II is false.
Q.10 A full wave rectifier circuit along with the output (D) Statement-I is false, statement-II is true.
is shown in the following diagram. The contribution(s)
from the diode (1) is (are): Q.13 Statement-I: Conductivity
V Semiconductors decreases with increase in temperature.
Statement-II: More electrons go from valance band to
t
1 Output conduction band, with increase in temperature.
0
Comprehension(A) Type
(C) (D)
(B)
(C) (D)
The circuit shown in diagram contains two diodes each
with a forward resistance of 50 ohm and with infinite
reverse resistance of 50 ohm and with infinite reverse
resistance. If the battery voltage is 6V then. (D)
(C)
D1 150
D2 50
Q.2 In the circuit below, A and B represent two inputs
and C represents the output.
6V 100
The circuit represents (2008)
Q.16 Current through 100 Ω resistance is
A
(A) 0 (B) 0.02 amp
(C) 0.03 amp (D) None of these
B
Q.17 Current through 50 Ω resistance is
(A) 0 (B) 0.02 amp (A) NOR gate (B) AND gate
(C) 0.03 amp (D) None of these (C) NAND gate (D) OR gate
(A) (B)
(C) (D)
P hysi cs | 26.81
PlancEssential Questions
JEE Main/Boards JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1 Exercise 1
Q.5 Q.14 Q.16 Q.1 Q.2 Q.4
Q.27 Q.30 Q.32
Q.26 Q.30
Exercise 2
Exercise 2 Q.5 Q.7 Q.8
Q.1 Q.5 Q.8 Q.11 Q.16 Q.17
Q.9 Q.11 Q.12
Q.17 Q.21
Previous Years’ Questions
Previous Years’ Questions Q.14
Q.1 Q.2 Q.3
JEE Main/Boards
Answer Key
Exercise 1
Semiconductor
Q.2 (i) AND gate
(ii) Truth Table of AND gate
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Q.4 Increases.
Q.5 Diodes (a), (c) and (d) are forward biased while (b) is reverse bias.
2 6 . 8 2 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Q.6
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Communication Systems
Q.34 (i) 40 kW; (ii) 27.8 kW Q.35 8.31 A
Q.36 70.1% Q.37 0.648
Q.38 (i) 6.25 mW; (ii) 1.562 mW; (iii) 9.374 mW Q.39 88.8%
2
Q.40 3258 km
Exercise 2
Semiconductor
JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1
Semiconductor
Q.1 (i) 5.2 Ω-m, (ii) 25 Ω-m Q.2 8 mA
Q.3 0.0222 mA. Q.4 (a) 0.5 mA, (b) 50 mA, (c) 5 V, (d) 4.3 V
Q.5
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 1
A Y
0 1
1 0
Exercise 2
Semiconductor
Comprehension Type
Q.16 B Q.17 A
Solutions
JEE Main/Boards
Exercise 1 Sol 6:
y’ Sol 7:
A y A B Y' Y
Sol 2:
B 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
A B Y' Y
1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 NOR gate
1 1 0 1 A
y= A B
B
Y represents the AND gate output.
So this logic gate is AND gate So y is an output of NOR gate.
Sol 4: The holes in the P-region are attracted towards Sol 9: Voltage gain: It is defined as the ratio of the
the negative terminal and the electrons in the N-region changes in the output voltage to the change in the
are attracted towards positive terminal. Thus the input voltage, and is denoted by AV
majority carriers more away from the junction. The ∆iC R out
depletion region increases for a reverse biased PN- AV = ×
∆iE R in
junction.
Sol 10:
Sol 5: (a) Forward biased
Forward Ge
(b) Reverse biased current
(c) Forward biased (mA)
V2(Ge)
(d) Forward biased
Forward voltage
reverse voltage
(A)
P hysi cs | 26.85
A y=A+B IBE
Sol 11: ( mA)
B
A
VBE (V)
Input characteristics
B
IC
out put
of OR gate
VCE=VCC–ICRC
Sol 12: Phase shift can be explained as follows
VCE
•• the input voltage and currents are in phase. Current amplification factor
•• the input and output currents are in phase. I
can be found by B = C
Therefore, output currents is in phase with the IB
input voltage.
Sol 17: (i) Indium is a group 13 element and arsenic is
•• An increase in output current results in a decrease
a group is element
in output voltage; and vice versa (as given Vout = VC
= VCC – ICRC)
P n
(b) OR gate
y=A+B It’s reverse biased
A
B V2 V O
for input output waveform refer Q–11 Exercise-I in (ii)
sheet Reverse
I (A)
(c) Refer theory breakdown
(d) Photodiode can detect light of energy greater than
2.8 eV
12400 Sol 18: A common emitter amplifier is preferred over
Energy of incident light = = 0. 2 eV common base amplifier because of higher gain and
60000
high impedance in common emitter amplifier.
Photodiode will not detect light as energy of incident
light is less than band gap.
Sol 19: Refer theory
Sol 15: Refer theory
Sol 20: It’s because GaAs naturally performs better at
converting the sun’s energy into electricity than other
Sol 16: The base activates the transistor Base region is
materials. Further, GaAs solar calls deliver more energy
made very thin and lightly doped to make the transistor
in high heat or low light GaAs solar cells are highly
more efficient. This reduces the opportunity for an
efficient than any other solar cells.
electrons to recombine with a hole and be lost for the
circuit refer page 29 section 16.5
2 6 . 8 6 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Sol 21:
y1
A (1)
IC
y
Ib
y2 2
B (2) Ib
1
VCE
A B y1 y2 y current amplification factor
0 0 0 0 1 I
= C in this curve
1 1 1 1 0 IB
1 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 Sol 27: (i) P is NAND gate
Q is OR gate
so this is a NAND gate
A B X' x
Gates (1) and (2) have the same output as the input.
(ii) 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
Symbol
A x’
truth table x
B
A B Y
0 0 1
1 0 0
Sol 28: Refer theory
1 1 0
0 1 0
Sol 29: Refer theory
Sol 22: Refer theory
Sol 30:
Sol 26: A y
AND gate
IBE B
∴ PC =
40kW Sol 38: Figure (i) shows the spectrum of AM wave
whereas figure (ii) shows the equivalent circuit.
Carrier (40 kW)
RF Excitation v
Modulated RF 2.5V peak
amplifier AM wave Sideband (20 kW)
Upper sideband
=72% 5V
5V peak
Carrier
2.5V
Audio modulation + 2.5V peak
power
f Lower sideband
0 fc - fs fc - fc+ fs
1 2 1 2
(ii) PS=
2
maPC=
2
(1) × 40= 20kW (I) (II)
(=
r.m.s.voltage ) ( 0.707 × peak value)
2 2
PS 20 =Power
∴ Paudio = = = 27.8 kW R R
0.72 0.72
(i) Power delivered by the carrier,
1
( 0.707 × 5)
2
Sol 35: PS = ma2PC
2 PC = 6.25 × 10−3 W =
= 6.25mW
2000
m22
PT = PC + PS = PC 1 + ma2a (ii)Power delivered by lower sideband component,
PT = PC + PS = PC 1 + m2
PT = PC + PS = PC 1 + m22a2a
PT P= PC + PSm=22 PC 1I +m2a m22 ( 0.707 × 2.5)
2
PT P=T P=+ C 1+ PSm= a PC 2 1 maa
∴ or 1IT+ =+ Plower = =1.562 × 10−3 W =1.562mW
∴ PT =+ 1 m2a2 or IT =+ 2 1 2
m2 2000
∴P C
T
PCT =+ 1 m22a2a or IICCTT =+ 1 m22a2a
Given PCT =+ 1 mI2Ca or8A;
that I m =+ m2a
0.4
∴
Given
=
that
1 I2C or8A;
= CT m a1
∴ PC =+ = =
IC =+a 1 0.42 (iii) Power delivered by upper sideband component,
Given PC 2that I2C 0.48A; )IC2 m a 0.42
(
= = 2
I
1 II+C ( 0.4 )2 m
2
Given IT that
= 8A;
= 0.4
( 0.707 × 2.5 )
∴ = 2
Given
∴ I8T 2that
= = 1 + 8A;
=
C ( 0.4
2 ) maa 0.4
2 1.562 × 10−3 W
∴ I8TT 2 = 1 + ( 0.4 2 )22 Pupper
= =
I8T = 21 + ( 0.4 2= )or I 8= 2000
or(I8=
∴ // 8 ) 1 + 1.08 1.08 8.31A
or(I8= )
2
∴ T
8 = 1.082= or ITT 8= 1.08 8.31A = 1.562mW
T 2
or(I= T / 8 )2
2
1.08 = or IT 8= 1.08 8.31A
or (I= / 8 )2 1.08 = or IT 8= 1.08 8.31A Total power delivered by the AM wave
or (I= T / 8)
T 1.08 = or IT 8= 1.08 8.31A
=6.25+1.562+1.562=9.374 mW
2
I m2a
Sol 36: T = 1 + Sol 39: Modulation factor, ma
IC 2
=75%=75/100=0.75
GiventhatI
= T 8.93A;I
= C 8A;m
= a ? Total power in AM wave, PT =10kW
2
8.93 m2a Total power in sidebands,
1+
= 1 + m2a / 2
or1.246 =
8 2
0.75 2
m2a /2=
0.246 or ma =2 × 0.246 =
0.701 =
70.1% PS =
m2
PT a
=10 ×
( ) = 2.19kW
2
( )
2
2 + ma 2 + 0.75
2 Power in sideband,
PT m2 V m2a
Sol 37: 1 + a or T
= 1
= + P'S P=
PC 2 V 2 = S /2 2.19
= / 2 1.095kW
C
2PS 2 × 2.19
Giventhat
= VT 110V;
= VC 100V;m
= a ? PC
Power in carrier, = = = 7.786kW
2
m2a ( 0.75)2
110 m2
∴ = 1 + m2a / 2
1 + a or1.21 = Power saved due to suppression of carrier and one
100 2
sideband
or m2a /=
2 0.21or m=
a 0.21×=
2 0.648 =PC + P'S =7.786 + 1.095 =8.88kW
8.88
∴ %power saving = × 100 = 88.8%
10
2 6 . 8 8 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Sol 40: However, for line-of-sight (LOS) communication, Sol 8: (A) For intrinsic semiconductors fermi level of
the receiving antenna must be able to directly intercept energy lies in the middle of forbidden gap.
the signals radiated by the transmitting antenna.
Here, h=81m; Radius of earth, R=6.4X106 m Sol 9: (D) σ = ρ(mene + mhnh)
∴Radius (d) of the area covered by TV transmitting ne >>nh
antenna is σ 6.24
So, σ = emene ⇒ ne = =
ρµe 3900 × 1.6 × 10 –19
d= 2Rh = 2 × 6.4 × 106 × 81 = 3.2 × 10 4 m
= 1016/cm3
∴ Service area covered by TV transmitting antenna is
( )
2
A = π2 = π × 3.2 × 10 4 = 3258 × 106 m2 =3258 km2 Sol 10: (D) Resistance in forward bias is much less than
resistance in the reverse bias and the ratio of resistances
= 3258 km2 is approximately 1 : 104 (Theoretical fact)
Exercise 2
Sol 11: (B) Given:
Semiconductor - Diode’s Voltage Drop, Vd = 0.5V
Single Correct Choice Type - Maximum Power Rating, P = 100mW = 0.1 Watts
- Battery EMF, E = 1.5V
Sol 1: (B) Eg = 0. 75 eV - Resistance = R
Sol 2: (C) Minimum energy required to create e–h pair 1) Finding Current in the Circuit:
Sol 7: (C)
3R
Resistance =
2
y1
A
C
Resistance = R
y2
(iii) B
A B y1 y2 C
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 OR gate
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
Resistance = R
A y1
Sol 13: (B) C
B
A B Y1 C
0 0 1 0
AND gate
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
Sol 14: (C)
1 1 0 1
Sol 17: (D) A = B = C = 0
G1 = 0, C = 0, D = 1
For the upper half wave
A = B = 1, C = 0
G1 = 1, C = 0
D=1
0
D 0
1
For lower half wave circuit is shown in figure.
So it is a full wave rectifier
2 6 . 9 0 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Sol 19: (A) A Y Diode 1 is reverse biased and diode 2 is forward bias
0 1 2
i= = 0. 1 A
1 0 20
So NOT gate Sol 21: (B) Frequency of 10 kHz cannot be used because
it will require very large transmitting antenna. Also
frequencies of 1 GHz and 1000 GHz cannot be used
Sol 20: (B) V
+ because these will penetrate through the ionosphere;
–
the ionosphere cannot reflect these high frequencies.
Sol 24: (D) Frequencies in UHF range (0.3 GHz to 3
GHz) normally propagate by means of space waves.
Therefore, choice (d) is correct.
R
1 VC
Q(t = CR) = Q0 e τ = VCe1 =
e Previous Years’ Questions
V
+ – Sol 1: (A) VB = (1/e)[(hc/λ) – f]
VP = (1/e)[(1240/550) – 2]eV = 0.2545 V
Vq = ( 1/e)[1240/450–2.5]eV = 0.255 V
Vr = (1/e)[(1240/350) – 3] eV = 0.5428 V
If n is the number of photons in unit time per unit area
R
then nhc/λ = I, (Intensity)
No current will flow so charge of the capacitor will not
change. ⇒ ip : iq : ir = np : nq : nr = lp : lq : lr
0.7V 4.7K
V0 A B y y1 y2 y
12V V0 2
1
0.3V 0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1
V0 = 11.3V 1 1 0 1 1 0
1
V0 = 0.3 V
2
Sol 3: (B) When the multimeter is connected across P
Sol 22: (A) and Q, there is no conduction. Hence both P and Q are
2 20 n-type of p-type semiconductors. It is therefore, clear
that R is base. When common end in connected to R
and the other end connected to P or Q, conduction is
10 obtained. Hence it is clear that transistor is n-p-n and
R is base.
1
Sol 4: (D)
A B C
2V 0 0 0
P hysi cs | 26.91
(h + R)2 = d2 + R2+
0 1 1
1 0 1
⇒ d2 = h2 + 2Rh
1 1 1 Since h << R1 ⇒ d2 = 2 hR
⇒ d = 2(500)(6.4 × 106 ) =
80 = km
Sol 5: (C) Given figure is half wave rectifier
Sol 10: (B) E= B × C
Sol 6: (A)
|=
E | | B | × | C | = 20 × 10-9 × 3 × 108 = 6 V/m.
Truth Table
A B Y Sol 11: (A)
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0 p n
0 0 0 For forward Bias, p-side must be at higher potential
than n-side.
A
Sol 12: (C)
Y
fc = 2MHz = 2000 KHz
B
fm = 5KHz
Resultant frequencies are
Sol 7: (A) Truth table for given combination is
= fC + fm, fc, fc – fm
A B X = 2005 KHz, 2000, 1995 KHz
0 0 0
P
0 1 1
Sol 13: (B) Intensity I =
4 πr 2
1
1 0 1 I = ∈0 E02 × C
2
1 1 1
P 1
So = ∈0 E20 × C
This comes out to be truth table of OR gate 4 πr 2 2
2P 2 × 0.1× 9 × 109
= E20 =
Sol 8: (A) Since ionospheric properties change with 4 π ∈0 r 2C 1× 3 × 108
time, these signals are in general less stable than
ground wave signals. E
= =6 2.45 V / m
0
A y
Sol 16:
B y’
junction diode
Sol 6: ne . nh = ni2
Input output
Sol 7: Pentavalent atoms are added to obtain n-type A.C
~ P S RL
voltage
semiconductor
Sol 10: Width of depletion region is around 1 mm. In p-type semiconductor, the overall charge is zero. The
positive charge of majority hole pairs is balanced by the
Sol 11: E EB negatively charged semiconductors.
P-side N-side
- - + + Sol 22: A B y
+
- 0 0 1
+ - - -
+ +
- 0 1 0
- + +
- 1 0 0
- - + +
1 1 0
Depletion region
A
y
B
+ -
2 6 . 9 4 | Semiconductor and Communication System
A y= A B A y’
Sol 24: (a) y
B B
A O
A
y OV
B B
–5V
A B A B y
0 0 1 1 0
Exercise 2
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 Single Correct Choice Type
1 1 0 0 1
V
Sol 1: (A) Intensity of electric field E =
Output y is same of the output of AND gate d
0.5
A y = = 106 V/m
5 × 10 –7
Sol 28: 0 1
1 0
Sol 2: (A) In Avalanche breakdown the covalent bonds
It will function as NOT gate where the junction break down liberating a large
P hysi cs | 26.95
V 7 1
Sol 4: (B) Rb = = = ×106 = 200 KΩ B
ib 35 × 10 –6 5
Sol 5: (C)
OR gate Sol 10: (C) During negative half cycle diode 1 is forward
biased and diode 2 is reverse biased so output will be
due to diode 1 so it corresponds to B and D
NAND gate
It corresponds to OR gate
Multiple Correct Choice Type
Sol 7: (A) Case-I both diodes conducts but it is Sol 12: (A, D) New holes and conduction electrons are
not possible as voltage at V can’t be 11.3 and 11.7 produced continuously throughout the material.
simultaneously.
Holes and conduction electrons recombine continuously
Case-II Only Si diode conduct. Then V0 = 11.3 Volt and throughout the material except in the depletion region
Ge diode should conduct so, it is not possible because due to the electric field holes and electrons
Case-III Only Ge diode conducts, Then V0 = 11.7 Volt become immobile in depletion region.
and Si diode is off in this condition. So this case is
possible. So V0 = 11.7 Volt. Assertion Reasoning Type
50
6V 100
6
current = = 0. 02 A
300
Sol 17: (A) Current is zero across 50 Ω resistor. Maximum distance on earth where object can be
detected is d, then
(h + R)2 = d2 + R2
Previous Years’ Questions
⇒ d2 = h2 + 2Rh
Sol 1: (A) since h << R, ⇒ d2 = 2hR
Truth table
⇒d= 2(500)(6.4 × 106 ) = 80 km
A B C
1 1 1 Sol 4: (C) d ∝ ρx S yFz
1 0 0 [ML−3 ]x [MT −3 ]y [T −1 ]z
⇒ [L] =
0 1 0
⇒ x + y = 0, –3x = 1, –3y–z=0
0 0 0
–1 1
⇒ x= , y= , z= –1
3 3
A 1
⇒y=
3
Y
⇒n=3
B
2017-18 100 &
op kers
Class 12 T
By E ran culty
-JE Fa r
IIT enior emie .
S fP r es
o titut
Ins
PHYSICS
FOR JEE MAIN & ADVANCED
SECOND
EDITION
Exhaustive Theory
(Now Revised)
Formula Sheet
9000+ Problems
based on latest JEE pattern
PlancEssential
Questions recommended for revision
27. E X P E R I M E N TA L
PHYSICS
1. PREVIEW
This lesson aims to make the student familiar with the basic approach and observations of physics experiments and
activities. It covers the basics of all the physics experiments for class 11th and 12th based on the latest NCERT pattern.
This is indeed very beneficial for JEE aspirants as it has a direct 20% weightage in the JEE MAIN examination.
Therefore, it is recommended that the student goes through this material thoroughly for his/ her benefit in JEE
MAIN examination.
Experiment 1: Vernier Callipers – It is Used to Measure Internal and External Diameter and
Depth of a Vessel
Procedure
(a) Measuring the diameter of a small spherical or cylindrical body.
(i) Keep the jaws of the Vernier Calipers closed. Observe the zero mark on the main scale; it must perfectly
coincide with that of the vernier scale. If not, account for the zero error for all observations to be made
while the instrument is being used. Look for the division on the vernier scale that coincides with a
division of main scale. Use a magnifying glass, if available and note the number of division on the vernier
scale that coincides with that on the main scale. Position your eyes directly over the division mark so as
to avoid any parallax error.
(ii) Gently loosen the screw to release the movable jaw. Slide it enough to hold the sphere/ cylindrical
body gently (without any undue pressure) between the lower jaws AB. The jaws should be perfectly
perpendicular to the diameter of the body. Now, gently tighten the screw in order to clamp the instrument
in this position to the body.
(iii) Carefully note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale against the main scale. Usually, it will not
perfectly coincide with any of the small divisions on the main scale. Record the main scale division just
to the left of the zero mark of the vernier scale.
(iv) Start looking for exact coincidence of a vernier scale division with that of a main scale division in the
vernier window from the left end (zero) to the right. Note its number (say) N, carefully.
(v) Multiply ‘N’ by the least count of the instrument and add the product to the main scale reading noted
in step 4. Ensure that the product is converted into proper units (usually cm) for addition to be valid.
(vi) Repeat steps 3-6 to obtain the diameter of the body at different positions on its curved surface. Take
three sets of readings in each case.
(vii) Record the observations in the tabular form with proper units. Apply zero correction if required.
(viii) Find the arithmetic mean of the corrected readings of the diameter of the body. Express the results in
suitable units with appropriate number of significant figures.
(b) Measuring the internal diameter and depth of the given beaker (or similar cylindrical object) to find
its internal volume.
(i) Adjust the upper jaws ‘CD’ of the Vernier Calipers so as to touch the inner wall of the beaker without
exerting undue pressure on it. Gently tighten the screw to keep the Vernier Calipers in this position.
(ii) Repeat the steps 3-6 as in Part (a) to obtain the value of the internal diameter of the beaker/ calorimeter.
Do this for two different (angular) positions of the beaker.
(iii) Keep the edge of the main scale of Vernier Calipers on the peripheral edge of the beaker in order to
determine the depth of the beaker. This should be done in such a way that the tip of the strip is able to
go freely inside the beaker along its depth.
(iv) Keep sliding the moving jaw of the Vernier Calipers until the strip just touches the bottom of the beaker.
Take care that it does so while being perfectly perpendicular to the bottom surface. Now tighten the
screw of the Vernier Calipers.
(v) Repeat steps 4-6 of Part (a) of the expertiment to obtain the depth of the given beaker. Take the readings
for depth at different positions of the breaker.
(vi) Record the observations in tabular form with proper units and significant figures. Apply zero corrections,
if required.
(vii) Find out the mean of the corrected readings of the internal diameter and depth of the given beaker.
Express the result in suitable units and proper significant figures.
Follow similar procedure for calculating the external diameter and by adjusting the upper jaws CD of the
Vernier Caliper so as to touch the walls of the beaker from the outside.
P hysi cs | 27.3
Experiment 2: Screw Gauge – Its Use to Determine Thickness/ Diameter of Thin Sheet/
Wire
5
0
95
U-Frame
Figure 27.3
2 7 . 4 | Experimental Physics
When the reading on the circular scale across the linear scale is more than zero (or positive), the instrument has
Positive Zero Error, as shown in Fig 27.4. (a).
When the reading of the circular scale across the linear scale is less than zero (or negative), the instrument is said
to have Negative Zero Error, as shown in Fig 27.4. (b).
0 0 0 10
90 5
95 0
(a) (b)
Showing a positive zero error Showing a positive zero error
Figure 27.4
Taking the Linear Scale Reading: The mark on the linear scale which lies close to the left edge of the circular scale
is the linear scale reading. For example, the linear scale reading as shown in the Fig 27.5.
Taking Circular Scale Reading: The division of circular scale which coincides with the main scale line is the
reading of circular scale. For example, in the adjacent Fig 27.5, the circular scale reading is 2.
Total Reading
Wire
Total reading A B
= linear scale reading + circular scale reading 0 5
least count 0
95
= 0.5+2*0.001 ST S
= 0.502 cm
Figure 27.5
Principle: The linear distance moved by the screw is directly proportional to the rotation given to it. The linear
distance moved by the screw when it is rotated by one division of the circular scale is the least distance that can be
measured accurately by the instrument. It is called the least count of the instrument.
pitch
Least count =
No. of divisions on circular scale
For example, for a screw gauge with a pitch of 1mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale, the least count is
1mm/100=0.01mm
This is the smallest length that can be measured with this screw gauge.
P hysi cs | 27.5
Procedure
(i) Take the screw gauge and make sure that the rachet R on the head of the screw functions properly.
(ii) Rotate the screw through, say, ten complete rotations and observe the distance through which it has
receded. This distance is the reading on the linear scale marked by the edge of the circular scale. Then,
find the pitch of the screw, i.e., the distance moved by the screw in one complete rotation. If there are n
distance moved by the screw in one complete rotation. If there are n number of divisons on the circular
scale, then distance moved by the screw when it is rotated thorugh one division on the circular scale is
pitch
called the least count of the screw gauge, that is, Least count =
n
(iii) Insert the given wire between the screw and the stud of the screw gauge. Move the screw forward by
rotating the rachet till the wire is gently gripped between the screw and the stud as shown in the Fig
27.6. Stop rotating the rachet the moment you hear a click sound.
Take the readings on the linear scale and the A B A B
circular scale.
d1
(iv) From these two readings, obtain the diameter
of the wire. d1 d2
Procedure
(i) Insert the given sheet between the studs of the screw gauge and determine the thickness at five different
positions.
(ii) Find the average thickness and calculate the correct thickness by applying zero error by following the
steps followed earlier.
Principle: When a simple pendulum executes simple harmonic motion, the restoring force F is given by
F(t) = − kx(t) (i)
Where x(t) is the displacement at time t and k = mg / L . The displacement is given by
=x(t) A0 cos ( ωt − θ ) (ii)
2 7 . 6 | Experimental Physics
Where ω is the (angular) frequency and θ is a constant. A0 is the maximum ..displacement in each oscillation,
which is called the amplititude. The total energy of the pendulum is given as
1
E = kA20 …(iii)
2
The total energy remains a constant in an ideal pendulum, because its amplitude remain constant.
But in a real pendulum, the amplitude never remains constant. It decreases with time due to serveral factors like
air drag, some play at the point of suspension, imperfection in rigidity of the string and suspension, etc. Therefore,
the amplitude of A0 falls with time at each successive oscillation. The amplitude becomes a function of time and
is given by
A(t) = A0 e−λt/2 …(iv)
Where A0 is the initial amplitude and λ is a contant which depends on damping and the mass of the bob. The
total energy of the pendulum at time t is then given by
1 2
= E(t) = kA (t) E0 e−λt …(v)
2
Thus, the energy falls with time, because some of the energy is being lost due to the surroundings.
The frequency of a damped oscillator does not depend much on the amplitude. Therefore, instead of measuring
the time, we can also measure the number of oscillations n. At the end of n oscillations, t = nT , where T is the time
period. Then Eq. (v) can be written in the form En = E0 e−αn
where α = λT …(vi)
and En is the energy of the oscillator at the end of n oscillations.
Procedure
(a) Find the mass of the pendulum bob.
(b) Fix a metre scale just below the pendulum, such that the zero mark of the scale is just below the bob at rest.
(c) When the pendulum oscillates, you have to observe the point on the scale above which the bob rises at its
maximum displacement. When doing so, do not worry about millimeter marks. Take observations only upto
0.5cm.
(d) Pull the pendulum bob so that it is above the 15cm mark.
Thus, the initial amplitude will
= be. A0 15cm
= atn 0 . Leave
the bob gently so that it starts oscillating.
2
An
2
(e) Keep counting the number of oscillations when the bob is at (m )
its maximum displacement on the same side.
(f) Record the amplitude An after every ten oscillations.
(g) Plot a graph of An2 versus n, and interpret the graph.
(h) Stick a piece of cotton or a small strip of paper to the bob n
so as to increase the damping, and repeat the experiment.
Figure 27.7
Principle: For a body free to rotate about a fixed axis in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments is equal to
the sum of the anticlockwise moments.
If M1 is the known mass, suspended at a distance l 1 on one side from the centre of gravity of a beam and M2 is
the unknown mass, suspended at a distance l2 on the other side from the centre of gravity, and the beam is in
equilibrium, then M2l2 = M11
l
P hysi cs | 27.7
Procedure:
(a) Create a raised platform on a table. One can use a wooden or a metal block to do so. However, the platform
must be a sturdy. Place a wedge on a laboratory stand about 20cm above the table top. With the help of a
spirit level, set the level of the wedge horizontal.
(b) Use two loops of thread to suspend the unknown mass and the weights from the metre scale (beam). Insert
the loops at about 10 cm from the edge of the metre scale from both sides.
(c) Place the metre scale with thread loops on the wedge and adjust it till it is balanced. Mark two points on the
scale above the wedge where the scale is balanced. Join these two points with a straight line which would help
pin point the location of balance position even if the scale topples off the wedge for some reason. This line is
passing through the centre of gravity of the scale.
(d) Take the unknown mass in one hand. Pick a weight from the weight box that is nearly equal to the unknown
mass when it is held in the other hand.
(e) Suspend the unknown mass from either of the two Wedge
loops of thread attached to the metre scale. Suspend A G B
the known weight from the other loop as shown in
Fig 27.8.
(f) Adjust the position of the known weight by moving Unknown x y
the loop till the metre scale is balanced on the sharp Mass, m m Known standard
wedge. Make sure that in the balanced position, the W = mg mass
line drawn in Step 3 is exactly above the wedge. Also
ensure that the thread of the two loops passing over Figure 27.8: Experimental
Experimental set upset
forup for determination
determination of of
the scale is parallel to this line. mass of a given body
mass of a given body
(g) Measure the distance of the position of the loop from the line drawn in Step 3. Record your observations.
(h) Repeat the activity at least twice, each time with a slightly lighter and a heavier weight. Note the distance of
unknown mass and weight from line drawn in Step 3 in each case.
Principle
When a liquid rises in a capillary tube [Fig 27.9], the weight of the column of the liquid of density ρ below the
meniscus is supported by the upward force of surface tension 0
acting around the circumference of the points of contact.
10
Therefore,
2πrT = πr 2hρg (approx.) for distilled water in contact with a clean 20
glass capillary. A M
hρgr 30
or T = C
2
where T = Surface tension of the liquid 40
P
h = Height of the liquid column and 50
r = Inner radius of the capillary tube B
Procedure
(a) Do the experiment in a well-lit place. For example, near a
window or use an incandescent bullb. Rise of liquid in capillary tube
(b) Clean the capillary tube and beaker successively in caustic Figure 27.9
soda and nitric acid and rinse thoroughly with water.
(c) Fill the beaker with water and measure its temperature.
(d) Clamp the capillary tube near its upper end, keeping it above the beaker. Set it up vertically with the help of a
plumbline held near it. Move down the tube so that its lower end dips into the water in the beaker.
(e) Push a pin P through a cork C, and fix it on another clamp such that the tip of the pin is just above the water
surface as shown in the Fig 27.9. Ensure that the pin does not touch the capillary tube. Slowly, lower the pin
till the tip just about touches the water surface. This can be done by matching the tip of the pin with its image
in water.
(f) Now, focus the travelling microscope M on the meniscus of the water in capillary A, and move the microscope
until the horizontal crosswire is tangential to the lowest point of the meniscus, which is seen inverted in M. If
there is any difficulty in focusing the meniscus outside the capillary tube, then focus it first, as a guide. Note
the reading of the travelling microscope.
(g) Mark the position of the meniscus on the capillary with a pen. Now carefully remove the capillary tube from
the beaker, and then the beaker without disturbing the pin.
(h) Focus the microscope on the tip of the pin and note the microscope reading.
(i) Cut the capillary tube carefully at the point marked on it. Fix the capillary tube horizontally on a stand.
Focus the microscope on the transverse cross section of the tube and take a reading to measure the internal
diameter of the tube in two mutually perpendicular directions.
AIM: To study the effect of detergent on surface tension of water by observing capillary rise.
Principle: Substances that can be used to separate grease, dust and dirt sticking to a surface are called detergents.
When added to water, detergents lower its surface tension due to additional intermolecular interactions.
The lowering of surface tension by addition of detergent in water can be observed by capillary rise method.
For a vertically placed capillary tube of radius r in a water – filled shallow vessel, the rise of water in capillary tube
2S cos θ hρgr
given by: h =
h (Fig. 27.10) is= or s
ρgr 2cos θ
P hysi cs | 27.9
r
Where S is surface tension of the water vapour film; θ is the contact
angle (Fig. 27.10), ρ is the density of water and g is the acceleration
due to gravity. For pure or distilled water in contact with a clean glass
1
capillary tube θ =00 or cos θ =1 . Thus, =S hρgr
2 h
Using this result, the surface tension of different detergent solutions
(colloidal) in water can be compared. In a detergent solution, the
capillary rise (or the surface tension) would be lower than that for pure Water
and distilled water. And an increase in a detergent’s concentration would
result in a further lowering of the rise of the solution in the capillary.
A detergent for which the capillary rise is minimum (or the one that Rise of water in capillary tube
causes maximum lowering of surface tension), is said to be more
Figure 27.10
cleansing.
Procedure
(a) Take a capillary tube of uniform bore, and clean and rinse it with distilled water. Use water to clean and rinse
the beaker as well. Pour enough water to fill half the beaker. Make sure that the capillary tube is dry and free
of grease, oil, etc. Also cleck that the top of the capillary tube is open and not blocked by anything.
(b) Take a plastic scale and mount the capillary tube on it
using rubber bands.
Rubber
Capillary tube
(c) Hold the scale with the capillary in the vertical position band
with the help of a clamp stand.
Scale h2
(d) Place the half-filled beaker below the lower end of the
scale and gradually lower the scale till its lower end is
h
immersed below the surface of water in the beaker as
shown in the Fig 27.11. Rubber
band h1
(e) Read the position of the water level inside and outside the
h h2 − h1 .
capillary tube on the scale. Let the position be=
Water with
(f) Rinse the capillary thoroughly in running water and dry it. detergent
(g) Take a small amount of the given detergent and mix it with
the water in the beaker. To study capillary in water and
(h) Repeat the experiment with detergent solution and find detergent mixed in it
the capillary rise again. Let it be h’. Figure 27.11
Principle: When a spherical body of radius r and density σ falls freely through a viscous liquid of density ρ
and viscosity η with terminal velocity υ , then the sum of the upward buoyant force and viscous drag, force F, is
balanced by the downward weight of the ball (Fig 27.12).
Gravitational force = Buoyant force on the ball + viscous force
4 3 4
πr σg = πr 3ρg + 6πηr υ … (i)
3 3
4 3
πr ( σ − ρ ) g
3= 2 r ( σ − ρ ) g
2
or υ
= …(ii)
6πηr 9 η
2 7 . 1 0 | Experimental Physics
where υ is the terminal velocity, the constant velocity acquired by a body while
3
4/3r g
moving through viscous fluid under application of constant force.
The terminal velocity depends directly on the square of the size (diameter) of the
spherical ball. Therefore, if several spherical balls of different radii are made to fall
freely through the viscous liquid, then a plot of υ vs r 2 would be a straight line 6 r
as illustrated in Fig 27.12.
3
υ 4/3r g
The shape of this line will give an average value of which may be used to find
the coefficient of viscosity η of r2
Figure 27.12
2 r2 2 ( σ − ρ ) g Nsm−2 (poise)
the given liquid. Thus η=
9
( σ − ρ ) g. =
υ 9 ( slope of line )
…(iii)
The relation given by Eq. (iii) holds good if the liquid through which the spherical body falls freely is in a cylindrical
vessel of radius R>>r, and the height of the cylinder is enough to let the ball attain terminal velocity. At the same
time, the ball should not come in contact with the walls of the vessel.
Figure 27.14
P hysi cs | 27.11
attained before the ball crosses A, then t2 = 2t1. If it is not so, repeat the experiment with a steel ball of same
radii after adjusting the position of rubber bands.
(i) Repeat the experiment for other balls of different diameters.
( j) Obtain terminal velocity for each ball.
(k) Plot a graph between terminal velocity υ and square of the radius of spherical ball, r 2 . It should be a straight
line. Find the slope of the line and thus determine the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid using the relation
given by Eq. (iii).
Experiment 8: Plotting a Cooling Curve for the Relationship between the Temperature of a
Hot Body and Time
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
T2 T1
Desctription of Apparatus: As shown in the Fig 27.15, the
Newton’s law of cooling apparatus has a double-walled container, Stirrer
which can be sealed by an insulating lid. Water filled between these
double walls ensures that the temperature of the environment Lid
surrounding the calorimeter remains constant. Temperature of
the liquid and the calorimeter also remains constant for a fairly
10
10
long period of time, so that temperature measurement is feasible. Double walled
Temperature of water in calorimeter is feasible. Temperature of container
water in calorimeter and that of water between the double walls
of the container is recorded by two thermometers. Calorimeter
Where k is the constant of proportionality and k ' = k/ ms is another constant (The term ‘ms’ also includes the water
equivalent to the calorimeter with which the experiment is performed). Negative sign appears in Eqs. (ii) and (iii)
because loss of heat implies temperature decrease. Eq. (iii) may be rewritten as
dθ =− k ' ( θ − θ0 ) dt
dθ
on int ergrating, we get ∫θ−θ = − k ' ∫ dt
0
Procedure T1
(a) Find the least counts of thermometers T1 and T2 . Take some water in a beaker and measure its temperature (at
room temperature θ0 ) with one (say T1 ) of the thermometers.
(b) Find the least count of the stopwatch/ clock by examining its functions.
(c) Pour water into the double-walled container (enclosure) at room temperature. Insert the other thermometer
T2 in the water contained in it, with the help of the clamp stand.
(d) Heat some water separately to a temperature of about 400 C above the room temperature θ0 . Pour hot water
in the calorimeter right to the top.
(e) Put the calorimeter filled with hot water back into the enclosure and cover it using the lid with holes. Insert
the thermometer T1 and the stirrer in the calorimeter through the holes provided in the lid.
(f) Note the initial temperature of the water between the enclosures of double wall with the thermometer T2 .
When the difference of readings of two thermometers . T1 and T2 is about 300 C , note the initial reading of the
thermometer.
(g) Keep on stirring the water gently and constantly. Note the reading of thermometer T1 – first, after about every
half a minute, then after about one minute and finally after two minutes duration or so.
(h) Keep on simultaneously noting the reading of the stopwatch and that of the thermometer T1 , while stirring
water gently and constantly, till the temperature of the water in the calorimeter falls to a temperature of about
50 C above that of the enclosure. Note the temperature of the enclosure, by the thermometer T2 .
(i) Record observations in tabular form. Find the excess of temperature ( θ − θ0 ) and also log10 ( θ − θ0 ) for each
reading, using logarithmic tables. Record these values in the corresponding columns in the table.
( j) Plot a graph between time t, taken along x-axis and log10 ( θ − θ0 ) taken along y-axis. Interpret the graph.
Plotting Graph
(i) Plot a graph between ( θ − θ0 ) and t as shown in the Fig 27.16, taking t along x-axis and ( θ − θ0 ) along
y-axis. This is called cooling curve.
(ii) Also plot a graph between log10 ( θ − θ0 ) and time t, as shown in Fig 27.16, taking time t along x-axis and
log10 ( θ − θ0 ) along y-axis. Choose suitable scales on these axes. Identify the shape of the cooling curve
and the other graph.
y y
Temperature,-0(oC)
Log10(-0)
x x
0 Time,t (min) 0
t (s)
Figure 27.16
P hysi cs | 27.13
Principle: When a vibrating tuning fork of known frequency V is held over the
top of an air column in a glass tube AB (Fig 27.17), a standing wave pattern
can be formed in tube. Under the right conditions, a superposition between A A
a forward moving and reflected wave occurs in the tube to cause resonance.
This gives a very noticeable rise in the amplitude, or loudness, of the sound.
In a closed organ pipe like a resonance tube, there is a zero amplitude point
at the closed end (Fig 27.17). For resonance to occur, a node must be created
at the closed end and an antinode must be created at the open end. Let the
first loud sound be heard at length l1 of the air column [Fig 27.17. (a)], i.e.,
when the natural frequency of the air column of length l1 becomes equal to
the natural frequency of the tuning fork, so that the air column vibrates with
maximum amplitude. In fact, the length of the air column vibrates is slightly
longer than the length of the air column in tube AB.
λ B B
Thus, = l +e
4 1 (a) (b)
Where e (= 0.6r, where r = radius of the glass tube) the end correction for Figure 27.17
the resonance is tube and λ is the wavelength of the sound produced by
the tuning fork.
Now, on further lowering the closed end of the tube AB, let the second
11
resonance positon be heard at length l2 of the air column in the tube.
3λ
= l2 + e [Fig 27.18 (b)]. This length l2 would approximately be equal to
4 12
three quarters of the wavelength. That is, … (ii)
λ 2 (l2 − l1 )
Subtracting Eq. (1) from Eq. (2) gives = …(iii)
Thus, the velocity of sound in air at room temperature ( υ = vλ ) would be
=υ 2v (l2 − l1 ) .
B B
(a) (b)
Procedure Figure 27.18
Adjustment Of Resonance Tube: The apparatus usually consists of a narrow glass tube about a metre long and
5cm in diameter, rigidly fixed in its vertical position with a wooden stand. The lower end of this tube is attached to
a reservoir by a rubber tube. Using a clamp, the reservoir can be made to slide up or down along a vertical rod. In
order to keep the water level (or the length of air column) fixed in the tube, a pinch cock is provided with the rubber
tube. A metre scale is also fixed along the tube. The whole apparatus is fixed on a horizontal wooden base that can
be levelled using the screws provided at the bottom. There is water in both the reservoir and the tube. When the
reservoir is raised, the length of the air column in the tube goes up. Now:
(a) Set the resonance tube vertical with the help of a spirit level, and level the screws provided at the bottom of
the wooden base of the apparatus.
(b) Note the room temperature with a thermometer.
(c) Note the frequency v of given tuning fork.
(d) Fix the reservoir to the highest point of the vertical rod with the help of the clamp.
Determination of First Resonance Position
(e) Fill the water in the reservoir such that the level of water in the tube reaches the top.
(f) Close the pinch clock and lower the position of the reservoir on the vertical rod.
2 7 . 1 4 | Experimental Physics
(g) Gently strike the given tuning fork on a rubber pad and put it nearly one cm above the open end of the tube.
Keep both the prongs of the tuning fork parallel to the ground and place one above the other so that the
prongs vibrate in the vertical plane. Try to listen the sound being produced in the tube. It may not be audible
in the position.
(h) Slowly loosen the pinch cock to let the water level fall in the tube very slowly. Keep bringing the tuning fork
near the open end of the resonance tube; notice the increasing volume of the sound.
(i) Repeat steps 7 and 8 till you get the exact position of water level in the tube for which the intensity of sound
being produced in the tube is maximum. This corresponds to the first resonance postion or fundamental
node, if the length of the air column is minimum. Close the pinch cock at this position and note the positon of
the water level or length l1 of the air column in the tube. This is the determination of first resonance positions
while the level of water is falling in the tube.
( j) Repeat steps 5-9 to confirm the first resonance position.
(k) Next, find out the first resonance postion by gradually raising the level of water in resonance tube, and
holding the vibrating tuning fork continuously on top of its open end. Fix the tube at the position by gradually
raising the level of water in resonance tube, and holding the vibrating tuning fork continuously on top of its
open end. Fix the tube at the position where the sound of maximum intensity is heard.
Determination of second resonance position
(l) Lower the position of the water level further in the resonance tube by sliding down the position of the reservoir
on the vertical stand and opening the pinch cock till the length of the air column in the tube increases about
three times of the length l1 .
(m) Find out the second resonance position and determine the length of air column l2 in the tube with the same
tuning fork with frequency v1 and confirm the length l2 by taking four readings – two when the water level is
falling and the other two when the level of water is rising in the tube.
(n) Repeat steps 5-13 with a second tuning fork of frequency v 2 and determine the first and second resonance
positions.
(o) Calculate the velocity of sound in each case.
Experiment 10: Specific Heat Capacity of a Given (i) Solid and (ii) Liquid by Method of
Mixtures
Principle/ Theory: For a body of mass m and specific heat s, the amount of heat Q lost/ gained by it when its
temperature falls/ rises by ∆t is given by ∆Q = ms ∆t
Specific heat capacity: It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance
through 1 C. Its S.I. unit is Jkg−1K −1 .
Principle of calorimetry: If bodies of different temperatures are brought in thermal contact, the amount of heat
lost by the body at higher termperature is equal to the amount of heat gained by the body at lower temperature
at thermal equilibrium, provided no heat is lost to the surrounding.
(a) Specific heat capacity of given solid by method of mixtures.
Procedure
(i) Set the physical balance and make sure there is no zero error.
(ii) Weigh the empty calorimeter with a stirrer and lid with the physical balance/ spring. Ensure that the
calorimeter is clean and dry.
Note the mass m1 of the calorimeter. Pour the given water in the calorimeter. Make sure that the quantity
of water taken is sufficient to completely submerge the given solid in it. Weigh the calorimeter with
water along with the stirrer and the lid and note it’s mass m2 . Place the calorimeter in its insulating cover.
P hysi cs | 27.15
(iii) Dip the solid in water and take it out. Now shake it out to get rid of the water sticking to its surface.
Weigh the wet solid with the physical balance and note its mass m3 .
(iv) Tie the solid tightly with the thread in the middle. Ensure that it can be lifted by holding the thread
without slipping.
Place a 250mL beaker on the wire gauze kept on a tripod stand as shown in the Fig 27.19 (a).
Fill the beaker containing water by tying the other end of the thread to a laboratory stand. The solid
should be completely submerged in the water and should be atleast 0.5cm below the surface. Now, heat
the water with the solid suspended in it [Fig 27.19 (a)].
Thermometer
(0oC-100oC) in 0.5oC
Thread
Copper stirrer
Boiling water
Solid
(Metal piece) Felt or glasswool
Burner
Water
Calorimeter
(a) Outer jacket
(b)
Figure 27.19
(v) Note the least count of the thermometer. Measure the temperature of the water taken in the calorimeter.
Record the temperature t1 of the water.
(vi) Let the water in the beaker boil of about 5-10 minutes. Now measure the temperature t2 of the water
with the other thermometer, and record the same. Holding the solid with the thread tied to it, remove
it from the boiling water, and shake it to get rid of the water on it and quickly put it the water in the
calorimeter, immediately replacing the lid [Fig. 27.19(b)]. Stir the water with the stirrer. Measure the
temperature of the mixture till it becomes constant. Record this temperature as t3 .
(b) Specific heat capacity of given liquid by method of mixtures.
Procedure
(i) Set the physical balance and make sure there is no zero error.
(ii) Weigh the empty calorimeter with the stirrer and the lid with the physical balance/ spring balance.
Ensure that the calorimeter is clean and dry. Note the mass m1 of the calorimeter. Pour the given liquid in
the calorimeter. Make sure that the quantity of liquid taken would be sufficient to completely submerge
the solid in it. Weigh the calorimeter with liquid along with the stirrer and the lid and note its mass m2 .
Place the calorimeter in its insulating cover.
(iii) Take a metallic cylinder whose specific heat capacity is known. Dip it in water in a container and shake
it to get rid of the water sticking to its surface. Weigh the wet solid with the physical balance and note
down its mass m3
(iv) Tie the solid tightly with the thread at its middle. Make sure that it can be lifted by holding the thread
without slipping.
2 7 . 1 6 | Experimental Physics
Place a 250 ml beaker on the wire gauze kept on a tripod stand as shown in Fig 27.19 (a). Fill the beaker
halfway with water. Now suspend the solid in the beaker containing water by tying the other end of the
thread to a laboratory stand. The solid should be completely submerged in water and should be atleast
0.5cm below the surface. Now heat the water with the solid suspended in it.
(v) Note the least count of the thermometer. Measure the temperature of the water taken in the calorimeter.
Record the temperature t1 of the water.
(vi) Let the liquid in the beaker boil for about 5-10 minutes. Now measure the temperature t2 of the liquid
with the other thermometer and record the same. Holding the solid with the thread tied to it, remove it
from the boiling water, shake it to get rid of the excess water on it and quickly put it in the liquid in the
calorimeter, replacing the lid immediately. Stir with the stirrer. Measure the temperature of the mixture
becomes constant. Record this temperature as t3 .
Experiment 11: Resistivity of the Material of a Given Wire Using Meter Bridge
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Q D P
Jockey J
A C
lcm (100-l)cm
Figure 27.20
Principle: A meter bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone’s bridge. As shown in the Fig 27.21, it consists
of four resistors P, Q, R and S connected in the form of a network ABCD. The terminals A and C are connected to
two terminals of a cell through a key K1 . Terminals B and C are connected to a sensitive galvanometer G through
a key K 2 .
A resistor (or wire) of known resistance is inserted in the gap F by taking out B
corresponding key from the resistance box (RBOX ) . The jockey is moved on the
wire AC to obtain a condition of no-deflection in the galvanometer. It happens
P Q
()
when the jockey is kept at a point D called the null point. In this condition: i1 K2
i1
P R Resis tance wire of length DC A
= = G C
Q S Resis tance of wire of length AD
i2
Unknown resistance S of the wire, having uniform cross-sectional area, is then R S
i2
l
given by S = R … (i) i i
100 − l D
The reason for this is that for a wire of uniform cross-sectional area, resistance is K1
proportional to length. + - ()
Thus, knowing l and R, and using Eq. (1), the unknown resistance S can be Figure 27.21
determined.
a
Resistivity: The specific resistance or resistivity ρ of the material of the given wire is ρ =S where S is the resistance
l
of the wire of length L and a = πr 2 (r being the radius) is the area of cross-section.
Procedure
(a) Find the average diameter of the wire with a screw gauge. From this, obtain the value of its radius r.
(b) Clean the insulation at the ends of the connecting wires with a piece of sand paper. Tighten all plugs of the
resistance box (RBOX ) by pressing each plug.
(c) Set up the circuit as shown in Fig 27.21 with unknown resistance wire of known length in gap E.
(d) Next, introduce some resistance R in the circuit from the resistance box. Bring the jockey J in contact with
terminal A first and then with terminal C. Note the direction in which pointer of the galvanometer gets
deflected in each case. Make sure that the jockey remains in contact with the wire for a fraction of a second.
If the galvanometer shows deflection on both sides of its zero mark for these two points of contact of the
jockey, null point will be somewhere on the wire AC. If it is not so, adjust resistance R so that the null point is
somewhere in the middle of the wire AC, say between 30cm and 70cm.
(e) If there is one-sided deflection, check the circuit again, especially junctions, for their continuity.
(f) Repeat step 4 for four different values of resistance R.
(g) Interchange the position of the resistances S and R and repeat steps 4 to 6 for the same five values of R. While
interchanging S and R, ensure that the same length of wire of resistance S is now in the gap F. The interchange
takes care of unaccounted resistance offered by terminals.
Principle: Ohm’s Law states that the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends, provided that the physical state of the conductor remains uncharged.
If l is the current flowing through the conductor and V is the potential difference across its ends, then according to
Ohm’s Law
V ∝ I and hence V=RI … (i)
Where R is the constant of proportionality, and is termed as the electrical resistance of the conductor. If V is
expressed in volts and I in amperes, then R is expressed in Ohm’s. The resistance R depends upon the material
and dimensions of the conductor. For a wire of uniform cross-section, the resistance depends on the length l
2 7 . 1 8 | Experimental Physics
and the area of cross-section A. It also depends on the temperature of the conductor. At a given temperature,
the resistance
l
R = ρ … (ii)
A
Where ρ is the specific resistance or resistivity and is characteristic to the material of wire.
Combining Eqs. (1) and (2), we have
y
l
V = ρ I … (iii)
A
(Ampere)
A linear relationship is obtained between V and l, i.e., the graph A
between V and l will be a straight line passing through the origin
as shown in Fig 27.22. The slope of the graph is 1/ R from Eq. 1 I
(equation of straight line passing through origin is y = mx where m
is the slope of graph)
1 1
Slope= ⇒ R= C B
R slope
O x
If l is the length of wire then the resistance per unit length of the V(Volt)
R
wire . Figure 27.22
l
Procedure
(a) Clean the ends of the connecting wires with the help of sand paper in order to remove any insulating coating
on them.
E
(b) Connect various components – resistance, rheostat, + - K Rh
battery, key voltmeter and ammeter as shown in Fig 27.23. ( )
(c) Note whether pointers in milliammeter and voltmeter +
coincide with the zero mark on the measuring scale. If mA
it is not so, adjust the pointer to coincide with the zero V
mark by adjusting the screw provided near the base of the - + -
needle using a screw driver.
(d) Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter and
milliammeter. R
Circuit to find the relation between
(e) Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact to one of
current l and potential difference,
its extreme ends, so that the current passing through the
V for a give wire
resistance wire is minimum.
Figure 27.23
(f) Note the milliammeter and voltmeter readings.
(g) Remove the key K and allow the wire to cool, if heated. Once again, insert the key. Shift the rheostat contact
slightly to increase the applied voltage. Note the milliammeter and voltmeter reading.
(h) Repeat step 7 for four different settings of the rheostat. Record your observation in a tabular form.
The e.m.f of a cell can be determined only when e.m.f of another cell K Rb
+ - ()
is known to us.
(b) Determination of Internal Resistance of a Cell
P Q
Principle: When a resistance R is connected across a cell of emf E and
E1
E
internal resistance r, then the current l in the circuit is I = … (i) + - A
R +r
C G
The potential difference V (=Rl) across the two terminals of the cell is + - B
E
V= R … (ii) E2
R+r
Figure 27.24
E r E E l0
Thus = 1 + or =r − 1 R Also = … (iii)
V R V V l
l0 − l
From the above equations, r = R … (iv)
l
Procedure
(a) Connect different electrical components R K2 P
as shown in the circuit (Fig 27.25.). After RBOX1 () RBOX1
checking the circuit connections, close key E
K1 . - + K3
+ - ()
(b) With keys K 2 and K 3 open and a protective A
E1 G
high resistance P form the RBOX 2 , find the
position of the balance point. For final A
K1
()
Principle Galvanometer: Galvanometer is a sensitive device used to detect very low current. Its working is based
on the principle that a coil placed in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque when an electric current is set
up in it. The deflection of the coil is determined by a pointer attached to it, moving on the scale.
When a coil carrying current I is placed in a radial magnetic field, the coil experiences a deflection θ which is
related to I as I = kθ ... (i)
Where k is a constant of proportionality and is termed as Figure of merit of the galvanometer.
2 7 . 2 0 | Experimental Physics
The circuit arrangement required for finding the resistance G of the galvanometer by half deflection method is
shown in Fig 27.26.
l l
G
lg
Figure 27.26
E
When a resistance R is introduced in the circuit, the current Ig flowing through it is given by Ig = … (ii)
R+G
In this case, the key K 2 is kept open. Here E is the emf of battery, G is the resistance of the galvanometer whose
resistance is to be determind.
If the current Ig produces a deflection θ in the galvanometer, then from equation (i) we get Ig = kθ … (iii)
E
Combining equations (ii) and (iii) we get = k … (iv)
R+G
On keeping both the keys K1 and K 2 closed and by adjusting the value of shunt resistance S, the deflection of
1
the galvanometer needle becomes (half). As G and S are in parallel combination and R in series with it, the total
2
GS
resistance of the circuit. R=' R + … (v)
G+S
E
The total current, I due to the emf E in the circuit is given by I = … (vi)
GS
R+
G+S
IS
If l'g is the current through the galvanometer of resistance G, then Gl'=
g S l − l'g Ig = ( ) G+S
… (vii)
Substituting the value of l from Equation (v), in equation (vii) the current l'g is given by
IS E S ES
I'g
= = ⋅ ⇒ I'g = … (viii)
G+S GS G + S R G + GS + RS
R+
G+S
For galvanometer current l'g if the deflection through the galvanometer is reduced to half of its initial value
1 θ ES
= then
= I'g k=
2 R ( G + S ) + GS
2
Ig E R ( G + S ) + GS
On dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (viii), = × 2
=
I'g R + G ES
P hysi cs | 27.21
⇒ R(G+ S) + GS
= 2S(R + G)
⇒ RG =RS + GS
⇒ G(R − S) =
RS
RS
or, G = … (ix)
R −S
By knowing the values of R and S, the galvanometer resistance G can be determined. Normally R is chosen very
high (10kΩ ) in comparison to S (100 Ω ) .
The Figure of merit (k) of the galvanometer is defined as the current requied for deflecting the pointer by one
division.
For determining the Fig of merit of the galvanometer the key K 2 is opened in the circuit arrangement. Using Eqs
(ii) and (iii) the Figure of merit of the galvanometer is given by
1 E
k= … (x)
θR+G
By knowing the values of E, R, G and θ the Figure of merit of the galvanometer can be calculated.
Procedure
(a) Clean the connecting wires with sand paper and make neat and tight connections as per the circuit diagram.
(
(b) From the high resistance box RBOX 1 ) (1 − 10kΩ ) , remove 5kΩ key and then close the key K1. Adjust the
resistance R from this resistance box to get full scale deflection on the galvanometer dia. Record the values
of resistance, R and deflection θ .
(c) Insert the key K 2 and keep R fixed. Adjust the value of shunt resistance S to get the deflection in the
galvanometer which is exactly half of θ . Note down S. Remove plug K 2 after noting down the value of shunt
resistance, S.
(d) Take five sets of observations by repeating steps 2 and 3 so that θ is even number of divisions and record
the observations for R,
1
S, θ and in tabular form.
2
(e) Calculate the galvanometer resistance G and Figure of merit k of galvanometer using Eqs (ix) and (x)
respectively.
Convex lens
Parallax: This is employed in the location of image of an object. For example, as shown in the Fig.27.27 (a) O and
I are the object and image points for a mirror / lens.
An object point O and its real image ‘I’ are conjugate points i.e., any of the two may be considered as object and the
other as its image. Thus it helps in accurate adjustment to check for no parallax at both the points. If we say there
is no parallax between an object O (pin) and its image I, then by moving the eye through which we are observing
to the left and then to the right, object and its image both appear to move together relative to the lens / mirror.
It implies that the position of both are same on the optical bench [Fig 27. 27. (d) and (e)]. If their positions are not
same then in one position they may appear to coincide and in another they will appear separate [Fig 27. 27. (b)
and (c)].
2 7 . 2 2 | Experimental Physics
This method of locating the position of an image on the optical bench by a pin, is called the method of parallax.
Y
(a) X
O l (d) Y
X C F P
Y
(b) X V
O l l’
V’
L
(e) X Y
F P
C u’
P1
P2
(c) X Y
O l u
l’
L
Figure 27. 27
Principle: For an object placed at a distance u from the pole of a concave mirror of focal length f, the image is
formed at a distance v from the pole. The relation between these distances (for a concave mirror) is
1 1 1 uv
= + or f=
f u v u+ v
Procedure
(a) Obtain approximate value of the focal length of the concave mirror, by focusing the image of a distant
object. Obtain bright and clear image of distant building or tree on a plane wall or a sheet of paper and
measure the distance between the mirror and the image which gives the approximate focal length of the
concave mirror.
(b) Place the optical bench on a rigid table. Make it horizontal using a spirit level and levelling screws.
(c) Clamp the concave mirror on an upright and mount it vertically near one end of the optical bench. Move an
object pin P1 on the optical bench back and forth so that its image is formed at the same height. Make slight
adjustments of the height of the pin or the mirror inclination. This procedure ensures that the principal axis of
the mirror is parallel to the optical bench.
P hysi cs | 27.23
(d) Place another vertically mounted sharp and bright pin P2 in front of the reflecting surface of the concave
mirror. Adjust the pins P1 and P2 so that the height of the tips of these pins become equal to the height of the
pole P of mirror from the base of the optical bench.
(e) To determine index correction, a thin straight index needle is placed so that its one end A1 touches the tip of
the pin and the other end B1 touches the pole P of the mirror. The positions of the uprights are read on the
scale. Their difference gives the observed distance between the tip of the pin and the pole of the mirror. Lenth
of the needle A1B1 is measured by placing it on the scale which is the actual distance between the points in
question. The difference between the two gives the correction to be applied to the observed distance. Find
the index correction for both the pins P1 and P2 for all measurements.
(f) Move the pin P1 away from the mirror and place it almost at 2F. An inverted image of same size as the pin
should be visible.
(g) Now place another pin P2 on the bench. Adjust its height to be almost the same as the earlier pin. Place a piece
of paper on the tip of one pin, take this as the object pin.
(h) Place the pin with paper at a distance lying between F and 2F.
(i) Locate the image of the pin using the other pin. Remember that parallax has to be removed between the
image and the pin.
( j) Note the values of u and v i.e. the distances of the object and image pins from the mirror respectively.
(k) Repeat the experiment for at least five different positions of the object and determine the corresponding
values of V. Record your observations in tabular form.
(l) After doing index correction, record the corrected values of u and v. Find the value of focal length, f.
-Y
Figure 27.30
2 7 . 2 4 | Experimental Physics
1 1
Method 3: and Graph Method
u v
1 1
Select a suitable but the same scale to represent along – X axis (or X’ axis) and along-Y axis (or Y’ axis). By sign
u v
1 1 1 1
convention, both and are negative (for real images). For different sets of values of and plot the graph,
u v u v
which comes to be a straight line as shown in Fig 27.33.
P hysi cs | 27.25
Experiment 16: Plot of Angle of Deviation vs. Angle of Incidence for a Triangular Prism
A
Principle: A triangular prism has three rectangular lateral
surfaces and two triangular bases. The line along which any two
faces (refracting surfaces) of the prism meet, is the refracting M
edge of the prism and the angle between them is the angle of i r’ R e
the prism. For this experiment, it is convenient to place the prism Q r
with its rectangular surfaces vertical. The prinicipal section ABC of
P S
the prism is obtained by a horizontal plane perpendicular to the
refracting edge (Fig. 27.34).
B C
A ray of light PQ (from air to glass) incident on the first face AB = (i - r) + (e - r’)
at an angle is refreacted at angle r along QR and finally, emerges =i+e-A
along RS. The dotted lines in the Fig 27.34 represent the normal
Figure 27.34
to the surfaces. The angle of incidence (from glass to air) at the
second face AC is r’ and the angle of refraction (or emergence)
is e. The angle between the direction of incident ray PQ (produced forward) and direction of emergent ray RS
(produced backward) is the angle of deviation δ .
A
From geometrical considerations we have r + r ' = … (i)
δ = (i − r) + (e − r ') = i + e − A … (ii)
At the position of the prism for minimum deviation δm' the light ray passes through the prism symmetrically, i.e.
parallel to the base so that when
δ =δm' i = e which implies r = r '.
The advantage of putting the prism in minimum deviation position is that the image is brightest in this position.
Procedure
(a) Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board with the help of cellotape or drawing pins.
(b) Draw a straight line XY, using a sharp pencil nearly in the middle and parallel to the length of the paper.
2 7 . 2 6 | Experimental Physics
(c) Mark points O1 ,O2 ,O3 ,......... on the straight line XY at suitable distance of about 8 to 10cm and draw normal
N1O1 ,N2O2 , N3O3 ...... on these point (Fig. 27.35).
N1 N2 N3
P1
P2
i1 i2 i3
P3
Q1 Q1 Q2 Q2 Q3 Q3
X A B A B A T3 B Y
T1 T1
3
2
R1 1 R2 R3
S1 S2 S3
Figure 27.35
(d) Draw straight lines, P1O1 , P2 O2 , P3 O3 ,......... corresponding to the incident rays, making angles of incidence
at 350 , 400 , 450 , 500 , ....600 respectively with the normal, using a protractor. Write the values of the angles
∠P1O1N1 , ∠P2O2N2 , ∠P3O3N3 ,....... on the white paper sheet (Fig. 27.35)
(e) Place the prism with its refracting face AB on the line XY with point O1 in the middle of AB as shown in the
Fig 27.35. Draw the boundary of the prism with a sharp pencil.
(f) Fix two alpins P1 and Q1 with sharp tips vertically about 10cm apart, on the incident ray line P1Q1
such that pin Q1 is close to point O1 . Close one eye (say left) and looking through the prism, bring your right
eye in line with the images of the pins P1 and Q1 . Fix alpins R1 and S1 about 10cm apart vertically on the white
paper sheet, with their tips in line with the tips in line with the tips of the images of pins P1 and Q1 . In this
way pin R1 and S1 will become collinear with the images of pin P1 and Q1 .
(g) Remove the pins R1 and S1 and encircle their pin pricks on the white paper sheet with the help of a sharp
pencil. Remove the pins P1 and Q1 and encircle their pin pricks also.
(h) Join the points (or pin pricks) R1 and S1 with the help of a sharp pencil and scale, to obtain the emergent ray
R1 S1 . Produce it backwards to meet the incident ray P1Q1 (produced forward) at T1 . Draw arrowheads on P1Q1
and R1 S1 to show the direction of the rays.
(i) Measure the angle of deviation δ1 and the 65
angle BAC (angle A) of the prism (Fig. 27.36)
with a protractor and write the values of o
60 n=1.60, A=60
these angles indicated in the diagram.
( j) Repeat steps 5 to 9 for different values of 55
angle of incidence (40o, 45o, 50o .....) and
measure the corresponding angles of
(in degrees)
Principle
(a) A travelling microscope (Fig 27.37) consists of an ordinary compound
microscope M which is capable of moving along both vertical and
horizontal directions. The movement in any direction can be read by
a fixed main scale S and a sliding vernier scale V. There is a horizontal
metal platform which can be levelled by means of the levelling screws
L and a small spirit level over the base. The vertical motion is controlled
by two screws, one is called the fixing screw and other as tangent
screw, and the later imparts slow motion only when the former is fixed.
Similarly, there are two screws for the horizontal motion.
(b) The compound microscope has the usual objective O and eyepiece E.
There is a cross-wire which can be sharply focused by the eyepiece in
the field of view. While focusing the microscope, adjustments are to be
made so that there is no parallax between the cross wire and the image
of the object to be seen.
(c) When a ray of light is allowed to travel from the rarer medium (air) to
the denser medium (glass) obliquely, there is a change in both, the
265
path, as well as speed of the light. The ratio of the speed of light in air
medium to that in the glass medium is called refractive index of glass Figure 27.37
medium with respect to air medium.
(d) Let abcd be a glass slab (Fig 27.38) below which a mark A is put. Eye
After refraction, the rays from A will appear to come from B. As
a result, B is the apparent image of A. Then refractive index of
air w.r.t glass is given by
sini CD/AD BD
g µ= = = r
a
sinr CD/BD AD
1 AD a C D b
Hence refractive index of glass w.r.t air will be a µ=
g =
µ
g a BD
r i
(e) If the point D is considered to be very close to point C, then
ADAC=Real thickness and BD ≅ BC = Apparent thickness B i
(f) So, the refractive index of glass with respect to air is Glass
slab
AC Real Thickness c
a µg= = d
BC Apparant Thickness A
Figure 27.38
Procedure
(a) The platform of the travelling microscope is levelled by a spirit level by adjusting the levelling screws.
(b) The least count of the vertical scale is determined by using the common principle of the vernier scale.
S
Example: LG=1MSD-1VSD=
n
Where S = smallest main scale division and n = total number of divisions in the vernier scale.
1 0.05
If S = mm=0.05cm, n=50, then LC = =0.001 cm R1
2 50
(c) The eyepiece is focused to get the distinct images of the cross wires in the field of view. At first, the microscope
is focused to a cross mark O on a piece of paper fixed on the platform. The corresponding reading R1 is noted
on the vernier scale.
2 7 . 2 8 | Experimental Physics
(d) The glass slab is then placed on the mark O and the cross M
wire is focused through the microscope which has to be
raised up. The corresponding reading R 2 is noted on the
7
vernier scale. R3
(e) Without disturbing the slab, a small quantity or lycopodium M
6
powder is sprinkled on the upper surface of the glass slab.
Microscope is raised further up, to focus the granules of M
5
R2
lycopodium powder on the surface of the glass slab. The
final reading R 3 is noted.
4
(f) Repeat steps 3 to 5 three times by putting mark A at different R1
3
places on the paper.
2
1
1
0
0
A A A
(I) (II) (III)
Figure 27.39
Experiment 18: Characteristic Curves of a P-N Junction Diode in Forward and Reverse Bias
Theory:
Characteristics of diode: Graphical relationship between the voltage applied across a diode and the current
through the diode is called characteristics of diode. The graph plotted with current as ordinate and potential
applied across it ends as abscissa, shows the characteristics of the diode.
Forward biasing: A p-n junction diode gets forward biased when its p side is connected to the positive terminal of
the supply voltage and n to the negative terminal. Initially for voltages up to 0.4V, there is not much rise in current
due to the opposition by barrier potential. Beyond this, the current starts rising in a p-n junction.
Knee Voltage: The forward voltage when the current starts rising, i.e., is termed as the knee voltage. It is represented
as Vk. It is about 0.7V for silicon.
+
Reverse biasing : A p-n junction is reverse biased when the p side of + +
the junction is connected to the negative terminal of supply voltage + +
Anode
and n side terminal is connected to positive terminal of battery.
+ +
Reverse saturation current: As the applied voltage is increased in the + P+
reverse bias, starting from zero value, the current increases, but soon +
becomes constant. This current is very small (a few microamperes). It
P +++
+
is called the reverse saturation current. Conducts + +
PN Junction Diode and its characteristics N -
- -
PN junction diode is symbolically represented as shown in the picture. - -
The direction of the arrow is the direction of conventional current flow Cathode N
-
(under forward bias). Now let’s try applying an external voltage to
- - - -
the pn junction diode. The process of applying an external voltage is - -
called “biasing”. There are two ways in which we can bias a pn junction Diode (P-N junction)
-
diode. forward based
-
(1) Forward bias and (2) Reverse bias
Figure 27.40
P hysi cs | 27.29
The basic difference between a forward bias and reverse bias is in the direction of applying external voltage. The
direction of external voltage applied in reverse bias is opposite to that of external voltage applied in forward bias.
depletion
p-type zone n-type
- +
- +
- +
- +
0-ext
Figure 27.41
What happens inside the pn junction diode when we apply forward bias?
We have seen the characteristics of pn junction diode through its graph. We know a diode has a depletion region
with a fixed barrier potential. This depletion region has a predefined width, say W. This width will vary for a Silicon
diode and a Germanium diode. The width highly depends on the type of semiconductor used to make pn junction,
the level of doping etc. When we apply voltage to the terminals of diode, the width of the depletion region slowly
starts decreasing. The reason for this is, in forward bias we apply voltage in a direction opposite to that of barrier
potential. We know the p-side of diode is connected to positive terminal and n-side of diode is connected to
negative terminal of battery. So the electrons in n-side gets pushed towards the junction (by force of repulsion)
and the holes in p-side gets pushed towards the junction. As the applied voltage increases from 0 volts to 0.7 volts,
the depletion region width reduces from ‘W’ to zero. This means depletion region vanishes at 0.7 volts of applied
voltage. This results in increased diffusion of electrons from n-side to p-side region and the increased diffusion of
holes from p-side to n-side region. In other words, “minority carrier” injection happens on both p-side (in a normal
diode (without bias) electrons are a minority on p-side) and n-side (holes are a minority on n-side) of the diode.
depletion region width from its initial length, say ‘W’ to some ‘W+x’. As width of depletion region increases, it
results in increasing the electric field strength.
How does reverse saturation current occur and why does it exist?
The reverse saturation current is the negligibly small current (in the range of micro amperes) shown in the graph,
from 0 volts, to break down voltage. It remains almost constant (negligible increase do exist) in the range of 0 volts,
to reverse breakdown voltage. How does it occur? We know, as electrons and holes are pulled away from junction,
they dont diffuse each other across the junction. So the net “diffusion current” is zero! What remains is the drift
due to the electric field. This reverse saturation current is the result of drifting of charge carriers from the junction
region to the terminal region. This drift is caused by the electric field generated by depletion region.
Experiment 19: Characteristic Curves of a Zener Diode and Finding Reverse Breakdown
Voltage
Experiment 20: Characteristic Curves of a Transistor and Finding Current Gain and Voltage
Gain
Theory:
In most of the transistor circuits, out of the common base, common collector and common emitter, the configuration
generally used is common emitter. In such connections, the emitter is common to both the input and the output.
For ascertaining the common emitter characteristics, the variables studied are:
(a) IB vs. VBE keeping VCE constant (Input characteristics)
(b) Ic vs. VCE keeping IB constant. (Output characteristics)
(c) IC vs. IB keeping VC constant. (Transfer characteristics)
Transistor is said to be a current device.
2 7 . 3 2 | Experimental Physics
Input Characterisitcs: Input characteristics show interdependence of the base current on the base potential for
fixed values of as shown in the figure.
Vi
IC
t
IB Input
(A)
RL
Vi Input VCE
VBE IE V0
EB EC t
Output
(B)
Figure 27.46
∆VBE
=ri = v c cons tant ri is only a few 100 ohms.
∆IB
Output characteristics: These characteristics show the dependence of Ic on VCE when IB value is fixed as shown in
figure and is generally operated beyond the sharp change of slope. The a.c. output resistance (ro) of transistor in
common emitter circuit is
∆VC
=ro = I cons tant
∆I B
C
The value of ro varies from a 1000 ohms to a few 10 kilo-ohms.
Transfer characteristics: These characteristics show the variation of Ic to base current IB corresponding to a point
P on the transfer characteristics is termed as direct current gain β .
Therefore,
Collector current at given value of Vc I
Current gain – β = or β=C
Base current at same value IB
Alternating current Amplification –
In transfer characteristics, a small change in base current ∆IB at a given value of Vc produces a large change ∆IC in
collector current, then,
∆IC QR
A.C. Current gain, β=' = as shown in Fig = ……………. (ii)
∆IB PR
Voltage Gain –
Corresponding to a small voltage change ∆v i in the emitter base (i.e., input), if the change in the output voltage at
the collector is ∆Vo , then the ratio of ∆Vo to ∆Vi is termed as voltage gain, i.e.,
ro ∆Ic ro
But ∆Vi =ri ∆IB and ∆Vo =ro ∆IC ⇒ Avg. gain = . = β
ri ∆IB ri
Where ri is input resistance and ro is the output resistance of the transistor and β is the current gain,
ro ∆Ic r
∴ Av = . = β o
ri ∆IB ri
P hysi cs | 27.33
Exercises
Sound and Heat Q.14 Why do both the prongs vibrate when we strike
only one?
Sound
Q.15 Can sound also travel in vacuum?
Q. 1 Do the prongs and stem of a tuning fork execute Q.16 In which medium is the velocity of sound higher,
same type of vibrations? in oxygen or hydrogen?
Q.2 Is the frequency of these vibrations different? Q.17 Which particular column in your apparatus, do
you call resonance column?
Q.3 What about the amplitude of two kinds of
vibrations? Q.18 What is the role of water in this apparatus?
Q.4 How does the frequency of tuning fork vary with Q.19 Why do you use water; can’t you use mercury
increase of length of prong? instead of water?
Q.5 Suppose you have been given two tuning forks of Q.20 What types of waves are there in air above water
the same metal on which, marks of the frequency have in this resonance column?
disappeared. How will you detect the one with higher
frequency?
Q.21 How are these waves produced?
Q.7 If a prong of the tuning fork is loaded with wax, will Q.23 Where are the nodes and antinodes situated?
its frequency change?
Q.24 Is antinode situated exactly at the open end?
Q.8 Why are the forks made of some standard
frequencies like 256, 288, 320, 341.5, 384, 426.6, 484, Q.25 How can you get wavelength of sound by this first
512, Hz etc.? resonating length?
Q.9 What is the significance of the letters of English Q.26 Can we use a resonance tube of square cross-
alphabet engraved on the running forks? section for the experiment?
Q.10 What do you mean by a note? How does it differ Q.27 Why do we use a long tube?
from a tone?
Q.28 How do you keep the vibrating tuning fork near
Q.11 The vibrations of a fork stop when its prongs are the open end of the tube?
touched but they do not stop if the stem is touched.
Why? Q.29 What do you mean by second resonance?
Q.12 Why a tuning fork has two prongs? Q.30 Why is the second resonance found feebler than
the first?
Q.13 Why should a tuning fork not be struck with a
great force?
2 7 . 3 4 | Experimental Physics
Q.31 Where are the nodes and antinodes in this case? Q.38 In the resonating air column experiment, l1
represents 1st resonating length and l2 represents 1
Q.32 What will be the wavelength of sound in this case? 2nd resonating length, the relation between 1st and 2nd
resonating length is
Q.37 The end correction (e) is ( l1 = length of air column Q.43 A tuning fork of frequency 340Hz is excited
at first resonance and l2 is length of air column at and held above a cylindrical tube of length 120cm.
second resonance) It is slowly filled with water. The minimum height of
water column required for resonance to be first heard
l2 − 3l1 l1 − 3l2 (Velocity of sound=340 ms−1 ) is
(A) e = (B) e =
2 2 (A) 25 cm (B) 75 cm (C) 45 cm (D) 105 cm
l2 − 2l1 l1 − 3l2
(C) e = (D) e = Q.44 Two unknown frequency tuning forks are used in
2 2 resonance column apparatus. When only first tuning
fork is excited the 1st and 2nd resonating lengths noted
are 10cm and 30cm respectively. When only second
tuning fork is excited the 1st and 2nd resonating lengths
P hysi cs | 27.35
noted are 30 cm and 90 cm respectively. The ratio of dropped in a copper calorimeter (of water equivalent
the frequency of the 1st to 2nd tuning fork is 0.025kg) containing 150cm3 of water at 27°C. The final
temperature is 40°C. The specific heat of the metal is
(A) 1:3 (B) 1:2 (C) 3:1 (D) 2:1
(A) 0.1 Jg–1 oC–1 (B) 0.2 Jg–1 oC–1
Q.45 In a resonance tube, the first resonance is (C) 0.3 calg–1 oC–1 (D) 0.1 calg–1 oC–1
obtained when the level of water in the tube is at
16 cm from the open end. Neglecting end correction,
Q.54 Is newton’s law of cooling true for all differences
the next resonance will be obtained when the level of
of temperature between the body losing heat and that
water from the open end is
of its surroundings?
(A) 24 cm (B) 32 cm (C) 48 cm (D) 64 cm
Q.55 How do you express this law mathematically?
Heat
Q.56 What is the shape of the graph of log ( θ − θ0 )
Q.46 Is specific heat of a substance is a constant versus t?
quantity?
Electricity and Magnetism
Q.47 What is meant by thermal capacity of a body?
Q.1 What is the alternative term used for Metre Bridge?
Q.48 What ate the units of water equivalent and thermal
capacity of a body? Q.2 Name the principal on which Metre Bridge is based.
Q.49 Why do we use generally a calorimeter made of Q.3 When is the Wheatstone’s bridge said to be most
copper? sensitive?
Q.50 In an experiment to determine the specific heat of Q.4 Why is the metre bridge suitable for resistances of
aluminum, piece of aluminum weighing 500g is heated moderate values only?
to 100° C. It is then quickly transferred into a copper
calorimeter of mass 500g containing 300g of water
30° C. The final temperature of the mixture is found to Q.5 For determination of resistance of a coil, which of
be 46.8° C. If specific heat of copper 0.093 cal g–1° C–1, two methods is better Ohm’s Law method or metre
then the specific heat of aluminium is bridge method?
(A) 0.11 cal g–1 oC–1 (B) 0.22 cal g–1 oC–1
Q.6 Why should the battery key be pressed before the
(C) 0.33 cal g–1 oC–1 (D) 0.44 cal g–1 oC–1 galvanometer key?
Q.51 The mass of a copper calorimeter is 40g and Q.7 Sometimes it is advisable to shunt the galvanometer
its specific heat in SI units is 4.2 × 102 J kg–1° C–1 . The while trying for a balance point. Why?
thermal capacity is
(A) 4 J oC–1 (B) 18.6 J Q.8 What is the material of the wire of metre bridge?
(C) 16.8 J/KG (D) 16.8 J C o –1
parallel. The condition for the bridge to be balanced new position of the null point from the same end, if one
will be decides to balance a resistance of 4X against Y will be at
(A) 8Ω (B) 9Ω (C) 10Ω (D) 12Ω (A) >S (B) ≈ S (C) <S (D) ≈ G
Q.17 In a metre bridge experiment, null point is obtained Q.27 In the experiment of half deflection method
at 20 cm from one end of the wire when resistance X is if R= 20Ω and S= 12Ω for half deflection then the F
balanced against another resistance Y. If X<Y, then the (galvanometer resistance) is
(A) 20Ω (B) 30Ω (C) 40Ω (D) 25Ω
P hysi cs | 27.37
Q.28 Figure of merit of a galvanometer is 0.5 A per Q.8 Can we use Vernier Callipers to measure the
division. If the galvanometer has total 10 divisions then thickness of a piece of paper?
the current required for full deflection in one side is
(A) 5.0 A (B) 2.0A (C) 2.5 A (D) 3.0 A Q.9 Select the incorrect statement.
(A) If the zero of vernier scale does not coincide with
Q.29 In an experiment to determine the figure of merit the zero of the main scale, then the vernier calipers is
of a galvanometer the circuit shown is used. If E be the said to be having zero error?
emf of the battery, R is the series resistance, G is the
(B) Zero correction has a magnitude equal to zero error
resistance of the galvanometer and θ is the deflection,
but sign is opposite to that of zero error.
then the figure of merit of galvanometer is
(C) Zero error is positive when the zero of vernier scale
E E lies to the left of the zero of the main scale.
(A) (B)
(R − G ) θ (R + G ) θ
EG Eθ Q.10 1 cm on the main scale of a vernier calipers is
(C) (D) divided into 10 equal parts. If 10 divisions of vernier
Rθ R+G
coincide with 8 small divisions of main scale, then the
least count of the caliper is
Q.30 In half deflection method, a high resistance box is
connected in series with the battery so that (A) 0.01cm (B) 0.02cm
(A) The deflection of the galvanometer is brought (C) 0.05cm (D) 0.005cm
within the scale
(B) Power losses are minimized Q.11 The vernier constant of a travelling microscope
is 0.01cm. If 49 main scale divisions coincide with 50
(C) High resistance values are easily available vernier scale divisions, then the value of 1 main scale
(D) None of the above division is
(A) 0.1mm (B) 0.5mm (C) 0.4mm (D) 1mm
Vernier Callipers and Screw Gauge
Q.12 If the error in the measurement of the diameter of
the sphere is 1%, then the error in the measurement of
Q.1 What is meant by Least Count (L.C.) of a measuring the volume is
instrument?
(A) 3% (B) 1% (C) 6% (D) 9%
Q.6 What is zero correction? How does it differ from Q.15 Each division on the main scale is 1mm. Which of
zero error? the following vernier scales give vernier constant equal
to 0.01mm?
Q.7 How is zero error taken into account for getting
(A) 9 mm divided into 10 divisions
true reading?
(B) 90 mm divided into 100 divisions
2 7 . 3 8 | Experimental Physics
(C) 99 mm divided into 100 divisions Q.29 What is negative zero error of screw guage?
(D) 9 mm divided into 100 divisions
Q.30 What is the principle of a screw guage?
Q.16 Vernier constant is the
Q.31 The pitch of screw guage is
(A) Value of one MSD divided by total number of
divisions on the main scale (A) 1 mm (B) 0.1mm (C) 1cm (D) 0.1cm
(B) Value of one MSD divided by total number of
divisions on the vernier scale Q.32 Least count of screw guage is defines as
(C) Total number of divisions on the main scale divided Dis tance moved by thimble on main scale
(A)
by total number of divisions on the vernier scale Number of rotation of thimble
(D) Difference between value of one main scale division Pitch of the screw
and one vernier scale division
(B)
Number of circular scale divisions on head scale
Q.22 Define the pitch of a screw. (C) Nil (D) None of these
Q.23 What is the relation between the pitch and the Q.35 The diameter D of a wire is measured using screw
least count? guage of zero error. Then
(A) D=main scale reading + circular scale reading x L.C.
Q.24 What is the cause of backlash error? (B) D=circular scale reading + main scale reading x L.C.
(C) D=main scale reading + vernier scale reading x L.C.
Q.25 How can you minimize backlash error?
(D) None of the above
Q.27 Which screw guage is more accurate-the one with (A) 1 mm and 0.01 cm (B) 0.01 cm and 1 cm
a pitch of 0.5mm or the one with a pitch of 1 mm, both (C) 0.01 cm and 1 mm (D) 0.01 cm and 1 mm
having the same number of circular scale divisions?
Q.37 The pitch of a screw guage is 0.5 mm. Its head Q.12 An object is placed in front of the convex mirror
scale contains 50 divisions. The lease count of the screw at a distance of 50 cm. A plane mirror is introduced
guage is covering the lower half of the convex mirror. If the
distance between the two mirrors is 10 cm, it is found
(A) 0.01 mm (B) 0.001 mm
that there is no parallax between the images formed
(C) 0.02 mm (D) 0.002 mm by the two mirrors. Then the focal length of the convex
mirror is
Q.38 The circular scale (head scale) of a screw guage (A) 12.5 cm (B) -12.5 cm
is divided into 100 equal parts and it moves 0.5 mm
ahead in one revolution. Find the pitch and the least (C) 25 cm (D) 75 cm
count.
Q.13 In the determination of focal length of convex
Optics and Modern Physics mirror by using a convex lens the object is generally
placed from the convex lens at a distance x times the
focal length of the convex lens, then x equals
Q.1 How will you distinguish between two given
spherical mirrors, as concave or convex? (A) 4 (B) 0.25 (C) 1.5 (D) 0.5
Q.2 What is meant by ‘parallax’? Q.14 In an experiment to find focal length of a concave
mirror, a graph is drawn between the magnitudes of u
Q.3 How is the parallax removed? and v. The graph look like.
Q.4 Why is a concave mirror of large focal length often Q.15 Which of the following graph is applicable
used as shaving glass? 1 1
between and for a concave mirror?
v u
Q.5 For what purpose does a surgeon use a concave Q.16 The graph showing correctly the variation of
mirror? image distance (v) as a function of object distance (u)
in case of a concave mirror is
Q.6 What type of mirrors are used in headlights of
vehicles and in searchlights? Q.17 How do you distinguish a convex lens from a
concave lens?
Q.7 Which mirror is used as a driving mirror in
automobiles and why? Q.18 What is meant by principal axis of a lens.
Q.8 Can you determine the focal length of a convex Q.19 If a lens is plano-convex, what is the radius of
1 1 curvature of its plane surface? Where does the centre
mirror by plotting versus .
v u of curvature of its plane surface lie?
1 1
Q.10 What is spherical aberration? Q.21 A graph is drawn with along x-axis and along
u v
the y-axis. If the intercept on the x-axis is 0.5−1 , the
Q.11 Which method is more accurate in the focal length of the lens is (in meter)
determination of f for a concave mirror.
(A) 2.00 (B) 0.50 (C) 0.20 (D) 1.00
1 1
(i) u vs. v, or (ii) vs. graphs?
u v Q.22 What happens to a ray of light when it passes
through a rectangular glass slab?
2 7 . 4 0 | Experimental Physics
Q.23 Does the lateral displacement depend upon the (A) 13 cm (B) 11 cm (C) 9 cm (D) 7.1 cm
thickness of the slab?
Q.31 The diffusion dominant mechanisms for motion
Q.24 What causes earlier rise of the sun than the actual of charge carriers in forward and reverse biased silicon
rise p-n junction are
(A) Drift in forward bias, diffusion in reverse bias
Q.25 What causes formation of a rainbow after rains?
(B) Diffusion in forward bias, drift in reverse bias
Q.26 If a plane glass plate is placed over letters different (C) Diffusion in both forward and reverse bias
colours, then which coloured letters appears to be most (D) Drift in both forward and reverse bias
raised
(A) Blue (B) Green Q.32 The cause of the potential barrier in a p-n junction
diode is
(C) Violet (D) Red
(A) Depletion of positive charges near the junction
Q.27 A small pin fixed on a table top is viewed from (B) Concentration of positive charges near the junction
above from a distance of 50 cm. The distance by which
(C) Concentration of negative charges near the junction
the pin appears to be raised, if it is viewed from the
same point through a 15 cm thick glass slab held (D) Concentration of positive and negative charges
parallel to the table is (Refractive index of glass=1.5) near the junction
(A) 1 cm (B) 2 cm (C) 3 cm (D) 5 cm
Q.33 The reverse voltage at which the current increases
steeply is called
Q.28 A mark is made at the bottom of a beaker and
a microscope is focused on it. The microscope then (A) Threshold voltage (B) Knee voltage
raised through 1.5 cm. To what height water must be
(C) Breakdown voltage (D) Stopping voltage
poured into the beaker to bring the mark again into
4
focus? Given, Refractive index of water = . Q.34 The forward biased characteristics of a p-n
3
junction diode is:
(A) 6 cm (B) 7 cm (C) 8 cm (D) 9 cm
Q.35. The reverse biased characteristics of a p-n
Q.29 A glass is filled with water upto 10 cm. the junction diode is.
apparent depth of an object lying at the bottom of the
glass measured by a microscope is 8.2 cm.
Q.36 Zener breakdown occurs in junction which is
(i) What is the refractive index of water?
(A) Heavily doped and has wide depletion layer
(ii) If water is replaced by a liquid of refractive index
(B) Lightly doped and has wide depletion layer
1.7 upto the same height, by what distance would
the microscope have to be moved to focus the object (C) Moderately doped and has narrow depletion layer
again>
(D) Heavily doped and has narrow depletion layer
(A) (i) 1.2 (ii) 2.32 cm
(B) (i) 1.2 (ii) 3.32 cm Q.37 At breakdown region of zener diode which of the
following quantities does not change much?
(C) (i) 1.4 (ii) 4.32 cm
(A) Voltage (B) Current
(D) (i) 1.4 (ii) 5.32 cm
(C) Dynamic impedance (D) Capacitance
Q.30 A beaker of depth 20 cm is half-filled with a liquid
of refractive index 1.4 and half-filled with liquid of Q.38 The avalanche breakdown occurs at
refractive index 1.7. What is the apparent depth of a (A) Higher reverse voltage
coin lying at the bottom of the beaker assuming that
liquids do not mix with each other? (B) Lower reverse voltage
P hysi cs | 27.41
Q.46 The current gain α of a transistor is 0.95. The (A) Transistor (B) Junction diode
change in emitter current is 10 mA. The change in base (C) Zener diode (D) Integrated circuit
current is
(A) 9.5 mA (B) 0.5 mA
Q.54 Multimeter ends are connected to emitter base of
200 a working order transistor, then multimeter shows
(C) 10.5 mA (D) mA
19
2 7 . 4 2 | Experimental Physics
(A) Large deflection in one direction and small deflection Q.7 Will the time period of a simple pendulum change
in other direction if we take it from Earth to the surface of Moon?
(B) Large deflection in both cases
Q.8 Why does it increases?
(C) Small deflection in both cases
(D) None of the above Q.9 How does the value of g vary from place to place
on the surface of the Earth?
Q.55 A multimeter in connected to LED, then deflection
before and after reversing the probes is Q.10 Is g a scalar or a vector quantity?
Q.57 How do we find whether a diode is working or not Q.16 What type of graph do you expect between (i) L
by using a multimeter? and T and (ii) L and T2 ?
(A) Forward bias resistance in more
(B) Reverse bias resistance is less Q.17 Why do the pendulum clocks go slow in summer
and fast in winter?
(C) In both the cases resistance is more
(D) Forward bias resistance is less and reverse bias Q.18 Why do we use Invar material for the pendulum
resistance more of good clocks?
Q.3 What is the difference between g and G. Q.20 The second’s pendulum is taken from earth to
moon, to keep the time period constant
Q.4 What is meant by effective length of the pendulum?
(A) The length of the second’s pendulum should be
decreased
Q.5 What is second’s pendulum?
(B) The length of the second’s pendulum should be
increased
Q.6 What is the approximate effective length of a
second’s pendulum? (C) The amplitude should increase
(D) The amplitude should decrease
P hysi cs | 27.43
Q.21 The length of a second’s pendulum at the surface Q.33 Three identical wires A, B and C made of
of earth is 1 m. The length of second pendulum at different materials attached with same load have
YA = 20 × 1011 Nm−2 andYc =
0.2 × 1011 Nm−2 . The wire
the surface of moon where g is (1/ 6 ) that at earth’s
th
having maximum elongation is
surface is
1 1 (A) A
(A) m (B) 6 m (C) m (D) 36 m
6 36 (B) B
(C) C
Q.22 The time period of a second’s pendulum is 2 sec.
The spherical bob which is empty from inside has a (D) Same elongation for all three wires
mass 50 g. This is now replaced by another solid bob of
same radius but having a different mass of 100 g. The Q.34 Approximation to perfectly elastic body is:
new time period will be
(A) Quartz fibre (B) Optical fibre
(A) 4 s (B) 1 s (C) 2 s (D) 8 s
(C) Human bone (D) Copper rod
Q.26 What is yield point? Q.36 Q wire of area of cross-section 10−6 m2 is increased
in length by 0.1%. The tension produced is 1000N. The
young’s modulus of wire is
Q.27 What is breaking point?
(A) 1012 Nm−2 (B) 1011Nm−2
Q.28 What is breaking stress? (C) 1010 Nm−2 (D) 109 Nm−2
Q.29 Is there any effect of temperature change on the Q.37 Which of the following is most elastic?
value of Y? (A) Rubber (B) Wet clay
(C) Plastic (D) Steel
Q.30 Why do you use long wires in searle’s experiment?
(A) Length=50 cm, diameter=0.5 mm Q.49 For determining the mass of a given body using
a meter scale by principal of moments, the mass of
(B) Length=100 cm, diameter=1.3 mm
weight in the paper pan is 30 g and the length of the
(C) Length= 300 cm, diameter=2mm weight arm is 20 cm. If the fixed length of the power
(D) Length=300 cm, diameter=3mm arm is 25cm, then the unknown mass is
(A) 18 g (B) 20 g (C) 24 g (D) 28 g
Q.40 Two wires of copper have lengths in the ratio 1:2
and radii in the ratio 2:1. Their Young’s modulli are in Q.50 A balance is made of rigid rod free to rotate about
the ratio a point not at the centre of the rod. When an unknown
(A) 1:1 (B) 1:8 (C) 8:1 (D) 1:4 mass m is placed in the left hand pan, it is balanced by
a mass m1 placed in the right hand pan, and similarly
when the mass m is placed in the right hand pan, it is
Q.41 Young’s modulus for a perfectly rigid body is balanced by a mass m2 in the left hand pan. Neglecting
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) ∞ (D) None of these the masses of the pans, m is
1
Q.42 Three wires A, B and C made of different material,
(A) (m + m2 )
2 1
(B) m1m2
(C) C x2 + y 2
(C) ( x + y ) (D)
2
(D) No conclusion can be drawn from the given
information
Surface Tension and Viscosity
Principal of Moments
Q.52 Why are the small spheres wetted in glycerine
Q.43 What is the principal of moments? before making them to fall through glycerine?
Q.44 The bottom of a ship is made heavy. Why? Q.53 Why are the small spheres centrally dropped in
the glass jar?
Q.45 Why does a girl lean towards right while carrying
a bag in her left hand? Q.54 Why do bubbles of air or gas rise up through
water or any other liquid?
Q.46 Some heavy boxes are to be loaded along with
some empty boxes on a cart. Which boxes should be Q.55 Why does the water not rise in an ordinary glass
put in the cart first and why? tube as it does in a capillary tube?
Q.47 Standing is not allowed in deck of a double decker Q.56 What formula are you using to determine the
bus. Why? surface tension?
Q.48 Why cannot we rise from a chair without bending Q.57 While measuring the height of water column
a little forward? in the capillary, up to what point of meniscus do you
measure the height?
P hysi cs | 27.45
Q.58 Which of the following is a better cleaning agent? Q.65 A clean capillary tube is dipped vertically in
breaker containing water and the water rises 6cm in
(A) Cold water (B) Hot water
it. If another capillary tube of same radius and length
(C) Soap water (D) Hot soap water 3cm is dipped vertically in the same beaker containing
water (assume angle of contact of water is 0°C ) then
Q.59 A capillary tube is dipped in water and the top is the water
closed then the rise of water (A) Will flow out like a fountain
(A) Increases (B) Decreases (B) Will rise to a height of 3cm only and angle of
(C) Remains same (D) Water does not rise contacts is 0°C
(C) Will rise to a height of 3cm only and angle of contact
Q.60 If a capillary tube of insufficient length is used, is 60° C
the liquid (D) Will not rise at all
(A) Rises and over flows slowly
(B) Does not overflow Q.66 When a partially soluable impurity is added to a
liquid, then the surface tension
(C) Rises and comes out like fountain
(A) Increases (B) Decreases
(D) Does not rise into the tube
(C) Remains same (D) Cannot be measured
an angle ( θ ) with vertical. Then length of the liquid (A) Decreases (B) Increases
hcos θ
=l hcos θ
(A) (B) l = Q.69 If radius of the tube is decreased, then the height
2
of the liquid column
h
(C) l 2hcos θ
= (D) l = (A) Increases (B) Decreases
cos θ
(C) Unchanged (D) May increase or decrease
Q.63 Two students A and B determine the surface
tension in summer and winter as TA and TB respectively Q.70 If the angle of contact is 90° then the liquid level
9other conditions are same in the experiment). Then: in a capillary tube will
(A) TA > TB (B) TA < TB (A) Increase (B) Decrease
TB
(C) TA = TB (D) TA = (C) Neither rise nor fall (D) May increase of decrease
2
Q.72 What happens to the angle of contact if detergents Q.78 A solid sphere falls with a terminal velocity of
are added to the water? 20ms−1 in air. If it is allowed to fall in vaccum
(A) Decreases (B) Increases (A) Terminal velocity will be 20ms−1
(C) Become zero (D) Remains same (B) Terminal velocity will be less than 20 ms−1
(C) Terminal velocity will be greater than 20 ms-1
Q.73 A liquid rises to a height h in a capillary tube on
(D) There will be no terminal velocity
the earth. The height to which the same liquid would
rise in the same tube on the moon is about
Q.79 Eight spherical rain drops of the same mass and
h
(A) 6h (B) h (C) (D) None of these radius are falling down with a terminal speed v. If they
6 coalesce to form one big drop. Its terminal speed will
be (neglect buoyancy due to air)
Q.74 At critical temperature the surface tension of a
v
liquid (A) (B) v (C) 4v (D) 8v
4
(A) Is zero
(B) Is infinity Q.80 A spherical steel ball released at the top of a long
column of glycerine of length L, falls through a distance
(C) Is the same as that at any other temperature
L/2 with accelerated motion and remaining distance
(D) Cannot be determined L/2 with a uniform velocity. If t1 and t2 denote the times
taken to cover the first and second half and w1 and w2
Q.75 A liquid will not wet the surface of a solid if the are the respective works done against gravity in the
angle of contact is two halves then
(A) Acute (B) Obtuse (A) t1 < t2 , w1 > w2 (B) t1 > t2 , w1 < w2
π (C)
= t1 t=
2 , w1 w2 (D) t1 > t2 , w1 =
w2
(C) Zero (D)
2
Q.81 A tiny sphere of mass m and density p is dropped
Q.76 A water-proofing agent changes the angle of in a tall jar of glycerine of density σ . When the sphere
contact from acquires terminal velocity, the magnitude of the viscous
forecasting on it is
(A) An obtuse to an acute value
mgp mgσ
(B) An acute to an obtuse value (A) (B)
σ p
π
(C) An obtuse value to σ p
2 (C) mg 1 − (D) mg 1 −
π p σ
(D) An acute value to
2
Q.82 The viscous force on a spherical body moving
Q.77 A rain drop falls near the surface of the earth with through a fluid depends upon
almost uniform velocity because (i) The mass of the body
(A) Its weight is negligible (ii) The radius of the body
(B) The force of surface tension balances its weight (iii) The velocity of the body
(C) The viscous drag and the upthrust due to air (iv) The viscosity of the fluid
balances its weight
(A) (i), (ii), and (iii) are true
(D) The drops are charged and atmospheric electric
field balances its weight (B) (i), (iii) and (iv) are true
(C) (ii), (iii) and (iv) are true
(D) (ii) and (iv) are true
P hysi cs | 27.47
Q.83 When the upthrust on a body is negligible Q.85 A steel ball of density ρ1 and radius r falls vertically
compared to its weight, the terminal velocity of a small through a liquid of density ρ2 . Assume that viscous
spherical body falling through a viscous liquid depends force acting on the ball is F=Krv, where k is a constant
upon and v is velocity. The terminal velocity of the ball is
(i) The density of the body 4 πgr 2 ( ρ1 − ρ2 ) 4 πr 2 ( ρ1 − ρ2 )
(A) (B)
(ii) The diameter of the body 3K 3gK
(iii) The viscosity of liquid 4 πr ( ρ1 + ρ2 ) 4 πgr
(iv) The acceleration due to gravity
(C)
2
(D)
3K
( ρ1 + ρ2 )
3gr K
Answer Key
Sound
Q.35 C Q.36 D Q.37 A Q.38 C Q.39 A Q.40 A
Q.41 C Q.42 A Q.43 C Q.44 C Q.45 C Q.50 B
Q.51 C Q.53 D