Ito Azam2013 Article Large StrainConsolidationModel

Mine Waste Management
(Course Notes)
D.C. Sego and G. Ward Wilson

U of A Geotechnical Center
Department of Civil & Environmental
Engineering
University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta
Canada
1
General
Mining is an integral part of an industrialized society
It provides necessary raw materials for much of what we use.

(Imagine no mining - globally)
It also provides some of the highest paying jobs in the economy

(both high and low skill - consider that Ft. McMurray has the
highest per capita income in Alberta and 2nd highest in Canada).
Canadian mining companies are conducting significant activity

abroad because of their experience, capabilities, and the fact that
operational costs are often less.
Loss of a mine often has dire local economic effects (consider

closure of coal mines in Nova Scotia).
However, environmentally sound management of wastes

generated during mining has not been the hallmark of the industry
in the past
As a consequence, mining has fallen into disfavor in many areas.

Furthermore, a number of mine waste storage facilities failed
during the 1990’s and early 2000’s, which undermined the
credibility of the mining and waste management industries, and
jeopardizes their social ‘license to operate’.
Some states in the US have banned mining.
This has resulted in a changing attitude to the engineering and

management of these facilities and led to a greater commitment
to improving the quality of mine waste management in many
companies and countries.
2
Environmentally sound management of mine wastes is becoming
of paramount importance for the survival of the industry. Even
though practices have gradually improved on what they were 10
or 15 years ago, failures of mine waste storages continued to
occur.
To minimize the risks to which a company is exposed during the

lifetime of development of a waste storage site, proper operational
control is vital in addition to the need for high quality technical
design and operational plans for waste storage sites.
Recognition of proper operational control has led to:
• The provision of a mandatory operations manual at many

mines;
• Increased attention to more appropriate training and
supervision of operations personnel.
The activities for design and planning of operation and

implementation of closure are no longer seen simply as a life-
cycle progression. Closure in an environmentally and socially
acceptable manner is paramount. The engineer involved in mine
waste storage is also required to work with people from many
different disciplines, including botany, ecology, economics,
horticulture, sociology and even local politics to achieve and
implement construction, operational and closure plans that satisfy
the demands of zero harm in virtual perpetuity.
Thus it is an important potential employer of engineers, so a

fundamental understanding of its needs by engineers is
necessary
3
We will study mine waste management in the following sequence:
• Waste streams, Types and general issues
• Environmental Audit, Mine Waste Audits, and

Management
• Dry Stream, Waste Dumps (Coarse Wastes)
• Wet Streams (Fine Wastes, Tailings)
• Reclamation
• Reprocessing of existing mine wastes.
Reference texts:
[1] Mine Waste Management, 1992, Hutchinson and Ellison,

Lewis Pub.
[2] Geotechnical Engineering for Mine Waste Storage Facilities,
2010, Geoffrey Blight, CBC Press/Balkema
[3] GARD Guide (www.gardguide.com)
4
Mine Waste Streams
General
It is necessary to understand:
• How wastes develop at different mines
• The volumes associated with different waste streams at a

particular mine
• Much of the waste is benign but it represents a large

volume so has a significant cost:
⇒ Savings of $0.25 per ton in the Canadian coal industry

can make or break an international sales contract, so
savings of pennies per m3 of wastes being moved can
be significant
• It is the mismanagement of these wastes that threatens

the industry as a whole
• Climate conditions have potential effects on the

technology of mine waste storage, which is used to be
ignored.
⇒ 65% of the earth’s inhabited land surface is annually or

seasonally water-deficient. Many of the water-deficient
areas are highly mineralized and support major mining
activity.
5
⇒ Effects of water-deficiency, and the unsaturated land
surface condition can be used to advantage with careful
design and operating practices
⇒ The relative importance and severity of various

geotechnical, environmental and social problems vary
from water surplus to water deficient climates, and from
developed to developing societies.
• ARD (Acid Rock Drainage) is an important “sustainable

development” or “sustainability” issue because of its
potentially wide-ranging and multigenerational
consequences.
⇒ ARD formation is difficult to stop once initiated because

it is a process that, if left unchecked, will continue (and
may even accelerate) until one or more of the reactants
(sulphide minerals, oxygen, water) are exhausted or no
longer available for reaction, probably lasting for
decades or even centuries after mining has ceased.
⇒ The cost of ARD remediation at primarily abandoned

and “orphaned” mines in North America has been
estimated in the tens of billions of U.S. dollars.
⇒ ARD can make a mine project uneconomic and present

mine owners with technically challenging and expensive
long-term management issues.
6
• Mines exist to make a profit, not to manage wastes:
⇒ Traditionally the wastes were disposed of in the

cheapest fashion possible with little engineering or
quality control on their placement
⇒ Today mining companies put emphasis on proper

disposal of wastes to ensure long-term sustainability of
company and industry
Issues
1. Composition: Must understand what each mine generates:
• Dry streams including overburden and shot rock;
• Wet streams generated from the mineral processing for

extraction of mineral (tailings);
• ARD (acid rock drainage) formed by the natural oxidation of

sulphide minerals, together with reaction of the base
minerals in the rock, which are exposed to air and water.
The drainage produced from the oxidation process may be
neutral to acidic, with or without dissolved heavy metals, but
such drainage always contains sulphate.
• Process water general involves extensive recycle of waste

water as well as make up water.
7
2. Volumes of waste streams:
• Often millions of cubic meters annually;
⇒ Mining companies are exploiting ever lower-grade ore

bodies on an ever-increasing scale for profitability, since
world market for mineral commodities such as chrome,
coal, copper, diamonds, fluorspar, gold, iron, manganese
and zinc. Volumes are commensurately large.
⇒ The actual volume of mine waste that has to be disposed

of in dumps and tailing storage facilities, world-wide, is
difficult to comprehend.
• Dry stream movement is dominated by earthmoving

equipment of the largest proportion
(trucks with haul capacity of 200-400 T; belt conveyor);
• Wet streams (tailings) generally moved hydraulically by

pipeline as a slurry, as a “thickened tailings” or a “paste”; or
transported by conveyor belt as a tailing paste.
• Bulking of mined material increases the volumes to be

moved/stored and as a result the material will not fit back
into mined pit or underground workings;
• Examples of material volumes.
⇒ Van Zyl et al. (2002) reported that the world’s iron, copper,
gold, lead and bauxite (aluminum) mines together
generated 35 thousand million tons of waste in 1995
alone.
8
Kim Askew - Winter 2011
• The South African gold mining industry produced 740

thousand tons of gold tailings in the decade from 1997 to
2006 (Chamber of Mines of South Africa, 2006)
• All gold mining waste produced in the past century in

South Africa amounts to 6000 million tons, which cover a
total area of 400 to 500 km2, and contains 430 thousand
tons of uranium and 30 million tons of sulphur, both of
which and especially the sulphur, have a high pollution
potential (Sutton, et al., 2006).
Figure 1.1 Some Mining Regions of Western Canada

9
Figure 1.2 Typical Waste Balance for an Interior British Columbia Copper
Mine Relative to 1 Tonne of Copper Concentrate
10
Figure 1.3 Typical Waste Balance for an Integrated Oil Sands Mining,
Extraction, and Upgrading Operation Relative to 1 m3 of Synthetic
Crude Oil
11
Figure 1.4 Typical Waste Balance for a Western Canadian Rocky Mountain
Coking Coal Mine Relative to 1 Tonne of Clean Coal Product
3. Real estate requirements:
• The area left scarred by the wastes can be very large
⇒ Syncrude tailings pond has a ring dyke ~18 km in length

and used ~ 109 m3 of sand to build
⇒ Highland Valley Copper: current tailings storage facility

fills in a valley for ~12 km
12
4. Storage:
• Major issue is safety and cost:
⇒ Men and equipment safety during construction;
⇒ Protect environment in the long term;
⇒ It costs money to move and store wastes and this affects

the profits of the company.
• Types of mine waste storage: dumps and dams or

impoundments.
⇒ Dumps are defined by the criterion that the material is

placed mechanically in a moist or semi-dry state.
Dumps are for barren overburden material, barren country

rock, low grade mineralized material, which is not
economical to process further at present or dewatered
tailings from a mineral extraction operation.
Method of deposition: rubber-tired or railed transport,

stacking, flinging or other machinery. It can be deposited
either with or without compaction.
Stacker, flinger or end tipping operations is the case

where the waste is deposited without any form of
compaction and an extremely large height of material may
be deposited over an area in a very short space of time.
The method has considerable advantages (it’s why it is
used so widely) from the operational point of view.
13
However, the method may be unsatisfactory from the

point of view of stability for three reasons:
(a) loose state accumulating a high moisture content;
(b) a large height applying high shear stresses increasing
the potential of foundation failure;
(c) vertical seepage from infiltration can contaminate
ground and surface water if containing salts or acid
dissolved from the waste.
• Tailings storages: retain or impound fine grained material

which is usually deposited hydraulically.
(a) Cross valley impoundments-an embankment or dam

is built across a valley and the waste it impounds is
used to fill the volume behind the embankment.
(b) Ring-dyke impoundments- an embankment is
constructed to enclose a space which is then used to
contain the waste.
(c) In-pit impoundments- these occur where waste is
used to fill an exiting worked-out open pit.
5. Emissions:
• Short-term include dust, waste water, and stack emissions;
• Long-term include leachate from wastes storage facilities

including Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) or Acid Rock Drainage
(ARD) dust and erosion due to wind and water.
14
6. Reclamation:
• Coarse waste
⇒ How to reclaim to a productive or natural state
• Wet streams
⇒ How long until it can support weight of people and animals
on the surface of a tailings pond
⇒ How to restore to natural or productive use?
• How to ensure long-term stability, particularly of tailings

impoundments dams?
• Mine design must now include "mine closure" plan instead of

just walking away from the site
• Now a (large) bond must usually be posted before or during

operation which is forfeited if closure is not properly
implemented
⇒ Both a financial and engineering plan to satisfy regulators

and insurance industry must be in place at "start up" of
new mines or file for continuation of existing mine
operations.
7. Waste Utilization:
• Can the mine wastes be put to productive use:
⇒ Use of overburden at Syncrude to construct highway

embankment
15
⇒ Use of Suncor flue gas desulfurization (FGD) sludge and

flyash to treat fine tailings
⇒ Use of Suncor coke as granular activated carbon filter
(GAC) substitute
⇒ Use of coal wash solids (fine coal dust) to generate power

by burning tailings once they had been dewatered.
⇒ As aggregate for concrete and asphalt and in road layer

works, if the rock is sound and unweathered, and has a
satisfactory mineralogy.
⇒ Abandoned tailings storages have also been developed

into light industrial townships. (Figure 4)
Figure 4. A ware-house built into the slope of an abandoned gold tailing storage
( From reference [2] page 6)
16
• Mine waste deposit can be re-worked and further

resources be extracted from it at a profit, eg. some gold
mine waste storages in South Africa have been re-mined
and reprocessed three times in the past 100 years.
Figure 5. Dump of waste sand being re-mined to extract residual gold. (From
reference [2] page 4)
8. Engineering for the mine waste storage:
• the conventional geotechnical concerns with the safety and

shear stability of slopes and settlement of surfaces of waste
17
storages or impoundments, e.g. waste rock storage, open

cast mine backfill and tailings storages;
• the environmental concerns of surface erosion and

transportation of air-borne dust, surface and groundwater
pollution by acid mine drainage , acid rock drainage and
other leachate, as well as radon gas;
• the concerns of the local communities who may fear adverse

effects on their health, their quality of life, the crops they
grow and the value of their investment in property, arising
from the proximity of a mine waste storage facility.
9. Principles of mine waste management:
• Highest environmental and ethical principles should be

applied to all aspect of mining.
• Three cornerstones of responsibility:
⇒ The complete life-cycle of every project must be fully

considered.
⇒ The risks to safety and the environment, as well as

financial risks must be realistically assessed and
managed throughout the life-cycle.
⇒ Every assessment must be broad-based, considering the

benefits to the company as well as to the local population
and the nation, so as to maximize the overall benefit. The
local population must be consulted and involved in all
assessments that may affect them in any way.
18
Environmental Reviews (Audits)
• Paper by Devenny – Senior Technical Director for Oil Sands

(Retired), Gulf Canada Ltd.
• The mining industry as well as most other industries is

making increasing use of an environmental audit.
• Undertaken to ensure that management demonstrates

due diligence and established state of company related to:
o Assess potential present and future liabilities due
to mine and other wastes.
o Assess compliance with regulations, etc.
o Assess adequacy of waste-handling activities to
minimize future liability.
o Evaluate future financial obligation to ensure that
all wastes are or will be handled to eliminate future
liability.
• Must be submitted to Board of Directors so they understand

issues and how to reduce future liabilities.
i.e., Suncor (1992)
• An environmental audit might conclude that the integrity of

tailings dam adjacent to river is a large of negative assets for
company.
o Would you consider buying company shares given

unknown liabilities associated with mine wastes?
19
Geotechnics of Mine Waste Audit

Dawson et al 1992
• Not sufficient to only meet regulations of the day; have

responsibilities into the future to meet changing regulations.
• Must continually improve how and what we do to manage

waste streams.
• Mining company is more than just custodian of wastes, also

have responsibility to understand changing technical issues
and to apply new technology to continually improve disposal
to minimize its effect on the environment.
• As we learn to conduct and use these audits we are

increasingly urged to look at technical issues and changing
technology to ensure that it is incorporated into the mines
operation and audit.
• This will provide the economic incentive to improve waste

handling system at mine site.
• Must be submitted to Board of Directors to ensure senior

management understands existing and future costs and
risks.
20
Waste Dumps (Dry Wastes)
Lottermoser (2010) gives a very good introduction to the

characterization of mine wastes:
• Mine waste can be considered as solid, liquid or gaseous by-

products of mining operations, including extraction and
processing of mineral or metallurgical ore bodies such as
overburden and waste rocks excavated from surface and
underground operations.
• Mine wastes often contain ore minerals or metals but in

concentrations that are deemed too low or “subeconomic” for
processing, i.e. below cut-off grade.
• Particle size and moisture content of the waste material as

much as mineralogy and geochemistry control both physical
and chemical properties of mine waste.
• Such waste tends to accumulate during the operation cycle

of the mine site and adequate measures for disposal are
necessary to comply with safety and environmental
regulations.
21
Figure 1: Typical production cycle at a metal mine (Lottermoser,

2010)
22
Issues
1. Geometry:
• We will examine common configurations
23
• Valley-fill: waste dump partially or completely fills the valley;

the construction of drains may be necessary depending on
the size and characteristics of the upstream catchment
(Caldwell, 2006)
• Cross-valley fill: variation of the valley fill; on the upstream

side, the valley is partially filled whilst fill slopes are
positioned in both upstream and downstream directions. The
embankment spans across the drainage, from one side of
the valley to the other. (Caldwell, 2006)
• Side-hill fills: waste dump constructed on sloping ground, the

dump slopes being generally inclined in the same direction
as the foundation, and the toes of the fills often extending to
the flat valley bottom. (Caldwell, 2006)
• Ridge fills: special case of side-hill fills with fill slopes

constructed on both sides of the ridge line or crest (Caldwell,
2006)
• Heaped fills: consist of mounds of compacted waste with

slope formed on all sides and flat foundation slopes in
general (Caldwell, 2006)
2. Stability:
• During construction – worker and equipment safety
• Post construction – public and environmental safety
24
3. Drainage:
• Can effect stability

• Dawson et al. (1998)
(poor drainage  reduced effective stress  reduced strength 

slope instability)
• Can generate erosion problems that can impact on future

stability
4. Contamination:
• Acid generation
• Other leachates (arsenic, cyanide, other process chemicals)

that will impact ground and surface waters
• Wind blown tailings can be carried off site
5. Economics:
• How to most economically move and place safely wastes
25
Development of Waste Dumps
Selection of waste dump sites:
Key factors influencing the selection of a site for mine waste

disposal (Osanlo and Ataei 2003) include:
• The volume of rock to be removed during the operation cycle of

the mine.
• The relief
• The dump capacity
• Distance between source and dump location (in both horizontal

and vertical directions)
• Cost and type of mine waste haulage from source to dump site.
• Environmental and legal aspects
• Chemical and physical properties of the mine waste
• Reclamation issues
Nevertheless, waste hauling distance and haulage costs generally

dictate the choice of an eventual disposal site especially in the
case of waste rock dumps. Nowadays, environmental concerns
have been given similar consideration.
26
⇒ Example of a dump site selection technique:
Osanloo and Ataei (2003) presented a Matrix Estimation

Method for the selection of waste rock disposal sites,
wherein a suitability factor (from 1 to 4) was assigned to
potential disposal sites; whilst a weight number (WN,
between 0 and 0.3) value related to a specific goal in the
design framework was applied to further characterize the
sites of interest. Typical results for such procedure are
illustrated here in Table-1 upon the analysis of candidate
disposal sites for an open pit mining project in Iran.
Table 1: Matrix selection method applied to the selection of for 4 possible

disposal sites for an open-pit mine waste rock dump in Iran (Osanloo and
Ataei, 2003)
27
Table 2: Storage capacity and haulage distance of waste rock from the
source to the four disposal sites considered (Osanloo and Ataei, 2003)
Figure 2: selection procedure for a suitable disposal site (Osanloo and

Ataei, 2003)
28
1. Valley in fill:
• Usually placed in thick lifts by end dumping and allowing

material to run out;
• Material is placed quite loose at or near the angle of repose;
• Failure concerns include:

⇒ soil failure of weak foundation soils
⇒ slope failure of dump during and after placement
⇒ runout into valley
2. Heaped waste dumps:
• Usually end dumped then spread/compacted by dozer;
• Basic view by industry that thicker the placement lift the better:
⇒ Has been somewhat disproved because poor trafficability

(due to poor compaction) and high costs of truck operation
(up to $250/hr) gives slower cycle time of haul trucks.
Dry density Strength
Depth within Depth within

Lift Lift
29
3. In pit disposal:
• Drag lines allow selective mining and in-pit cast off of

overburden
⇒ Imparts some dynamic compaction to wastes
o Thomson et al. (1986)

o Morgenstern et al. (1988)
30
• May move by truck and place in previously mined pits
• Minimizes real estate requirements beyond mined out area
⇒ Kandewal and Mezumdar (1992)
o Outline specific factors to be considered in dry handling

systems and in design of dumps.
31
Co-Disposal of Mine Waste Rock and Tailings
• Increasing interest observed in the mixing of waste rock and

tailings to address disposal issues related to either waste
streams and long term liability;
• Waste rock dumps, which are highly permeable and

unsaturated in nature, are subject to oxidation and acid rock
drainage (ARD) due to oxygen diffusion and conditions of
good drainage.
• Tailings are primarily characterized by slow time rate

consolidation properties, as well as stability issues relative to
poor (or no) strength and geotechnical hazards associated
with tailings disposal structures, i.e. liquefaction of tailings
dams, reclamation.
• Concept of co-disposal: mixing waste rock and tailings to

combine high strength of waste rock and hydraulic properties
of tailings, i.e. low permeability, to counter acidic metal
leaching from rock piles; and provide a possible alternative to
the construction of large tailings impoundments, which are
prone to catastrophic failures and present reclamation issues.
Table 3: Description of co-disposal methods (Wickland et al., 2006)

32
Wickland and Wilson (2005) investigated the consolidation

properties and development of strength in mixtures of waste rock
and tailings as compared to those obtained from conventional
disposal methods, i.e. either waste rock or tailings alone.
• Co-disposal by mixing or blending waste rock and tailings to

produce a homogeneous mass.
• Self-weight consolidation behavior of 3 mixtures of waste

rock-tailings (by dry mass) placed in meso-scale column
studied for 100 days; columns decommissioned after 24
months and samples taken for grain size analysis. A column
was prepared with waste rock alone under the same
configuration. The following conclusions could be drawn:
⇒ Consolidation settlement of the waste rock-tailings

mixtures was more or less similar to that of the waste rock
material alone (5 vs 7.5 % for mixture and waste rock
respectively); presence of tailings in voids of waste rock
may limit degree of settlement.
⇒ Waste rock and tailings mixtures showed faster time to

consolidation than that of tailings alone (estimated from
odometer test)
⇒ Mixtures of waste rock and tailings had hydraulic

conductivity (k) values similar to those measured from
tailings alone rather than waste rock. Mixtures were also
found to maintain water saturation compared to waste
rock alone, i.e. saturated portion of mixing fills remained
saturated after 100 days of free drainage without
exposure to rainfall. Excellent for restraining oxygen
diffusion and reducing ARD potential.
33
Figure 3: Experimental setup from Wickland & Wilson (2005); column apparatus
and waste rock-tailings mixtures shown.
Table 4: Summary result of column behavior of the waste rock-tailings mixtures

(1-3) and waste rock alone (4). (Wickland & Wilson 2005).
34
Figure 4: Grain size distribution of 5:1 waste rock- tailings mixture (left) and
waste rock alone (right) and source materials (bottom) from Wickland & Wilson
(2005) experimentations.
Figure 5: Soil water characteristic curve of a 5:1 waste rock-tailings mixture and
CIP tailings from Wickland & Wilson (2005) tests.
35
The behavior of a mixture of waste rock and tailings will depend

on the mixture ratio which can be related to particle size.
Mixture theories for waste rock and tailings have been

documented in the literature (Williams et al., 1995, and Wilson et
al., 2003), notably that of Wilson et al. (2003) who suggested the
preparation of the mixtures in a similar fashion to that used for
concrete; i.e. blending of waste rock and tailings to produce a
design particle size distribution and gradation to yield beneficial
geotechnical properties.
A conceptual approach to the design of waste rock-tailings

mixture was proposed, wherein the particle configuration of the
mixture was described in terms of particle packing theory for
binary mixtures with the following main assumptions (Wickland et
al. 2006):
• Mixtures comprise waste rock and tailings particles as well

as water and air
• Incompressibility of waste rock tailings and water; mass of

air is neglected
• Even distribution of waste rock, tailings and water through

the mixture mass, i.e. homogeneous mixture
• Large difference in average particle size (>20) between

waste rock and tailings particles, i.e. tailings particles are
smaller than critical entrance ratio in openings between
waste rock particles
36
Quantitative description of model in terms of global void ratio, e,

waste rock skeleton void ratio, e r , and tailings matrix void ratio e t
such that:
• e = Vv / Vs
• e r = (V a + V w + V t ) / V r
• e t = (V a + V w ) / V t
where: Vv, Vs, Va, Vw, Vt, and Vr are the volumes of voids,
solids, air, water, tailings solids, and rock solids
respectively as illustrated in figure:
Figure 6: Typical waste rock-tailings phase diagram (Wickland et al., 2006)
37
Figure 7: Configuration of waste rock-tailings mixture; waste rock only (a),

tailings slurry partially filling waste rock void space (b), tailings with floating
waste rock (d), tailings only (e), and target “just filled” configuration of tailings
slurry in waste rock void space (c). (Wickland et al., 2006)
Relationship between void ratios and mixture ratio R:
• e t = e + e r (ρ t / ρ r )
• e r = e + (ρ t / ρ r ) (1/R) (e+1)
where: ρ t and ρ r are the densities of tailings solids and waste

rock respectively (Wickland et al. 2006).
38
• Maximum dry density observed at a mixture ratio, R,

where waste rock void space is just filled with tailings
slurry, i.e. around 5:1 mixing ratio.
• A mixture ratio where volume of tailings is greater than

volume of waste rock pore space, the degree of saturation
is greater than 100%; whereas a degree of saturation less
than 100% is observed when the volume of tailings is less
than the waste rock void space.
• Water content for mixtures of waste rock and tailings

increases with tailings content, i.e., with a decrease in the
ratio of waste rock to tailings.
Experimentations by Wickland et al. further investigated the

compressibility of the mixtures of waste rock and tailings:
⇒ Total volume changes of the mixtures similar to those of

waste rock rather than tailings.
⇒ Indications of load transfer to waste rock skeleton under

higher increments of stress
⇒ Summary of compressibility test presented in table.
Table 5: Compressibility test results of waste rock-tailings mixtures (Wickland et

al. 2006)
39
More details relative to packing theory of binary mixture and its

application in the conception of waste rock- tailings mixture can
be found in Wickland et al. 2006.
Mechanical properties of waste rock-tailings mixture Khalili et al.

(2010):
• Mechanical properties of waste rock-tailings mixture,

referred to as paste rock investigated for a 4.8:1 mixture
ratio.
• Drained monotonic test results: Contractive behavior initially,

followed by dilative response of paste rock
• Paste rock in just-filled configuration unlikely experience flow

deformation under monotonic loading.
• Mechanical response of paste rock mostly similar to the

behavior of rock-only material; rock skeleton controls shear
strength properties of paste rock in just-filled mixing ratio.
• Some reserves regarding in-situ response of paste rock,

because of notable differences between field and laboratory
conditions including particle size (up to 3m in the field),
homogeneity, stress-strain history and drainage conditions.
40
Figure 8: Preparation of laboratory paste rock specimen (d) by mixing of tailings

slurry(a) and scalped waste rock particles less than 9.4mm (b); (Khalili et al.,
2010)
Figure 9: Shear response of rock-only, tailings-only and paste rock under

monotonic loading at consolidation effective stress of 200kPa (Khalili et al.,2010)
41
Paste rock also exhibits resistance to flow failure although it was

found more prone to strain development as compared to either
waste rock or tailing alone. This was further supported by
investigations of paste rock by Wijewickreme et al. (2010) under
cyclic loading conditions:
• Tests of “just filled” waste rock-tailings mixtures at different

void ratios and cyclic stress ratios.
• Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR) = σ d,cycle / 2σ’ 3c

where: σ d,cycle is the deviator stress, and σ’ 3c is the confining
stress
Figure 10: Typical cyclic response of paste rock (Wijewickreme et al. (2010)
42
• Paste rock has higher potential for strain development under

given CSR and number of cycle as compared to the case of
waste rock alone.
• Regardless of CSR, no strain softening behavior coupled

with a loss of shear strength observed for paste rock.
• Cyclic shear resistance of paste rock independent of initial

confining stress (for test range σ 3c < 400 kPa)
• Post cyclic monotonic tests indicated dilative response and

increase in shear resistance with increasing monotonic
shear strain: catastrophic flow failure unlikely
Figure 11: Cyclic resistance ratio of paste rock, waste rock only and tailings only
(Wijewickreme et al. (2010)
43
Stability of Waste Dumps (Failure Modes)
This is a concern for both short-term stability and serviceability

and long-term reclamation
4. Over-steepened crests:
• If the material is placed at an

angle steeper than its natural
angle of repose
• It may result in the loss of men and equipment if the crest

collapses during placement
• End dumping results in segregation of the material:
⇒ The large particles roll down the hill, and the smaller
material stays at the top;
⇒ The angle of the slope must be designed for the finer

material remaining at the top
5. Foundation failure:
• Classic non-circular and

circular slip must be considered Slip surface
• Use conventional slope stability analysis such as Morgenstern

and Price (1965)
44
6. Flow failure:
• It is commonly assumed that

waste dumps are dry (well
drained);
σ1 − σ3
• This granular material has
substantial ductility
i.e. can undergo significant ε
deformation with no loss in
strength
• Allowable deformation in the order of 30 cm/day are not

uncommon
• However, a number of dumps have collapsed and flowed

unexpectedly resulting in loss of life and equipment
⇒ Dawson et al (1998)
• This phenomena is call static liquefaction (i.e. no seismic

loading to induce the failure)
⇒ The dumps appeared dry and stable;
• See figure of dump height vs. dump slope angle :
⇒ Suggests a dump height of >100 m is needed for failure
• See figure on runout vs. volume:
⇒ Only 2 locations appear to be a result of foundation failure
⇒ Material that did flow, nominally had good foundations and

was apparently free draining
45
• Therefore, by traditional analysis, they should not have been

of concern, yet ~30% failure rate
• The apparent explanation has been that during placement

sand size (20 to 25%) material was formed and is present in
layers in the waste dumps
46
• This may be due to breakdown during (under loading by

dozers or trucks) or after (due to high stresses from
overburden) placement, due to segregation during
placement, or as material rolls down slope some rocks
disintegrate forming sand
• The net result is layers of lower permeability material within

the dump which can generate perched water tables,
reducing the effective stress in the pile, reducing the strength
in the pile
• Evidence:
Flow failures usually occur after heavy rainfall events;
⇒ Flow failures have seldom been observed in base metal

(hard rock) mines, mostly at coal mines where the waste
rock are softer sedimentary rocks;
⇒ More failures have been observed in British Columbia

than in Alberta and the mudstones in Alberta are stronger
than those in British Columbia
• Issues that must be confronted to avoid potential collapse:
⇒ Adequate placement dry density > 85% Standard Proctor

Density
⇒ If possible avoid material breakdown generating 20-25%

sand size
⇒ Eliminate/limit water entering waste dumps by slope

grading and capping of dumps
⇒ Consider flatter slopes if the above cannot be

implemented
47
• The end result is that in these potentially liquefiable

materials, more engineering input will be necessary and
more attention will have to be paid to proper placement of
material to achieve a stable waste dump
Deep-seated failure of waste rock dumps as a result of high

intensity rainfall for long durations in Codli, South Goa District
(Goa, India; Yellishetty and Darlington, 2010).
⇒ Heavy rainfall on site from southwest monsoons between

June-September with 3,000 - 4,000mm of rain; dramatic
variation in groundwater levels, i.e. from 1.25 to 9.1m at
monsoon season, contributes to waste dump instability in
region.
⇒ Failure of waste rock dump would have considerable

environmental impact due to high ARD potential from
sulfide bearing materials
⇒ Numerical modeling of waste rock dump using general

limit equilibrium theory, and software (slope W): dump
modeled as free draining with heights of 10, 11, 13 and
15m, with 33° slope angle. Steady state conditions
assumed.
Table 6: Physical properties of waste rock dump material in Goa

(Yellishetty and Darlington, 2010).
48
• Factor of safety (FS) analysis indicated:
⇒ No monsoon conditions: dump heights up to 13m yielded

FS greater than unity whereas heights of dump in excess
of 13m were unstable (FS<1)
⇒ Monsoon conditions: waste rock dump with height as low

as 10m becomes unstable when pore water pressure
rises in excess of 2.9m which is common in the area.
⇒ Empirical relationship developed to predict deep-seated

waste dump slope failure as a result of monsoon rainfalls:
FS = 0.027c + 0.04φ - 0.03DH - 0.083PWP + 0.65
where: c is cohesion (kPa), φ the angle of internal friction

(degrees), DH the dump height (m), and PWP is
the pore water pressure (m) (Yellishetty and
Darlington, 2010)
• Increase in cohesive strength and friction angle of soil

observed with increasing density as a result of
compaction; increase in compaction key to improving the
stability of waste rock dump.
Table 7: Relative effect of the increase in density on cohesion and friction angle
of waste rock dump material in Goa (Yellishetty and Darlington, 2010)
49
Figure 12: Influence of the rise in pore water pressure on the computed factor of
safety as a result of monsoonal rainfall (Yellishetty and Darlington, 2010).
References:
Lottermoser G. Bernd, (2010) “Mine waste, characterization, treatment, and

environmental impact”, 3rd Edition, p1-41 Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2010.
Osanloo M. and Ataei (2003), “Factors affecting the selection of site for
arrangement of pit rock dumps”, Journal of Mining Science Vol 39 No2
pp49-54, April 2003.
Wickland B.E. and Wilson G.W. (2005), “Self-weight consolidation of

mixtures of mine waste rock and tailings”, Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, Vol. 42 Issue 2, p327-339, April 2005.
Wickland B.E., Wilson G.W., Wijewickreme D., and Klein B. (2006) “Design
and evaluation of mixtures of mine waste rock and tailings”, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 43 Issue 9, p928-945, September 2006.
50
Khalili A., Wijewickreme D., Wilson G.W., “Mechanical response of highly

gap-graded mixtures of waste rock and tailings. Part1: Monotonic shear
response”, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 47 Issue 5, p552-565,
May 2010.
Williams D. (1995), “Practical co-disposal deposition” in Proceedings of the

7th Australian Coal preparation conference, Australian Coal Preparation
Society, pp371-383, 1995. (**)
Wilson G.W., Plewes H.D., Williams D., and Robertson J. (2003),

“Concepts for co-mixing of tailings and waste rock” in Application of
Sustainability of Technologies: Proceedings of the 6th International
Conference on Acid Rock Drainage (ICARD), pp. 437-444, 2003. (**)
Wijewickreme D., Khalili A., Wilson G.W., “Mechanical response of highly

gap-graded mixtures of waste rock and tailings. Part2: undrained cyclic
and post-cyclic shear response”, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol.
47 Issue 5, p566-582, May 2010.
Yellishetty M. and Darlington J.W. (2010), “Effects of Monsoonal rainfall on

waste dump stability and respective geoenvironmental issues: a case
study”, Environmental Earth Sciences, Springerlink, Online First,
October 2010.
(http://www.springerlink.com.login.ezproxy.library.ualberta.ca/content/b31q62767
n244162/)
51
Case Histories – Flow Failures in Waste Dumps
Experience in Australia – Eckersley (1985, 1990 a)
Eckersley, J.D. 1985. Flowslides in stockpiled coal. Engineering Geology,

22: 13 – 22.
Eckersley, J.D. 1990. Flowslide hazards in coal stockpiles. National

Conference Publication – Institute of Engineers Australia, 90: 35 – 39.
• Found that loose piles of coking coal awaiting loading and

shipment at a north Australian coal export terminal have
spontaneously liquefied and flowed up to 60 m in 15 seconds
or less.
• The large slides in the Australian coal industry have involved
up to 10,000 tonnes of coal which travelled 60 m over flat
ground.
• The slipped material tends to have a very flat slope with a
steep scarp which slumps back to the angle of repose.
• In one case, cracks were noted at the crest of an 11 m high

pile. The face began moving slowly and quickly accelerated. A
150 m length of the face flowed like a large wave over about 50
m and up and over a 1 m – 2 m high embankment in less than
15 seconds. About 272 mm of rain had fallen in the 5 days
before the collapse and the bottom ~ 1m of the slipped material
was a saturated coal slurry.
• Appeared that instability was triggered after heavy rains. i.e.
water table may have risen in piles.
• Flow failure has also occurred after stockpiling relatively wet

coal, with no direct rainfall on the stockpile. (Heavy rain
soaked the coal in open rail wagons in transit from the mine
prior to stockpiling.)
52
• Flow distance appears to increase with stockpile height.

• Mobility of the slide also increases as the proportion of
saturated coal increases.
• D10 of the coking coal (0.06 mm – 0.3 mm) is similar to that of
other materials in which flowslides have occurred.
• The most significant conditions leading to collapse include:
⇒ Saturation of stockpile base due to heavy rainfall, infiltration,

and/or redistribution of moisture within the coal stockpile at
placement;
⇒ Loose dumping of the coal; and
⇒ Fresh placement of the coal.
• Coal is frequently damp when stockpiled and it has been found

that a significant proportion of the water in the coal can
percolate to the base of the stockpile where it becomes trapped
above a lower permeability subgrade.
• Loose coal also suffers significant loss of volume upon
saturation. Contraction of the material causes an increase in
the pore water pressure.
• Principles of failure:
⇒ Shear strength of the coal is reduced by the pressure of

water in the pore spaces between the coal particles.
⇒ When the shear strength is exceed by the shear stress
imposed as a result of a rising water table or excavation of
the toe of the slope, sliding failure begins.
⇒ Coal stockpiles are much more sensitive to water pressure
change than sand or gravel because the particles are so
light (Gs ~ 1.3 – 1.4 compared to Gs ~ 2.6 – 2.8).
53
⇒ In flowslides, when sliding failure begins, the grain structure

tends to collapse and the normal load is rapidly transferred
to the pore pressure. The shear strength quickly drops to a
residual value and the slide accelerates.
⇒ The slide mass then travels like a viscous fluid – i.e.
liquefaction occurs.
Instrumented Laboratory Flowslides – Eckersley (1990 b)
Eckersley, J.D. 1990. Instrumented laboratory flowslides. Geotechnique,

40: 489 – 502.
• Laboratory experiments using 1 m high loose coal stockpiles, in

which the water table was allowed to rise slowly, were used to
study static liquefaction problems and coal stockpiling.
• Instrumentation was designed for high speed measurement of
pore pressures. (See Fig. 6.)
54
• Stress and pore water conditions just before and during

flowsliding were monitored.
• Coal failed and flowed to very low angle slope. (See Fig. 7.)
• Flowsliding was initiated by a slow increase in water level.
• High pore pressures were generated during rather than prior to
failure. Excess pore pressures in the shear zone were a result
of shear deformation and did not exist prior to the start of
movement.
55
• Excess pore pressures were a consequence of failure initiation,

not a cause. Static liquefaction was a post-failure phenomenon
in this case.
• Slope was constructed and loaded under fully drained
conditions but outcome due to water table rise was fully
drained collapse and flow of granular material.
• Failure initiated at a friction angle less than the steady state
friction angle.
• Displacements as a result of failure initiation were
accompanied by rapid generation of excess pore pressures in
thin shear zones and loss of shear strength, resulting in sudden
acceleration of the sliding mass to rapid fluid-like motion and
very flat final slopes.
56
Background reading on Collapse Behavior of Loose Sands –

Sasitharan (1993)
Sasitharan, S., Robertson, P.K., Sego, D.C., and Morgenstern, N.R. 1993.
Collapse behavior of sand. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 30:
569 – 577.
• Showed that collapse (flow failure and liquefaction) of loose

cohesionless material can occur under any type of loading
(drained or undrained) if the stress path followed during loading
attempts to cross the state boundary suface.
• As a result, slopes can fail undrained if the soil is very loose
and the pore pressure rises, even if the pore pressure rise is
slow and under drained conditions.
• Static liquefaction flow slides can occur without undrained
loading.
• Loose sand can collapse at a mobilized friction angle less than
the steady state friction angle under fully drained conditions
due to loss in effective stress.
• In other words, when cohesionless soil is subject to very slow

increases in shear stress, the soil contracts and increases the
pore water pressure until a point of instability is reached.
Further increments of stress or strain result in rapid generation
of excess pore pressures and the shear strength drops to the
steady state value. The applied stresses can no longer be
sustained and rapid acceleration of the slide occurs. Therefore
static liquefaction is a consequence of instability rather than the
cause.
57
Collapse of Waste Dumps at BC Coal Mines – Dawson (1998)
Dawson, R.F., Morgenstern, N.R., and Stokes, A.W. 1998. Liquefaction

flowslides in Rocky Mountain coal mine waste dumps. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 35: 328 – 343.
• Collapse and runout, mobility believed to be explained by

collapse and resistance lost following concepts in Eckersley
(1990).
• Studies at 3 separate mine sites (with waste dump failures)
found that waste rock in failed mass contained between 20-
25% sand sizes particles. This is due to break down of weaker
rock during end dumping.
• Failure is not triggered by earthquakes. Most records suggest
that there are few cases of cyclic liquefaction within clean
gravels.
∴ for waste rock dumps to trigger static liquefaction requires
that material sustain high pore water pressures (i.e. it must
have low hydraulic conductivity (K)).
⇒ Sand must reduce K in dump from 100-102 cm/s (typical of
open work rocks) down to 10-2 – 10-3 cm/s (typical of sands).
⇒ Sand forms layer within dump, which traps water thus
reducing free draining capacity.
• Sand layers:
1) Affect free downward and lateral drainage during infiltration
into dump.
2) Affects the collapsible material by allowing it to maintain the
pore pressures that allow it to collapse.
58
Stress paths leading to collapse of a coal mine waste dump:

(Refer to Figure 6.23 Conceptual Collapse Model)
• Layers of finer sandy gravel periodically deposited parallel to

slope face. (Shaded layer in Figure 6.23)
• Stresses are initially low and void ratio is equal to placement
void ratio at point A.
• Additional material is added and the element at point A follows
the consolidation path from A to B.
• Due to the steep slope, shear stresses during consolidation are
high. Static stress state at B is higher than steady state and
collapse may occur.
• High moisture content in fine layers can develop (due to
consolidation, snow melt, rainfall) and saturation becomes high
enough to generate excess pore pressure during collapse.
• Saturation of 85% is high enough to initiate excess pore
pressure development.
• As water table rises, effective stress decreases towards
collapse under constant shear stress with only small changes
in void ratio.
• When the material collapses, excess pore pressures are
generated and strain weakening occurs leading to progressive
failure.
59
60
Aberfan Flowslide – Wales 1966
Bishop, A.W. 1973. The stability of tips and spoil heaps. Quaternary
Journal of Engineering Geology, 6: 335 – 376.
Blight, G. 2010. Geotechnical Engineering for Mine Waste Storage

Facilities. Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK.
Blight, G.E. and Fourie, A.B. 2005. Catastrophe revisited – disastrous flow
failures of mine and municipal solid waste. Geotechnical and
Geological Engineering, 23: 219 – 248.
Flow slide involving “dry” mine waste:
• October 21, 1966, a coal waste dump flowed downhill into the
village of Aberfan, Wales, killing 116 school children, age 7 –
10, and 28 adults.
61
• Colliery waste was loosely dumped by a mechanical tipper.

• Tip (waste dump) slopes were at the angle of repose, ~ 37o.
• Height of tip 7 at time of failure was 67 m.
• A spring, fed by water in the underlying sandstone under
artesian pressure, was located under tip 7 (the tip that failed).
• Several days of heavy rain had occurred prior to failure. The
heavy rain likely set up artesian pore pressures in the
underlying sandstone.
• 1st slide in tip 7 occurred in 1963, but continued to dump over

top of it.
62
• A number of slides occurred between 1963 and 1966.

• Prior to failure, the spring under tip 7 had eroded fines from the
waste dump and they covered the slope below in a layer of
slurry.
• Air photos of area indicate a number of similar waste dumps
had failed and flowed downslope before above accident
occurred, including a flowside in 1939 at Cilfynydd Common, a
few kilometers south of Aberfan.
Morning of failure:
63
• 7:30 am – Crest of tip 7 had moved down by 3 m over a

distance of 10 m – 12 m from the edge.
• 8:30 am – Crest dropped by 6 m.
• 9:10 am – Toe of tip began moving down 12.5o hillside at
walking speed.
• After a few minutes, flow accelerated and split into 2 lobes.
• North lobe was stopped by an embankment along an old canal.
• South lobe crossed the canal and an abandoned railway
embankment and entered the village.
• Flow travelled 650 m and destroyed homes and a school.
• Flow in village was about 10 m thick.
• Flow velocity was estimated to be 15 km/hr to 30 km/hr.
• Water flowed from the sandstone after the slip and an 800 mm
water main was broken by the slide, which complicated the
rescue work.
• Resulted in new regulations for mine waste management.
Cause of failure – strain softening of “dry” coarse mine wastes:
64
• Bishop, 1973 introduced the concept of bulking of unsaturated

sands and gravels when deposited without compaction.
• If dry cohesionless material (sand and gravel) is deposited
loosely, it will assume a certain volume and void ratio.
• If the water content is gradually increased prior to deposition,
the volume and void ratio of the mass will increase to a critical
water content and then the volume will decrease again.
• When a material is saturated, it will have about the same
volume and void ratio as when it is dry. (The same volume and
void ratio is reached if a damp material is subsequently
saturated.) See Figure 7.
• Bulking results for colliery waste from Aberfan showed a
decrease in volume upon saturation, which leads to strain
softening behavior.
• “Dry” mine wastes are often deposited damp and bulked
without compaction.
• A subsequent increase in water content caused by heavy or
continuous rain or another source can cause a tendency for a
sudden decrease in void ratio and consequently, strain
softening behavior and a loss of shear strength. See Figure 5.
• Failure of tip 7 at Aberfan was likely initiated by a series of
slides caused by the artesian pressure of the spring and
contraction of the loose material as it became saturated by the
spring and the rain.
Typical strain softening behavior:
65
Bulking effects:
66
• Post accident investigation indicated that insitu dry density >85-

87% of standard Proctor dry density was required to prevent
67
material from triggering waste dump material to collapse and

then flow downslope.
• Method of waste handling and placement allows placed
material to be a potentially liquefiable (collapsible) material.
• These issues must be confronted to avoid any future potential
collapse:
⇒ Adequate placement dry density of materials going into
dump.
⇒ Avoid causing breakdown of rock to create 20 to 25% sand
size particle within waste dump.
⇒ Eliminate moisture from entering waste dumps (requires
grading of surface and possible placement of cover).
• In future waste dumps will require more engineering design
supported with better understanding of material behavior.
68
69
Fly Ash Tip – Jupille, Belgium 1961
Bishop, A.W. 1973. The stability of tips and spoil heaps. Quaternary
Journal of Engineering Geology, 6: 335 – 376.
Blight, G. 2010. Geotechnical Engineering for Mine Waste Storage

Facilities. Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK.
• Fly ash was tipped by truck, without compaction, into a narrow

valley at a water content of about 25%.
• Tip height was about 45 m.
• Lower part of tip was nearly saturated by flowing surface water.
• Flowside occurred on February 3, 1961.
• 100 000 m3 – 150 000 m3 of ash flow downhill, initially at 18o,
for about 600 m at speeds possibly as high as 110 km/hr to
160 km/hr.
• Slide demolished homes and killed 11 people.
• Initial collapse due to undermining of a steep, partly saturated,
slightly cohesive face.
• The collapsing material had very low in-situ density, contained
interstitial air, and fell on a layer of air in its descent.
• The fly ash was mobilized by pore air pressure and it flowed
downhill as a dry air-borne fluid.
• No seeping water in flowslide material.
70
71
Municipal Solid Waste Flowslide – Istanbul, Turkey 1993
Kocasoy, G. and Curi, K. 1995. The Umraniye-Hekimbasi open dump

accident. Waste Management & Research, 13: 305 – 314.
Blight, G.E. 2008. Slope failures in municipal solid waste dumps and
landfills: a review. Waste Management & Research, 26: 448 – 463.
Blight, G.E and Fourie, A.B. 2005. Catastrophe revisited – disastrous flow
failures of mine and municipal solid waste. Geotechnical and
Geological Engineering, 23: 219 – 248.
Blight, G.E. and Fourie, A.B. A review of catastrophic flow failures of

deposits of mine waste and municipal refuse. University of the
Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
• The Umraniye-Hekimbasi municipal waste dumping site was

located in a side valley near Istanbul, Turkey.
• Trucks dumped the waste on platforms and bulldozers pushed
it over the precipice. Wastes were not compacted or covered
with soil.
• In mid 1992, horizontal parts of the dumping site were covered
with 3 m – 5 m of demolition waste and soil to increase safety.
• On April 28, 1993, a loud explosion occurred and a section of
waste, more than 40 m high, began to move from the side
valley to the bottom of the main valley.
• The waste travelled about 500 m, 11 houses were buried, and
39 people were killed.
• Difficult to determine cause because waste characteristics vary
widely.
• The slope of the waste heap prior to failure was 1H:3V.
• The weather was rainy in the days prior to the slide.
• Postulate that pore pressures in the slope could have been
high.
72
• The combination of high pore pressures and recent load of the

demolition waste and soil was probably enough to trigger the
slide.
• Gas librated from the landfill may have mixed with the air and
caused the explosion, which accelerated the movement of the
waste.
73
Liquefaction of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW):
• Little is known about the strain softening behavior of MSW.

• It is difficult to characterize because of its heterogeneous
and fibrous nature which makes it difficult to sample
undisturbed.
• Testing of MSW indicates dilatant behavior. No clear
laboratory evidence indicates strain-softening behavior.
• However, recorded flow failures in MSW landfills indicate
that MSW can strain-soften and result in flow failure.
• At least 6 large-scale failures of MSW have been recorded

between 1977 and 2005:
74
Triggering Mechanisms of Liquefaction - Static and Cyclic
1) Earthquake Loading (i.e. shaking)

• Pore pressure builds up undrained.
• Approach to evaluate stability during earthquakes.
• Rajani (1992) outlines performance of various tailings dams
during earthquake loading. (Marcuson and Hynes, 1988)
Youd, T.L. et al. 2001. Liquefaction resistance of soils: summary report

from the 1996 NCEER and 1998 NCEER/NSF workshop on
evaluation of liquefaction resistance of soils. Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 127: 817 – 833.
2) Undrained Loading
• Rapid construction – pore pressures develop during cyclic
straining and do not dissipate.
• Evaluation to determine if this can occur – Robertson and
Wride, 1998, Robertson, 2010.
Robertson, P.K and Wride, C.E. 1998. Evaluating cyclic liquefaction
potential using the cone penetration test. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, 35: 442 – 459.
Robertson, P.K. 2010. Evaluation of flow liquefaction and liquefied

strength using the cone penetration test. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 136: 842 – 853.
3) Drained Loading
• Slow trigger caused by slow foundation movements which
may cause material to strain
• Anisotropically loaded material passes peak resistance or
pore pressure increases slowly (water table rise), which
initiates collapse. Eckersley (1990)
75
Historical Flow Failures of Mine Waste Tips, Tailings Dams,

and Municipal Solid Waste Landfills
76
77
Drainage in Waste Dumps
• Although the largest rock tends to accumulate at the base of

the dump, it has not been engineered as a filter
Coarse rock due to

segregation
Consequently it cannot be guaranteed to perform adequately in

the long term:
⇒ It may clog with finer grained material as water flows through
⇒ High vertical stresses may breakdown some of the rock
• To ensure adequate drainage it's advised to ensure the drain at

the base of the dump is engineered and placed properly
• Thus it must meet filter criteria, must be durable enough so it

doesn't break down, and must allow adequate flow through it
(note flow will be turbulent, not Darcian)
• Reference on the topic: Proceeding of the International

Symposium on Flow-Through Rock Drains. Cranbrook Sept 8-
11, 1986. Distributed by Bi-Tech.
Excellent case histories on performance and design details of

rock drains.
78
Reclamation of Waste Dumps
The dump material is a vary barren environment biologically, and

thus not very hospitable for plant growth and thus difficult to
"green up"
Thus the surficial material may have to be amended (topsoil

replacement/augmentation) and/or special species of plants
utilized which can adapt to the environment of barren soil ro rock
on a slope
Reclamation criteria:
• Slopes must be contoured to the biological angle

(2 H:1V, 26°)
• These slopes will allow the topsoil to establish vegetation
• Note the angle of repose of the material is typically > 35°
• At 26°, the vegetation should not erode due to sheet flow

but slopes should be contoured to reduce downslope
water velocity
Another consideration is what is the future land use:
• Must the original land use be restored (pristine?)
• Is there a desire to render the land more productive for

human use than land use before mining?
(i.e. farming, livestock pasture, harvestable timber)
79
Another recent consideration is whether or not non-native plants

can be used(and what constitutes "native")
Other geotechnical/geoenvironmental issues include:

• Reestablishment of groundwater regime
• Potential for offsite migration of contaminants (discussed

next)
"Mine landscape engineering" is a current description for the

process of reclaiming mine wastes and includes the above issues,
and also:
• What are the effects of the establishment of long term

surficial drainage systems (and what should be done
during reclamation to promote a long-term, stable system)
• What will be the effect of long-term settlement on the

landscape and land use
Example. TransAlta Coal Mine, Alberta (Thomson et al, 1986)

• Cast back waste dumps formed using draglines without
compaction.
o When piles are re-contoured for reclamation, they
undergo future differential settlement.
• How much differential settlement would occur between
peaks and valleys?
• What is potential for future settlement due to groundwater
re-establishment when dewatering is stopped?
(Hydro compaction of cast back piles)
• Challenge with returning this reclaimed land for any usage
other than farming due to total and differential settlements.
80
The major issue here is offsite migration of contaminants in the surficial or

groundwater.
We'll restrict the discussion here to waste dumps, and discuss the issue
again when we talk about tailings.
Acid Rock Drainage (ARD)
For waste dumps that have not been subject to ore processing there is the
potential for generation of acid by reaction of sulfide minerals contained in
waste rock with oxygen and water. This is referred to as acid rock
drainage (ARD).
Note: The term Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) was used in the past, but ARD
is the accepted terminology today since the phenomena does not occur
strictly in mines.
• The primary process responsible for generation of ARD is weathering

of sulphide minerals, in particular pyrite.
• This can occur naturally (eg. Rio Tinto, Sulpher Creek) or humans
can accelerate the weathering process through earth moving
operations (eg. mining, road cuts)
• Drainage below pH of 4.5 is termed ARD.
• GARD Guide, Chapter 2

The issue: existing liability due to ARD is >$100B globally (2011)
The Reaction
Complex process governed by a combination of physical, chemical, and

biological factors. Examples – surface area exposed to weathering, grain
size, presence of oxygen and water, presence of other oxidizing agents like
iron, current acidity, temperature, presence of certain bacteria, etc.
A schematic illustrating these factors is shown below:
81
Figure 2-11: Schematic Illustration of Factors that Affect Sulphide Oxidation and Modify
Mine Drainage during Transport
• The most common sulphide mineral is iron sulphide, also known as

pyrite (FeS 2 ).
• Oxidation of pyrite requires three basic ingredients: pyrite, oxygen,

and water.
A typical reaction sequence of pyrite to generate acid is shown
stochiometrically and discussed below:
1. 2FeS 2 + 2H 2 O + 7O 2  4H+ + 4SO 4 2- + 2Fe2+
2. 4Fe2+ + 10H 2 O + O 2 abiotic 4Fe(OH) 3 + 8H+

3. 2Fe2+ + O 2 + 2H+ T. ferrooxidans 2Fe3+ + H 2 O
4. FeS 2 + 14Fe3+ + 8 H 2 O  15Fe2+ + 2SO 4 2+ + 16H+
 Reaction (1) is simply chemical oxidation that occurs under neutral to

alkaline conditions and where atmospheric oxygen acts as the
82
oxidant. Note the resulting release of acidity (H+) and ferrous iron
(Fe2+).
 Reaction (2) can remove some of the ferrous iron under slightly acidic
to alkaline conditions, producing relatively insoluble iron hydroxide
(Fe(OH) 3 ) but also releases much more acidity.
 Reaction (3) occurs once the pH drops below 4.5 (more acidic). The
reaction consumes some acidity but oxidizes the ferrous iron into
ferric iron (Fe3+). Once the pH is 3.5 and lower, the bacteria
dominate the system. Also note, the bacteria that catalyze this
reaction require a nominal amount of oxygen. The presence of iron
oxidizing bacteria can speed up this reaction by 5-6 orders of
magnitude.
 In Reaction (4), the ferric iron directly oxidizes pyrite, and occurs
under sufficiently acidic conditions (i.e. where dissolved ferric iron is
present – see Reaction 3). This reaction generates substantially
more acidity and the cycle continues.
This acid generation has a couple of undesirable effects:
• Very low pH water can be released (< pH 1) which will sterilize

downstream water courses and land receiving seepage
The low pH promotes metal dissolution from within rock over which
low pH fluid passes, which renders the water toxic with heavy metal
The acid generation process can also be catalyzed by microbial action as

shown in the figure.
83
84
Figure 2-9: Schematic Illustration of Normalized Sulphide Oxidation Rates with and
without Bacterial Mediation (after Robertson and Broughton, 1992)
85
Neutralizing Reactions
Other reactions can occur that consume acid and release alkalinity. Most
carbonate minerals are capable of dissolving rapidly, making them effective
acid consumers. An example of this reaction is below:
5. MeCO 3 + H+  Me2+ + HCO 3 -
Where Me is a divalent cation, such as calcium (Ca2+) or manganese

(Mn2+), but NOT iron or magnesium as these release acidity in subsequent
reactions.
This alkalinity balances the pH in Stage I (Figure 2.2 above) and is

consumed over time resulting in a drop in pH over time. Stage I can last for
years. As the pH falls below 4.5, the microbial reactions dominate and
results in a rapid acceleration of acid generation.
HOWEVER, if the carbonate is physically separate from the sulphides, or if

the reaction process tends to coat and isolate the carbonates, then the
neutralizing capacity of the carbonates may be completely prevented.
• Site specific geochemical and geological analysis of both the ore
and mine waste is required.
Characterization
(GARD Guide, Chapter 4)
The generation, release, mobility, and attenuation of ARD is a complex

processes governed by a combination of physical, chemical, and biological
factors (see Chapter 2). Whether ARD enters the environment depends
largely on the characteristics of the sources, pathways, and receptors
involved. Characterization of these features is therefore key to the
prediction, prevention, and management of ARD at mine sites.
Environmental characterization programs are designed to collect sufficient
data to answer the following questions:
• Is ARD likely to occur?
86
• What are the sources of ARD? How much ARD will be generated and
when?
• What are the significant pathways that transport contaminants to the
receiving environment?
• What are the anticipated environmental impacts of ARD release to
the environment?
• What can be done to prevent or mitigate/manage ARD?
The following schematic illustrates a number of different disciplines

required to address these questions:
Components of Site Characterization Program (GARD Guide, Figure 4-1)
87
FUNDAMENTALLY: the geologic characteristics of the ore body and host

rock define the type of drainage generated as a result of mining.
Characterizing ARD potential is conducted throughout a project’s lifecycle:
• Preliminary assessments can be done by reviewing geologic data,

and baseline environmental data (looking for naturally elevated metal
concentrations) during the exploration phase.
• As the project develops, more detailed information of the site can be

used to refine the preliminary assessment. At this point, the primary
sources of discharge and general receptors can be defined.
• Watershed analyses are conducted to determine the quantity and

direction of water movement, which defines potential transport
pathways for ARD.
• Over the project’s life, data is continually gathered to refine the

predictions and to monitor environmental conditions and impacts.
Despite inherent differences at mine sites (e.g., commodity type, climate,

regulatory framework), the general approach to site characterization is
similar, as shown below.
• Define the quantity and quality of drainage potentially generated by

different sources
• Identify surface and groundwater pathways that transport drainage

from sources to receptors
• Identify receptors that will be affected by exposure to drainage
• Define the risk of this exposure
The most important sources are mine waste, ore, process waste, and the
disturbances from the extraction and processing operations. Water is the
primary environmental pathway for constituents released from these
sources. Thus, aquatic resources are usually the receptor of most interest.
See Figure 4-4 taken from the GARD Guide, below.
88
Figure 4-4: Example Conceptual Site Model Schematic
Sources and Pathways for various mining operations are shown in Figure
4-6 to 4-9, below. (extracted from GARD Guide, Chapter 4)
89
Figure 4-6: Sources and Pathways of ARD in a Pit during Operation and Closure
Figure 4-7: Sources and Pathways of ARD in Underground Workings during Operation
and Closure
90
Figure 4-8: Sources and Pathways of ARD in a Waste Rock Pile
Figure 4-9: Sources and Pathways of ARD in a Subaqueous Tailings Storage Facility
(excerpt from GARD Guide, Chapter 4)
91
Components of site characterization include:

• Geo-environmental models
• Geochemical characterization of source materials
• Watershed characterization (i.e. hydrologic cycle, sensitivity of

receiving environment, biological receptors, receptors of historical/
cultural value)
Refer to Chapter 4 of the GARD Guide for detailed information on each site
characterization component.
Prediction of Acid Generation Potential
Chapter 5, GARD Guide
This section addresses the questions:

• Is ARD likely to occur?
• How much ARD will be generated and when?
Some general factors affecting mine waste ARD potential and rate:
• Percentage of sulphur and iron present in the mine waste
• Surface area (i.e. rock blocks vs. crushed rock vs. tailings)
• Presence of water and oxygen
• Overall mixture
High sulfide content rock (i.e. sulphide bearing minerals) are associated
with ore bodies containing base and precious metals (ex. copper, lead,
zinc, gold and silver)
92
Typical ore-deposit types most commonly associated with ARD include:

• Volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits,
• High sulphidation epithermal deposits,
• Porphyry copper deposits, and
• Skarn deposits.
There is also a problem with some eastern North American coal deposits
that contain pyrite.
Important data relevant to the prediction of ARD can be gathered during the
core logging process:
• Visual description of sulphide (pyrite) and carbonate content,

including mineralogy, grain sizes,
• Extent of oxidation, signs of weathering, and presence of water.
• Presence of coating on sulphides and carbonates,
• Observations of core (acid staining, extent of weathering, seeps etc)
Tests for Acid Generation Potential:
Three general categories: Laboratory static and short term methods,

laboratory kinetic methods, and field testing.
1. Laboratory Static and Short Term Methods:
a) Acid Base Accounting (ABA) – measures acid potential (AP)

through independent determination of acid generating and
neutralizing content. This test should always be conducted.
- AP and neutralizing potential (NP) are combined

mathematically to indicate whether a sample has a
stoichiometric balance that favors net acidity or net alkalinity.
93
- AP can be expressed in terms of carbonate from the following

formula:
AP (kg CaCO 3 /tonne) = 31.25 X S(%)
For example: if the rock has 2% sulpher content, you will need
62.5 kg of carbonate per tonne of rock to neutralize the acid.
- AP can also be expressed as Maximum Potential Acidity (MPA)

in terms of kg sulphuric acid produced per tonne of rock:
AP (kg H2 SO 4 /tonne) = 30.6 X S(%)
- NP is calculated assuming all carbon in the sample occurs as

calcite:
NP ( total C) = 83.3 x C(%)
- NP can also be expressed in terms kg H 2 SO 4 /tonne

neutralized. i.e. Acid Neutralizing Capacity (ANC).
- The Net Potential Ratio (NPR) is calculated as follows:

NPR = NP / AP
- The Net Neutralizing Potential (NNP) is calculated as follows:

NNP = NP – AP (kg/CaCO 3 /tonne)
- The Net Acid Producing Potential (NAPP) expressed as units of

kg H 2 SO 4 /tonne, is therefore:
NNAP = MPA – ANC
b) Net Acid Generation (NAG) Test and paste pH Tests – generate a

single value that can be used to indicated the likelihood of acid
generation or release of stored acidity.
- The NAG test involves the reaction of a sample with hydrogen

peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) to rapidly oxidize sulphide minerals
- Both acid generation and neutralization occur simultaneously

so the final measure of pH represents a direct measure of the
amount of acid generated.
94
- NAG pH of less than 4.5 indicates the sample is net acid

generating.
- Paste pH is simple, rapid, and inexpensive screening tool.

Indicates the presence of readily available NP (generally from
carbonate) or stored acidity.
- Outcome of paste pH test is governed by surficial properties

and in particular indicates the extent of soluble minerals.
ABA and NAG Testing can be used together to improve prediction

confidence, identify uncertain samples, and better define cut-off criteria for
material classification via Figure 5-8 from GARD Guide (Chapter 5).
Figure 5-8: ARD Rock Type Classification Plot Based on ABA and NAG Test
95
2. Laboratory Kinetic Methods

• Complex, time consuming, and requires operator experience and
skill for consistent results.
• Samples are subjected to periodic leaching and the leaching is

collected for analysis – intended to accelerate the natural
weathering process.
• Used to validate static methods, estimate long term weathering

rates, and potential for mine wastes and geologic materials to
release discharges that may impact the environment.
• Evaluates both acid generation and metal leaching.
a) Humidity Cell Tests (HCTs):

- Standardized test under fully oxygenated conditions with periodic
flushing of reaction products. (ASTM D5744)
- Primarily intended to generate information on weathering rates of
primary minerals (ex. Sulphides only)
b) Column Tests
- No standards available for column testing
- Can simulate different degrees of saturation, including flooded and
oxygen-deficient conditions.
- Typically larger scale than humidity cell tests.
- In theory, column tests provide information on combined
weathering rates of primary and secondary minerals.
- May be more suited to evaluation of mitigation measures such as
covers and amended waste sites.
An example plot of kinetic testing results from the GARD Guide Chapter 5
is shown below. Note the relatively stable response for 2 years, and then a
sharp decline in pH (acid generation) and rapid increase of metals in
solution over a matter of weeks.
96
Figure 5-11: Example Plot of Kinetic Test Results
3. Field Methods
• Range from rapid very small-scale tests to monitoring of full-
size mines for extended periods of time.
• Materials are tested on-site in ambient conditions, which can

include seasonal and discrete event (ex. rain storm)
evaluations.
• The greater amount of material used in the test, the more

accurate the representation of field conditions.
• Disadvantages include the time required to generate field

reaction rates, challenges related to comprehensive
geochemical characterization, and inability to test a large
number of different material types.
a) Field Leaching Test
- Simulates the chemical reactions that occur when geological

materials are leached by water.
97
- 5 minute test. Recently developed by USGS.

http://pubs.usgs.gov/tm/2007/0503/
b) Wall Washing
- Evaluation of runoff quality from an isolated section of in-situ
rock face after the application of a controlled amount of
irrigation.
- Useful “order-of-magnitude” test to estimate contributions from

exposed rock face.
c) Large Scale Field Programs

- Pilot cells, test piles, test plots, or test pads are constructed for
long term monitoring of relatively large quantities of material.
- Large-scale field columns (field lysimeters) operated under

natural precipitation and weathering conditions are also useul.
- Uses a more representative sample and minimizes effects of
conditions that can impact small scale testing (ex. sample
heterogeneity, reduced grain size, boundary effects)
- Longer monitoring durations are generally required (orders of
magnitude longer) because of reduced reactivity of field cell
tests relative to the finer grained materials commonly tests in
the lab.
- May be advantageous to operate field tests during the complete
mine life cycle to identify potential long-term releases.
Key factors of all test methods:

• Proper Data Management: primary requirements for a useful and
reliable database are that it should be in electronic format, it should
be implemented from the beginning of the study, and it should be
maintained and augmented throughout all phases of a mining project.
• Quality Assurance / Quality Control (QA/QC): to ensure that

geochemical data are reliable and defensible, and that such data can
98
be used for their intended purpose, such as defining the geochemical

types and distribution of mine wastes, developing waste management
plans, and for mine water quality prediction.
• Screening and Evaluation Criteria: generally required to assess

whether results from geochemical characterization studies represent
a potential impact or risk to a receiving environment at a mine site.
These criteria can be based on professional and empirical
experience, guidance documents, and regulations promulgated for
the express purpose of protecting the environment.
• Reporting: reported information needs to be presented in a format

that provides proper interpretation. Examples include tabulations of
analytical results, calculations of descriptive statistics, graphical
representations of standard reported variables, and documentation of
QA/QC procedures, test methodology, analytical approach, etc.
Prevention and Mitigation of ARD
(Chapter 6, GARD Guide)
Early avoidance of ARD problems is a best practice technique that may be

achieved through integrating the results of characterization and prediction,
with mine planning, design, and waste management strategies.
Prevention:
• Prevention is a proactive strategy
• Absolute prevention of ARD may require that all reactive sulphide

bearing minerals remain virtually isolated from atmospheric oxygen,
• The primary goal of the prevention is to stop contaminated drainage

from leaving the mine site at its source by minimizing reaction rates,
leaching, and the subsequent migration of weathering products from
mine waste.
• Prevention is the key to avoid costly mitigation.

99
Mitigation:
• Mitigation is a reactive strategy.
• The goal of mitigation measures is often to maintain or control the

rate of sulphide mineral oxidation so that ARD formation is prevented
or reduced to minimal or acceptable levels.
• Mitigation is the usual initial course of action for existing cases of

mine drainage already impacting the environment.
Selection of Prevention and Mitigation Methods:
Solutions for preventing and mitigating ARD will be site specific.
Geotechnical and geochemical design philosophies must be considered,

since they are often not compatible:
• Geotechnical stability is achieved in well drained conditions which is

prone to both oxygen and water infiltration, whereas geochemical
stability is easily achieved by maintaining saturation (prevents oxygen
infiltration).
Measures for ARD prevention, mitigation, and treatment must be included

in evaluation of mine lifecycle costs. For example, mining practices initially
thought to be more expensive may actually be more economical if future
ARD issues can be prevented / limited.
When selecting an appropriate method (s) of prevention and mitigation, one

must consider the following primary drivers of ARD:
• Physical Factors:
- The structural nature and physical environment of the ARD source

material significantly influences selection
- The structural nature and physical environment of each source

must be described with respect to the water table, seepage and
flow, degree of saturation, oxygen, heat, and solutes to provide a
100
detailed level of understanding of how geometry, hydraulic

properties, and structure influence control mechanisms, behaviour,
and performance.
- An illustration of how structure affects ARD in a waste rock dump
is shown in Figure 6-2.
Figure 6-2: Waste Rock Pile Structure and Processes (GARD Guide, Chapter 6)
• Geochemical Weathering Process:
- Integration and coupling of ARD factors must be used to assess

the best approach
- Controls may be targeted at each aspect of the ARD generation

process
• Climate and Physical Environment:
- Must consider water and energy budgets coupled with the terrain,
landforms, surface topography, soils, stratigraphy and geology,
surface hydrology, hydrogeology, and flora.
101
- For example, methods for prevention and mitigation that are

suitable in a tropical humid climate may fail in a dry climate.
Best Practices for Prevention and Mitigation of ARD
Figure 6-4 from the GARD Guide, Chapter 6 presents a schematic of the
methods and practice alternatives for the prevention and mitigation of ARD
through the lifecycle of a mine.
The following is a brief description of the alternatives available during

operation:
• Re-Mining:
- An alternative for legacy sites that are currently generating ARD.

- Often significant volumes of material must be rehandled or
managed.
- If valuable material still remains in the waste (due to less efficient
historical mining practices), then an opportunity exists to improve
the waste disposal system while recouping cost by mining the
valuable material in the waste. Otherwise, this alternative is
extremely expensive.
• Special Handling Methods:
- Incorporating waste handling into the mine plan. For example, by

using tailings as backfill support for underground mines,
subaqueous disposal, concurrent treatment by alkaline addition,
etc.
• Segregation:
- (also called selective handling) to physically separate potentially

acid generating (PAG) from non-acid generating materials.
Engineered configurations or complete saturation are examples of
processes that may be used to isolate the PAG material.
102
• Tailings Desulpherization:
- Ore processing includes a means of separating the sulphides or

pyrite from the tailings, which can then be stored in specifically
designed disposal areas.
• Physical Tailings Conditioning:
- Can include thickening, filtration, compaction, and gradation

control to design the waste properties such as reduced
permeability and oxygen diffusion rates, and increased water
retention and saturation.
• Encapsulation and Layering:
- Placing PAG and acid consuming materials in engineered

geometries to control/limit ARD.
• Blending:
- Mixing waste of varying AP and NP to create a deposit that

generates an acceptable discharge.
- Thorough mixing to create a homogeneous deposit generally
provides maximum benefit.
• Co-Disposal:
- Disposal of waste rock with tailings. For example, reactive waste

rock may be submerged in a saturated tailings deposit, or tailings
may be mixed with rock to impede flow of oxygen and water in the
waste rock dump.
• Permafrost and Freezing:
- May be an alternative for cold climates (-8oC mean annual air

temperature). Prevents penetration of the active – thawing – zone
into permanently frozen PAG materials.
103
• Additives and Amendments:
- Passivation: the treatment of reactive rock surfaces to limit release

of contaminants by installing a chemically inert and protective
surface layer.
- Alkaline Materials: control of solution pH by adding alkaline
materials. Intimate blending must be achieved for best results.
- Organic Matter: can be mixed directly with wastes to consume

oxygen and promote metal reduction in an anoxic environment by
naturally occurring bacteria.
- Bactericides: anionic surfactants control bacteria that extract

energy from iron oxidation, thereby controlling rate of pyrite
oxidation. The circumstances under which bactericides are an
alternative are limited.
• Covers
- Refer to next chapter.
104
Figure 6-4: Methods for Prevention and Mitigation of ARD.
105
In Summary
There are a number of strategies to limit or stop ARD.
They involve:
• Preventing moisture or O 2 from coming into contact with the
sulfide rich minerals,
• Neutralizing the leachate after it has been generated.
• Controlling pore water pH and bacterial and biogeochemical

processes.
The first step is to determine where the sulfide rich rock is prone to ARD
and to test for ARD production
• Price et al. (1997a and b) and Price and Kwong (1997)
• Laboratory studies can reasonably well predict the total ARD

capacity. They cannot, however, predict the rate of production
very well (i.e. the kinetics are affected by many environmental
considerations)
To mitigate acid generation there are a number of possible solutions:
• Installation of covers that prevent ingress of either water or oxygen
• Keep the material submerged under water so O 2 availability is very

low
• This has been done by placing the material in lakes
• This strategy is less likely to be acceptable in the future as

the lake ecosystem is adversely affected
• Prevent moisture ingress via site grading and placement of covers
106
• Blend other high carbonate rock (i.e. limestone) or waste alkaline

material into the sulfide rich rocks to buffer the future acid production
(this solution can be affected by the acid generation kinetics…if the acid
is released slowly and the carbonates dissolve quickly, in the long-term
acid generation may result if the buffering capacity is too low)
• Alternatively, the low pH effluent can be collected and treated;
• this requires an ongoing responsibility/liability after mine closure.
• Smith and Van Zyl (1983) and Garga et al. (1983)
Table 1 modified from Barton-Bridges and Robertson provide some

additional information
• It illustrates a need for close interaction between geotechnical and
hydrology input for any particular site.
Table 1. Available ARD Control Measures
Control of Acid Generation
- Conditioning of tailings or waste rock to remove or exclude sulphide minerals
- Covers and seals to exclude water
- Covers and seals to exclude oxygen (including water cover)
- Waste segregation and blending to control pH
- Base additives to control pH
- Bactericides to control bacterial oxidation of sulphide minerals
Control of ARD Migration
- Covers and seals to exclude infiltration of precipitation
- Controlled placement of waste to minimize infiltration
- Diversion of surface water
- Interception of ground water
- Bactericides to control bacterial oxidation of sulphide minerals
Collection and Treatment of ARD
Surface and groundwater collection systems together with treatment as follows:
- Active systems, e.g. chemical treatment plant

- Passive systems, e.g. treatment by wetlands
107
References
Price, W.A., and Kwong, Y.T.I., 1997. Guidelines for the prediction of acid rock drainage
and metal leaching for mines in British Columbia: Part III Waste Rock Weathering,
Sampling and Analysis, Some Lessons from the Provincial Database. In Proceedings of
the Fourth International Conference on Acid Rock Drainage, Vancouver, B.C. Canada,
May 31 – June 4, 1997, p. 31-45.
Price, W.A., Morin, K., and Hutt, N., 1997. Guidelines for the prediction of acid rock
drainage and metal leaching for mines in British Columbia: Part II. Recommended
procedures for static and kinetic testing. In Proceedings of the Fourth International
Conference on Acid Rock Drainage, Vancouver, B.C. Canada, May 31 – June 6, 1997.
p. 15-30.
Plumlee, G.S., Nash, J.T., 1995. Geoenvironmental Models – Fundamentals and

Applications. In: du Bray, E.A. (Ed).. Preliminary Compilation of Descriptive Mineral
Deposit Models. US Geol. Surv. Open-File Rep. 95-831, 1-10.
Mine Environment Neutral Drainage (website). Detailed Design Manuals.
108
Covers
(refr: www.gardguide.com)
Covers are used to

• Re-establish vegetation and prevent erosion
• prevent infiltration of water into waste piles and tailings
• prevent/minimize ingress of oxygen into waste rock – minimize
acid rock drainage production and transport
For selection and design of covers need to first determine the appropriate
level of control required (ie: how much oxygen ingress and/or net
percolation)
Design of covers will depend on:
• Available material (amounts and grain size distribution);

• Use native materials (i.e. stockpiled topsoil) or mine waste
materials (i.e. not imported materials)
• Water balance:
• precipitation/infiltration
• Run-off
• evaporation
• evapotranspiration
Thus, the performance of a cover system is linked to groundwater,

surface water, and air quality
• Can determine the appropriate type of cover based on climate

classification, rainfall and temperature (Figure 6.8)
109
Figure 6.8: Covers and Climate Types (modified from Holdridge et al.,
1971 by Wickland and Wilson)
Caution needs to be taken in cover design when considering the

“annual” criteria for climate, examples:
• Dry summer conditions – annually precipitation exceeds evaporation
but may have hot dry months where this is not the case
• Rainy Season – annually evaporation exceeds precipitation but may
have high intensity short duration rainfall event which exceed the
storage capacity of the cover material
110
Dry Covers
(refr: Section 6.6.7 Gard Guide)
• Typically earth, organic, or synthetic materials placed over mine
wastes
• Must interact with:
o Climate
o Hydrology
o Human activity
o Vegetation
o Animals
o Settlement of underlying
material
111
• Barrier covers are used in Humid Climates where:
Precipitation > Evapotranspiration
Maintain High Saturation
• Store & Release covers are used in dry arid climates where:
Evapotranspiration > Precipitation
barrier covers cannot be used in these climates because saturation

can’t be maintained
• The design objectives of dry covers are:

1. Minimization of infiltration through water diversion;
2. Runoff and shedding, or;
3. Store and release mechanisms.
Five Types of Dry Covers:

1. Soil Covers
2. Alkaline Covers
3. Organic Covers
4. Sulphide-Bearing but Net Neutralizing Materials
5. Synthetic Covers
Note: Organics and synthetic materials are often used components of a
multi-layer soil cover
1. Soil Covers
Soil covers generally involve granular materials placed over mine waste
Objectives of soil cover involve:

• Dust and erosion control
• Chemical stabilization of acid-generating mine water (control of
oxygen or water ingress)
112
• Contaminant release control – improve quality of runoff water and

control of infiltration
• Provision of a growth medium for establishment of sustainable
vegetation
Key factors to consider in design:

• Climate regime at the site
• Reactivity and texture of the mine waste material
• Geotechnical, hydrologic, and durability properties of economically
available cover materials
• Hydrogeologic setting of the waste storage facility
• Long-term erosion, weathering, and evolution of the cover system
Performance of soil cover will differ for flat and sloping surfaces – The
ability of the soil cover to function as oxygen ingress and water
infilitration control will be different. The difference in performance
relates to:
o Site climate conditions,
o The slope length and angle
o The hydraulic properties of the cover materials
Note: Slopes must be stable for vegetation and erosion (typ < 1V:2H,
26°)
Single Layer Systems

• Store and release covers perform best in wet/dry climates with high
potential evaporation/precipitation ratios (2 to 3)
o Consist of a monolithic layer of well graded granular material
o Placed with sufficient moisture storage capacity to limit
percolation of water to underlying waste materials
o Often chemically inert run-of-mine waste material can be used
to construct a store and release cover over mine wastes
(reduce/control ARD production – not stop completely)
• Material is placed with haul trucks which can cause gap or well-
graded material to segregate:
113
o Angle of repose coarse layers form which increase water

infiltration and act as preferential flow paths (flow and storage
characteristics are different from the rest of the cover layer)
o Cover material may have to be mixed after placement to ensure
homogenous layers
• Can enhance cover by compacting the upper waste materials

o Compacted layer holds water within the overlying cover
material for longer periods of time during wet period (delays
percolation)
o This provides an opportunity for evapotranspiration resulting in:
1. Decreased amount of runoff
2. Decreased oxygen concentrations
3. Increased capacity for dissolution of carbonate
minerals
Note: Single Layer system were used in North America for re-vegetation of
mining waste and hoped to reduce ARD (deemed ineffective)
Multi-Layer Systems
• multi layer soil covers for ARD control became popular in the 1990s
with the development of the science of unsaturated media that
enabled the predication of evaporation from soil cover systems
• Typical multi-layer system in wet climate:

1. A relatively loose layer for vegetation (overlying growth
medium)
2. A compacted fine grained layer -maintains a high moisture
content to reduce oxygen transfer
3. A coarse capillary break – prevents upward migration of
soluble salts from the underlying waste
114
Typical multi-layer dry soil covers may consist of the following components:
Surface Layer (Growth Medium)
• Prevents erosion
• Assists with revegetation
Protective layer
• Filter of either geotextile or sand
Biobarrier
• To prevent burrowing of animals
Bedding
• Possibly to prevent damage to drainage layer by
biobarrier
Drainage Layer
• Removes seepage
Seepage barrier
• Typical GCL
Infiltration barrier
• between seepage barrier and waste
• may contain capillary break (see below)
Cover design for landfills has significant parallels to mine covers.
Infiltration and capillary barriers

The function of capillary barriers is to mitigate oxygen ingress by
maintaining a tension saturated layer within the cover system
The topsoil thickness may be designed so all infiltration is held in this layer
and is evaporated or evapotranspired (by plants) hence no moisture will
reach underlying waste, mitigating ARD.
In wet climates the intent may be to have the cover capable of maintaining
a barrier to O 2 (i.e. saturated fine sand) at the base of the fine sand layer
115
In an arid climate, the intent may be that the

topsoil and fine sand would hold all water until it Topsoil
evaporated/evapotranspired so none could
progress to the waste Fine Sand
With a layer of fine silty sand overlying the

Coarse
coarse sand, moisture may be held in the fine
sand due to capillary suction preventing
downward infiltration of water into the waste pile
• Sometimes place a compacted fine grained layer between two coarse
grained capillary barrier layers – acts as capillary barrier for both
downward and upward moisture migration
The design of the capillary barrier is depended on the contrast

between the hydraulic properties of both the coarse and fine
materials
If the water balance is such that the fine sand remains saturated, ingress of
O 2 will be limited to diffusive transport, which will not be enough for ARD to
result.
How Capillary Barriers Work:

• Based on unsaturated soil mechanics
• If you place a capillary tube in water the water in the tube will rise
above the surrounding water
o This is due to surface tension  at the air water interface there
is a layer,1-2 molecules thick, that is in extreme tension (due to
pressure differential) referred to as a meniscus
• Suction (u a –u w ) is the resulting difference between the air pressure
(u a ) and water pressure (-u w ) water pressure is negative above the
water table)
Note: the smaller the diameter of capillary tube, the high the water will rise
(more capillary action)
• Porous material acts like a bundle of capillary tubes
116
• When water table is lowered a meniscus will form in the pore space
between grains
• As the water table is further lowered the meniscus in the largest pore
will collapse first (it drains the fastest). The suction pressure that this
occurs at is termed the Air Entry Value (AEV)
• A soil water characteristic curve plots suction versus volumetric water
content (porosity)  essentially a measurement of soils ability to
retain water under negative water pressures (suction)
Soil Water Characteristic Curve
• Once the AEV has been reached the curve decreases as smaller
pores progressively drain
o The slope of the line is a function of the grain size distribution
(well graded vs. poorly graded)
• The hydraulic conductivity of soil decreases once the AEV has been
reached (becomes desaturated)
117
• Coarser grained material reach their AEV quickly (drain fast) - upon
which the permeability decreases rapidly
• The residual volumetric water is the water content at which all pores
have drained – only pockets of disconnected pores left
• By choosing a capillary material with a residual volumetric water
content less than the AEV of the fine cover material it will cause the
permeably of the capillary barrier to be much lower than the cover
Note: Capillary Barriers do not rely solely on low hydraulic conductivity to

restrict moisture movement into the underlying material. Thus processes
that increase hydraulic conduction (desiccation, freeze/thaw) do not
necessarily decrease the effectiveness of a capillary
Growth Medium Layer

• Serves as protection against:
a. Physical processes (wet/dry, freeze/thaw)
b. Chemical and biological processes
• Protects the barrier layer  inadequate thickness of growth medium
layer can lead to possible changes in barrier layer performance (most
common reason for failure)
• Important to consider the available water holding capacity of the
growth medium to ensure plant demands for soil water are satisfied
o Want to minimize the potential for root penetration and
desiccation of the barrier layer
Performance of a Soil Cover

The longevity of a soil cover should be evaluated based on site-specific
physical, biological, and chemical process that could alter the as-built
performance (Figure 6.9)
118
Figure 6.9 Conceptual Illustration of Processes Affecting Long-Term

Performance of Soil Covers (from INAP, 2003)
Note: Review of 10 to 15 years of cover performance data indicate that soil

covers may limit, but do not stop, infiltration and sulphide oxidation.
BUT the achieved reduction in oxidation may be sufficient for design goal
and at a minimum would reduce water treatment requirements.
Complexity of Soil Covers

• covers generally start with the simplest case for conceptual or
preliminary design
• complexity is then added until the desired design objectives are met
(Figure 6.10)
• In general:
Increased Complexity = Increased Performance
but
Increased Complexity = Increased Cost & Construction Difficulty
119
Figure 6.10 Sample Soil Covers Designs (from MEND, 2001)
Important consideration for use of soil covers are listed in Table 6.4
2. Alkaline Covers
Alkaline Covers – placement of alkaline material (such as limestone) over

reactive mine waste (PAG material) to increase the alkalinity of infiltration
and thereby provide pH control
120
Want alkaline infiltration to react with sulphide bearing material and create
a surface coating:
• Forms a hardpan (chemical barrier) at contact between the alkaline
material and the mine waste
• Isolates underlying sulphide materials
Important considerations:
1) Climate
2) Availability of alkaline materials
3) Geometry & reactivity of alkaline materials
4) Time of consumption
Goal:
• Have infiltration through the cover transport with sufficient alkalinity to
neutralize the uppermost portion of the underlying waste
• This will in turn:
Increase the effective cover thickness
Slow the oxygen flux to reactive sulphides deeper in the profile
3. Organic Covers
Organic materials include:
• Pulp and paper residues

• Bark
• Sanding Dust
• Pulpwood
• Sewage sludge
• Sawdust
• Fiberboard
• Deinking residues
• Peat
• Compost and carbonaceous matter
• Waste rock rich in organic matter
121
Organic waste can be used as a cover to provide some or all of the

following:
1) A saturated layer – serves as a physical barrier to O2
2) O2 consuming layer – decomposition of organic material may create
a large biological oxygen demand
3) Chemical inhibition – decomposition product and compounds may
inhibit growth and metabolism of acidifying bacteria
4) Chemical amelioration – organic compounds may create conditions
that support the reductive dissolution or iron oxides and subsequent
precipitation in the form of sulphides thus reducing acid production by ferric
iron
5) A carbon source for sulphate reducing bacteria
6) Limitation of water infiltration - lowers hydraulic conductivity
In general, organic covers reduce acidity but do not stop ARD
Limitations:
• Availability of organics materials
• Longevity – may become resistance to decomposition with time
• Climate – humid climates may be required to maintain anaerobic
conditions in the organic medium
4. Sulphide-Bearing but Net Neutralizing Materials
Cover is made out of mine wastes that contain sulphides but have an
excess of neutralizing potential  will cons ume O2 but not contribute to
ARD generation
5. Synthetic Covers
Synthetic covers - Use of synthetic material to reduce infiltration
Synthetics Includse:
• Types of plastics (eg: high density polyethylene, HDPE)
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
• Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE)
• Geosynthetic clay liners (GCL)
122
Note: Synthetics are often subject to degradation by sunlight – must be

protected with an earthen cover
GCL’s – consist of a ~1cm layer of sodium bentonite sandwiched between

two geotextiles or gluesd to a geomembrane  be ntonite s ignifica ntly
reduces hydraulic conductivity
Construction:
• Require a suitable bedding material (sand) – to prevent puncturing by
underlying rock
• Synthetic must be carefully covered with an overlying layer before adding
final growth substrate or rock mulch layer
• Slope stability analysis is recommended for multi-layer soil covers place
on steep slopes
123
Figure 6.11 Sample Configuration of Synthetics in Soil Covers
124
Vegetation
Establishment of vegetation often a criterion for closure
Purpose of a vegetative cover:

Erosion control
Enhancement of evapotranspiration as part of a store a release cover
Re-establishment of sustainable ecosystems
Satisfaction of post-closure land use requirements
Vegetation has the potential to increase the evapotranspiration rate up to a

maximum equal to the potential evaporation rate (needs soil water)
Function of vegetation for store and release covers is important – can

substantially reduce the net percolation of water to underlying waste when
compared to the bare surface conditions
Performance of vegetation cover dependent on:

Cover density
Species composition
Available rooting depth – a cover two thin will limit the types of
vegetation that can establish
For best long-term cover performance want vegetation to mimic or replicate

the native vegetation
Concerns wrt vegetation and ARD:

Physically alter cover system – holes from roots, tree thro, or blow
down, may uptake and transport contaminants from below the cover
Root penetration may bypass capillary break layers – prove a
pathway to surface ecosystem
Root exudates and decomposition products creates soil structure that
increases the permeability of clays (water penetration and gas
exchange
125
Generally underlying barrier cover layer can be protected by providing a

growth medium layer that is thick enough to provide sufficient available
water for plant growth
 sufficient thickness of growth layer is most important to long term
integrity of the underlying low permeability layer than the
characterisics of the low permeability layer itself
 inadequate growth medium layer is one of the most common
reasons for failure of the low permeability layer
Performance Monitoring in Soil Covers

Historically performance is evaluated by water quality analysis of
seepage
When ARD is a concern gaseous oxygen and temperature
profiles are also monitored
Can take tens of years before considerable change can be
measures (draw-down effect)
Today, direct measurement is implemented during design stage
Objectives of field performance monitoring are to:
Obtain a water balance for the site
Obtain an accurate set of field data to calibrate a
numerical model
Develop confidence with all stakeholders with respect to
cover system performance
Develop an understanding for key characteristics and
processes that control performance
Monitoring systems should be designed to measure
components of water balance and oxygen ingress rates shown
schematically in Figure 6.12
126
Figure 6.12: Conceptual Schematic of the Components of a Field

Performance Monitoring System
127
128
129
130
Water Covers
(refr: Section 6.6.8 Gard Guide)
• Water covers are used in wet humid climates where:
Disposal of acid generating materials below a water cover is one of

the most effective methods for limiting ARD generation
Maximum concentration of dissolved oxygen is 30 times less in
water than in the atmosphere
Transport of O 2 through water by advection and diffusion is
severely limited relative to transport in water (ie: O 2 diffusion in
water 10,000x slower than in air)
Other mechanisms associated with water covers:
Sulphide reduction by bacteria
Metal hydroxide precipitation
Development of sediment layer – inhibit interaction btwn tailings
and overlying waters
Note: engineered structures which retain water are higher risk structures
and therefore must be monitored, maintained, and inspected over the long
term
Note: Water covers may not appropriate be if material has already been
appreciably oxidized (cut off is mine-waste specific)
Types of water covers:

Subaqueous Disposal
Partial Water Cover
Wetland Covers
Subaqueous Disposal
Limit the exposure of PAG materials to oxygen
Figure 6.13 shows various configuration for subaqueous tailings
disposal
131
Figure 6.13 Subaqueous Tailings Disposal (GARD Guide 2009)
132
Require sufficient depth of water over PAG material to account for:

Possible mixing of water column
Prevention of re-suspension of wastes by wind or wave action
General processes for water covers are show in Figure 6.14
Figure 6.14: Water Cover Processes (GARD Guide 2009)
Sediment layers can help isolate subaqueous wastes and adjustment

of water cover chemistry is also possible
Requirements of a water cover:

Climate with positive water balance
Long-term physical stability of containment facilities and outlet
structures (capacity to handle extreme events)
Water depth sufficient to prevent re-suspension by wind/wave action
Important to consider periods of drought in design (exposure of previously

saturated material:
Only this water covers are need to effectively prevent oxygen
diffusion
133
Thicker covers (typically 3 m) is needed to prevent re-suspension of

tailings
Table 6.6 below summarized considerations sub aqueous disposal;
MEND (1998b) provides a thorough guide of design of subaqueous
impoundments
Table 6.6: Some considerations for Subaqueous Disposal

(GARD Guide, 2009)
Partial Water Covers

Partial water cover concept involves an elevated water table that
maintains saturation thought the bulk of the tailing profile
A surface pond does not extend to the wall/diking along the perimeter
of the tailing impoundment
A small pond may be maintained in the centre to maintain an
elevated water table over the region of the tailings impoundment
Objective:
Minimize the higher risk of structural failure associated with
having a water cover and pond adjacent to the dam wall
(Hungary, October 2010)
While maintaining saturation through enough of the waste to
limit the maximum extent of oxidation that will occur
134
Hungarian Bauxite Tailings Dam Failure October 2010 (image taken from:
http://galeria.index.hu/belfold/2010/10/05/legifelvetelek_az_atszakadt_gatrol/?current_image_num=10&im
age_size=l)
Partial water covers are well suited in the case:

Operation generates two types of:
A high sulphur concentrate produced by desulphurization
stored at depth
Non-acid generating tailings that are used as cover above
the level of the pond.
The underlying non-oxidized tailings have sufficient neutralizing
capacity to assimilate the entire acid load produced from the
overlying unsaturated tailings
In partial water cover design want to:

Raise the water table above the acid generating material by placing
non-acid generating material as a cover,
Control the water level by using the pond spillway elevation, or
Both placing nonacid generating material and controlling the water
level
135
Partial Water Cover Consideration Factors:

Climate
Topography
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
Residual neutralizing capacity of unoxidized tailings
Water characteristic retention curve of the tailing
Wetland Covers
Involves placing wetlands over acid generating wastes
Wetland covers include:

Soil – ameliorates extreme climatic drying events
Vegetation – helps prevent erosion & plants offer passive treatment
opportunities
Water – limits oxygen ingress
Theory: oxygen depleted and reducing conditions are maintained at the

base of the cover – protects unoxidized material and creates potential for
precipitation of existing ARD products as sulphides
Summary of Wet covers:

Submergence is the most geochemically-stable approach for control
and mitigation of ARD however:
They are sustainable only in climates with a positive water
balance (precipitation > evaporation)
Subaqueous disposal of tailings waste in natural water bodies
(lakes etc) can be controversialSubaqueous disposal of tailing
in above ground engineered structures pose stability risks
136
Table 6.7: Summary of Prevention and Mitigative Measures and Climate

Considerations
137
Economics:
Cover systems for tailings and waste rock deposits are often costly
Soil covers cost can range from about $25,000 to $100,000 per
hectare (heavily dependent upon proximity to borrow source)
Application of synthetic and complex multi-layer covers can easily
double this cost – these methods are typically applied at smaller sites
Figure 6.16 is an example of relative costs of a few technologyies for
a particular site
Figure 16.6: Comparative Costs for Capillary Barrier Cover, Complete

and Partial Desulphurization and Water Cover (Bussiere and Wilson,
2006)
138

Ito Azam2013 Article Large StrainConsolidationModel

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Ito Azam2013 Article Large StrainConsolidationModel

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Mine Waste Management

D.C. Sego and G. Ward Wilson

Mining is an integral part of an industrialized society

It provides necessary raw materials for much of what we use.

It also provides some of the highest paying jobs in the economy

Canadian mining companies are conducting significant activity

Loss of a mine often has dire local economic effects (consider

However, environmentally sound management of wastes

As a consequence, mining has fallen into disfavor in many areas.

Some states in the US have banned mining.

This has resulted in a changing attitude to the engineering and

To minimize the risks to which a company is exposed during the

Recognition of proper operational control has led to:

• The provision of a mandatory operations manual at many

The activities for design and planning of operation and

Thus it is an important potential employer of engineers, so a

• Waste streams, Types and general issues

• Environmental Audit, Mine Waste Audits, and

• Dry Stream, Waste Dumps (Coarse Wastes)

• Wet Streams (Fine Wastes, Tailings)

• Reprocessing of existing mine wastes.

[1] Mine Waste Management, 1992, Hutchinson and Ellison,

• How wastes develop at different mines

• The volumes associated with different waste streams at a

• Much of the waste is benign but it represents a large

⇒ Savings of $0.25 per ton in the Canadian coal industry

• It is the mismanagement of these wastes that threatens

• Climate conditions have potential effects on the

⇒ 65% of the earth’s inhabited land surface is annually or

⇒ The relative importance and severity of various

• ARD (Acid Rock Drainage) is an important “sustainable

⇒ ARD formation is difficult to stop once initiated because

⇒ The cost of ARD remediation at primarily abandoned

⇒ ARD can make a mine project uneconomic and present

⇒ Traditionally the wastes were disposed of in the

⇒ Today mining companies put emphasis on proper

1. Composition: Must understand what each mine generates:

• Dry streams including overburden and shot rock;

• Wet streams generated from the mineral processing for

• ARD (acid rock drainage) formed by the natural oxidation of

• Process water general involves extensive recycle of waste

• Often millions of cubic meters annually;

⇒ Mining companies are exploiting ever lower-grade ore

⇒ The actual volume of mine waste that has to be disposed

• Dry stream movement is dominated by earthmoving

• Wet streams (tailings) generally moved hydraulically by

• Bulking of mined material increases the volumes to be

• Examples of material volumes.

• The South African gold mining industry produced 740

• All gold mining waste produced in the past century in

Figure 1.1 Some Mining Regions of Western Canada

3. Real estate requirements:

• The area left scarred by the wastes can be very large

⇒ Syncrude tailings pond has a ring dyke ~18 km in length

⇒ Highland Valley Copper: current tailings storage facility

• Major issue is safety and cost:

⇒ Men and equipment safety during construction;

⇒ Protect environment in the long term;

⇒ It costs money to move and store wastes and this affects

• Types of mine waste storage: dumps and dams or

⇒ Dumps are defined by the criterion that the material is

Dumps are for barren overburden material, barren country

Method of deposition: rubber-tired or railed transport,

Stacker, flinger or end tipping operations is the case