Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

PAINT AND PROTECTIVE COATING

FAILURE AND ANALYSIS

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Corrosion For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: COE-108.08 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

Section Page

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 3
Mechanical Adhesion .......................................................................................... 4
Polar Adhesion .................................................................................................... 4
Chemical Adhesion.............................................................................................. 5
Other Surface Preparation Factors...................................................................... 5

IDENTIFYING IN-SERVICE PAINT AND COATING FAILURES

AND THE APPROPRIATE CORRECTION TECHNIQUE .............................................. 6
Chalking............................................................................................................... 6
Color Change ...................................................................................................... 6
Cracking, Checking, and Alligatoring................................................................... 7
Peeling, Flaking, and Delamination ..................................................................... 7
Rusting and Corrosion......................................................................................... 8
Blistering.............................................................................................................. 8
Chemical, Water, Hydrocarbon Attack................................................................. 9
Mechanical Design Faults.................................................................................... 9
Pipeline Coating Failures................................................................................... 10
Material Selection and Specification.................................................................. 10

IDENTIFY APPLICATION-RELATED FAULTS AND

THE APPROPRIATE TECHNIQUE FOR AVOIDING THEM ....................................... 11
Sagging ............................................................................................................. 11
Overspray .......................................................................................................... 11
Fish-Eyes........................................................................................................... 11
Rough Dimpled Surface .................................................................................... 11
Wrinkling............................................................................................................ 12

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Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

Orange Peel ...................................................................................................... 12

Failures Frequently Occurring In-Kingdom ........................................................ 12
Temperature ...................................................................................................... 13
Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 13

GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................. 14

WORK AID 1. HOW TO IDENTIFY SERVICE-RELATED PAINT

AND COATING FAILURES AND THE APPROPRIATE
CORRECTION TECHNIQUE ............................................................... 15

WORK AID 2. HOW TO IDENTIFY APPLICATION-RELATED PAINT

AND COATING FAILURES AND THE APPROPRIATE
CORRECTION TECHNIQUE ............................................................... 16

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Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

INTRODUCTION

This module reviews the causes of failures of paints, coatings,

and linings, to identify such failures and review preventive
measures. Most frequently, protective coating and lining
failures are related to:

• Material selection
• Surface preparation
• Application
• Service conditions

Surface preparation and application are the leading causes of

early paint failure. Surface preparation is estimated to cause
70% of all failures of paints and coatings adhesion failure.

Good adhesion of the coatings is the key to long durability.

Paints and coatings must adhere to the steel surface to which
they are applied if they are to protect the surfaces for extended
periods of time,. Paints and coatings adhere to the surface in
the following three ways:

• Mechanical adhesion
• Polar adhesion
• Chemical adhesion

The following is a brief description of each type of adhesion by

protective coatings to a steel surface. Protective coatings
adhere to concrete only by mechanical anchoring and
therefore, concrete requires much more extensive surface
preparation than steel, such as chemical and blast cleaning.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

Mechanical Adhesion
Mechanical adhesion depends upon the anchor pattern, (or
profile), and cleanliness. It is the most effective type of
adhesion. In Saudi Aramco, mechanical adhesion is achieved
by abrasive blast cleaning using prescribed methods and
materials. Following the specification for abrasive blast cleaning
produces the correct profile and the cleanliness required on the
steel substrate.

Many years ago it was determined that the life of a coating

system may be increased by a time factor of five to ten when
the coating is applied to a properly cleaned steel surface with
the proper anchor pattern . The anchor pattern established by
the cleaning operation. For example, when an inorganic zinc-
rich coating is applied to acid pickled steel, it produces no
surface profile and will fail prematurely in comparison to the
same coating being applied to abrasive blasted steel in the
same environment.

Polar Adhesion
Polar adhesion depends upon the attraction of the resinous
vehicle to the steel substrate. Epoxy coating systems have
outstanding polar adhesion characteristics.

Cleanliness is required for polar adhesion because the

molecular bonding is weakened in the presence of a rusted
surface, or a surface contaminated with oil or salt. This weak
bond will cause early failures of the coating.

Many coatings do not bond molecularly, but adhere only through

mechanical adhesion. An example is elastomer-based
protective coating systems, such as, butyl chlorinated rubber
and neoprene rubber coating materials. These systems require
extremely clean surface preparation and anchor pattern.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

Chemical Adhesion
Chemical adhesion depends upon a chemical reaction between
the coating and the steel substrate. An example of this type of
adhesion is the vinyl wash primer specified by Saudi Aramco
standards. It contains a phosphoric acid and a vinyl butyl resin
system. When this coating is applied to steel or galvanized
surfaces, it passivates and etches the surface. It is more of a
surface pretreatment than a primer. This system is applied
before the complete application of the protective coating
system.

Vinyl wash primers should be used sparingly and only when

specified by SAES documents. It is one of the very few
coatings that should be applied as thinly as possible. If applied
in a thick layer, it will cause rapid, premature failure. Also,
coatings such as phenolic-epoxies are allergic to wash primers.
Using the two in combination results in catastrophic early failure.

Other Surface Preparation Factors

Contamination of cleaned surfaces by rust blooming, oil, water,
chlorides, or sulfates not completely cleaned from the steel will
lead to early failure. These conditions may not be apparent
during visual inspection. The Inspector must be aware of the
sources of such contaminants during surface preparation and
conduct the necessary inspection procedures.

In-Kingdom, sources of contamination are located near the

coast, offshore, and in heavily atmospherically contaminated
environments. They are generally not found in desert areas.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

IDENTIFYING IN-SERVICE PAINT AND COATING FAILURES AND THE

APPROPRIATE CORRECTION TECHNIQUE

A number of paint or protective coating failures may be

encountered on in-service equipment and tankage. To
recognize such failures will achieve the correct specification of
the type of paint required. Many of these failures are shown in
Work Aid 1.

Chalking
Chalking is the formation of a loose powdery film on the surface
of the coating. It is caused by ultraviolet (UV) light attack on the
resinous vehicle. It is generally associated with white tank
paints but can also occur with colored enamels . The chalk can
sometimes be water washed from the surface and the protective
coating easily repainted. Chalking can be controlled by proper
selection of the coating for the environment. Epoxy coatings will
chalk rapidly. Color Plate 36 provides an example of chalking.

Color Change
Color change is caused by UV attack on the protective coating,
usually a colored enamel, which will cause fading of the paint
film. It is not serious unless painting for aesthetic reasons is of
primary importance. This can be corrected by repainting with a
high quality, fade-resistant enamel. In exposure to sunlight,
blues, reds, and oranges are the least stable colors while
blacks, whites, grays, and aluminum are the most stable colors.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

Cracking, Checking, and Alligatoring

These failures are evidenced by breaks or cracks in the surface
of the applied coating system. Each failure is serious.
Mudcracking, an application fault, occurs when an inorganic,
zinc-rich paint is applied too thickly. It will occur immediately
after drying. Checking, cracking, and alligatoring occur in paint
systems after a period of service due to shrinkage, limited film
flexibility, or too great a film thickness. All must be removed,
most usually by abrasive blast cleaning, and new systems
applied. Examples are provided in Color Plate 37 and 38.

Peeling, Flaking, and Delamination

These are serious failures and usually indicate poor adhesion
between the paint or protective coating and the steel substrate,
or between coats of paint in the protective coating system. For
example, paint peeling from newly galvanized steel is common.
It can be corrected by priming with a suitable material (Saudi
Aramco specifies a vinyl wash primer). Topcoats can also peel
or delaminate from inorganic, zinc-rich coatings because of
improper priming. Saudi Aramco specifies certain tie-coats to
bond topcoat systems to IZRC. Flaking can occur because of
thick paint films and old age. The correct solution is to blast
clean and reapply a paint system with the correct dry-film
thickness. Delamination also occurs because of overcuring or
contamination between coats. Where protective coatings have
delaminated, they must be removed, the surface cleaned, and
the coating reapplied. Color Plate 39, 40, and 41 provides
examples of each of these defects, respectively.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

Rusting and Corrosion

Pinhole rusting and corrosion especially at sharp corners and
edges, early in the life of a protective coating system are
indicative of a paint system applied below the specified dry-film
thick DFT. Color Plate 42 shows these defects.

Saudi Aramco specifies the correct film thickness which must be

measured and audited in the field by the contractor and the
inspector. Striping, as specified by AES, of all sharp corners
and edges must be carefully and thoroughly employed. When
pinhole rusting and corrosion occur, they must be removed by
abrasive blast cleaning and the system reapplied. Both of these
failures will cause early system failure that requires repainting.

Blistering
The occurrence of pinpoint blisters during protective coating
application is probably due to solvent entrapment, which
happens because the solvent has not been released properly
from the drying paint film (see Color Plate 43). The condition
can be corrected by additional ventilation, if possible, or by
adding a solvent that will be released more quickly from the
paint film. If it has already occurred, the surface must be
cleaned, the blisters broken, and another application made.

Blisters also occur in service, and they are usually of a much

greater size. Blisters of this type frequently occur in water
services (e.g., tanks storing water and demineralized water, ship
hulls) or in extremely wet or damp environments. Salt-
contaminated surfaces will also cause blistering. The rate of
blister formation may be accelerated if insufficient paint film
thickness is applied. Blistering is an extremely serious failure
that can be avoided by following Saudi Aramco's recommended
practices and standards. In-service blisters mitigate metal loss
as long as they remain intact. After they break, extreme metal
loss may occur and the paint system must be completely
removed and replaced.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

Chemical, Water, Hydrocarbon Attack

These conditions are generally caused by a unit upset or by
specification of the wrong lining or protective coating in a
service condition that will lead to early failure. For a water,
chemical, or hydrocarbon service where there are several
unknowns (such as two or three chemicals and hydrocarbons,
or temperatures, or unknown materials) contact the Consulting
Services Section in Dhahran for advice. Once attack occurs,
the complete protective coating must be removed -- including
the areas or sections where the lining appears to be in good
condition. If a new lining or coating is applied over an attacked
coating, rapid failure will occur (see Color Plate 44 and 45 for
examples).

Mechanical Design Faults

These are design faults that influence early paint failure and
may be critical. They may include hidden steel surfaces such
as two angle beams stitch-welded together. The interior surface
can never be coated and will corrode and rust in wet, severe
environments. At the least, unsightly rust staining will occur.
This is not aesthetically appealing. Another example would be
unit platform subway grating or checkerboard steel not seal-
welded to the supporting structure, where hidden and possibly
accelerated corrosion can occur. The solution is to avoid the
condition by not using stitch-welding. Examples are provided in
Color Plate 46, 47, 48, 49 and 50.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

Pipeline Coating Failures

The primary failures of pipeline coating are caused by soil stress
and by cathodic disbondment (see Color Plate 51). Soil stress
is the result of the buried pipe moving against the surrounding
earth or the reverse. Such movement exposes the pipeline
coating to large stresses that tend to tear it apart. This type of
failure can be avoided by proper adherence to SAES standards
concerning pipeline backfill (sand is generally recommended for
at least 6 in. around all pipelines) and protective measures that
include rock shields, wraps, and reinforcement.

Another potential cause of failure on underground pipe is

cathodic disbondment by the pipeline cathodic protection (CP)
systems, which prevent corrosion at holidays. If the potentials
on the pipe caused by the CP system exceed that required to
form hydrogen, gas may be generated behind the protective
coating system and cause disbondment. The rectifiers of the
pipeline CP systems are regulated to prevent excess potential.
The Saudi Aramco guideline is that a maximum negative
potential of 3.0 V versus a Cu/CuSO4 reference electrode
should not be exceeded. Because of the great number of CP
systems within Saudi Aramco, cathodic disbondment should be
recognized as a potential failure mechanism.

Material Selection and Specification

Only about 5% of paint and coating failures can be attributed to
incorrect specification of material. This number can be reduced
even further by observing the required Saudi Aramco standards.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

IDENTIFY APPLICATION-RELATED FAULTS AND THE APPROPRIATE

TECHNIQUE FOR AVOIDING THEM

There are a number of faults that must be corrected during the

application process. The more important ones can be identified
using in Work Aid 2.

Sagging
Sagging is also called runs or curtains which may be caused by
too much solvent applied to the coating, too much paint, or
smooth glossy surfaces( see Color Plate 52). The runs or
curtains should be removed and another coat applied.

Overspray
Particles of paint reaching the surface partially dried. They must
be removed by sanding before another coat is applied:
additionally, the source of contamination, usually the air supply,
must be identified and removed.

Fish-Eyes
Separation and pulling apart of a coat of wet paint to resemble a
"fish-eye." It is caused by oil or water contamination. The coat
must be removed by sanding and another coat applied.

Rough Dimpled Surface

Caused by inadequate atomization of the paint material during
spray gun application (see Color Plate 53 for an example).

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Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

Wrinkling
In appearance, this resembles a rough, crinkled surface. It is
frequently caused by over-cured or uncured prime coat or the
steel surface being coated is at too high a temperature.
Remove by rough sanding the prime coat and reapply.

Orange Peel
Hills and valleys in the applied paint or coating that resemble an
orange peel. This is caused by improper viscosity of the paint
or insufficient atomization during application. Sand and reapply
another coat of paint.

Of these failures, sagging, wrinkling, fish-eyes, and overspray

are the greatest concerns.

Failures Frequently Occurring In-Kingdom

Surface preparation and application are frequently cited as
causing many, if not most, of the failures of paints, coatings and
linings within Saudi Aramco facilities. These failures are
associated with the following:

• Inadequate surface preparation

• Multicomponent protective coatings and linings not
properly mixed before application
• Contamination between coatings
• Low film build

These can lead to either catastrophic short-term failure or

shortened system life.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

Temperature
Elevated ambient temperatures during application of protective
coatings to Saudi Aramco facilities, can cause:

• Shortened pot life

• High surface temperature, result in dry spray, solvent
entrapment, and film degradation
• Shortened time between coating applications

Overall, high ambient temperature applications in-Kingdom

should be avoided if possible because of the high risk of these
failures. Otherwise specific precautions must be undertaken to
avoid the potential failures that might be associated with the
above.

Conclusions
Early failures with protective coating and lining systems occur
primarily because of improper surface preparation or
application. Most early failures are avoidable. They can be
identified and corrected. These actions are the responsibility of
the Saudi Aramco Inspector. Additional assistance in this area
is available from the Corrosion Control Division - Dhahran.

Many of the failures of protective coatings and lining are

avoidable failures that can substantially reduce costs for
maintaining Saudi Aramco facilities. The life of a paint or
protective coating system should be a minimum of 10 years
before repair, not replacement. It is the responsibility of the
Inspector to take the quality control actions necessary to
eliminate avoidable failures.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

GLOSSARY

adhesion failure The failure of a coating to stick to the surface of the steel.

passivates The ability of a coating or primer to make the surface of

the steel neutral to corrosion factors.

allergic Incompatibility of two coatings or coating and primers or

coatings/primers and wash materials.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

WORK AID 1. HOW TO IDENTIFY SERVICE-RELATED PAINT AND

COATING FAILURES AND THE APPROPRIATE
CORRECTION TECHNIQUE

This work aid consists of the classroom handout, Paint Failures-

Causes and Remedies.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Protective Coatings
Paint and Protective
Coating Failure and Analysis

WORK AID 2. HOW TO IDENTIFY APPLICATION-RELATED PAINT

AND COATING FAILURES AND THE APPROPRIATE
CORRECTION TECHNIQUE

This work aid consists of the classroom handout, Paint Failures-

Causes and Remedies.

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