Chapter 3 Class Notes on Introduction to Communication Systems-ECEG-3210

Chapter Three
Linear Modulation
3.1 Types of Linear Modulation
Having understood the need and the potential benefits due to modulation, let us now get into the
details of various linear modulation schemes. The four important types of linear modulation
schemes are:
1. Double Side Band-Large Carrier (DSB-LC) modulation
2. Double Side Band-Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) modulation
3. Single Side Band (SSB) modulation
4. Vestigial Side Band (VSB) modulation

3.2 DSB-LC modulation

DSB-LC modulation is also called conventional AM or simply AM modulation which is
discussed in chapter 2. In DSB-LC modulation the carrier frequency, 𝑓𝑐 , the upper sideband
(USB), whose highest frequency component is 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 and the lower sideband (LSB), whose
highest frequency component is 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 are transmitted.
By choosing the carrier component properly, it is possible to generate the AM signal such that it
preserves m(t ) in its envelope. Fig. 3.1 shows how the DSB-LC (AM) signal is generated.

Figure 3.1 Generation of an AM signal

𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑚(𝑡)𝐴𝑐 cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) (3.1)
𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝑣 (𝑡) + 𝐴𝑐 cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) (3.2)
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑚(𝑡)𝐴𝑐 cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) + 𝐴𝑐 cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + m(t)] cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) (3.3)

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If we consider the gain of the modulator 𝑔𝑚 = 𝑘𝑎 , Eq (3.3) becomes

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑔𝑚 𝑚(𝑡)𝐴𝑐 cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) + 𝐴𝑐 cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑔𝑚 m(t)] cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) (3.4)

Taking the Fourier transform of Eq(3.4)

𝐴𝑐 𝐴 𝑔
𝑆 (𝑓 ) = [𝛿(𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 ) + 𝛿 (𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 )] + 𝑐 𝑚 [𝑀(𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 ) + 𝑀(𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 )] (3.5)
2 2
The spectral plot of 𝑆 (𝑓) is given in fig 3.2.

Figure 3.2 (a) Baseband message spectrum M(f) (b) Spectrum of AM signal

Based on Fig. 3.2, we make the following observations:

1. The spectrum has two sidebands
USB: 𝑓𝑐 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 −𝑓𝑐 − 𝑤 𝑡𝑜 −𝑓𝑐
LSB: 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑊 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 −𝑓𝑐 𝑡𝑜 −𝑓𝑐 + 𝑊
2. If the baseband signal has bandwidth W, then the AM signal has bandwidth 2W. That is,
the transmission bandwidth 𝐵𝑇 , required for the AM signal is 2W.
𝐴𝑐
3. Spectrum has discrete components at 𝑓 = ±𝑓𝑐 , indicated by impulses of area .
2

4. In order to avoid the overlap between the positive part and the negative part of S(f ), 𝑓𝑐 >
𝑊 (In practice, 𝑓𝑐 ≫ 𝑊 , so that s (t ) is a narrowband signal).

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The discrete components at𝑓 = ±𝑓𝑐 , do not carry any information and as such AM does not
make efficient use of the transmitted power.
NB To be consistent in the notation take W as 𝑓𝑚 . We can use interchangeably.

3.3 DSB-SC Modulation

In DSB-SC modulation, only the upper and lower sidebands are transmitted. As shown in
fig 3.3 the carrier is cancel or suppressed.

Figure 3.3 (a) Spectrum of baseband signal (b) Spectrum of DSB-SC modulated wave

The DSB-SC is the simplest of the four linear modulation schemes listed above (simplest in
terms of the mathematical description of modulation and demodulation operations). Figure 3.4
represents how the DSB-SC signal is generated.

Figure 3.4 DSB-SC modulator

𝑚(𝑡) is a baseband message signal with M(f ) = 0 for 𝑓 > 𝑓𝑚 , c (t ) is a high frequency carrier,
usually with 𝑓𝑐 ≪ 𝑓𝑚 .

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DSB-SC modulator is basically a multiplier. Let 𝑘𝑎 denotes the amplitude sensitivity (or gain
constant) of the modulator, with the units per volt (we assume that m(t ) and 𝐴𝑐 are in volts).
Then the modulator output s (t) is,
𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)𝐴𝑐 cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) (3.6)
For convenience, let 𝑘𝑎 = 1, then,
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) (3.7)
Fig 3.3 is drawn by taking the Fourier transform of Eq(3.7)
𝐴𝑐
𝑆 (𝑓 ) = [𝑀(𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 ) + 𝑀(𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 )] (3.8)
2
The transmission bandwidth required by DSB-SC modulation is the same as that for amplitude
modulation, namely, 2𝑊 = 𝑓𝑚 .
As DSB-SC modulation involves just the multiplication of the message signal and the carrier,
this scheme is also known as product modulation and can be shown as in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5 product modulator

3.3.1 Methods of carrier suppression

As we discussed before the DSB-SC modulator can be generated using a simple multiplier.
However, if we are given the amplitude modulator, we can generate DSB-SC modulator by
suppressing the carrier in two ways.
1. By adding a signal of carrier frequency equal in amplitude but opposite in phase to the
carrier of the amplitude- modulated (AM or DSB-LC) signal.

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Figure 3.6 show how DSB-SC generated from AM

2. Using balanced modulator shown in fig 3.7

Figure 3.7 showing how the outputs of two amplitude modulators are combined to
produce DSB-SC output.
Here two amplitude- modulators are used. The carrier inputs to the two modulators are of
reverse polarity, as are the modulating signals. The modulator outputs are added with
consequent suppression of the carrier. The arrangement of fig 3.7 is called a balanced
modulator.

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3.3.2 Coherent detection or Synchronous demodulation

The baseband signal m(t) can be uniquely recovered from a DSB-SC wave s(t) by first
multiplying s(t) with a locally generated sinusoidal wave and then low-pass filtering the product,
as in fig 3.8

Figure 3.8 Coherent detector for demodulating DSB-SC modulated wave

It is instructive to derive coherent detection as a special case of the more general demodulation
process using a local oscillator signal of the same frequency but arbitrary phase difference Φ,
measured with respect to the carrier wave c(t). Thus, denoting the local oscillator signal by
𝐴𝑐 ′ cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛷), and using Eq(3.7) for the DSB-SC wave s(t), we find that the product
modulator output in fig 3.8 is
𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 ′ cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛷 ) 𝑠(𝑡)
= 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐 ′ cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛷 ) 𝑚(𝑡)
′ ′
1 1
= 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐 cos(4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛷 )m(t) + 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐 cos(𝛷) 𝑚(𝑡) (3.9)
2 2
The first term in Eq (3.9) represents a DSB-SC modulated signal with a carrier 2𝑓𝑐 , whereas the
second term is proportional to the baseband signal m(t). The first term in Eq(4.9) is removed by
the low-pass filter.
At the filter output we then obtain a signal given by
′
1
𝑣0 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐 cos(𝛷 ) 𝑚(𝑡) (3.10)
2

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The demodulated signal 𝑣0 (𝑡) is therefore proportional to m(t) when the phase error Φ is
constant. The amplitude of this demodulated signal is maximum when Φ=0, and it is minimum
(zero) when 𝜱 = ± 𝝅⁄𝟐. The zero demodulated signal, which occurs for 𝛷 = ± 𝜋⁄2, represents
the quadrature null effect of the coherent detector.

3.3.3 Costas Receiver

One method of a practical synchronous receiver system, suitable for demodulation DSB-SC
waves, is to use the Costas receiver shown in fig 3.9. This receiver consists of two coherent
detector supplied with the same input signal, namely, the incoming DSB-SC wave
𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) but with individual local oscillator signals that are in phase quadrature with
respect to each other . The detector in the upper path is referred to as the in-pahse coherent
detector or I-channel, and that in the lower path is referred to as the quadrature-phase
coherent detector or Q-channel. These detectors are coupled together to form a negative
feedback system designed in such a way as to maintain the local oscillator synchronous with the
carrier wave.

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Figure 3.9 Costas receiver

Operation of Costas receiver: To understand the operation of this receiver, suppose

that the local oscillator signal is of the same phase as the carrier wave 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) used to
generate the incoming DSB-SC wave. Under this conditions, we find that the I-channel output
contains the desired demodulated signal m(t), whereas the Q-channel output is zero due to the
quadrature null effect of the Q-channel. Suppose next that the local oscillator phase drifts from
its proper value by a small angle Φ radians. The I-channel output will remain essentially
unchanged, but there will now be some signal appearing at the Q-channel output, which is
proportional to 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛷 ≈ 𝛷 for small Φ. This Q-channel output will have the same polarity as the
I-channel output for one direction of local oscillator phase drift. Thus, by combining the I-
channel and Q-channel outputs in a phase discriminator (which consists of a multiplier
followed by a low-pass filter), as shown in fig 3.9 a Dc control signal is obtained that
automatically corrects for local phase errors in the voltage-controlled oscillator.

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3.4 SSB Modulation

A short coming of double-sideband, suppressed carrier amplitude modulation is the spectral
inefficiency due to redundancy of the upper and lower sidebands. Suppressing one sideband
in DSB, in whole or part, reduces transmission bandwidth and leads to Single sideband
modulation (SSB) or Vestigial sideband modulation (VSB). In SSB modulation, only the upper
or the lower side-band is transmitted.

A direct approach of creating a single sideband AM signal is to remove either the upper or lower
side band by filtering the DSB-SC signal using band-pass filter(BPF). This approach is shown
in figure 3.10 and known as the frequency discriminator method. The baseband, DSB-SC, and
SSB spectra are shown in figure 3.11. For a baseband signal with one sided bandwidth W, the
upper sideband consists of frequencies [𝑓𝑐, 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑊], and the lower sideband signal is in the range
of [ 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑊, 𝑓𝑐 ].

Figure 3.10 Single Sideband modulation using frequency discrimination method

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Figure 3.11 Magnitude spectra: (a) baseband (b) DSB-SC (c) upper SSB (d) lower SSB

3.4.1Demodulation of SSB
SSB signals can be demodulated using coherent demodulation as shown in Fig. 3.12

.
Figure 3.12 Coherent demodulation of SSB

The received SSB signal is multiplied by the local carrier which is of the same frequency and
phase as the carrier used at the transmitter.

3.5 VSB Modulation

A compromise between the DSB-SC modulation and the SSB modulation is known as Vestigial
Side Band (VSB) modulation. This type of modulation is generated using a similar system as
that of the selective–filtering system for SSB modulation.
VSB refers to a modulation scheme where in the wanted sideband (either USB or LSB) is
retained almost completely; in addition, a vestige (or a trace) of the unwanted sideband is
added to the wanted sideband. This composite signal is used for transmitting the information.
This vestige of the wanted sideband makes it possible to come up with a sideband filter that can
be implemented in practice.
The following block diagram shows the VSB modulation and demodulation. One of the
widespread applications of VSB has been in the transmission of picture signals (video
signals) in TV broadcast. The video signal has the characteristic that it has a fairly wide
bandwidth (about 5 MHz) with almost no spectral hole around DC.

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Figure 3.13 VSB modulator and demodulator

Figure 3.14 below shows an example for the generation and demodulation of the VSB signal
graphically. This example for generating VSB modulated signals assumes that the VSB filter
(HVSB(ω)) that the transition band of the VSB filter is symmetric in a way that adding the part
that remains in the filtered signal from the undesired side band to the missing part of the desired
side band during the process of demodulation produces an undusted signal at baseband. In fact,
this condition is not necessary if the LPF in the demodulator can take care of any distortion that
happens when adding the different components of the band pass components at baseband.

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Figure 3.14 VSB modulation and demodulation process (example)

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A note on the linearity of AM, DSB-SC, SSB and VSB:

Having discussed these modulation schemes, let us look at the linearity aspect of these schemes.
By linearity, we imply that the schemes obey the superposition property. This can be easily
verified in the case of DSB-SC, SSB and VSB. Consider DSB-SC. When message signals 𝑚1 (𝑡)
and 𝑚2 (𝑡) are applied separately, the resulting modulated waveforms are 𝐴𝑐 𝑚1 (𝑡)cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) and
𝐴𝑐 𝑚2 (𝑡)cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) Ac m2 (t). Let
𝑚(𝑡) = 𝛼1 𝑚1 (𝑡) + 𝛼2 𝑚2 (𝑡) (3.11)
Where 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 are constants. Then the demodulated carrier is
𝐴𝑐 𝑚(𝑡) cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 [𝛼1 𝑚1 (𝑡) + 𝛼2 𝑚2 (𝑡)] cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) (3.12)

Eq (3.2) establishes the linearity property. Similarly, SSB and VSB can be shown to be linear.

3.6 Amplitude Power Distribution

Power is important in communication system because (Signal to Noise Ratio) SNR at the
receiver depends as much on the signal power being large as on the noise power being small.
Carrier signal carries no information but it aids demodulation. Amplitude modulation is wasteful
of power. For a sine wave modulating signal; 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) and carrier, 𝑐 (𝑡) =
𝐴𝑐 sin(𝜔𝑐 𝑡).
Consider the sinusoidal modulated AM signal given by
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + mcos(𝜔𝑚 𝑡)] cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) (3.13)
= 𝐴𝑐 cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) + 𝐴𝑐 mcos(𝜔𝑚 𝑡) cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) (3.14)
Ac m Ac m
= Ac cos(ωc t) + cos((ωc − ωm) t) + cos((ωc + ωm )t) (3.15)
2 2

Note that from Eq(3.15), the first, the second and the third term are , respectively, represents
the carrier , the lower-sideband and the upper-sideband. Then, we have
𝐴2𝑐
Carrier power = 𝑃𝑐 = (3.16)
2
The power in each of the sidebands is

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𝑚𝐴 2
( 2 𝑐) 𝐴2𝑐 𝑚2
𝑃(𝐿𝑆𝐵) = 𝑃(𝑈𝑆𝐵) = = (3.17)
2 8
𝐴2𝑐 𝑚2 𝐴2𝑐 𝑚2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃(𝑇𝑆𝐵) = 2 ∗ = (3.18)
8 4
𝐴2𝑐 𝑚2 𝑚2
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃(𝐿𝑆𝐵) + 𝑃(𝑈𝑆𝐵) = 𝑃𝑐 + 2𝑃(𝑇𝑆𝐵) = (1 + ) = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + ) (3.19)
2 2 2
1. Fraction of the total power in the carrier
𝑃𝑐 2
= (2.20)
𝑃𝑡 2 + 𝑚2
2. Fraction of the total power in the total sidebands
𝑃(𝑇𝑆𝐵) 𝑚2
= (3.21)
𝑃𝑡 2 + 𝑚2
Take m=1 which is the maximum value, only 1/3 of the total power is in the sidebands (or side
frequencies), the remaining 2/3 being in the carrier. From this example, we see that AM is not
an efficient modulation scheme, in terms of the utilization of the transmitted power.

Example 1: A transmitter puts out a total power of 25 Watts of 30% AM signal. How much
power is contained in the carrier and each of the sidebands?
m2 0.32
Answer: Total power = 25 = Pc (1 + ) = Pc ( 1 + ) = Pc * 1.045
2 2
Therefore the carrier power is Pc = 25/ 1.045 = 23.92 Watts
The total power in the 2 sidebands is 25 - 23.92 = 1.08 W
The power in each sideband is 1.08/2 = 0.54 W
The fraction of the power in the carrier is 23.92/25 = 0.957, or 95.7%

If the carrier and one side band are suppressed we have Single Side Band transmission or SSB.
Radio receivers for receiving Full Wave signals are cheap to produce but the transmitter must be
capable of transmitting a lot of power. Radio receivers for SSB or Carrier Suppressed signals are
expensive to produce, but the transmitter need not be capable of outputting a high power level.
Thus it is possible to improve the efficiency of an AM signal and reduce the bandwidth by
removing the carrier and /or one of the sidebands.

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Example 2: An AM signal has a depth of modulation of 70%. What is the power saving if
(a) the carrier is suppressed and
(b) the carrier and one sideband is suppressed?
m2
Answer: The total power in the signal is Pt = Pc (1 + ).
2
Therefore the fraction of the total power in the carrier is
m2
1 / (1 + ) = 1/(1 + 0.72/2) = 1/1.245 = 0.803 = 80.3%
2
(a) In this case if the carrier is suppressed then the power saving will be 80%, the
transmitter will need to transmit only 20% of the power it would otherwise need to
transmit.
(b) If one of the sidebands is suppressed then only half of the remaining power will need to
be transmitted i.e. 10%.
In this example a transmitter which would have to transmit 10 W of a full wave AM signal
will be able to transmit the same information on 1 W if the carrier and one sideband are
both suppressed.

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