Wireless Local Positioning System

CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
Positioning systems determine the location of a person or an object either relative to a known
position or within a coordinate system. In the last few decades, various positioning systems have
been motivated by demand and have been developed. Some of the applications of positioning
systems include law enforcement, security, road safety, tracking personnel, vehicles and other
assets, situation awareness and mobile networks.

As shown in figure 1.1 positioning systems can be classified into two categories:
1. Global Positioning
2. Local Positioning

Figure 1.1 Positioning system classification

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Global positioning systems (GPS) allow each mobile to find its own position on the globe.
A local positioning system (LPS) is a relative positioning system and can be classified into self
and remote positioning. Self-positioning systems allow each person or object to find its own
position with respect to a static point at any given time and location. An example of these
systems is the inertial navigation system (INS).

Remote positioning systems allow each node to find the relative position of the other nodes
located in its coverage area. Here, nodes can be static or dynamic. Remote positioning systems
themselves are divided into two parts:

1. Active target remote positioning

2. Passive target remote positioning

In the first case, the target is active and cooperates in the process of positioning, while in the
second, the target is passive and noncooperative. Examples of active target positioning systems
are radio frequency identification (RFID), wireless local positioning systems (WLPS), traffic
alert and collision avoidance systems (TCAS). Examples of passive target positioning systems
are tracking radars and vision systems.

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CHAPTER 2:

BASIC METHODS USED IN POSTIONING SYSTEM

2.1 Received-Strength-Signal (RSS)

In an RSS system basically the signal strength of all access points in range is measured. This
information is then trans-mitted to the central positioning software, where the position is
computed. In this setup the amount of collected data is fairly small and transmission over the
wireless interface does not require many resources. Furthermore, no overhead communication is
required to synchronize measurements and a large amount of units can measure the signal
strength in parallel. However, handling transmission to the central server without overloading the
network then becomes an issue. Finally, the power consumption of the mobile unit is low due
to the centralized computation of the position. The down-sides are low accuracy and that
sensor-fusion cannot be done on the local node and therefore complex time-stamping issues must
be solved. The major sources of error in RSS are shadowing and multipath signal caused by
objects and obstructions between the source and anchors. The average received power (in dB) at
ith anchor, Pi, under the log-distance path loss and log-normal shadowing, is modeled as

Fig 2.1 RSS measurement on mobile unit setup

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2.2 Angle-of-Arrival (AOA)

Angle-of-Arrival (AOA) estimation has been implemented in radar systems for a very long time.
In terms of positioning, either one or both of the units can be adapted to perform AOA
measurements. This requires special hardware like mono-pulse antennas and multiple receiving
channels. Additionally, if the computation of the AOA is done on the mobile unit it does require
a small to medium amount of processing capacity. Advantages of the AOA approach are
independence from the underlying signal shape and that no additional communication for
synchronization of the measurements is needed. However, some communication is required to
collect the AOA values at a central unit for position computation and to coordinate the
measurements. Furthermore, because the AOA values are usually collected at the fixed units
precise sensor fusion timing is difficult to secure. The angle between a source and an anchor is
measured as the AOA measurement. The hardware for measuring AOA is relatively more
complex than other methods. In the presence of the measurement noise, the AOA measurements
modeled as

Fig 2.2 AOA measurement setup

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2.3Time Difference Of Arrival (TDOA)

TDOA systems measure the time-difference of arrival of a signal emitted by the mobile unit.
Usually this approach is combined with either an independent reference unit or a re-ferencing
unit incorporated into one of the fixed units. TDOA systems usually use proprietary signal
shapes optimized for distance measurements. This approach demands a significant amount of
communication for the setup of the measurements, especially when many tags and several cells
are involved. First, the mobile unit needs to be associated with one of the cells, then the cell
provides a measurement slot to the mobile unit and finally the TDOA values at the fixed units
must be re-layed to a central computation server. Of course, each mobile unit is interrogated one
after the other, reducing update rate when many tags are present. Any additional information for
sensor fusion like combination of several tags or integration of inertia sensors is collected and
transmitted individually, leading to complex, error-prone time-stamping procedures. On the other
hand the mobile unit needs no computational power because all computations are done at a
central point.

Fig 2.3 TDOA measurement setup

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2.4 ATOA and inverted TDOA

ATOA systems use a setup where each system has a very precise timing reference. The signal is
then transmitted with the exact transmission time. The receiving unit precisely records the
receiving time and estimates the distance from the time-difference between transmit and receive
time. Of course the clocks for such a system must be synchronized with a precision of at least a
few nanoseconds. In GPS systems, for instance, this is handled by equipping the satellites with
atomic clocks and using a redundant amount of satellites to estimate the receiver clock offset of
the mobile unit. A very similar approach can be used with the local positioning radar (LPR)
system. The outside units wirelessly synchronize each other to a master unit. They then send
positioning signals at exactly defined delays. The mobile unit receives the positioning signals
and computes its position by evaluating the time-difference between the received signals. One
can think of this approach as an inverted TDOA approach (ITDOA). Both approaches have the
huge advantage that no two-way communication is required. All mobile units only listen to the
communication and positioning signals provided and compute their position individually. Like
this an arbitrary number of units can be served by the infrastructure. More importantly, the
mobile unit itself can decide which positioning signals it uses. Therefore, no cell-handover,
monitoring or time-slotting is required. Furthermore, all processing is done locally, allowing for
sensor fusion without time-stamping constraints. The only downside of this approach is that the
computational demand on the mobile unit is quite high, thus increasing the power consumption.

Fig 2.4 ATOA/ITDOA measurement setup

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2.5 Round-trip time-of-flight (RTOF)

RTOF measurements follow the path of direct distance measurement using two-way
communication between the units. One unit sends an interrogating signal to one or more units in
range and they reply with their independent ID encoded in the signal [8-9]. Like this the distance
is estimated from the round-trip time-of-flight. This approach requires some background
communication to handle the setup of the measurement. Additionally all mobile entities must
measure sequentially, degrading the measurement rate when more units are involved. On the
other side, all information is generated locally, thus enabling sensor fusion. Furthermore, because
absolute distances are computed many applications outside the standard areas are possible, e.g.
direct distance measurements between mobile units or operation with a single line of units as
fixed infrastructure.

Fig 2.5 RTOF measurement setup

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Table 2.1

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CHAPTER 3:

ANTENNA SIGNAL RADIATION

3.1 Concept
An antenna will radiate in all direction, but not equally in all direction. A well known way to
characterize the performance of antenna is the radiation pattern. The simplest pattern is produced
by an idealized antenna known as isotropic antenna. An isotropic antenna radiates power in all
directions equally and the radiation pattern is a sphere with the antenna at the centre. Seen in
cross section the isotropic radiator radiator would appear as a perfect circle. With the radiating
element being a point in the middle and the electromagnetic field expanding equally in all
directions (fig 3.1).

Fig 3.1 Antenna signal radiation

A real antenna cannot have an isotropic radiation pattern since the electromagnetic field
propagates in a direction that is perpendicular to the radiating wire. For a vertical antenna (e.g
dipole antenna) the fields propagates to the sides and resemble with a doughnut (fig 3.2).

The standard access points usually use dipoles antenna. In the real world the electromagnetic
field’s shape doesn’t look exactly as the fig 3.2 due to reflection, refraction, attenuation and
noise. For any type of wireless communication the signal disperses with the distance. An antenna

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will receive less signal power the father is from the transmitting antenna. This is known as “free
spaceloss" which can be expressed for the ideal isotropic

Fig 3.2 Electromagnetic radiation pattern for an omnidirectional antenna

For our case is important the relative distance from the antenna position in each direction. The
relative distance determines the signal power at the receiver. The signal power at the receiver is
measured by the wireless card. Using these measured values we try to inference the relative
distance from each antenna.

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3.2 Wireless device and wireless standard influences on WPS

The first test case was selected to distinguish the influence of AP device on the WPS. We used
two identical APs (WAP55AG) placed in the same location and we measured RSSI in different
locations in the room. This test case is intended for proper equipment selection for WPS
implementation. Experiments have shown that for different AP of the same type placed in the
same location and in the same time, the RSSI measured has different values (Fig. 3.3 , 3.4 ). This
test ran two full days, and both 802.1 1g and 802.1 1a RSSI were logged.

Fig 3.3 RSSI from two APs placed in the same location in the same time (802.1lg standard)

The same result was obtained also for the 802.1la standard, but in this case the differences
between devices are not so large (Fig. 3.4)

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Fig3.4 RSSI from two APs placed in the same location in the same time (802.1la standard)
Averaging the measured values for both devices and standards used we obtained the chart in
Fig3.5

Fig.3.5 Average RSSI from two APs placed in the same location in the same time
As a first conclusion we can say that before WPS implementation a equipment selection phase is
needed, in order to select the proper devices for the system. After this test case we conclude that
AP-g-241 it is not recommended to be used in WPS due to its large standard deviation of the
measured RSSI. A second recommendation is to use 802.1 la standard in WPS or both A and G
standards for a better accuracy, due to smaller deviations obtained for 802.1 la in our tests.

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3.3 Time and environment influences on WPS

The second test case tried to emphasis the external environment influence over the WPS: people
in the rooms, devices running time, doors opened or closed, and windows opened or closed and
even the weather.

Differences in RSSI measurement can be also observed, on both standards (802.11a and
802.11g), between daily hours and night hours (Fig 3.4). In daily hours the room was used by
people working in the lab and students, therefore the received signal has more perturbations.
Better results are obtained in the night when no interferences and reflections will occur.

Between the two rooms in the lab there is a door. Another test was run with the door open and
then closed (Fig 3.6). Surprising in all our tests with the door closed better results were obtained.

Fig 3.6 Door closed vs. door opened measurements

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Fig 3.7 RSSI averages for Fig 3.6 ranges measurements

Running the system in three successive nights, in the same conditions (devices' positions, doors'
positions, etc.) some differences could be observed in terms of average value or measurements
dispersion. These differences which could be quite big, are supposed to appear due to:

 device sysup time (the number of hours from starting the device);
 weather conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.)

In conclusion we showed through this second test case that a large number of uncontrolled
external parameters have influence on the RSSI measurements. All these influences and
parameters are very hard to be expressed in the mathematical model. Therefore a solution for this
drawback is to place one or more fixed signal receivers called reference devices, in well known
positions. These devices will monitor the RSSI from all Aps and will introduce a control
loopback for the system.

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Fig 3.8 RSSI measurements in the same testing conditions

3.4 Antenna orientation influence on RSSI

In this test case we tried to show the relation between AP antenna orientation and position and
the measured RSSI. The APs antenna positions were rotated at 900 in clock sense and for each
position we logged 30 minutes of measurements. The average values for the four positions are
presented in Fig 3.8. With this test we tried to find the proper APs positions and orientations.

Fig 3.9 Antenna orientation influence on RSSI measurements

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3.5 Location influence on RSSI

A new test case was designed for distance and RSSI relation estimation (Fig 3.10). This test
shows that there exists a direct relation between measured RSSI and distance from emitter to
receiver. We measured the RSSI from the same AP placed in three different locations:

 L1 - 0.5 m distance between M and AP

 L2 - 1 m distance between M and AP
 L3 - 1.2 m distance between M and AP

In some situations the measurements of different distances are overlapped. These test case is
intended to estimate the accuracy of the system with respect to the selected devices and
positions.

Fig 3.10 RSSI from the same AP placed in three different locations

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CHAPTER 4:

WLPS STRUCTURE AND WORKING

4.1 WLPS Structure

Fig 4.1 WLPS Structure

The WLPS consists of two main components:

1. A base station that can be carried by a mobile unit, e.g., spacecraft; that is called
dynamic base station (DBS)

2. A transponder (TRX) that is mounted on another mobile unit, as active target.

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4.2 WLPS Working

• Each TRX is allocated a unique identification code (ID).

• In this system, each DBS is capable of localizing all other TRXes via direction-of-arrival
(DOA) and time-of-arrival (TOA) measurements.

• The DBS transmitter broadcasts periodic ID request signals via an omni-directional

antenna. All TRXes (equipped with omni-directional antennas) located in the DBS
coverage area send back their ID upon detecting the broadcast signal.

• The DBS receiver measures TOAs and computes the distances to the other nodes. The
period of WLPS signal broadcasts can be adaptively adjusted to meet the required
positioning updating rate: As the period of transmissions decreases, the positioning
updating rate increases.

• Antenna arrays installed at the DBS receiver measure the DOA of signals transmitted by
a TRX. In addition, antenna arrays create directionality via beamforming techniques. This
reduces interference effects and improves the performance of the proposed system.

• WLPS periodically attain positioning data. This enables us to apply the positioning
results to an EKF (Extended Kalman Filter) in order to improve localization performance.

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CHAPTER 5:

RELATIVE POSITION AND SPEED ESTIMATION :

• Assume that only WLPS measurements are available.

• The standard Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) is implemented for relative position
estimation between spacecraft. Here, the general equations of EKF for the scenarios and
cases are derived.

5.1 Equation of Motion:

• Estimate the absolute and relative position between spacecraft.

• Given two spacecraft i and j, the relative position between these spacecraft is

Here, are the absolute positions of

• Consider the two body motion; the dynamic motion of each spacecraft corresponds to :

Where is the gravitational constant

the operator I . I denotes the magnitude of vector

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5.2 WLPS measurement :

• Assume each spacecraft is equipped with both DBS and TRX.

• Each spacecraft localizes other spacecraft that fall within in its coverage area.
• 11
The WLPS measures the TOA and DOA of each spacecraft.
• The TOA corresponds to:

where c is the speed of light

• The DOA between the two spacecraft is given by:

are the relative azimuth

are the x-y-z elements of relative position vector

superscript i indicates that the relative position vector is expressed in the spacecraft reference frame

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CHAPTER 6:

SYSTEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Figure 6.1 depicts a rough overview of current wireless local positioning systems. It is beyond
the scope of this paper to provide a complete overview of systems available today. Only some
exemplary systems and companies are mentioned. The best known and most widely spread
positioning system is the global positioning system GPS (or its differential Complement
DGPS). This excellent and globally available system is also well suited for many other outdoor
local positioning tasks. However GPS has its shortcomings in dense urban areas and inside
buildings. Unfortunately this is exactly the area where heavy, strongly-growing local wireless
data transfer takes place.

Fig 6.1 Overview of current wireless local positioning systems

For cell phone positioning several different solutions exist [2, 11, 12]. The easiest but most
imprecise concept is to use the cell-ID that is directly related to the physical position of the
Serving site. Typical cell sizes vary from some 100 m up to several 10 km. TOA or TDOA
measurements from neighboring base sites can increase the accuracy to approx. 50 m to some

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100 meters in urban areas. Implementing local positioning solutions on standard WLAN
communication systems as DECT, WLAN802.11 or Bluetooth is very attractive. Mutual synergy
between the positioning and the communication system is present. Some years ago the Microsoft
Research Group introduced their so called RADAR system which is a RRS positioning systems
based on WLAN components. TDOA solutions based on DSSS or OFDM WLAN were reported
by Lietal. Further on in this article the Siemens NCPS solution will he described which is an RSS
system either DECT or WLAN802.11 based. Intense activities with respect to local positioning
can also be observed in the Bluetooth community. A local positioning working group within
the Bluetooth special interest group defined the related standards (www.bluetooth.org). The
microcellular structure of a Bluetooth network allows to localize a Bluetooth device very
easily with an accuracy related to the size of the piconet. To increase the accuracy the usual
WLAN RSS evaluation concepts can be used. The accuracy of typical WLAN positioning
systems is approx. 3 to 30 m, with an update rate in the range of some seconds. Some proprietary
solutions such as the 3D-ID system from PinPoint or the TDOA system from Where Net have
similar performance as the WLAN systems mentioned above. However, the specially designed
hardware and a protocol with longer power down periods allows for minimal power consumption
in the mobile devices and thus these products mainly address the typical transponder market and
not WLAN data services. As depicted in Figure 6.1 a technology barrier can be defined between
precision positioning systems that provide an accuracy significantly better than 1m and the less
accurate systems. For many tracking, routing and guiding applications a moderate accuracy is
sufficient. However, quite a few areas like automation and control require much higher accuracy.
Up to now only proprietary broadband microwave systems can offer this accuracy. Future Ultra
Wideband (UWB) WLAN systems will very likely be able to provide precise local positioning
information. Several proprietary UWB local positioning systems are already available today.
However, with the severe power restrictions of the current FCC UWB regulation mainly short
range solutions are feasible. One of the most powerful wireless local positioning systems
available today has been developed by the Austrian Company ABATEC. This system called
LPM was especially designed for sports applications. For less cost sensitive applications it offers
a wide range of more than 500 m, a high update rate of less than 1 ms , and cm-precision.
A similar update rate and accuracy is achieved by the Siemens local positioning- radar LPR that

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was recently launched for industrial applications like crane and forklift positioning. This system
was designed under the guideline of minimal installation, infrastructure and maintenance cost.

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CHAPTER 7 :

APPLICATIONS

In this section three different application examples are introduced, each representing different
requirements like low energy consumption, many mobile units or special geometric conditioning
due to infrastructure restraints.

7.1 Asset Tracking

Asset tracking has been one of the earliest applications of wireless positioning. Tracking of
valuable assets in hospitals, tracking of manufacturing equipment or production lots in large
plants, and tracking of life-stock inventory all require power-efficient and cost-effective mobile
units. On the other hand, response time is not important, accuracy in the meter range is usually
sufficient, and sensor fusion is not an issue. Consequently either RSS or TDOA systems are
used.

Fig 7.1 Asset tracking at factory level

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7.2 Outdoor Vehicle And People Tracking

Tracking of vehicles or people in outdoor applications has different constraints than indoor
tracking. The signal propaga-tion is significantly better and mounting possibilities are limited or
not available. This leads to fairly large cells and thus to a drastic increase of the number of
participants within the cell. Furthermore, vehicle speed requires frequent updates and short
response times, and sensor fusion is an issue due to obstruction within the large cell, e.g. cranes
in harbors or building remainders in mobile disaster recovery and rescue systems like I-LOV.
For these systems the ITDOA approach is preferred, mainly because an arbitrary number of
participants can be served at the same update rate, no communication backbone is needed and
sensor fusion can be used to overcome localization gaps. Fig. 7.2 shows the position of a mobile
unit in an ITDOA test cell.

Fig 7.2 ITDOA System with 7 fixed units in operation

7.3 Vehicle tracking with reduced infrastructure

Crane tracking has been another pioneer application for wireless local positioning. Typically,
both sides of the crane track are equipped with fixed units and the position is computed on the
mobile unit on the crane [1]. In this setup the geometrical conditioning along the track is very
good, and TDOA, ITDOA and RTOF can be used with similar performance. However, in many
cases it is not possible to mount units on both sides. With single-sided operation the geometrical

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conditioning for TDOA and ITDOA is very poor and only RTOF solutions provide sufficient
accuracy. Figure 8 compares the simulated accuracy of RTOF and ITDOA. Similar disturbance
has been assumed for distance and distance difference measurements. It is obvious that RTOF
has a tenfold performance advantage for this special case

Fig 7.3 Accuracy for a line of fixed units at 20, 40, 60, 80 m for
a) RTOF operation
b) ITDOA operation

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CHAPTER 8:

SUMMARY
A new sensor called WLPS that facilitates relative localization was introduced. An overview
over the different system topologies and the respective applications has been given. The selected
applications show that at the moment two main system types exist: Centralized systems with
mobile units of limited intelligence and low battery consumption mainly for asset and people
tracking at lower precision and decentralized systems with local intelligence for more
sophisticated tracking applications and automation at high precision, often including sensor
fusion. However, the gap between the two approaches is already shrinking: Asset and people
tracking systems tend to add new functionalities to the tag, including inertial sensor and two-way
radios, while at the other end decentralized systems reduce their power consumption and size.
Basic principles and exemplary solutions for modem wireless local positioning systems have
been demonstrated, and an insight into the huge application field of wireless local positioning
systems has been provided. Local positioning will have a strong, lasting impact on the
application of wireless systems and it will evoke paradigm changes in many areas.

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REFERENCE
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[2] J. Latvala et al, "Evaluation of RSSI-based Human Tracking", in Proc. 2000 European Signal
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[3] Theodore S. Rappaport Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice" (2nd Edition),
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[4] Widyawan, M. Klepal, D. Pesch, “Influence of Predicted and Measured Fingerprint on the
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[5] A. Rauh, et al., “Localization of DECT mobile phones based on a new nonlinear filtering
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[6] X. Li, K. Pahlavan, M. Latvaaho, M. Ylianttila, "Comparison of Indoor Geolocation Methods

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[8] M. Vossiek, P. Gulden “The Switched Injection-Locked Oscillator: A Novel Versatile

Concept for Wireless Transponder and Localization Systems” IEEE Trans. on Microwave
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[9] S. Roehr, P. Gulden, M. Vossiek, “Precise Distance and Velo-city Measurement for Real
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[10] Stelzer, A. et al., "RF-Sensor for a Local Position Measurement system", in SPIE’s 8th NDE
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APPENDIX

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