Waste Management xxx (2018) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Global status of recycling waste solar panels: A review

Yan Xu 1, Jinhui Li ⇑, Quanyin Tan ⇑, Anesia Lauren Peters 1, Congren Yang 1
State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: With the enormous growth in the development and utilization of solar-energy resources, the prolifera-
Received 21 June 2017 tion of waste solar panels has become problematic. While current research into solar panels has focused
Revised 13 January 2018 on how to improve the efficiency of the production capacity, the dismantling and recycling of end-of-life
Accepted 25 January 2018
(EOL) panels are seldom considered, as can be seen, for instance, in the lack of dedicated solar-panel recy-
Available online xxxx
cling plants. EOL solar-panel recycling can effectively save natural resources and reduce the cost of pro-
duction. To address the environmental conservation and resource recycling issues posed by the huge
Keywords:
amount of waste solar panels regarding environmental conservation and resource recycling, the status
Waste solar panels
Crystalline silicon solar panels
of the management and recycling technologies for waste solar panels are systemically reviewed and dis-
Recycling cussed in this article. This review can provide a quantitative basis to support the recycling of PV panels,
Policy and suggests future directions for public policy makers. At present, from the technical aspect, the
research on solar panel recovery is facing many problems, and we need to further develop an economi-
cally feasible and non-toxic technology. The research on solar photovoltaic panels’ management at the
end of life is just beginning in many countries, and there is a need for further improvement and expansion
of producer responsibility.
Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2. Types of solar panels and resources used in components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3. Production of solar panels and related waste generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4. Techniques for solar-panel recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.1. Component repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.2. Module separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.3. Extraction of silicon and rare metal elements from components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5. Policies for solar-panel recycling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
6. Discussion and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

⇑ Corresponding authors at: Room 805, Sino-Italian Environmental and Energy-

efficient Building, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Haidian District, 1. Introduction
Beijing 100084, China (J. Li). Room 825, Sino-Italian Environmental and Energy-
efficient Building, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Haidian District, Solar, as a form of renewable energy, offers many advantages. It
Beijing 100084, China (Q. Tan).
is safe, reliable, efficient, and non-polluting, and can be widely dis-
E-mail addresses: jinhui@tsinghua.edu.cn (J. Li), tqytsinghua@foxmail.com
(Q. Tan). tributed. Solar energy—especially photovoltaic (PV) technology—
1
Room 825, Sino-Italian Environmental and Energy-efficient Building, School of has become a hot topic of global interest. The use of PV power
Environment, Tsinghua University, Haidian District, Beijing 100084, China.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.01.036
0956-053X/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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2 Y. Xu et al. / Waste Management xxx (2018) xxx–xxx
has skyrocketed during the past several decades, as part of the glo-
bal effort to expand clean energy production, and it presents enor-
mous market potential. PV power is expected to produce a
significant portion of the energy consumed worldwide, and to
become one of the primary global energy sources in this century
(Bakhiyi et al., 2014). Developed countries, such as the United
States, Japan, and Germany, have launched large-scale PV develop-
ment plans to stimulate the PV industry (Chi et al., 2014). The glo-
bal demand for PV power increased from 1 GW (GW) in 2004 to 57
GWs in 2015: an annual growth rate of more than 20%, faster than
any other industry, including other emerging renewable energy
industries. It has been suggested that PV power will the leading
type of new energy development in the future (Luo et al., 2008;
Winneker, 2013).
In China, the switch to solar energy may be an even more crit-
ical reform. In recent years, with the country’s rapid economic
growth, environmental conditions have been deteriorating (Duan
et al., 2008, 2011). In Beijing, for example, air pollution has become
a key issue, as it affects the livelihoods and health of residents.
Since the extensive utilization of fossil fuels is one of the main
sources of air pollution, the energy industry has a major share of
responsibility for solving these environmental problems. Fortu-
nately, though, the trends in energy reform are changing the struc-
ture of the energy system, reducing the proportion of coal in power
generation, and promoting the development of new energy
sources. It has been estimated that the solar-energy resource
reserves in China are equivalent to 1700 billion tons of standard
coal each year, indicating an enormous potential for the develop-
ment and utilization of solar energy resources in China (Liu and
Zhang, 2010).
Nevertheless, solar panels themselves present another environ-
mental issue: when their useful life is over, they become a form of
hazardous waste. Because solar panels have a long service life, the
recycling of waste panels was not a concern during their first 25
years of development. A considerable number of the first batch
of solar panels installed are now being retired, however, and sound
management of end-of-life solar panels is gradually becoming an
important environmental issue (Aman et al., 2015). Solar-panel
recycling is particularly beneficial for environmental protection,
because silicon production is a process of intensive energy con-
sumption, and the energy and cost needed to recover silicon from
recycled solar panels are equivalent to only one third of those of
manufacturing silicon directly (Choi and Fthenakis, 2010) In addi-
tion, the heavy metals lead, tin, and cadmium also predominate in
solar panels (Bakhiyi et al., 2014; Galan et al., 2005), and these
heavy metals can pollute the environment and pose threats to
human health. Therefore, the recovery of waste solar panels can
reduce energy waste and environmental pollution (Cucchiella
et al., 2015).
In July 2012, the European Union officially revised the waste
electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) directive, adding PV
components as discarded electronic devices, so that they will be
included under the ten categories of WEEE. Henceforth, solar PV
elements will be included in the electronic waste management sys-
tem, and must be collected and recycled (Bio Intelligence Service,
2011; McDonald and Pearce, 2010).
The newly launched PV waste management regulations require
that all solar panels that have reached their end of life—whether
from age or because they are damaged and their warranty period
has expired—must be properly dealt with (Czanderna and Pern,
1996). Furthermore, all manufacturers of PV panels who supply
components to the European market must pay a recycling fee.
There are, however, few countries taking action outside the EU, pri-
marily because there is an extremely low volume waste PV panels
available for recycling, and the cost of recycling the panels is too
high for the process to be cost beneficial (Yamashita et al., 2003;
Please cite this article in press as: Xu, Y., et al. Global status of recycling waste solar panels: A review. Waste Management (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.wasman.2018.01.036
Wambach, 2004). There are only a handful of PV panel processing
and recycling facilities around the world, and end-of-life solar PV
panel management is a newly emerging field that needs further
research and development.
The aim of this study was to provide an up-to-date review of the
production and waste generation of solar panels and an outline of
the present status of recovery efforts, including policies on end-of-
life solar-panel management and recycling. This review also
intends to provide a qualitative or semi-quantitative basis to sup-
port the recycling of PV panels, and to suggest future directions for
public policymakers.
2. Types of solar panels and resources used in components
A typical solar-energy system consists of a solar panel, a solar
controller, and a battery or group of batteries. If the output power
is 220 V (AC) or 110 V, an inverter is also needed as part of the con-
figuration (Fig. 1). Crystalline silicon solar panels are installed in
solar arrays and have great recycling value.
Solar panels, also known as solar or photovoltaic modules (PV
modules), work by using the photovoltaic effect of the semicon-
ductor material in the panel to convert solar radiation directly into
electrical energy. The solar panel is made up of several solar cells in
series; these make up the key component of the system. The func-
tion of the battery group is to store the energy emitted by the solar
panel when it is illuminated so that it can be supplied to the load at
any time. The function of the controller is to automatically prevent
overcharge of the battery. The function of inverter is to convert the
direct current into alternating current.
Solar panels can be classified into three generations: (1) Crys-
talline silicon (monocrystalline or multi-crystalline); (2) thin film
(amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, copper indium gallium
selenide - CIGS); and (3) concentrator photovoltaics and emerging
technologies (CPV solar panels, dye-sensitized solar panels, organic
solar panels, and hybrid panels). Since monocrystalline and poly-
crystalline silicon panels have higher conversion efficiency than
thin film, they are presently (and will likely remain) the most
widely used commercial solar-panel materials. Up until 2012, crys-
talline silicon panels accounted for about 90% of the global PV mar-
ket, while third-generation solar panels have not yet been
commercialized on a large scale.
Solar panels are the base power generation units of a solar
energy system, and can be independently used. A typical panel
includes an aluminum (Al) alloy frame, tempered glass, a battery
piece, EVA (ethylene/vinyl acetate copolymer), and a backboard
(TPT, Topotecan Hydrochloride) (Fig. 2) (Yin and Hao, 2009).
Tables 1 and 2 detail the PV panel composition and recyclable
elements. After disassembly and extraction, the weight of the var-
ious resources from a typical solar panel is as follows: glass 54.7%,
Al 12.7%, adhesive sealant 10%, silicon 3.1%, and other 19.5%
(Cheng and Wang, 2007; Miles et al., 2005).
It can be seen that Al and glass account for a large proportion of
PV panels, indicating that the loss of potentially reusable resources
occurs across all types of PV panels. The loss of rare metals, in par-
ticular indium, gallium and germanium, is another effect of the
non-recirculation of PV panels, which contain all of these rare met-
als. Indium is present in amorphous silicon and copper indium gal-
lium selenide panels. Gallium is present in copper indium gallium
selenide, concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) panels and emerging
panel technologies. Germanium is present in amorphous silicon,
concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) panels, and emerging panel tech-
nologies. While these rare metals account for only 1 percent of the
PV panel volume, their value is significant.
After the recycling of PV panels, products can be obtained from
reprocessing the components making up the Al frame, the silver
 Y. Xu et al. / Waste Management xxx (2018) xxx–xxx 3

Fig. 1. Constituents of a solar energy system. (A) solar panel, (B) solar controller, (C) battery and (D) inverter (needed if the output power is 220 V (AC) or 110 V).

Table 2
Composition of crystalline silicon solar panels.

Recyclable material Content (kg/kWp)

Frame Al 12.771
Polycrystalline silicon chips Si 3.101
Silver bar line Ag 0.03
Tinned wire Cu 0.451
Glass Glass 54.721
Background Plastic 17.091
Adhesive sealant 10%

Fig. 2. Illustration of a crystalline silicon solar panel.
grid line, the tin copper wire and the glass. The crystalline silicon in
crystalline silicon PV panels, and the rare metals such as indium,
gallium, germanium, tellurium, in thin film PV panels, concentrator
PV panels, and panels using other emerging technologies, can be
recycled for new equipment production, and these advantages
are attracting increasing interest from researchers globally.
However, mixed plastic is difficult to recycle for use in products,
although it can be used for energy. In addition to these advanta-
geous materials, there are toxic heavy metals, such as cadmium
and lead, although these account for less than 1% wt. of the PV pan-
els. These heavy metals will sink in the residues from recycling and
cause the residue to be classified as hazardous waste that needs to
be sent to a hazardous-waste landfill.
End-of-life solar-panel recycling can effectively save natural
resources and reduce the cost of production. It also provides a large
number of semiconductors and other raw materials for the solar-
panel industry itself. While current research into solar panels is
focused on how to improve their efficiency and production capac-
ity, the recycling and dismantling of waste panels are seldom con-
sidered. There are still, for instance, no specific solar-panel
recycling plants. Yet recovering Si and other raw materials from
waste solar panels could be a promising approach to compensate
for the consumption of Si and other raw materials in the produc-
tion process. Consequently, the need for environmentally sound
management of waste solar panels has become urgent, especially
because no effective collection or disposal system for the increas-
ing stream of waste solar panels has been developed or
implemented.
3. Production of solar panels and related waste generation
The development and utilization of renewable energy are nec-
essary because the consumption of fossil-fuel energy has led to
environmental issues, such as climate change and air pollution.
Solar energy is an important one of these renewable energy
sources. Fig. 3 shows that the global installed capacity of PV
increased from 23.0 GW in 2009 to 207.9 GW in 2016. Germany
is the country with the largest installed capacity, although its pro-
portion of world installation decreased from 27% in 2011 to 20% in
2015 (Fig. 4). From 2011 to 2015, China’s share of the global PV
market increased from 4% to 22%. In 2013, Europe had the greatest
share of the global PV market, but a dramatic change occurred in
2014 as Asia took the lead from Europe, now representing 60% of
the global market (Weckend et al., 2016).

Table 1
Composition of a solar-energy system.

Units Main components

Tempered glass Glass
Battery piece Silicon, cadmium, selenium, tellurium, gallium, molybdenum, indium, etc.
EVA (ethylene/vinyl-acetate copolymer) (C2H4)x
(C4H6O2)y; chemical properties: general polymer
Backboard TPT, TPE, etc.
Al alloy frame 97% Al
Junction box Box body (including copper or plastic terminal), lid, diode, cables, connectors
Silica gel Highly active adsorption materials, and amorphous material with chemical formula SiO2
nH2O

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4 Y. Xu et al. / Waste Management xxx (2018) xxx–xxx
Fig. 3. Global growth of PV technologies. Data source: European Photovoltaic
Industry Association (EPIA, 2015).
Fig. 4. Global installed capacity of photovoltaics by region, 2011–2014. Data source:
European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA, 2015).
Taking China as an example: according to the forecast of solar-
panel waste by the Chinese Association of Renewable Energy, Chi-
na’s solar-panel waste began to be produced in 2015, and the
cumulative amount of waste will increase rapidly starting in
2020, becoming critical around 2030. Therefore, the disposal and
recycling of solar panels will become an important environmental
issue in China over the next decade or so (Feng, 2011; Wang et al.,
2014).
The amount of global installed PV panels is rising sharply and is
expected to grow rapidly in the coming years, as the normal useful
life of a solar panel is 25 years. The total quantity of end-of-life PV
panels is anticipated to reach 9.57 million tons by 2050 (Monier
and Hestin, 2011). Fig. 5 shows the market share of solar panels
by technology group. In 2014, silicon-based (C-Si) panels owned
92% of the market share; those based on copper indium gallium
(di)selenide (CIGS), 2%; and those based on cadmium telluride
(CdTe), 5%; with 1% going to those based on other materials
(CPV, dye-sensitized, organic, hybrids). From 2014 to 2030, the
market share of C-Si PV panels is expected to decrease from 92%
to 44.8%, while third-generation PV panels’ market share has been
rising rapidly, and is expected to reach 44.1%, up from 1%, over the
same period of time.
Therefore, among discarded solar products, the most important
to recycle in the next few years are, in order: silicon-based (C-Si)
Please cite this article in press as: Xu, Y., et al. Global status of recycling waste solar panels: A review. Waste Management (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.wasman.2018.01.036
Fig. 5. Market share of solar panels by technology group, 2014–2030. Data source:
Weckend et al. (2016).
panels, CIGS, CdTe, and other types. The main environmental prob-
lems linked with PV panels, if they are not properly disposed of,
are: leaching of lead, leaching of cadmium, loss of recoverable
resources (1 million tons of Al, 0.3 million tons of silicon, 7.4 mil-
lion tons of glass) and loss of recoverable rare metals (silver,
indium, gallium and germanium). From the point of view of reduc-
ing carbon emissions by recycling, it has been shown that the car-
bon emissions from recycled Al production comes to only 4.16% of
the emissions for the same amount of Al produced from natural
minerals (Ding et al., 2012). Taking the recycling of CIGS PV panels
as an example, when the collection, transportation, recycling, and
disposal stages are all considered, the carbon emissions for the
recycling of Ga and In would be 230 kgCO2-Eq for 1 m2 CIGS PV
panels, according to an assessment by Peters (2016). Thus there
will be a significant potential for carbon emissions reduction when
the collection, transportation, and recycling of waste PV panels are
effectively organized.
However, in addition to small amounts of cadmium and lead, PV
panels contain other substances that are hazardous to both
humans and the environment. Nevertheless, while such other
materials may also leach from PV panels, these two hazardous sub-
stances—cadmium and lead—produce the largest effects on both
groups, even though they account for less than 1% of the content
of PV panels.
4. Techniques for solar-panel recycling
Currently, research into solar-panel recycling is being carried
out mainly in Europe, Japan, and the United States (Bohland and
Ansimov, 1997; Bombach et al., 2005, 2006; Doni and Dughiero,
2012; Palitzsch and Loser, 2012). Most solar-panel recycling stud-
ies have focused on silicon extraction and the recycling of rare
metal elements. At present, there are three methods of processing
waste solar panels: component repair, module separation, and the
removal of silicon and other rare metal elements from among the
components. Fig. 6 shows the recycling techniques for the different
kinds of solar panels.
4.1. Component repair
The replacement of components is intended to overhaul sys-
tems and prevent the electrical failure of board groups, but does
not involve the separation of components or materials recycling.
Lin et al. (2011) adopted two kinds of methods to dismantle and
analyze faults in the junction box, which can increase the output
power of old solar panels. However, such methods can only be used
if the external junction box and outer layer encapsulation film are
 Y. Xu et al. / Waste Management xxx (2018) xxx–xxx 5

Fig. 6. Recycling techniques for various types of solar panels.

aging. Further processing becomes necessary when the compo-
nents age.
4.2. Module separation
Physical separation includes the mechanical separation of bro-
ken panels but does not involve separating out any particular type
of material.
Doi et al. (2001) prescribed the recovery of silicon panels from
conventional crystalline silicon solar panels using an organic sol-
vent method. From tests using multiple types of organic solvents
to dissolve the EVA film, it was found that trichloroethylene could
melt cross-linked EVA samples kept at 80 °C. Applying this method
to a ‘‘one-panel” module (125  125 mm), it was found that
mechanical pressure is necessary to suppress the swelling of the
EVA. After immersing the module in trichloroethylene at 80 °C
for ten days, the silicon panel was recovered successfully with no
damage.
Dong (2009) studied a method of dismantling solar panels and
component separation based on physical and chemical properties,
structure, and materials. By comparing the advantages and disad-
vantages of the three methods for solar-panel disposal (artificial
disassembly, use of an organic solvent, and heat treatment), they
identified the heat treatment process as the optimal solution. The
crystal silicon processing method consists of three steps. First,
the Al electrodes on the backs of the panels are removed with a
sodium hydroxide solution. Next, the silver positive electrode grid
line is recovered using a saltpeter solution. Finally, an HF solution
is used to remove any anti-reflectors on the surface of the polysil-
icon, to recover and recycle high-purity polysilicon. Yingli New
Energy Resources Co., Ltd. of China studied a physical method for
recycling solar-panel components. First, during the artificial disas-
sembly, panels were crushed and cryogenically broken further into
tiny particles, yielding a mixture of different types of materials that
could be processed using the electrostatic separation method.
However, this method is not sufficient for extracting a single com-
ponent in the developmental stage. And manual methods, even
those using various tools, are insufficient for dismantling crys-
talline silicon solar panels. However, much of the current research
on the topic is focused on crystalline silicon solar panels, and the
technology required to dismantle them is the critical part of the
method. Actually extinguishing the EVA film by using high-
temperature pyrolysis, or dissolving the EVA by using acid, alkali
and organic solvents, have been effective techniques.
Kim and Lee (2012) used an organic solvent-assisted ultrasonic
method to improve the dissolution rate of the EVA, and utilized tri-
chloroethylene, o-dichlorobenzene, benzene, toluene, and other
organic solvents to dissolve the EVA film from solar panels. They

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Table 3
Comparison of solar-panel recycling technologies.
Key technology
Component repair
Module separation
Recycling of silicon
Recycling of rare metals
6
Methods Results - advantages Disadvantages References
Two kinds of methods to dismantle and Can increase the output power of Can be used only if the external junction Lin et al. (2011)
analyze faults in the junction box old solar panels box and outer layer are aging
Organic solvent method Mechanical pressure is critical to Organic liquid waste produced Doi et al. (2001)
suppress the swelling of the EVA.
The silicon panel was recovered
successfully with no damage
Compared three methods: artificial The heat treatment process was Did not involve the resource recovery of Dong (2009)
Y. Xu et al. / Waste Management xxx (2018) xxx–xxx
disassembly, use of organic solvent to dissolve the optimal solution silicon
components, and heat treatment
Artificial disassembly, crushing, cryogenic Obtained a mixture of different Not sufficient for single component Yingli New Energy Resources Co.,
breaking and electrostatic separation types of materials separation; still in the laboratory research Ltd. of China
stage
Organic solvent-assisted ultrasonic method Significantly shortens the Organic liquid waste produced Kim and Lee (2012)
dissolution time of EVA in
organic solvents
Heat treatment and chemical etching methods Module separation Non-purified silicon wafers Klugmann-Radziemska et al.
(2009, 2010a,b)
Cement-based thermal insulation system and Recycling of silicon Organic liquid waste produced Fernandez et al. (2011)
chemical method
Grinding and hydrometallurgy Recycling of indium and gallium High price of chemicals Guangdong Xiandao Rare
Material Co., Ltd, (2011)
Physical and chemical methods: blasting, Recycling of cadmium telluride; High price of chemicals Sasala et al. (1996)
mechanical processing and dissolution of the net cost estimated at
semiconductor, and precipitation, plating and $0.04–$0.06/W
ion exchange
Recycling (CdTe and CIS) by wet mechanical Recycling (CdTe and CIS) Process is complicated Berger et al. (2010)
treatment such as grinding and flotation, or dry
mechanical processing methods such as
vacuum blasting
Treated multiple types of solar panels together. Mix of recycled polysilicon, All types of mixtures, hard to separate Granataa et al. (2014)
Two physical methods were used: panels were amorphous silicon, and CdTe
broken and then heat-treated or broken with a solar panels; glass directly
hammer recycled
 Y. Xu et al. / Waste Management xxx (2018) xxx–xxx
studied the effects of the concentration of different solvents, tem-
peratures, ultrasonic power, radiation times, etc. The results
showed that at 450 W ultrasonic power and a temperature of 70
°C, the EVA film could be completely dissolved in 3 mol/L of
toluene after one hour. This method significantly shortens the dis-
solution time of EVA in organic solvents, but could also lead to an
organic liquid waste problem. Klugmann-Radziemska et al. (2009,
2010a,b) explored the feasibility of recycling silicon from waste
crystal silicon solar-panel components by heat treatment and
chemical methods. First, the panels were divided into their con-
stituents of flat glass, Al frames, and backplanes by heat treatment;
then, the chemical method was used to remove the reflector on the
surface of the panel, the p-n semiconductor junction, and the
before-and-after surface metal electrodes. The heat treatment
and organic solvent processing methods are often used to separate
the various components of solar panels (Katsuya et al., 2003). Crys-
talline silicon panels consist of a panel electrode and an anti-
reflection film coating, and a series of chemical etchings must be
conducted to reduce the panel groups to pure silicon wafers. The
chemical etching process involves removing the metal layer,
removing the reflector, and doping the p-n junction, followed by
surface polishing, cleaning, and drying.
4.3. Extraction of silicon and rare metal elements from components
Silicon and precious metals can be recycled from solar panels.
Thin-film solar-panel recycling has been the subject of consider-
able research (Berger et al., 2010). Fernandez et al. (2011) studied
crystal silicon panel recycling in a cement-based thermal insula-
tion system. They used the chemical method, with acid, alkali sol-
vent, and organic solvents to remove or dissolve the EVA film. Vital
Materials Limited Company (Guangdong Xiandao Rare Material Co.
Ltd., 2011) processes solar panels containing materials such as
indium and gallium using hydrometallurgy, after fine grinding to
recover the materials from the solar panels. Their process includes
liquid extraction, with gallium salt and lithium salt added to the
water extraction; separation; recycling; filtering; etc. Sasalaet
et al. (1996) recycled the cadmium telluride from thin-film solar
panels using physical and chemical methods. First, mechanical pro-
cessing was performed via blasting with 40,000 psi water. Second,
the semiconductor and metal were dissolved with 6% sulfuric acid
and 15% hydrogen peroxide. Third, precipitation, plating, and ion
exchange were conducted. Results showed that the net cost was
$0.04–$0.06/W. Berger et al. (2010) also studied the recycling of
thin-film solar panels, such as recycling CdTe and CIS by wet
mechanical treatment: for example, using grinding and flotation,
or by dry mechanical processing methods such as vacuum blasting.
Granataa et al. (2014) treated multiple types of solar panels
together. Two physical methods were used to mix together recy-
cled polysilicon, amorphous silicon, and CdTe solar panels, which
were broken and then heat-treated or broken with a hammer
before the glass was directly recycled.
Table 3 summarizes various solar-panel recycling technologies.
There are many studies on the laboratory processing of solar pan-
els, but only two methods of complete treatment process have
been investigated for industrial application and development.
Deutsche Solar, a company that deals with crystalline silicon
solar-panel modules, and First Solar Company, have both adopted
the method of mechanical and chemical processing for thin-film
solar panels (McDonald and Pearce, 2010).
The reprocessing of solar panels in China is limited to the repair
of components and simple separation, which fail to classify and
recycle the particular constituents, and are inferior to techniques
used abroad. However, the treatment and disposal technologies
applied in other countries have problems as well. For example,
the crushing process produces a large amount of dust containing
Please cite this article in press as: Xu, Y., et al. Global status of recycling waste solar panels: A review. Waste Management (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.wasman.2018.01.036
7
glass fiber and resin, emanates poison gas, and creates noise pollu-
tion (Yang et al., 2004). The inorganic acid dissolution method can
be effective for EVA separation only, and the process produces
nitrogen oxides and other harmful gases (Bruton et al., 1994),
which require respiratory protection equipment for employees to
avoid associated health risks. Further, the method does not con-
sider the removal of frames or the reuse of silicon wafers, and
the residual liquid is hard to dispose of.
The EVA dissolution time for conventional organic solvents is
much longer, although it can be significantly shortened by using
ultrasonically assisted organic solvents. However, it also generates
a large amount of volatile organic liquid waste, which is difficult to
treat. The heat treatment method combined with chemical pro-
cessing is the most advanced technology in this regard, but it has
the downside of generating waste gas from pyrolysis, and requires
high energy consumption.
5. Policies for solar-panel recycling
Britain was the first country in the European Union to formally
approve the EU’s WEEE directive on photovoltaic components pro-
cessing. The British regulations, which took effect on January 1,
2014, require all the PV panels produced or imported into the UK
market to have a registered product conformity plan, and all man-
ufacturers of solar panels must provide all of the critical data
related to the panels, such as the number produced or imported
and their distribution channels.
Germany has also revised its electrical and electronic equip-
ment (WEEE) regulations, requiring that all photovoltaic compo-
nent manufacturers and importers register their products and
assume obligations for end-of-life treatment; offenders will face
huge fines.
In the Czech Republic, PV Cycle, a European organization
responsible for WEEE-compliant PV module take-back and recy-
cling, and Retina, a photovoltaic waste processor, have entered into
a joint venture for the recovery and recycling of waste solar panels.
As a non-profit, member-based organization, PV Cycle offers col-
lective and tailor-made waste management and legal compliance
services for companies and waste processors throughout the
world. Their staff includes solar-panel waste management consul-
tants as well as traditional scientists. Retina, meanwhile, will be
responsible for the Czech Republic’s rehabilitation and recycling
management.
WEEELABEX organization, located in Czech, is also involved in a
project aimed at collecting, storing, processing, and recycling
waste electrical and electronic equipment throughout Europe,
including the preparation of standards and the monitoring of
waste-processing companies.
Very few countries outside the EU market have taken any mea-
sures to regulate waste solar panels. Japan, though, has taken a first
step toward solar-panel recycling. Not only have the national first-
class solar-energy equipment manufacturing enterprises actively
participated in research on recycling technology, together with
the advanced European countries, but a local company has also
researched and developed recovery technology. The environment
ministry has also required manufacturers to be involved in recy-
cling waste solar panels. In addition, a Japanese wholly owned sub-
sidiary of Shell Oil Company formally joined the European
photovoltaic international organization. And NPC, a solar-panel
manufacturing and inspection equipment manufacturer, is setting
up a joint venture with the industrial waste-processing Hamada
Company to recycle solar panels. The two companies will jointly
participate in the New Energy Industrial Technology Development
organization (NEDO) implementation of 2016 photovoltaic recy-
cling technology development projects.
8 Y. Xu et al. / Waste Management xxx (2018) xxx–xxx
Although it lags behind Europe, the U.S. state of California, as
the single largest solar market, has a proposal to supervise and
control the processing of waste solar-equipment components.
DTSC (California department of toxic substances control) plans to
limit the landfill disposal of components containing harmful
substances by promoting recycling. In 2010, DTSC proposed a
solar-panel manufacturer recycling project, to treat solar panels
as hazardous waste. American silicon film panle producer and
utility-scale project developer First Solar has established factories
in the United States, Germany, and Malaysia, for recycling solar-
equipment waste Through recycling and reuse, about 95% of the
Cd and about 90% of the glass can be reused for new components.
In less than a decade, China has become the world leader of
installed PV capacity, while policies and regulations for solar-
panel recycling are still non-existent there (Ding et al., 2016;
Zhao, 2012). Even the environmental protection organization has
not studied the solar-panel waste problem, and there are few recy-
cling enterprises or institutions. Only a handful of enterprises, such
as Yingli and Trina Solar Company, are carrying out research on
solar panels, and these projects have only been active for a few
years. The Chinese Environmental Science Research Institute is car-
rying out an environmental management study of the photovoltaic
industry’s impact on the environment, including the effects of
recycled solar-equipment components. Yet these efforts are hin-
dered by the paucity of waste components available for research,
since presently, most PV panels have not yet reached the end-of-
life stage.
The extended producer responsibility system has been proven to
be an effective approach for the management of many types of
waste, especially electronic waste (Weckend et al., 2016). Strength-
ening producers’ responsibility through the life cycle of PV panels
could be an efficient approach for sustainable material manage-
ment, and relevant measures could be implemented from the fol-
lowing aspects (Eberspacher and Fthenaki, 1997; Frisson et al.,
1998; Fthenakis, 2000; Fthenakis et al., 2008). First, the responsibil-
ity of carrying out eco design should be strengthened in the existing
regulations, since the design stage helps to minimize the impacts on
environment and resources from the production, collection and
recycling processes (Miao, 2015). Second, the use of recycled mate-
rials in the production of new panels should be encouraged by set-
ting target percentages, while still guaranteeing quality product
performance and safety. Third, incentive measures should be legis-
lated, to encourage producers to participate in collection and recy-
cling activities, to take advantages of the producers’ logistic
network for new products and manufacturing technology, and
establish a closed-loop green supply chain (Qu, 2015). In addition,
information disclosure will allow public participation in monitoring
the producers’ responsibility implementation, with mandatory dis-
closure to the public and targeted disclosure to the collection and
recycling sectors (Tang, 2007).
6. Discussion and conclusions
Current research on solar panels has focused mainly on how to
improve the production efficiency of crystalline silicon solar pan-
els. However, processes for retrieving and dismantling waste pan-
els should also be considered. In China, there is no dedicated
crystalline silicon solar-panel recycling system; therefore, the
direct disposal of retired solar panels is a serious issue, as recover-
able resources are being wasted.
Solar-panel recycling is a long, involved process, and the recy-
cling system chain is incomplete. Although there are no rare earth
metals in solar panels, the positive panel terminals are made of sil-
ver, which has recycling value, and there are numerous other valu-
able elements—including indium, gallium and germanium—within
Please cite this article in press as: Xu, Y., et al. Global status of recycling waste solar panels: A review. Waste Management (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.wasman.2018.01.036
the components. Yet recycling waste solar panels presents several
problems, such as the release of solvent emissions during the recy-
cling process. However, by using an activated carbon fiber adsorp-
tion recycling condensation device along with a solvent refining
and dewatering device, the organic gas generated can be turned
into a high-purity liquid organic solvent after recycling. Hence
the process can meet the requirements for recycling, reduce the
discharge of pollutants into the atmosphere, and protect the envi-
ronment. Although the investment in environmental protection
equipment can significantly increase a company’s production
costs, it can also create economic benefits associated with environ-
mental protection.
Future outcomes of current research, development and testing
efforts for photovoltaic-panel recycling techniques are difficult to
assess. Another challenge for the recycling of PV panels is their
long lifetime, estimated as 25 years. Not enough policies are cur-
rently being developed to handle these problems.
Policies and regulations on solar-panel recycling have until now
been omitted from the waste electrical and electronic equipment
(WEEE) directive in China. We propose that a recycling industry
standard be developed for waste from photovoltaic power genera-
tion, requiring manufacturers to be responsible for recycling. Poli-
cies and regulations to encourage recycling and safe disposal of
waste should be devised as well. At the same time, the manage-
ment of waste panels and hazardous waste is necessary, and a pen-
alty can be assessed for improperly disposing of, or buying and
selling, waste panels. Also, the government should take measures
to compel solar equipment manufacturing firms to disclose envi-
ronmental information, strengthen the supervision of the media,
the public, and non-governmental organizations, and achieve a
good balance among the stakeholders. The results of this review
demonstrate the need to extend the responsibilities of the produc-
ers not only in the PV manufacturing sector but also throughout
the entire energy industry.
Acknowledgements
This study was financially supported by the National Key Tech-
nologies R&D Program (No. 2014BAC03B04).
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