MA 101 (Mathematics I)

Series : Summary of Lectures

∞
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An infinite series in R is an expression xn , where (xn ) is a sequence in R.
n=1
More formally, it is an ordered pair ((xn ), (sn )), where (xn ) is a sequence in R and
sn = x1 + · · · + xn for all n ∈ N.

xn : nth term of the series

sn : nth partial sum of the series
∞
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Convergence of series: xn is convergent if (sn ) is convergent. In this case, the
n=1
∞
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sum of the series is xn = lim sn .
n=1 n→∞
A series which is not convergent is called divergent.

Examples:
∞
arn−1 (where a 6= 0) converges iff |r| < 1.
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1. The geometric series
n=1
∞
1
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2. The series n(n+1)
is convergent with sum 1.
n=1
3. The series 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + · · · is not convergent.

∞
P ∞
P
Algebraic operations on series: Let xn and yn be convergent with sums x
n=1 n=1
and y respectively. Then
∞
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(a) (xn + yn ) is convergent with sum x + y
n=1
P∞
(b) αxn is convergent with sum αx, where α ∈ R
n=1

∞
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Monotonic criterion: A series xn of non-negative terms is convergent iff the se-
n=1
quence (sn ) is bounded above.
∞
1
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Example: n2
is convergent.
n=1
∞
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Cauchy criterion: A series xn is convergent iff for each ε > 0, there exists n0 ∈ N
n=1
such that |xm+1 + · · · + xn | < ε for all m > n ≥ n0 .
∞
1
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Example: n
is not convergent.
n=1
∞
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Result: If xn is convergent, then xn → 0.
n=1
∞
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Hence if xn 6→ 0, then xn cannot be convergent.
n=1

Examples: The following series are not convergent.

∞ ∞
n2 +1 n
(−1)n n+2
P P
(a) (n+3)(n+4)
(b)
n=1 n=1

Comparison test: Let (xn ) and (yn ) be sequences in R such that for some n0 ∈ N,
0 ≤ xn ≤ yn for all n ≥ n0 .
Then
∞
P ∞
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(a) yn is convergent ⇒ xn is convergent,
n=1 n=1
P∞ ∞
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(b) xn is divergent ⇒ yn is divergent.
n=1 n=1

Limit comparison test: Let (xn ) and (yn ) be sequences of positive real numbers such
that xynn → ` ∈ R.
∞
P ∞
P
(a) If ` 6= 0, then xn is convergent iff yn is convergent.
n=1 n=1
P∞ ∞
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(b) If ` = 0, then yn is convergent ⇒ xn is convergent.
n=1 n=1

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
1+sin n 1 √ 1 n
P P P P
Examples: (a) 1+n2
(b) 2n +n
(c) (d) 4n3 −2
n=1 n=1 n=2 n(n−1) n=1

Cauchy’s condensation test: Let (xn ) be a decreasing sequence of nonnegative real

∞ ∞
2n x2n is convergent.
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numbers. Then xn is convergent iff
n=1 n=1

Examples:
∞
1
P
(a) p-series: np
is convergent iff p > 1.
n=1
∞
1
P
(b) n(log n)p
is convergent iff p > 1.
n=2

∞
P ∞
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Definitions: xn is called absolutely convergent if |xn | is convergent.
n=1 n=1
∞
P ∞
P ∞
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xn is called conditionally convergent if xn is convergent but |xn | is divergent.
n=1 n=1 n=1

Result: Every absolutely convergent series is convergent.

Ratio test: Let (xn ) be a sequence of nonzero real numbers such that | xxn+1
n
| → `.
∞
P
(a) If ` < 1, then xn is absolutely convergent.
n=1
P∞
(b) If ` > 1, then xn is divergent.
n=1

∞ ∞
P n
P (2n)!
Examples: (a) 2n
(b) (n!)2
n=1 n=1
1
Root test: Let (xn ) be a sequence in R such that |xn | n → `.
∞
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(a) If ` < 1, then xn is absolutely convergent.
n=1
P∞
(b) If ` > 1, then xn is divergent.
n=1

∞ ∞
P (n!)n P 5n
Examples: (a) nn2
(b) 3n +4n
n=1 n=1

Leibniz’s test: Let (xn ) be a decreasing sequence of positive real numbers such that
 ∞
(−1)n+1 xn is convergent.
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xn → 0. Then the alternating series
n=1
∞ ∞
(−1)n+1 n1p , p ∈ R (−1)n+1 n3n+1
P P
Examples: (a) (b)
n=1 n=1

Result: Grouping of terms of a convergent series does not change the convergence
and the sum.
However, a divergent series can become convergent after grouping of terms.

Result: Rearrangement of terms does not change the convergence and the sum of an
absolutely convergent series.

Example: 1 − 12 + 13 − 14 + 15 − 16 + · · · = s
1 + 31 − 12 + 15 + 17 − 41 + 91 + · · · = 32 s
∞
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Riemann’s rearrangement theorem: Let xn be a conditionally convergent se-
n=1
ries.
∞
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(a) If s ∈ R, then there exists a rearrangement of terms of xn such that the rearranged
n=1
series has the sum s. ∞
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(b) There exists a rearrangement of terms of xn such that the rearranged series
n=1
diverges.