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Influence of shielding gases in the welding of metals

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DOI: 10.1007/s00170-012-4111-6

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Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 64:1411–1421
DOI 10.1007/s00170-012-4111-6
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Influence of shielding gases in the welding of metals
P. Kah & J. Martikainen
Received: 29 December 2011 / Accepted: 26 March 2012 / Published online: 12 April 2012
# Springer-Verlag London Limited 2012
Abstract Shielding gases are of considerable significance
in the protection of molten metal from atmospheric contam-
ination during welding processes. These gases play an im-
portant role in a number of aspects of welding, including arc
characteristics and the microstructure of weldments. Under-
standing of the influence of welding shielding gases on
different materials is consequently important, and extensive
studies and experiments have been performed by numerous
researchers. Based on previous studies, the objective of the
current study is to collate and summarize the most important
findings and approaches of earlier research. This paper
provides analysis of the influence of different combinations
of process gases on welding of commonly used materials in
manufacturing. The results presented can be used as guide-
lines to achieve higher quality and efficiency in welding
practices. This study provides a good foundation for learn-
ing and creates enhanced awareness of shielding-gas-related
issues among metal industry actors, permitting objective
evaluation of welding productivity and quality.
Keywords Welding shielding gases . Welding processes .
Materials . Mechanical properties . Microstructure
1 Introduction
Shielding gases in arc and laser welding processes have a
remarkable effect on the overall performance of the welding
system. The main function of these gases is to protect the
weld pool from adverse reactions with atmospheric gases.
P. Kah (*) : J. Martikainen
Lappeenranta University of Technology,
P. O. Box 20, 53851, Lappeenranta, Finland
e-mail: paul.kah@lut.fi
Oxygen, nitrogen and water vapour present in ambient air
can cause weld contamination. Weld shielding, therefore,
always involves removal of potentially reactive gases from
the vicinity of the weld, preventing the detrimental effects
on the molten metal of the surrounding atmosphere. Shield-
ing gases can also stabilize the arc and enhance the metal
transfer mode in arc welding processes [1]. Shielding gases
have a distinct effect on the formation and the structure of
the arc plasma. This plasma, composed of ionized gas,
melted metals, slags, vapours and gaseous atoms and mol-
ecules, can be controlled by application of appropriate
shielding gas [2, 3]. The shielding gas also interacts with
the base and filler metal and can thus change basic mechan-
ical properties of the weld area, such as strength, toughness,
hardness and corrosion resistance. Shielding gases moreover
have important effects on the formation of the weld bead
and the penetration pattern. The application of different
shielding gases can result in different penetration and weld
bead profiles. Porosity in the weld is one of the most
common welding defects related to the shielding atmo-
sphere. Pores can be the initiation point for crack propaga-
tion in the welded joint and can considerably decrease the
life cycle of joints under dynamic loads [1, 4].
It is clear from the above that appropriate selection of
process gases is an essential consideration for efficiency,
quality and overall weld acceptability. In order to meet precise
welding requirements, a mixture of different gases is usually
used. These blends can be composed of two, three and even
four different gases. Various factors should be taken into
account when selecting the composition of shielding blends,
including the type of base material and the chemical–metal-
lurgical reactions between the gases and the molten pool [1–3,
5–8]. Despite the type of shielding gases used having a re-
markable effect on the mechanical properties of welded joints,
there are few comprehensive scientific resources dealing with
1412 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 64:1411–1421

this issue. The aim of this paper is to provide concise and
inclusive information about the interactions of different
shielding gases with welding materials. The focus of this
study is on metals most commonly used in manufacturing,
namely steels (carbon, ferritic, austenitic and duplex) and
aluminium alloys. Variation in chemical composition, micro-
structure and mechanical properties of weldments in relation
to the type of shielding gas is investigated from this perspec-
tive. Data on which the paper is based are taken from scientific
literature and the findings can be utilized as an instructional
source for welding practices.
2 Properties of the most common shielding gases
in welding
The various shielding gases used in welding have specified
properties and functions. Table 1 presents basic chemical
and physical properties of gases commonly used in laser and
arc welding and Table 2 presents the function and effect of
different shielding gases used in laser and arc welding:
helium(He), argon (Ar), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen
(O2), nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen (H2) [9–12].
3 Materials
The most welding materials used nowadays have been ana-
lysed by various researchers [1–24]. The focus is on metals
most commonly used in manufacturing, namely steels (car-
bon, ferritic, austenitic and duplex) and aluminium alloys.
3.1 Carbon steels
CO2 is a preferred shielding gas for gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) of carbon steels because it provides advantages
like higher welding speeds, greater penetration and lower
cost. However, the use of pure CO2 is restricted because of
problems associated with spatter and element losses due to
oxidation. It has been reported [17, 18] that pure argon is not
suitable for welding steel since it cannot provide the desired
arc stability and desired weld bead characteristics. Argon
mixed with CO2 and/or O2 is therefore preferred. Mixtures
of argon with 5–20 % carbon dioxide are very common for
the welding of mild and low alloyed steels. It is claimed that
increasing the amount of CO2 in the shielding gas reduces
the amount of inclusion and porosity in the weld [17].
Inclusions in the weldment initiate and direct cracks and
promote brittle fracture. Increasing the CO2 percentage also
enhances the formation of acicular ferrite, which improves
weld toughness and decreases hardness. Hydrogen-
enhanced mixtures are not recommended for joining plain
carbon steel because of detrimental effects such as under-
bead cracking [1, 3, 5, 6, 13–18]. From Fig. 1, it can be seen
that the amount of porosities and inclusions decreases with
increase in the amount of CO2 in the shielding gas [17].
The effect of the shielding gas on the impact strength and
tensile strength of ST37-2 is illustrated in Fig. 2. As the

Table 1 Welding shielding gas characteristics

Type of gas Content in Boiling point Atomic weight and Density at 15°C, Relative density Dissociation Chemical
air (vol%) at 1.013 bar (°C) mean molecular weight 1 bar (kg m-3) with regard to air and ionization activity
(01) at 15°C energies (eV)a

Hydrogen (H2) 0.5×10−6b −252.9 2.016 0.085 0.06 4.84 Reducing

13.59
–
Argon (Ar) 0.934 −185.9 39.948 1.669 1.38 – Inert
15.76
27.50
Helium (He) 5.2×10−6b −268.9 4.002 0.167 0.14 – Inert
24.56
54.10
Nitrogen (N2) 78.084 −195.8 28.013 1.170 0.91 9.76 Reactive
14.55
29.60
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.033b −78.5c 44.011 1.849 1.44 5.80 Oxidizing
Oxygen (O2) 20.946 −183.0 31.998 1.337 1.04 13.62 Oxidizing
35.20
a
1 eV01.6×10−6 J; ionization energy of the majority of metals ranges between 6 and 9 eV
b
Not obtained from the atmosphere
c
Sublimation temperature
Table 2 Function and effect of shielding gases used in laser and arc welding

Gases Chemical activity Ionization energy Atomic weight Thermal Arc behaviour Production/availability Economy Grade (1–5)
and density conductivity (10poor…
50excellent)

H2 Reducing, burning Low ionization energy Low density and small Good thermal Stable, concentrated H2O electrolysis, Cheap 2
molecular weight conductivity arc extracted from
different chemical
processes, good
availability
Better bead surface Used as a partial Good Used as a partial
component in penetration component in small
shielding gases amounts with argon
Higher arc temperature When used in small
fractions decreases
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 64:1411–1421

porosity
High arc voltage
Higher welding speed
Good ignition
Risk of weld
brittleness must
be considered
Used as a partial
component in
austenitic stainless
steel
Ar Inert Low ionization energy High density and large Low thermal Unstable arc Air separation 0.94 % Relatively cheap 4
molecular weight conductivity in air, good
availability
No reactive With small amounts Narrow Wandering arc
component sufficient shielding penetration
with any subject
He Inert High ionization energy Low density and small Good thermal Unstable arc Extracted from natural Expensive 5
molecular weight conductivity gas in LNG plants,
limited availability
No reactive High arc voltage Removes gases from Good Wandering arc
component the plasma and penetration
with any subject decreases porosity
High welding speed Makes the plasma more
homogenous
Poor ignition Relatively big flow needed
for the shielding
N2 Reactive Low ionization energy Neutral density Low thermal Used as a partial Air separation, good Cheap 2
conductivity component with availability
hydrogen in root
shielding of austenitic
stainless steels
1413
Table 2 (continued)
1414

Gases Chemical activity Ionization energy Atomic weight Thermal Arc behaviour Production/availability Economy Grade (1–5)
and density conductivity (10poor…
50excellent)

In higher temperatures
builds nitrides and
porosity
CO2 Oxidizing Dissociation energy High density, molecule Good thermal When used alone, Extracted from different Cheap 3
relatively high, of carbon and oxygen conductivity unstable arc chemical processes and
dissociates to power plant fumes,
carbon and oxygen good availability
Stabilizing the arc High arc voltage Good shielding effect Due to the Due to the
with argon and dissociation dissociation
helium the gas volume a vertical force
and pressure occurs
increases in
the arc
Creates fume Dissociation is partly Good side Filler material
endothermic reaction penetration spattering
(near the arc) and partly in big drops
exothermic (farther from
the arc)
Less porosity Bead dome
increases
O2 Oxidizing Low ionization energy Neutral density Low thermal Used as a partial Air separation, good Cheap 1
conductivity component in availability
small amounts
with argon
Stabilizes the arc
with argon
Used as a partial
component
in small amounts
In bigger amounts
increases
oxide inclusion
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 64:1411–1421
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 64:1411–1421
Fig. 1 Inclusion in samples
with different shielding gas
composition. a 97.5 % Ar+
2.5 % CO2, b 90 % Ar+10 %
CO2, c 82 % Ar+18 % CO2 and
d 75 % Ar+25 % CO2. Samples
are in unetched state. Material
ST37-2. Process GMAW [17]
oxidation potential of the shielding gas increases, the tough-
ness and the tensile strength of the weld deposit decrease.
Argon blends with lower oxidizing gas content will gener-
ally produce weld properties superior to those obtained by
shielding with CO2 only. There appears to be an optimal
oxygen content, since too low oxygen levels can also be
detrimental to toughness [1].
Figure 3 shows different weld microstructures of welded
samples (ST37-2) under two different shielding atmos-
pheres: (a)—97.5 % Ar+2.5 % CO2, and (b)—90 % Ar+
10 % CO2. In sample (a), the microstructure is mainly
acicular ferrite, except in a small area adjacent to the grain
boundaries, where grain boundary ferrite is formed. While
sample (b) has about 90 % acicular ferrite and 10 % grain
Fig. 2 Weld metal impact energy as a function of shielding gas
composition for GTAW of carbon steel [1]
1415
boundary or polygonal ferrite and Widmanstatten patterns
[17]. The hardness value of the weld zone decreases with
decrease in the AF content. Therefore, the hardness of the
samples decreases with increase in the amount of carbon
dioxide in the shielding gas [17].
3.2 Stainless steels
One commonly used gas blend for welding stainless steel is
argon with low levels of an oxidant (either oxygen or carbon
dioxide). Increasing the proportion of the oxidizing element
in the shielding gas increases the loss of manganese, chro-
mium and niobium. The addition of CO2 to the mixture
reduces cost and improves the wettability of the weld bead,
thereby improving the weld quality. However, the addition
of CO2 results in carbon absorption and oxidation of the
deposited metal. Incorporation of carbon in the weld pool
can reduce the content of ferrite in the bead. Since carbon is
a strong austenite producer at high temperature and during
cooling, martensite can be formed in the ferritic grain
boundaries, impairing the tenacity of the joint. When in-
creased oxidation can be tolerated, addition of a small
amount of oxygen can enhance dip transfer. The addition
of hydrogen to argon increases the volume of the melted
material and permits increased welding speed; however, it
can produce hydrogen cracks in welds and its usage is
strictly limited. Helium can be added to the gas mixture
for some welding processes, to increase weld penetration
and weld puddle fluidity. The addition of helium leads to
higher travel speeds and less distortion [18–23].
1416
Fig. 3 Metallographic
micrographs of the weld pool. a
(97.5 % Ar+2.5 % CO2) (3 %
WF+PF), b (90 % Ar+10 %
CO2) (10 % WF+PF). AF
acicular ferrite, WF
Widmanstatten ferrite, PF
polygonal ferrite. Material
ST37-2, process GMAW [14]
3.2.1 Ferritic stainless steels
Ferritic stainless steels have chromium as their major
alloying element with typically low carbon content.
Ferritic stainless steels have a noticeable resistance to
stress-corrosion cracking and good resistance to pitting
and crevice corrosion in chloride environments. The
mechanical properties of the weld zone in ferritic stain-
less steels are very sensitive to the microstructure, and
grain coarsening in the weldments is a serious problem.
The appearance of a large columnar structure leads to a
decrease in the crack resistance and high-temperature
strength of the weld metal. It has been reported [24]
that the large grains of the weld metal degrade the
resistance to both oxidation and corrosion. The micro-
structure of ferritic stainless steel weldments is highly
dependent on the type of shielding gas mixture used.
The addition of oxidizing gases (carbon dioxide or
Fig. 4 Fusion zone microstructure with 1 pure argon, 2 Ar+2 % O2, 3 Ar+4 % O2, 4 Ar+2 % CO2, 5 Ar+4 % CO2, 6 Ar+8 % CO2 as shielding
gas. α represents ferritic matrix, M martensite and p precipitates. GMAW of ER430 ferritic stainless steel [24]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 64:1411–1421
oxygen) tends to reduce the percentage of alloying
elements (manganese, silicon, niobium and titanium) in
the weld. Increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in
the shielding gases may result in increase in the carbon
content in the weld and increase in the martensite con-
tent at the grain boundary. Oxygen has a slight tenden-
cy to reduce carbon in weld metal. No change in the
amounts of martensite has been reported with increase
of oxygen in the shielding blend [1, 15, 24].
Figure 4 shows the microstructure of the fusion zones of
the weld using ER430 wire. The presence of columnar
grains, a ferritic matrix with martensite precipitation in the
grain boundaries and the formation of precipitates can be
observed. No change in the amounts of precipitate and
martensite is observed with increased O2 content in the
shielding gas. However, an increase in CO2 causes an in-
crease in the content of martensite at the grain boundary
[24].
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 64:1411–1421
3.2.2 Austenitic stainless steels
High strength and ductility with good formability are the
characteristics underlying the versatility of austenitic stain-
less steels. However, due to the high thermal expansion
coefficient and the low thermal conductivity of such steels,
excessive welding distortion can be problematic. The low
thermal conductivity also limits welding speed and affects
weld penetration. Argon-based blends with carbon dioxide
or hydrogen addition are commonly used to minimize oxide
formation and increase weld puddle fluidity. Austenitic
stainless steel typically solidifies as a mixture of austenite
and metastable ferrite. Incomplete transformation of ferrite
to austenite during cooling results in retention of some delta-
ferrite in the weld metal. A certain amount of retained delta-
ferrite has a beneficial effect on reducing hot cracking
susceptibility. Nitrogen or hydrogen may be added to the
shielding gas blend to refine weld properties and improve
bead appearance. It is widely known that nitrogen is one of
the most effective elements to increase the mechanical
strength and pitting corrosion resistance of austenitic stain-
less steels. Nitrogen dissolves interstitially in austenite and
is a strong austenite stabilizer. Adding small amounts of
nitrogen to the argon shielding gas can rapidly reduce the
retained delta ferrite content, which directly affects the
mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. It has been
reported that increasing the amount of nitrogen in the shield-
ing gas increases the ductility and improves the tensile
strength and the hardness of the weld [25]. The amount of
heat input determines the nitrogen solubility of the weld
metal [26, 27]. Higher energy density also significantly
affects hot cracking defects and decreases this problem.
The effect of nitrogen content on the ultimate strength
and Vickers hardness of welded metal is shown in Fig. 5.
Nitrogen added to the shielding gas increases the ultimate
strength and Vickers hardness. The nitrogen absorbed dur-
ing welding results in interstitial solid solution strengthening
Fig. 5 Effect of nitrogen addition on the mechanical properties of
weldments. GTAW of SUS 304, argon-based shielding gas [25]
1417
and grain refinement. Therefore, nitrogen added to an argon-
based shielding gas can simultaneously improve the tensile
strength and hardness of the austenitic stainless steel.
Nitrogen addition to the shielding gas increases the arc
voltage and consequently the heat input, which increases the
peak temperature of the weld metal and reduces the cooling
rate. It also causes a rise in the amount of nitrogen in the
weld. Figure 6 shows the calculated heat input per unit
length in GTA welds produced with various amounts of
nitrogen in the shielding gas. Increase in nitrogen addition
to the argon shielding gas increases the magnitude of the
heat input [23].
When welding austenitic stainless steel, hydrogen, gen-
erally less than 10 %, may be added to shielding gases
(usually argon) to increase the fluidity of the weld puddle,
improve travel speeds and to provide good weld bead ap-
pearance. It has been observed [27] that the mean grain size
in the weld metal increases with increasing hydrogen con-
tent and the amount of ferrite decreases, which degrades the
mechanical properties of the weldments. Hydrogen added to
the argon-based shielding gas increases the arc voltage and
heat input, which causes a slower cooling rate of the molten
pool and facilitates more phase transformation from ferrite
to austenite. The increase of heat input also contributes to an
increase of stresses in the weld metal. Hydrogen increases
both weld penetration and weld width, and therefore, the
depth to width ratio typically decreases, which causes higher
angular distortion of the weldment [1, 6, 23–30].
Figure 7a–c show optical micrographs of 317 L welds in
black and white contrast. The figures show that retained
ferrite in the core of the dendrites has vermicular morphol-
ogy. Quantitative metallography determines the volume
fraction of delta ferrite to be around 8 vol% [30]. When
the nitrogen content of the weld increased, the optical
Fig. 6 Relationship between arc voltage–current curve and volume
percentage of nitrogen gas added to an argon shielding gas, type 304
stainless steel [23]
1418
micrographs (Fig. 7b, c) did not display the presence of
delta ferrite. Comparing Fig. 7a, b and c, it can be said that
nitrogen addition effectively controls the primary delta fer-
rite phase in the dendrite cores even at 0.5 vol% N2 in the
shielding gas. According to the literature, Ni-rich phases
demonstrate colour contrasts varying from blue to green,
and Cr-rich phases show colour contrast changing from
reddish to yellow; white contrast represents delta ferrite,
while austenite appears with a blue contrast colour. It can
be observed from Fig. 7a–c that adding nitrogen to the
welds has made the cores of the dendrites darker and
the interdendritic regions lighter in colour (i.e. austenite
(Ni-rich) nucleates first and the Cr-rich austenite nucleates
at the interdendritic regions), which indicates that addition
of nitrogen has changed the solidification mode from pri-
mary δ to primary γ [30].
3.2.3 Duplex and supper duplex stainless steels
Welding of duplex stainless steel is rather challenging since
it is necessary to ensure that the phase balance in both the
weld deposit and the heat-affected zone is maintained; oth-
erwise, an optimum combination of mechanical properties
and corrosion resistance may not be achieved. An important
improvement occurs with the introduction of nitrogen as one
of the main alloying elements. Nitrogen increases the cor-
rosion resistance, especially of the austenite phase. Nitrogen
is a strong austenite stabilizer which increases the tempera-
ture of the transformation to the austenite phase. A part of
the nitrogen which exists in the metal may be lost during
welding and it has been observed that weldments of nitrogen
containing duplex stainless steels suffer from pitting attack
due to this nitrogen loss [2]. The loss of nitrogen from the
weld pool appears to result from the difference in partial
pressure between the nitrogen dissolved in the weld pool
and the gas directly above the weld pool. As can be seen in
Fig. 8, the loss of nitrogen from the weld pool can be
modified by using a shielding gas containing a proportion
of nitrogen [2].
Fig. 7 Optical micrographs of 317 L welds prepared with a 0 vol% N2, showing vermicular delta ferrite in the dark austenite dendrites, b 0.5 vol%
N2 and c 1 vol% N2 in the Ar shielding gas. The apparent interdendritic networks of micrographs b and c are due to secondary austenite [30]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 64:1411–1421
Fig. 8 Relationship between nitrogen in the shielding gas and nitrogen
in the weld metal for GTAW of duplex and super duplex stainless steels
[2]
The use of pure argon or helium as the shielding gas
generally results in nitrogen loss. It has been reported [22]
that a higher amount of ferrite is produced with argon-
shielded than with helium-shielded weld metal. Since heli-
um yields a hotter arc, it provides a suitable cooling rate for
transfer from the α to γ phase, which improves the impact
toughness of the weldment. Ferrite-rich weld metal in an
argon-shielded weld has poorer corrosion properties and
lower hardness than helium-shielded weld metal. The addi-
tion of nitrogen into the shielding gas accelerates the partial
transformation from ferrite to austenite during cooling after
welding. Increased austenite improves the weld pitting cor-
rosion resistance and it has been observed that intergranular
austenite impedes pit propagation within ferrite weldments
[31]. Nitrogen can also help homogenization of chromium
distribution in the two ferrite and austenite phases.
Recent work [22] has indicated that the level of nitrogen
in the shielding gas should match the nitrogen level in the
parent metal; for instance, for a duplex stainless steel with a
typical nitrogen content of 0.16 %, the shielding gas should
contain 1.0–1.2 % nitrogen, and for a super duplex stainless
steel with a typical nitrogen content of 0.25 %, the shielding
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 64:1411–1421
Fig. 9 Microstructure of a base
metal, b the pore in HAZ, c
weld metal welded with Ar+
0.015 % N2, d Ar+50 % He+
0.015 % N2 [33]
gas should contain 2.0–2.5 % nitrogen, to obtain a weldment
nitrogen content similar to the parent metal. If the nitrogen
content of the liquid weld pool exceeds the solubility limit,
it may cause porosity in the weld since the excess nitrogen
escapes from the pool during solidification. Out-gassing
may also produce spitting or sparking.
Hydrogen may also be added to the base shielding gas
(argon or helium) to increase arc voltage and attain higher
welding speeds. Duplex and super duplex stainless steels are
less sensitive to hydrogen embrittlement and subsequent
cracking than, for example, carbon steel. However, since
the austenite absorbs a significantly higher volume of hy-
drogen than the ferrite phase, hydrogen reduces the amount
Fig. 10 Dependence on pressure of the total volume of pores in
welded joints in AMg6 aluminium alloys: 1 after etching, 2 etching
and holding in air for 3 days, 3 etching and holding in water vapours
for 3 days [35]
1419
of nitrogen in the weld, which increases ferrite in the weld-
ment and consequently weakens the mechanical and corro-
sion properties [2, 3, 22, 31, 32].
3.3 Aluminium and its alloys
Welding of aluminium and its alloys encounters more diffi-
culties than welding of steels. Major concerns are cracking
and porosity, due to the high solubility of the hydrogen in
the molten metal and the relatively high thermal expansion
coefficient, which causes large changes in volume upon
solidification. In addition, dispersal of the surface oxide film
before or during welding and correct identification of the
weld pool, because of its lack of colour change, can also be
problematic [1, 3]. Argon and helium are the most common
shielding gases for aluminium and aluminium alloys and
play an important role in reduction of defects and protection
of the weld pool. It has been observed in [3] that argon
improves oxide breakdown performance and yields better
arc stability and weld quality. Helium supplies more heat
input to the base metal and causes an increase in the welding
rate, penetration and weld puddle fluidity. Greater fluidity of
the weld pool can facilitate the escape of hydrogen gas
bubbles, which are the source of weld porosity in the weld
pool. Thus, the amount of weld metal porosity may decrease
at high values of heat input. It has been reported in [33] that
increasing the amount of helium in the shielding atmosphere
results in an increase in impact energy and crack growth
energy, and a decrease in the crack growth rate.
1420
Figure 9 illustrates the effect of different shielding gases
compositions on the microstructure of AlMg4 welded with
GTAW. This experiment [33] demonstrates the positive
effect on the weld quality and mechanical properties result-
ing from increased helium in the shielding atmosphere. The
main difference that can be observed from these figures is in
the amount of porosity, which is mostly found around the
joint line between the two passes and the HAZ. Figure 9b
shows the pores in the HAZ close to the weld. The highest
porosity was found in the weld that was shielded with Ar+
0.015 % N2 (Fig. 9c). From Fig. 9d it is clear that the welded
structure with Ar+50 % He+0.015 % N2 contains consid-
erably less porosity. In addition, the hardness values for the
weld metal in the helium shielding atmosphere were slightly
higher. It can thus be inferred that a larger amount of helium
in the shielding atmosphere (up to 10 %) results in a mild
increase in hardness [33].
Many researchers have reported that hydrogen absorption
in aluminium is so strong that the use of hydrogen for
welding aluminium is not practically admissible [1, 3, 4,
16, 18, 33, 34].
It has been reported [35] that shielding gas pressure can
affect nucleation and influences the development or sup-
pression of weld porosity. Figure 10 illustrates the results
of experiments to identify the variation in the total volume
of the pores relative to the argon pressure in the chamber
during GMA welding of an AMg6 alloy. The decrease in
porosity in the weld metal with pressure lower than atmo-
spheric pressure is explained by liquid metal degassing
processes [35].
4 Conclusions
This study discusses the effect of various shielding atmos-
pheres on the microstructure and mechanical properties of
different materials, including steel, aluminium and their alloys.
& For carbon steel, shielding blends of argon and CO2 are
very common. Increasing CO2 in the mixture to 5–20 %
can yield higher welding speed, greater penetration, less
porosity and lower welding cost. However, the use of
pure CO2 can cause element loss and spatter.
& For carbon steel, typically, increasing the oxidation po-
tential of the shielding gas decreases the toughness and
tensile strength of the weld deposit.
& For ferritic stainless steel, increasing the amount of
carbon dioxide in shielding gases can increase the mar-
tensite content at the grain boundary.
& For austenitic stainless steel, increasing the amount of
nitrogen in the shielding gas increases the ductility and
improves the tensile strength, hardness and pitting cor-
rosion resistance of the weld.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 64:1411–1421
& For austenitic stainless steel, raising the percentage of
hydrogen in the shielding atmosphere increases the
amount of ferrite, which degrades the mechanical prop-
erties of the weldment.
& For duplex and supper duplex stainless steel, addition of
nitrogen into the shielding gas accelerates transforma-
tion from ferrite to austenite, which improves mechani-
cal properties and pitting corrosion resistance.
& For duplex and supper duplex stainless steel, hydrogen
in the ambient gas increases ferrite in the weldment and
consequently degrades mechanical and corrosion resis-
tance properties.
& For aluminium and its alloys, increasing the helium
content of the shielding atmosphere results in an in-
crease in the impact energy and crack growth energy,
and a decrease in the crack growth rate.
& Consumables, including the shielding gas and wire elec-
trode, constitute about 9 % of welding costs in industrial-
ized countries. It can be inferred that shielding gases affect
the welding duty cycle, welding speed and wastage.
& Many advances have been made based on experiments
in the field of shielding gas research. The results
achieved are useful with regard to the selection of
shielding gas parameters. However, more modelling
should be carried out to clarify the mechanisms under-
lying their effects. Further, related work should focus on
materials with poor weldability, such as high-strength
steel, magnesium alloys and copper alloys.
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