Programming Fundamentals

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U1.
© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Shalini Singh Jaspal
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1
P
Programming
i F Fundamentals
d t l
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Objectives
• Understand the different types of programming languages.
• Understand the basic procedures in a program as input,

processing and output.
• Understand the importance of variables.
• Understand a basic map of the program development cycle.
© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Shalini Singh Jaspal U1.
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Computer Components
• CPU Central Processing Unit

• RAM (Random Access Memory)
• Mass storage devices
• Input
p devices
• Output Devices
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Software
Software is comprised of instructions that get a
computer to perform a task.
Application Software System Software
 Word Processors  Operating Systems
 Spreadsheets Windows
 Painting programs Macintosh
Macintosh OS
 Web browsers, email Unix
programs Linux
 Drivers
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Programming Languages
• Programming languages allow programmers to code
software.
• The three major families of languages are:

 Machine languages
 Assembly languages
 High-Level
g e e languages
a guages
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Machine Languages
• Comprised of 1s and 0s
• The “native” language of a computer
• Diffi
Difficult
lt tto program – one misplaced
i l d 1 or 0 will
ill cause th
the
program to fail.
• Example of code:
1110100010101 111010101110
10111010110100 10100011110111
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Assembly Languages
• A step towards easier programming.
• Comprised of a set of elemental commands

 tied to a specific processor.
• A
Assembly
bl language
l code
d needs
d to
t be
b translated
t l t d to
t machine
hi
language before the computer processes it.
• Example:
E l
ADD 1001010, 1011010
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High-Level Languages
• High-level languages represent a giant leap towards easier
programming.
• The syntax of HL languages is similar to English.
• Historically, we divide HL languages into two groups:

 Procedural
ocedu a languages
a guages
 Object-Oriented languages (OOP)
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Procedural Languages
• Procedural languages
 The focus of such languages is on sequence of activities
t be
to b carried
i d out.
t
 Based on specifying the steps the program must take to

reach the desired state.
 Examples include C, COBOL, Fortran, LISP, Perl, HTML,

VBScript
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Object-Oriented Languages
• Object-oriented languages:
 Focus
F on modeling
d li data.
d t
 Programmers
g code using
g “blueprints”
p of data models
called classes.
 Examples of OOP languages include C++,

C++ Visual
Basic.NET and Java.
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Compiling
• All HL programs need to be translated to machine code
 so that a computer can process the program.
• Programs may be translated using

 a compiler:
translated all at once
 An interpreter
translated line by line
• Compiled programs typically execute more quickly than

interpreted programs, but have a slower translation speed.
• On the other hand, interpreted programs generally translate

quicker than compiled programs, but have a slower execution
speed.
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Programming Example
• Simple programming problem: Convert a length from feet
into meters.
• Pseudocode:
Input the length of an item, LengthInFeet, in feet and Compute
the length of the item in meters:
Write “Enter the length in feet”

Input LengthInFeet
Set LengthInMeters = LengthInFeet * .3048
Write LengthInMeters
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Programming Example
Partial Code in C:
float LengthInFeet;
L
LengthInMeters
thI M t = L
LengthInFeet
thI F t * .3048;
3048
printf (“%f”, LengthInMeters);
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Input & Variables
• Input operations get data into the programs
• A user is
i prompted
t d to
t enter
t data:
d t
 Write “Enter the length in feet”
 Input
p LengthInFeet
g
• Computer programs store data in named sections of

memory called variables.
variables
• In the example p above,, the variables are named

LengthInFeet & LengthInMeters.
 The value of a variable can, and often does, change
throughout the program.
program
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Variables
• Needed because we might want the program to run using
different values:
 E.g. we might want to calculate LengthInMeters for

different values of LengthInFeet
 Each value for which computation is to be carried out will

be stored in the variable LengthInFeet one-by-one
 R
Referring
f i to t the
th variable
i bl LengthInFeet
L thI F t by
b its
it name gives
i
the value stored in it.
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Constants
• Many a time we need to used fixed values for certain
computations.
• E.g. in the program given above

 the conversion from miles to meters requires the length in
miles to be multiplied by .3048
 a value that doesn’t (need to) change
 Such values are constants
• We may also give names to constants: such constants are

called named constants
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Types of Data
• Numeric Data
 Integer data
data, II.e.,
e whole numbers
numbers, 10 25 -4545 0
 Floating point data – have a decimal point 23.0, -5.0
• Character data (alphanumeric)

 All the characters you can type at the keyboard
 Letters & numbers not used in calculations
• B
Boolean
l d
data
t
 TRUE/FALSE
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Data Processing and Output
• LengthInMeters = .3048 * LengthInFeet
 The above statement is a processing statement.
 Take
T k the
th value
l iin th
the variable
i bl LengthInFeet,
L thI F t
 Multiply by .3048, and
 Set the value of the variable LengthInMeters
g to the
result of the multiplication.
Also stated as assign the result of multiplication to the
variable LengthInMeters
• Write LengthInMeters
 Output
O t t the
th value
l ini LengthInMeters
h t the
to th monitor.
it
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Assignment Statements
• If the variable being assigned to already contains a data
value,
 the
th previously
i l stored
t d value
l is
i overwritten
itt
 E.g.
E g the following statements:
Age= 12;
Age=15;
ge 5;
Have an effect of storing 15 in the variable Age.
 Reason: The value 12 (stored as an effect of the first

assignment statement) gets overwritten after the
execution of the second statement.
statement
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Assignment Statements
• The statement
Age = Age + 1
Changes the value of the variable Age in such a way that
the new value is one greater than the previous value.
• Working: Take the value of Age, add 1, and store the result
back in the same variable.
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Operations on Data
• Operator is a symbol that is used to perform certain operations
• Data values on which operation is performed are termed as

operands
• Operators generally work on many types of variables or constants,

constants
 though some are restricted to work on certain types.
 some may even exhibit different behaviors with different data
types
• Operators in C may be:

 Unary: Work on single operand
 Binary: Work on two operands
 Ternary: Work on three operands
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Operators
• C, like most programming languages, supports operators to
carry out various kinds of operations
• We have operators for:

 Arithmetic operations
 Type Conversions
 Performing
e o g Co
Comparisons
pa so s
 Performing Logical Operations
 Working on individual bits of data
 And many more…
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Precedence of Operators
• Operator precedence:
 A set of rules decide the order of operations in an
expression
i
 Like BODMAS rule in mathematics
 Operator
p Precedence clarifies unambiguously,
g y, which
operations should be performed first in a given
expression.
 Parentheses i.e. () can always be used to improve clarity
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Associativity of Operators
• Operator Associativity:
• Rule used for two operators of equal precedence (i.e. same

importance)
• Associativity may be either of the following

 left to right:
g left operator
p is evaluated first
 right to left: right operator is evaluated first
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Structured Programming
• A method for designing and coding programs in a
systematic, organized manner.
• It combines
 the principles of top-down
top down design,
design
 modularity and
 the
e use o
of the
e three
ee accep
accepted
ed co
control
o sstructures
uc u es o
of
sequence,
repetition and
selection.
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Control Structures
• Sequence –in sequential order.
 The simplest of control structures –
start at the beginning and continue in sequential order.
• S
Selection
l ti – selectively
l ti l execute t statements
t t t
 Called a branch,
 it requires a condition to determine when to execute
statements.
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Control Structures
Repetition – repeat statements more than once
 Called a loop,
p,
 It needs a stop condition,

I.e, the program will continue to loop (repeatedly
execute a set of statements) until some condition
is met.
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Counter-Controlled Loop: (Definite Repetition)
• If it is known in advance exactly how many times a loop

will execute,
execute the repetition is said to be counter
counter-
controlled
• Counter-controlled
Counter controlled loop:
 Execute a set of statements repeatedly a specified
number of times
 The counter may be advanced according to

programmers
p g requirements
q .
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Event-Controlled Loop: (Indefinite Repetition)
• If it is NOT known in advance exactly how many times a

loop will execute, the loop is said to be event-controlled.
• An event-controlled loop
 Terminates when some event occurs.
occurs
 The event may be based upon:

User input
Results of calculation
And many more….
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Steps in Developing a Program
Developing a Program:
1. Analyze the problem
2 Design
2. D i th the program
3. Code the program
4 Test the program
4.
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Step-1 Analyze the Problem
Brewster’s Thousands
 The problem: Brewster wants to invest money at a local
bank. There are many options such as interest rates,
terms of deposit, compounding frequencies. He needs a
program to compute, for any given initial investment, the
final maturity (value) of the deposit.
What are the inputs? (given data)

What are the outputs? (required data)
How will we calculate the required outputs from the given
inputs?
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Step-2 Design the Program
• Create an outline of the program
• An algorithm – a step by step procedure that will

provide the required results from the given inputs.
• Algorithm
g Examples:
p Instructions on how to make
a cake, use the bank’s ATM, etc.
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Step-3 Code the Program
• Once the design is completed, write the program
code.
• Code is written in some programming language

such as BASIC, Pascal, C++, Java, etc.
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Errors in Development
• While writing a program, certain errors may get induced in the
code.
• Errors may be categorized as :

 Syntactical Errors – Incorrect Syntax (wrong grammar), i.e.,
b ki the
breaking th rules
l off how
h t write
to it the
th language
l
Forgetting punctuation, misspelling keyword
The p
program
g will not run at all with syntax
y errors
 Semantic Errors: Incorrect Logic:

Using an incorrect formula,
formula incorrect sequence of
statements, etc.
The program runs, but does not produce the expected
results.
l
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Step-4 Testing the program
• Purpose:
P L
Locate
t any errors (bugs)
(b ) / problems
bl
• Most of the work should be done before the phase begins –

creating of a testing document – telling what to test & how.
how
• Two types of testing:

 Testing
T ti for f errors
 Quality testing
• Testing
T ti is i done
d th
throughout
h t the
th development
d l t cycle
l
• Desk-checking, or code walkthrough is performed to locate

errors in
i the
th code.
d
 Pretend you are the computer and execute your own code.
• Ulti
Ultimate
t test
t t is
i to
t run the
th program to
t see if the
th outputs
t t are correctt
for the given inputs.
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Good Programming Practice
• It is best not to take the “big bang” approach to coding.
• U
Use an incremental
i l approachh by
b writing
ii your code
d in
i
incomplete, yet working, pieces.
• For example, for your projects,

 Don’t write the whole program at once.
 Just
J t write
it enough h to
t display
di l th user promptt on the
the th
screen.
 Get that ppart workingg first ((compile
p and run).
)
 Next, write the part that gets the value from the user,
and then just print it out.
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Modular Programming
• Determine the major tasks that the program must
accomplish.
 Each of these tasks will be a module.
• Some modules will be complex themselves, and

they will be broken into sub-modules,
 and those sub-modules may also be broken into even
smaller modules.
• This is called top-down design
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Code Modules
• A module is an independent, self-contained section of code
that performs a single task.
• The main module is the module that drives the application.

 It “controls”
controls all other modules.
modules
 Typically,
yp ca y, the
e main
a module
odu e cacalls
soother
e modules
odu es in o
order
de to
o
have them perform certain tasks.
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Program Control & Modules
• When the main module calls another module,module

program control transfers to the called module.
• Program control cedes back to the main module

when the called module finishes.
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Structure Chart
• A structure chart shows what modules exist and how they
are related.
• A structure chart is a top-down modular design tool
• It is used in structured programming to arrange program

modules into a tree
• It’s a good idea to keep modules short – about 1 page per

module.
d l
• We will have very small modules while getting comfortable

with programming.
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Documentation
• Internal Documentation
 Comments explain to the reader the logic and decision
processes off the
th programmer.
 Comments are ignored by an interpreter or compiler.
• External Documentation
 External
e a docudocumentation
e a o includes
c udes a use
user’s
s gu
guide
de a and,
d,
typically, a more technical system administrator’s guide.
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Over to C Fundamentals…
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CF
Fundamentals
d t l
U1.
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Objectives
• History of C
• Characteristics of C
• Convertingg a C Program
g to Executable
• Dissecting a simple C Program
• g Variables in C
Defining
• Printing Out and Inputting Variables
• Constants & Literals
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History of C
• Developed by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie of
AT&T Bell Labs in 1972
• In 1983 the American National Standards Institute began

the standardization process
p
• In 1989 the International Standards Organization

continued the standardization process
• In 1990 a standard was finalized, known simply

p y as
“Standard C”
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Features of C
• C can be thought of as a “high level assembler”
• M
Most popular
l programming
i l
language f writing
for ii system
software
• Focus on the procedural programming paradigm, with

facilities for programming in a structured style
• Low-level unchecked access to computer memory via the

use of pointers
• And many more…
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Writing C Programs
• A programmer uses a text editor to create or modify files
g C code.
containing
• Code is also known as source code.
• A file containing
g source code is called a source file.
• After a C source file has been created,, the p

programmer
g
must invoke the C compiler before the program can be
executed (run)
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Getting an executable program
• The process of conversion from source code to machine
executable code is a multi step process.
• If there are no errors in the source code, the processes

called compilation & linking produce an executable file
• To execute the program, at the prompt, type

<executable file name>
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Conversion from .C to executable
1
1. Preprocessing
2. Compilation
p
3. Linking
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Stage 1: Preprocessing
Performed by a program called the preprocessor
 Modifies the source code (in RAM) according to

preprocessor directives (preprocessor commands)
embedded
b dd d in
i the
h source code
d
 Strips comments and white space from the code
 The source code as stored on disk is not modified
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Stage 2: Compilation
 Performed by a program called the compiler.
 Checks for syntax errors and warnings
 Translates the preprocessor-modified source code into object

code (machine code).
code)
 Saves the object code to a disk file
 If any compiler errors are received, no object code file will be

generated.
 An object code file will be generated if only warnings, not

errors,, are received.
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Stage 3: Linking
• Combines the program object code with other object code to
produce the executable file.
p
• The other object code can come from the

– Run-Time
R Ti Lib
Library
– other libraries
– or object files that you have created.
• Saves the executable code to a disk file.
• If any linker errors are received, no executable file is

generated.
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Developing a C Program
Editor
Source File pgm.c
Preprocessor
Modified Source Code in RAM
Compiler
Program Object Code File
Linker
Executable File
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A Simple C Program
/* Filename: hello.c
Author: --------
Date written: --/--/----
Description: This program prints the greeting
“Hello,
, World!”
*/
#include <stdio.h>
int main ( void )
{
printf ( “Hello,
Hello, World!\n”
World!\n ) ;
return 0 ;
}
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Structure of a C Program
program header comment
preprocessor directives (if any)
int main ( )
{
statement(s)
return 0 ;
}
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Explanation
tells compiler about standard input and output functions (i.e.

(i e printf + others)
#include <stdio.h> /* comment */

main function
int main(void)
{
printf("Hello\n");
“b i ”
“begin” printf("Welcome
i tf("W l to
t the
th Course!\n");
C !\ ")
return 0;
}
flag success Hello
to operating Welcome to the Course!
“end”
system
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Tokens
• The smallest element in the C language is the
token.
token
• It may be a single character or a sequence of

characters to form a single item.
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Tokens can be any of:
• Numeric Literals
• Character Literals
• String Literals
• Keywords
• Names (identifiers)
• Punctuation
• Operators
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Numeric Literals
• Numeric literals are an uninterrupted sequence of
digits
• May contain
 A period,
 A leading
g + or – sign
g
 A scientific format number
 A character to indicate data type
• Examples:
E l
 123
 98.6
 1000000
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Character Literals
• Singular!
• One character defined character set.
• Surrounded on the single quotation mark.
• Examples:
 ‘A’
 ‘a’
 ‘$’
$
 ‘4’
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String Literals
• A sequence characters surrounded by double quotation
marks.
• Considered a single item.
item
• Examples:
 “UMBC”
 “I like ice cream.”
 “123”
 “CAR”
CAR
 “car”
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Keywords
• Sometimes called reserved words.
• Are defined as a p
part of the C language.
g g
• Can not be used for anything else!
• Examples:
 int
 while
 for
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Reserved Words (Keywords) in C
• auto • break • int • long

• case • char • register • return
• const • continue • short • signed
• default • do • sizeof • static
• double • else • struct • switch
• enum • extern • typedef • union
• float • for • unsigned • void
• goto • if • volatile • while
All the C keywords are in small case

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Names / Identifiers
• Variables must be declared before use and immediately
after “{”
• Can be of anything length, but only the first 31 are

significant (A very long name is as bad as a very short, un-
descriptive name).
• Are case sensitive: abc is different from ABC
• Must begin with a letter and the rest can be letters, digits,
and
d underscores.
d
• Cannot be a reserved word.
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Which Are Legal Identifiers?
AREA area_under_the_curve
3D num45
Last-Chance #values
x_yt3 pi
num$$ %done
%
lucky*** continue
Float integer
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Punctuation
• Semicolons, colons, commas, apostrophes,

quotation marks, brackets, and parentheses.
• ; : , ‘ “{ } ( )
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Things to remember
• Statements are terminated with semicolons
• Indentation is ignored by the compiler
• C is case sensitive - all keywords and Standard

Library functions are lowercase
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Variables and Constants in C
U1.
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69
Topics
• Variables
 Naming
 Declaring
g
 Using
• The Assignment Statement
• Constants
• Data Input & Output
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Naming Conventions
• Begin variable names with lowercase letters
• Use meaningful names
• Separate “words” within identifiers with underscores or mixed upper and

lower case.
• Use all uppercase for symbolic constants (used in #define

preprocessor directives).
directives)
Note: symbolic constants are not variables,
• Be consistent! but make the program easier to read.
In addition to the conventions one must follow all the naming rules
as discussed in previous sessions.
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Declaring Variables
• All variables need to be declared before they are used.
• The declaration statement includes (apart from other

information) the data type of the variable.
• Examples of variable declarations:

int meatballs ;
float area ;
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Declaring Variables
When we declare a variable
 Space is set aside in memory to hold a value of the specified
data type
 That space is associated with

the variable name
a unique address
Visualization of the declaration

age
int age ;
garbage
b
It is required to declare variables before using
as compiler needs this information FE07 int
P
Purpose!!!!!!
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More About Variables
Basic data types available in C are:

 char: stores single character
 int: stores whole numbers
 float: store floating point numbers
 double: store floating point numbers with higher precision
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Integer Types in C
• C supports different kinds of integers, like
 signed int
 unsigned int
 long int
 short int
 And more…
• Li
Limits
it depend
d d upon size
i i bytes
in b t which
hi h in
i turn
t d
depends
d
upon environment
 maxima and minima defined in “limits.h”
• We can work with different bases as well (octal,

hexadecimal)
hexadecimal).
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The int Data Type (Contd.)
Use
scanf ((“%i”
%i , &ch) ;
to read a single integer into the variable ch.
Use
printf(“%i”,
i tf(“%i” ch)
h) ;
to display the value of an integer variable.
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The char Data Type
• The char data type holds a single character.
char ch;
• Example assignments:
char grade, symbol;

grade = ‘B’;
g
symbol = ‘$’;
• Th
The char
h isi held
h ld as a one-byte
b t integer
i t i memory. The
in Th
ASCII code is what is actually stored, so we can use
them as characters or integers, depending on our need.
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77
The char Data Type (Contd.)
Use
scanf (“%c”, &ch) ;
t read
to d a single
i l character
h t into
i t the
th variable
i bl ch.
h
Use
printf(“%c”, ch) ;
to display the value of a character variable.
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char I/O
#include <stdio.h>
int main ( )
{
char ch ;
printf (“Enter a character: “) ;

scanf (“%c”, &ch) ;
printf (
p (“The value of %c\n.”,
\ , ch)
) ;
return 0 ;
}
Input: A
Output : The value of A is 65
65.
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79
Real Types In C
C supports different kinds of reals

maxima and minima are defined in “float.h”
type format minimum maximum

float %f %e %g FLT_MIN FLT_MAX
d bl
double %lf %le
%l %lg
%l DBL MIN
DBL_MIN DBL MAX
DBL_MAX
long double %Lf %Le %Lg LDBL_MIN LDBL_MAX
‹#›
80
Notes About Variables
• You must not use a variable until you somehow give it a
value.
• You can not assume that the variable will have a value
b f
before you give
i it one.
 Some compilers do, others do not! This is the
source of many errors that are difficult to find.
‹#›
81
Operators in C
‹#›
82
Arithmetic Operators and their Usage
Name Operator Example
Addition + num1 + num2

Subtraction - initial - spent
Multiplication * fathoms * 6
Quotient of Division / sum / count
Remainder of Division % m%n
% can not be used with reals
‹#›
83
Relational Operators
< less than
> greater than
<= less than or equal to
>= greater than or equal to
== is equal
q to
!= is not equal to
Relational
R l ti l expressions
i evaluate
l t tto the
th integer
i t
values:
 1 (true) on success
 0 (false) on failure
‹#›
84
Logical Operators
• At times we need to test multiple conditions in order to
make a decision.
• Logical operators combine simple conditions to make
complex conditions.
• Result into a 0 (false) or 1 (true)
&& AND if ( x > 5 && y < 6 )
|| OR if ( z == 0 || x > 10 )
! NOT if (! (age > 42) )
‹#›
85
Truth Table for &&
Expression1 Expression2 Expression1 && Expression2
0 0 0
0 nonzero 0
nonzero 0 0
nonzero nonzero 1
Exp1 && Exp2 && … && Expn will evaluate to 1 (true)

only
y if ALL sub-conditions are true.
‹#›
86
Truth Table for ||
Expression1 Expression2 Expression1 || Expression2
0 0 0
0 nonzero 1
nonzero 0 1
nonzero nonzero 1
Exp1 || Exp2 || … || Expn will evaluate to 1 (true) if any one of

the sub-conditions is true.
‹#›
87
Truth Table for !
Expression ! Expression
0 1
nonzero 0
‹#›
88
Precedence/Associativity Table
Operator Associativity
() [] -> . left to right
! ~ ++ -- - + (cast) * & sizeof right to left + - : unary
* / % left to right
+ - left to right
<< >> left to right
< <= >= > left to right
== != left to right
& left to right
| left to right
^ left to right
&& left to right
|| left to right
?: right to left
= += -= *= /= %= etc right to left
, left to right
‹#›
89
U
User IInteraction
t ti ini C
‹#›
90
Functions
• Functions are named code blocks that make reusability of
code possible.
• These are parts of programs that

 Perform a well defined task.
task
 At times, expect some information in order to complete
the task.
 The information is provided in form of parameters
(arguments)
 Can
C return
t a value
l tot convey result
lt / status
t t off execution
ti
‹#›
91
I/O Example
create two integer

#include <stdio.h>
variables, “a” and “b”
int main(void)
{
int a, b;
read two integer
numbers into “a” printf("Enter two numbers: ");
and “b” scanf("%i
f("%i %i",
%i" &a, &b);
b)
printf("%i - %i = %i\n", a, b, a - b);
write “a”, “b” and “a-b” return 0;

in the format specified }
Enter two numbers: 21 17
21 - 17 = 4
‹#›
92
Displaying Variables
• A Function that allows us to display formatted data:
 printf( ).
)
• Needs two pieces of information to display things.

 How to display it
 What to display
• printf( “%f\n”, diameter );
‹#›
93
printf( “%f\n”, diameter );
• The name of the function is “printf”.
• Inside the parentheses are two comma separated

parameters:
 Format specifier: indicates the format in which the
output will be produced
%f =>> a floating point value
\n => a new-line character (escape sequence)
 The expression diameter whose value is to be

displayed.
‹#›
94
scanf (“%f”, &meters) ;
• This function is used to
 read values from the standard input; and
 Store them in memory.
memory
• The scanf( ) function also needs two items:

 The
Th input
i t specification
ifi ti “%f”
“%f”.
 The address of the memory location where the information
is to be stored.
• We can input more than one item at a time if we wish, as long

as we specify it correctly!!!
• Notice the “&” in front of the variable name. Can you

p
explain its significance!
g
‹#›
95
Format Specifiers
• Format specifiers are normal strings with embedded
“conversion
conversion specifications
specifications” which are placeholders for
arguments
• Conversion specifications are a ‘%’ and a letter with an

optional set of arguments in between the ‘%’ and letter.
Why are these required!!!
‹#›
96
Selection: the if statement
if ( condition )
{
( )
statement(s) /* body
/ y of the if statement */
/
}
• The braces are not required if the body contains only a single
statement.
• However, they
H th are a good
d idea
id and
d are required
i d by
b the
th C Coding
C di
Standards.
‹#›
97
Examples
if ( age >= 18 )
{
printf(“Vote!\n”) ;
}
if ( value == 0 )
{
printf (“The value you entered was zero.\n”);
printf (
p (“Please try
y again.\n”)
g \ ) ;
}
‹#›
98
Some Control Constructs in C
‹#›
99
Selection: the if-else statement
if ( condition )
{
statement(s) /* the if clause */
}
else
{
statement(s) /* the else clause */
}
‹#›
100
Example
if ( age >= 18 )
{
printf(“Vote!\n”) ;
}
else
{
printf(“Maybe next time!\n”) ;
}
‹#›
101
Repetition Structure
• There are three repetition structures in C: -
 the while loop
 the
th for
f loop
l
 the do-while loop.
• Either of these structures may be used for counter-

controlled / event-controlled logic, but
• The syntax of for loop makes it more suitable for counter-

controlled repetition
• And, The syntax of while / do-while loops makes them more

suitable for event
event-controlled
controlled repetition
‹#›
102
The while Repetition Structure
while ( condition )
{
statement(s)
}
• The braces are not required if the loop body contains

only
l a single
i l statement.
t t t
• However, they are a good idea and are required by

th C Coding
the C di Standards.
St d d
‹#›
103
while Loop
• The simplest C loop is the while
• Parentheses must surround the condition
• Condition could be based on user input or some calculation
• Braces must be added if more statements are to be executed
total= 0;
while (
(number != -1)
) {
total = total + number;
printf(“Enter another number: “) ;
scanf(“%d”
scanf( %d , &number) ;
}
‹#›
104
The for Loop Repetition Structure
• The for loop handles details of the counter-controlled loop
“automatically”.
• The following are handled within the for loop structure

 initialization of the the loop control variable,
 the termination condition test, and
 control variable modification.
for ( i = 1; i < 101; i = i + 1)

{
}
initialization test modification
‹#›
105
A for Loop That Counts From 0 to 9
for ( i = 0; i < 10; i = i + 1 )

{
printf (“%d\n”
( %d\n , i) ;
}
‹#›
106
We Can Count Backwards, Too
for ( i = 9; i >
>= 0; i = i - 1 )
{
printf (“%d\n”,
( %d\n , i) ;
}
‹#›
107
Count By 2’s or 7’s or Whatever
for ( i = 0; i < 10; i = i + 2 )

{
printf (“%d\n”
( %d\n , i) ;
}
‹#›
108
The do-while Repetition Structure
do
{
statement(s)
t t t( )
} while ( condition ) ;
• The body of a do-while is ALWAYS executed at least once.

• Is this true of a while loop?
• What about a for loop?
‹#›
109
Example
do
{
printf (“Enter a number, 0 to terminate: “);
scanf (“%d”, &number) ;
if (number == 1)
printf (“\n Do Something\n”) ;
else if (number == 2)
printf (“\n Do Something Else\n”) ;
} while ( num != 0 );
‹#›
110
An Equivalent while Loop
printf (“Enter a number, 0 to terminate:“) ;
while ( number != 0 )
{
if (number == 1)
printf
i tf (“\
(“\n Do
D S thi \ ”) ;
Something\n”)
printf (“\n Do Something Else\n”) ;
printf
i f (“
(“Enter a number
b “) ;
, 0 to terminate:“)
i
}
Notice that using a while loop in this case requires a priming

read.
‹#›
111
An Equivalent for Loop
printf (“Enter a positive number, 0 to terminate: “) ;
for ( ; number != 0; )
{
if (number == 1)
printf (“\n Do Something\n”) ;
printf (
p (“\n Do Something
g Else\n”)
) ;
printf (“Enter a number , 0 to terminate:“) ;
}
A for loop is a very awkward choice here because the

loop is event-controlled.
event controlled.
‹#›
112
So, Which Type of Loop Should One Use?
• Use a for loop for counter-controlled repetition.
• Use a while or do-while loop for event-controlled

repetition.
titi
 Use a do-while loop when the loop must execute at
least one time.
 Use a while loop when it is possible that the loop may
never execute.
‹#›
113
That s all for now
That’s now…
We are ready for writing a simple C program.
‹#›
114

Programming Fundamentals

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Programming Fundamentals

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• If you have programming experience (in any language

• If you are new to programming…

• Understand the basic procedures in a program as input,

• Understand the importance of variables.

• Understand a basic map of the program development cycle.

• CPU Central Processing Unit

• The three major families of languages are:

• The “native” language of a computer

• Comprised of a set of elemental commands

• The syntax of HL languages is similar to English.

• Historically, we divide HL languages into two groups:

 Based on specifying the steps the program must take to

 Examples include C, COBOL, Fortran, LISP, Perl, HTML,

 Examples of OOP languages include C++,

• Programs may be translated using

• Compiled programs typically execute more quickly than

• On the other hand, interpreted programs generally translate

Write “Enter the length in feet”

• Computer programs store data in named sections of

• In the example p above,, the variables are named

 E.g. we might want to calculate LengthInMeters for

 Each value for which computation is to be carried out will

• E.g. in the program given above

• We may also give names to constants: such constants are

• Character data (alphanumeric)

 Reason: The value 12 (stored as an effect of the first

• Data values on which operation is performed are termed as

• Operators generally work on many types of variables or constants,

• Operators in C may be:

• We have operators for:

 Like BODMAS rule in mathematics

 Parentheses i.e. () can always be used to improve clarity

• Rule used for two operators of equal precedence (i.e. same

• Associativity may be either of the following

 It needs a stop condition,

• If it is known in advance exactly how many times a loop

 The counter may be advanced according to

• If it is NOT known in advance exactly how many times a

 The event may be based upon:

What are the inputs? (given data)

• An algorithm – a step by step procedure that will

• Code is written in some programming language

• Errors may be categorized as :

 Semantic Errors: Incorrect Logic:

• Most of the work should be done before the phase begins –

• Two types of testing:

• Desk-checking, or code walkthrough is performed to locate

• For example, for your projects,

• Some modules will be complex themselves, and

• This is called top-down design

• The main module is the module that drives the application.

• When the main module calls another module,module

• Program control cedes back to the main module

• A structure chart is a top-down modular design tool

• It is used in structured programming to arrange program

• It’s a good idea to keep modules short – about 1 page per

• We will have very small modules while getting comfortable

• In 1983 the American National Standards Institute began

• In 1989 the International Standards Organization

• In 1990 a standard was finalized, known simply

• Focus on the procedural programming paradigm, with

• Low-level unchecked access to computer memory via the

• And many more…

• Code is also known as source code.