26.

10 The Human Eye

The human eye operates very much

like a modern electronic camera
Iris: controls the amount of light
energy entering the lens
Lens: focus light onto retina
(adjustable)…refraction also
provided by cornea + A.H.

Retina: Layer of electronic

(ok…neural) pixel elements

Monocular Vision
The lens focuses some of the rays (“emitted” in all
directions) from points on the pencil (the object) on to
individual points (the image) on the retina

The electrical impulses are carried by the optic nerve

into the brain for processing  shapes and colors
1
26.10 The Human Eye
Muscles in the eye changes the
shape (focal length) of the lens
in response to near and far
objects  depth perception
with just one eye
relaxed lens
This is a skill learned by a baby in the first few days after
birth. It is difficult to demonstrate—it is so automatic
(1) Cover one eye. Stare at this screen with other eye. Then
move a finger into field of view.
(2) Cover one eye. Look down at one finger. Raise your head
until this screen comes into field of view
tensed lens

Binocular Vision
(a) Eyeballs rotate to center the object in each
eye (conscious but fairly automatic response by
the brain)  more depth perception
(1) Put one finger from each hand in front of you—
one at twice the distance of the other.
(2) Alternately focus on one finger—the other will be
seen in “double”

(b) The slightly different images seen in the

two eyes are interpreted by the brain to given
even more depth perception – 3D glasses!
2
26.10 The Human Eye
Relaxed Eye Lens Nearsightedness
Distant
Object
DF (non-standard notation) (myopia)
Ideally, the lens of the eye
Far Point of should be able to adjust to
nearsighted eye Image formed in
objects at any distance.
front of retina
But the nearsighted eye has a lens-retina combination that cannot relax itself enough to focus
objects out to infinity. A distant object focus to a real image in front of (but missing) the retina.
Usually there is a maximum object distance, called the far point, to which the eye can focus
Diverging
Distant Lens Corrective Lens
Object The patient is prescribed a
diverging lens to compensate
Far Point of
for the over-convergence
nearsighted eye
Image formed
on the retina
Virtual Image formed
Prescription
Distant
Object by diverging lens We want to put the virtual
image made by the diverging
Far Point of lens of a distant object (i.e.
nearsighted eye DL do = ∞) at the far point: DF.
Remember that the corrective lens is worn at a small distance DL in front of the eye (DL=0 for a contact lens)
1 1 1 1 1
do = ∞ d i = − (D F − D L ) = + = + → f = −( DF − DL )
f do di ∞ − ( DF − DL )
3
26.10 The Human Eye

With this prescription, objects at finite, but far distances are mapped into virtual
images located between the corrective lens (at distance DL from the eye) and the
far point (at distance DF from the eye)

Example : Eyeglasses for the Nearsighted Person

A nearsighted person has a far point located only 521 cm from the eye. Assuming that
eyeglasses are to be worn 2 cm in front of the eye, find the focal length needed for the
diverging lens of the glasses so the person can see distant objects.

4
26.10 The Human Eye

With this prescription, objects at finite, but far distances are mapped into virtual
images located between the corrective lens (at distance DL from the eye) and the
far point (at distance DF from the eye)

Example : Eyeglasses for the Nearsighted Person

A nearsighted person has a far point located only 521 cm from the eye. Assuming that
eyeglasses are to be worn 2 cm in front of the eye, find the focal length needed for the
diverging lens of the glasses so the person can see distant objects.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 −1
= + = − = − = → f = −519 cm
f d o d i ∞ DF − DL ∞ DF − DL 521 cm − 2 cm

THE REFRACTIVE POWER OF A LENS – THE DIOPTER

Optometrists who prescribe correctional lenses and the opticians who make the lenses do
not specify the focal length. Instead they use the concept of refractive power.

1 f = −519 cm
Refractive Power ( RP : in diopters) =
f (in meters ) → RP = −0.193 m -1
RP is not a standard notation, and diopter is not an SI unit.
= −0.193 dpt 5
26.10 The Human Eye
Farsightedness
Sharp image
Near Point of Tensed Eye Lens formed behind (hyperopia)
nearsighted eye the retina
Ideally, the lens of the eye
Close-by object should be able to adjust to
DN (non-standard notation) objects at any distance.

But the Farsighted eye has a lens-retina combination that cannot tense itself enough to focus
objects close by. A close-by object focus to a sharp, real image behind (but missing) the retina.
Usually there is a minimum object distance, called the near point, to which the eye can focus
Converging
Corrective Lens
Near Point of Lens
nearsighted eye The patient is prescribed a
converging lens to
Close-by object Sharp image compensate for the under-
on retina
convergence
Virtual Image formed by Converging
converging lens Prescription
Lens
Put the virtual image made by the
converging lens of the nearest
Near Point of Close-by object object you want to see (typically at
nearsighted eye DL DMIN = 25 cm) to the near point: DN.

1 1 1 1 1
RP = = + = −
f d o d i ( DMIN − DL ) ( DN − DL )
6
Example of corrective lens for farsightedness:
this is a pathology everyone gets as they get older – starting at ~40 yrs of age
(nearsightedness improves somewhat in combination with this)

Your professor wears reading glasses with refractive power of RP = 1.75 dpt = 1.75 m-1.
Where is his near point (inside of which he cannot see). Assume the glasses to correct
for objects as near as 25 cm, and that the glasses are worn 2 cm from the eyes.

7
Example of corrective lens for farsightedness:
this is a pathology everyone gets as they get older – starting at ~40 yrs of age
(nearsightedness improves somewhat in combination with this)

Your professor wears reading glasses with refractive power of RP = 1.75 dpt = 1.75 m-1.
Where is his near point (inside of which he cannot see). Assume the glasses to correct
for objects as near as 25 cm, and that the glasses are worn 2 cm from the eyes.

1 1 1 1 1
RP = = + = −
f do di ( DMIN − DL ) ( DN − DL )

1 1
1.75 m −1 = −
(0.25 m − 0.02 m) ( DN − 0.02 m)

1 1
= − 1.75 m −1 = 2.60 m −1
( DN − 0.02 m) 0.23 m

1
DN − 0.02 m = = 0.38 m
2.60 m −1

DN = 0.40 m
8
26.11 Angular Magnification and the Magnifying Glass
The eye is basically like a camera

The size of the image on the retina determines

how large an object appears to be.

θ (in radians ) = Angular size ≈

ho
do

9
26.11 Angular Magnification and the Magnifying Glass

Example: A Penny and the Moon

Compare the angular size of a penny held at arms length with that of the moon.

10
26.11 Angular Magnification and the Magnifying Glass

Example: A Penny and the Moon

Compare the angular size of a penny held at arms length with that of the moon.

ho 1.9 cm
Penny θ≈ = = 0.027 rad
d o 71 cm

ho 3.5 ×106 m
Moon θ≈ = = 0.0090 rad
d o 3.9 ×10 m
8

11
26.11 Angular Magnification and the Magnifying Glass

Angular magnification

θ′
M=
θ

Angular magnification
of a magnifying glass

1 1
M ≈  −  N
 f di 

12
26.12 The Compound Microscope

To increase the angular magnification

beyond that possible with a magnifying
glass, an additional converging lens
can be included to “premagnify” the
object.

Angular magnification of
a compound microscope

M ≈−
( L − f e )N
fo fe

13
 Chapter 27

Interference and the

Wave Nature of Light

14
27.1 The Principle of Linear Superposition
When two or more light waves pass through a given point, their electric (and magnetic) fields
combine (interfere) according to the principle of superposition.

Special Case 1 Special Case 2

The waves emitted by the sources start out The waves emitted by the sources start out
in phase and arrive at point P in phase, in phase and arrive at point P in opposite
leading to constructive interference. phase, leading to destructive interference.
 2 −  1 = mλ  2 −  1 = (m + 1
2 )λ
m = 0,1,2,3,  m = 0,1,2,3, 
If constructive or destructive interference is to continue ocurring at a point, the sources of
the waves must be coherent sources.
Two sources are coherent if the waves they emit maintain a constant phase relation. 15
27.2 Young’s Double Slit Experiment
Two independent, coherent light sources are
virtually impossible to construct .
In Young’s experiment (Young also participated
in the deciphering of the Rosetta Stone), two
slits illuminated by a single source acts as two
separate but coherent sources of light.

Light waves from these slits interfere both

constructively and destructively on the
projection screen.

For best results, light of a single color (e.g.

produced by a laser) is used.

The waves coming from the slits interfere constructively or destructively,

16
depending on the difference in distances between the slits and the screen.
27.2 Young’s Double Slit Experiment

∆ = d sin θ
In the typical set up, the screen m
is very far away compared to Bright fringes ∆ = d sin θ = mλ
the separation of the slits. We
treat the rays from the slits Dark fringes ∆ = d sin θ = ( m + 12 )λ
as if they were parallel m = 0,1,2,3, 
λ λ
Bright fringes
from 2 slits
sin θ = m Dark fringes
from 2 slits
sin θ = (m + 1
2 )
d d
Bright fringe

Dark fringe

Bright fringe

Dark fringe
17
Bright fringe
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5PmnaPvAvQY
27.2 Young’s Double Slit Experiment

Example: Young’s Double-Slit

Experiment
Red light (664 nm) is used in
Young’s experiment with slits
separated by d=0.000120 m. The
screen is located a distance 2.75 m
from the slits.
Find the distance on the screen
between the central bright fringe
and the third-order bright fringe.

 λ   664 × 10 −9
m
θ = sin −1  m  = sin −1  3 −4

 = 0 . 951

 d  1.20 × 10 m 
y = L tan θ = (2.75 m ) tan (0.951 ) = 0.0456 m

Note: Double slit interference also separates out

the colors from a white or multi-colored source.

The angle of the bright fringes is different for

each wavelength  the bright fringes for
different colors form a rainbow on screen.
18
27.3 Thin Film Interference
Because of reflection and refraction, (at least) two light waves
enter the eye when light shines on a thin film of gasoline
floating on a thick layer of water.

Because of the extra distance traveled by ray [2] relative to

ray [1], there can be interference between the two waves.

For the comparison of the extra path λvacuum

to wavelength, we need to use the λfilm =
wavelength in the medium nfilm

When light travels through a material with a smaller

refractive index towards a material with a larger
refractive index, (partial) reflection at the boundary
occurs along with a phase change that is equivalent to
one-half of a wavelength in the film.

When light travels from a larger towards a smaller

refractive index, there is no phase change upon
reflection.

19
27.3 Thin Film Interference
Example Color of a Thin Film of Gasoline

A thin film of gasoline floats on a puddle of water. Sunlight falls

perpendicularly on the film and reflects into your eyes. The film
has a yellow hue because destructive interference eliminates
the color of blue (469 nm) from the reflected light. The refractive A
indices of the blue light in gasoline and water are 1.40 and 1.33.
Determine the minimum non-zero thickness of the film.

Ray [1]: reflection at point A from lower to B

higher index: phase shift equivalent to ½ λfilm 1 = 1
2 λfilm
Ray [2]: reflection at point B from higher to
lower no phase shift ; but roundtrip through film:
 2 = 2t

Effective path difference between Ray [1] and ∆ =  2 −  1 = 2t − 12 λfilm

Ray [2] (including phase shift for reflection)

Destructive interference between Ray [1] and ∆ = 2t − 12 λfilm

Ray [2]: difference of half-integer wavelengths
= 12 λfilm , 3
2 λfilm , 25 λfilm ...
→ 2t = λfilm , 2λfilm , 3λfilm ...
λfilm 1 469 nm
Minimum non-zero t= = ⋅ = 168 nm
thickness t : 2 2 1.40 20
27.3 Thin Film Interference

The wedge of air formed

between two glass plates
causes an interference
pattern of alternating
dark and bright fringes.
1

Thin-film band-pass optical filter

As long as the film has the highest refractive

index of the three regions, then neither of
y
the two reflections incur a phase shift.
→ ∆ = 2t
Constructive interference between
∆ = 2 y − 12 λ transmitted ray [1] and ray [2] occurs for
the minimum thickness of
Dark Fringes ∆ = ( m + 12 )λ
Bright Fringes ∆ = mλ m = 0,1,2,3... t = 12 λfilm 21