ECE 2508: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

MAJOR TOPICS

1. Soils and Rock Mechanics

2. In-Situ Field Testing
3. Site Investigations
4. Load Tests on Piles
5. Tunnelling and Dam Construction
6. Use of Geosynthetics

OTHER TOPICS

(a) Numerical Modelling in Geomechanics

(b) Introduction to Related Computer Software

REFERENCES

(i) Geology for Engineers by F.G. Blyth and M.H. de Freitas

(ii) Elements of Soil Mechanics for Civil and Mining Engineers by G.N. Smith
(iii) Principles and Practices of Heavy construction by R.C. Smith and C.K. Andre

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 INTRODUCTION
Generally, geotechnical engineering is concerned with the origin, properties, and uses of the
major civil engineering construction materials for roads/highways and buildings.

This involves soils, rocks, in-situ field-testing, site investigations, construction of engineering
structures e.g. piles, dams, tunnels, etc. and use of Geosynthetics as construction material.

To the civil engineer, soil is any un-cemented or weakly cemented accumulation of mineral
particles formed by the weathering of rocks, the void space between the particles
containing water or air.

Rocks are made up of small crystalline units known as minerals and a rock can thus be
defined as an assemblage of particular minerals and named accordingly. For engineering
purposes, the two terms i.e. ‘Soil’ and ‘Rock’ have been adopted to define the mechanical
characters of geological materials.

In-Situ field tests are generally desirable where it is considered that, the mass
characteristics of the ground would form the mineral characteristics determined by
laboratory testing. These differences generally arise from several factors, which will be
discussed later.

Investigations of the site is an essential preliminary to the construction of all civil

engineering and buildings works and the objective in making such investigations will be
detailed later.

A pile is a term used to describe a structural section placed in the ground for supporting a
superimposed load. Piles are usually classified by the pile material method of placement and
method of the load transfer.

A dam is required to impound the water and its design and construction must be capable of
preventing the uncontrollable leakage of reservoir water around and beneath its structure.

A tunnel is an underground passage, especially through a hill for a road/highway and rail
canal where the up or down grade may be too steep.

Geosynthetics is the term used to describe a range of generally polymeric products used to
solve civil engineering, construction materials problems in reinforcement in wet areas. For
the design of soil structures reinforced with geotextiles, the pullout properties between the
soil and the geotextiles must be determined. This is affected by the nature of the soil, i.e.
grain size distribution, degree of composition and the water content, the shape and quality
of the geotextiles. Nowadays, the geotextiles are frequently used to reinforce soil. These
geotextiles supply tensile resistance to the soil.

Geomechanics and computer software have no influence in the other major topics and their
discussion will depend on time availability and their importance in engineering purposes.
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 1. SOILS AND ROCK MECHANICS

SOILS

For engineers and architects, soil denotes all the fragmented material found in the earth’s
crust. Included is material ranging individual rocks of various sizes, through gravel, sand and
fine grained clays.

Soil types as determined by particle size are as follows:

(a) Cobbles and boulders – (larger than 80 mm in diameter)

(b) Gravel – (smaller than 80 mm and larger than 2 mm in diameter i.e. ranging from
coarse, medium and fine)
(c) Sand – (Particles smaller than 2 mm and larger than 0.08 mm in diameter i.e. ranging
from coarse, medium and fine)
(d) Silts – (particles smaller than 0.08 mm and larger than 0.02 mm in diameter)
(e) Clays – (particles smaller than 0.02 mm in diameter)

For purposes of establishing the abilities of these soils to safely carry a load, they are
classified as:

1. Cohesionless soils:
These include sand and gravel, soils in which the particles have little or no tendency to
stick together under pressure i.e. they are coarse.

2. Cohesive soils:
These include dense silt, medium dense silt, hard clay, stiff clay, firm clay and soft clay.
The particles of these soils tend to stick together, particularly with addition of water i.e.
they are fine.

3. Miscellaneous soils:
These include glacial teal and conglomerate. Conglomerate is a mixture of sand, gravel
and clay, with the clay acting as a cement to hold the particles together.

Once soil has been removed from its original location, it tends to increase in bulk, because
pressure is no longer keeping the particles closely packed. When this soil is returned to the
excavation, it is still in this bulked state unless some special measures are taken during
backfilling time and weather will bring about a return to the original volume, causing
shrinkage in the whole. This can be overcome by compacting the soil while it is being
replaced. Normally, it is replaced in thin layers, not more than 450 mm thick, in order to
achieve its maximum density. Each layer must be treated by some type of compaction
machinery.

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For soil to qualify for proper use, it is tested so that it can be accepted that it is within the
required standard.

SOIL TESTING

Principle tests for soil classification are mechanical analysis and various routine laboratory
tests. The mechanical analysis is performed on the entire sample and has the determination
of the proportion of particles of various sizes in the given soil (i.e. by sieving).

Most important routine tests are the Atterberg limits i.e. Liquid limit, Plastic limit and
Shrinkage limit. These tests are intended to describe definite physical properties of the soil
and are performed with standardized laboratory procedures.

Besides laboratory tests, there are field tests commonly used in sub-surface soil
investigation. The three field tests e.g. for foundations are:

1. Standard penetration test

2. Vane shear test
3. Plate bearing test

Generally, the objectives of soil testing are:

(a) To describe and classify soils

(b) To measure soil compressibility
(c) To measure soil strength

METHODS OF TESTING

The physical tests carried out on soils are:

1. Particle size analysis:

This is a determination of the percentage of individual particle sizes present in a soil. The
sieve analysis determines the amount of coarse materials with the aid of sieves. The
sieve analysis is a basic test which consists of sieving a measured quantity of soil through
a series of successively smaller sieves. It is possible to make general estimates of the
permeability of a soil on the basis of its gradation.

2. Consistency tests:
By consistency, it is meant that property of a soil which is manifested by its resistance to
flow. These are:

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 i. Liquid Limit: This is the moisture content, expressed as a percentage by weight
of the oven dry soil at the boundary between the liquid and solid states. This test
is carried out on materials which can be air-dried only.
ii. Plastic Limit: The plastic limit of a soil may be defined as the moisture content of
the soil at the boundary between the plastic and semi-solid states. This boundary
is the moisture content at which a sample of soil begins to crumble when rolled
into a thread under the palm of the hand.

NOTE: A value usually used in conjunction with the liquid and plastic limits is the
Plasticity Index. This is the liquid limit and the plastic limit i.e. it is the range of moisture
content over which the soil is in the plastic state.

3. Specific gravity test:

Specific gravity is the ratio of the unit weight in the air of a given material to the unit
weight in air of a reference material.
Specific gravity of the solids making up soils is useful, mainly for deriving other needed
properties of soils in weight per volume.

4. Consolidation test:
This is used to estimate both rate of settlement and the total amount of settlement of
soil layer under an applied load.

FROST ACTION IN SOILS

This is applicable in seasonal areas where winter and summer seasons are experienced.

Under certain conditions, very severe damage to subgrades and pavements of flexible roads
may result from frost action. Damaging action may be due to freezing and thawing of water,
i.e. causing expansion of the subgrade soil during the period when freezing temperatures
prevail and when the ground is frozen to considerable depths.

Frost action is generally associated with the existence of shallow water table. The soil mass
would expand because water expands as it freezes. In order to eliminate or minimize frost
damage, it is necessary to remove soils subject to frost action and replace them with
suitable granular backfill to the depth of the frost line.

Another solution may be effected by the installation of drainage facilities in areas where
frost action is likely to be detrimental with the aim of lowering the water table.

Another solution is to intercept seepage flows which may cause excessive amounts of water
to be accumulated in certain areas.

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NOTE: Soil samples (for testing) are divided into two main categories i.e. disturbed samples
and undisturbed samples. Disturbed samples are materials collected for laboratory tests
and undisturbed samples are for field tests e.g. for shear strength and consolidation test.

MOISTURE DENSITY RELATIONSHIP

Practically, all soils exhibit a similar relationship between moisture content and density (i.e.
dry unit weight) when subjected to dynamic compaction i.e. practically, every soil has an
optimum moisture content at which the soil attains maximum density under a given
compaction effort.

Compaction is the process of increasing the density of a soil by packing the particles closer
together with a reduction in the volume of air (there is no significant change in the volume
of water in the soil). The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of dry density
i.e. the mass of solids only per unit volume of soil. If the bulk density of the soil is ‘ ’ and the
water content is ‘w’, then the dry density is:

The dry density depends on the water content and the compaction effort. This is as shown
here below:

The following types of compaction equipment are used in the field.

1. Smooth-wheeled rollers
These are suitable for most types soil, except uniform sands and silty sands. A smooth
surface is produced on the compacted layer, encouraging the runoff of any rainfall but
resulting in relatively poor bonding between successive layers.

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2. Pneumatic-tired Rollers
These are suitable for a wide range of coarse and fine soils but not uniformly graded
materials. They impart a kneading action to the soil. The finished surface is relatively
smooth resulting in a low degree of bonding between layers.

3. Sheep-foot Rollers
These are most suitable for fine soils both plastic and non-plastic, especially at water
contents dry of optimum. They are also suitable for coarse soils with more than 20%
fines.

4. Vibratory Rollers
These are used for most soil types and are more efficient if the water content of the soil
is slightly wet of optimum. They are particularly effective for coarse soils with little or no
fines.

NOTE: A minimum number of passes must be made with the chosen compaction equipment
to produce the required value of dry density. This number which depends on the type and
mass of the equipment and the thickness of the soil layer, is usually within 3-12. In general,
the thicker the layer, the heavier the roller required to produce an adequate degree of
compaction

SOIL PHASES

Soils can be of either two-phase or three-phase composition. There are two phases in a
completely dry soil i.e. the solid soil particles and pore-air. A fully saturated soil is also a
two-phased soil i.e. solid particles and pore water.

A three-phase soil is a particularly saturated soil i.e. solid soil particles, pore-water, and
pore-air. These are as shown here below.

(a) Two-Phases

(i) (ii)
Completely dry soil Fully saturated soil

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 (b) Three-Phases

Partially saturated soil.

Where:

Each of the above volumes and masses are determined as shown here below:

1.

2.

This is the ratio of the volume of water to the total volume of void space
3.

This is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of solids.

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4.

This is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the soil.
5.

6.

This is the ratio of the total mass to the total volume.

NOTE: For a completely dry soil, i.e. degree of saturation.

Example

A soil sample in its natural condition has a mass of 2.29 kg and a volume of 1.15 x 10 -3 m3.
After being completely dried in an oven, the mass of the sample is 2.035 kg. The value of
specific gravity ( ) is 2.68. Determine the following:

i. Bulk Density
ii. Unit Weight
iii. Water Content
iv. Void Ratio
v. Porosity
vi. Degree of Saturation
vii. Air content

Solution

i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

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 vi.

vii.

SOIL FORMATION

ROCKS

The term rock is used for those materials of many kinds, which form the greater part of the
relatively thin outer shell or crust of the earth. Some are comparatively soft and easily
deformed while others are hard and rigid. These properties i.e. soft or hard, will affect the
rock excavation and loading. It is also important to differentiate rock materials from rock
mass. Rock material is the intact rock between discontinuities and rock mass is he total in-
situ medium containing bedding planes, faults, joints, folds and other structural features.
These terms are briefly explained:

(a) Bedding Planes

These divide sedimentary rocks into beds or strata. They represent interruptions in
the course of deposition of the rock mass.
(b) Folds
They are structures where the attitudes of the beds are changed by flexure resulting
from tectonic forces
(c) Faults
Faults are features on which identifiable shear displacement has taken place. They
may be recognized by the relative displacement of the rock on opposite sides of the
fault plane.
(d) Joints
These are breaks of geological origin along which there has been no visible
displacement.

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 (e) Dykes
These are long narrow intrusions along which there has been no visible
displacement.

In addition, the factors below affect response of rock to imposed loads.

1. Rock Fracture
When loads are imposed on rock, friction is mobilized between the surfaces of the
micro-cracks, which are the sites for fracture initiation. A related problem is the
phenomenon of localization where rapture is progressive but not sudden.

2. Size Effects
The response of rock to imposed loads shows pronounced effects of the size of
loaded volume. Both the properties of the rock material and those of the various
structural geological units influence strength and deformation properties of the rock
mass.

3. Tensile Strength
Rock is distinguished from all other common engineering materials (except concrete)
by its low tensile strength. Rock specimens tested in uniaxial tension fail at stresses
lower than when tested for uniaxial compression.

4. Effect of Ground Water

Ground water may affect the mechanical performance of a rock mass by:

Operation of the effective stress law and the deleterious action of water on particular rocks
and minerals e.g. clay seams may soften in the presence of groundwater, reducing the
strength.

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The rock discontinuities include the following:

i. Filling: This is the material separating the adjacent walls of an open discontinuity in
which the space is filled with air or water.
ii. Spacing: This is the perpendicular distance between adjacent discontinuities and is
usually expressed as the mean spacing of a particular set of joints.
iii. Aperture: This is the perpendicular distance separating walls of open discontinuities
in which the space is filled with water or air.
iv. Persistence: This is the term used to describe the area extent or size of a
discontinuity within a place. It can be quantified by observing the trace lengths of
discontinuities to exposed surfaces.

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 2. IN-SITU FIELD TESTING
In-situ testing is a ground investigation. An adequate ground investigation is an essential
preliminary to the execution of a civil engineering project. The principle objectives of the
investigation are:

1. To determine the sequence, thickness and lateral extent of the soil strata and where
appropriate, the level of bedrock.
2. To obtain representative sample of soil/rock for identification and classification and
if necessary, for use in laboratory tests to determine the relevant soil parameters.
3. To identify the ground water condition.

This information will enable the most suitable type of foundation for the proposed structure
to be selected and to indicate if special problems are likely to arise during excavations.

The actual investigation procedure depends on the nature of the strata and the type of the
project proposed. Some of the methods of investigation are:

(a) Trial pits: The excavation of trial pits is a simple and reliable method of investigation
but limited to a maximum depth of 4 m to 5 m. These pits are suitable for
investigations in all types of soil, including those containing cobbles or boulders.
(b) Shafts and headings: These are very costly and there use would be justified only for
investigations for large structures e.g. dams.
(c) Rotary drilling.

In-situ field tests are generally desirable where it is considered that, the mass characteristics
of the ground would differ appreciably from the material characteristics determined by
laboratory testing.

Factors affecting sample quality are related to the in-situ conditions of stress, pore pressure
and degree of saturation and can be altered from an unknown in-situ state by the sampling
process. Consequently, their influence cannot be accounted for in laboratory testing.

The material tested in-situ y a field test is analogous to a laboratory sample and can be
considered as a ‘field sample’. The in-situ conditions of a field sample may be affected by
the process of gaining access to the test position e.g. digging a trial pit, but generally the
effect is very much less than for a laboratory sample.

The selection and preparation of samples in the field is subject to the same requirements as
for laboratory samples in order to ensure that, they are representative; the size of the
sample tested in a field test will depend on the nature of the ground and type of test, and
may vary from a fraction of a metre e.g. as in the in-situ triaxial state of stress
measurements to several metres for field trials to several kilometres (1 – 2 km) in the
pumping test.

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Field tests may therefore be necessary where the preparation of representative laboratory
sample is complicated by one or more of the following conditions:

1. The spacing of the discontinuities in the mass being considered is such that a sample
representing the mass would be too large for laboratory test equipment.
2. There is difficulty in obtaining samples of adequate quality owing to the lack of
cohesion or irreversible changes in mechanical properties, resulting from changes in
the pore pressure, degree of saturation and stress environments during sampling
and from physical disturbance resulting from the sampling procedure.
3. There is difficulty in determining the in-situ conditions such as those of pore
pressure, degree of saturation and stress environments for reproduction in the
laboratory testing.
4. Sample distance due to delays and transportation from remote sites is excessive.

NOTE: Many field tests are expensive and should not be undertaken before obtaining a
comprehensive understanding of the geology and the nature of the ground.

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 SITE INVESTIGATION
Take note on:

1. Objectives of site investigation

2. Phases of site investigation
3. Primary and secondary site investigation
4. Steps for a full site investigation
5. Information in fig. 1 and fig. 2
6. Planning of site investigation
7. Site investigation for foundations

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 3. SITE INVESTIGATIONS
Introduction

Site investigations are usually carried out prior to the design of roads, buildings etc. in order
to establish the soil and ground water conditions on a given site. Therefore the objectives of
site investigations are:

i. To assess the general suitability of the site and environs for the proposed works.
ii. To enable an adequate and economical design to be prepared, including the
design of the temporary works.
iii. To plan the best method of construction, to foresee and provide against
difficulties and delays that may arise during construction.
iv. To determine the changes that may arise in the ground and environmental
conditions either naturally or as a result of the working.
v. Where alternatives exist, to advice on the relative suitability of different sites or
different parts of the same site.

Usually, adequate site investigations i.e. ground exploration; site exploration etc. is an
essential preliminary to the execution of a civil engineering project. Sufficient information
must be obtained in order to enable a safe and economic design to be made and to avoid
any difficulties during the structure construction.

The object and scope of site investigation work is therefore very broad; the cooperation of
geologists is indispensible because the preliminary and general phases of site investigation
basically consist of geological survey and the detailed phases, their advice is required in the
preparation of the geotechnical section. See fig. 1.

SITE INVESTIGATION PHASES

Site investigation prior to the design of major works is usually carried out in three phases.
These phases are:

(a) Phase 1: Preliminary Investigation

The purpose of this phase is to assess the suitability of a given site for the proposed
works or route from several alternatives for site or routes. This investigation
basically involves the study of the geology of a given area on the basis of available
geological publications and actual inspection of the site or route in certain cases,
exploratory borings and simple subsurface soundings are carried out in important
locations e.g. deep cuttings, landslides, river crossing etc.

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 In brief, the information required is:
1. Topography and probable ground water conditions.
2. Geology and subsoil conditions.
3. Previous uses of the site e.g. excavations, fills etc.
4. Type of existing structures/buildings e.g. is there any type of settlements or
cracks?

(b) Phase 2: General Investigation

The purpose of this phase is to select areas on a given site of the most favourable
ground conditions. This involves the preparation of a geotechnical map of the area
under consideration on the basis of published information i.e. geological maps etc.
In brief, the information required is
1. Soil classification.
2. Subsoil profile.
3. Standard penetration tests in granular soils.
4. Ground-water table.
5. Fills – description, classification, strength, chemical analysis etc.

(c) Phase 3: Detailed Investigation

The purpose of this phase is to obtain technical data necessary for the design and
construction of the works i.e. after approval of the location of the buildings or choice
of the route for construction. This shall accurately establish the geological structure
of the investigated area and should give complete details of the ground and ground-
water conditions necessary for the design and construction of the structure.

As explained above i.e. for phases, a site investigation is undertaken in response to a need
i.e. the need to assess the suitability of a site for a particular project. A typical site
investigation process is shown in fig. 2 which indicates the type of information obtained
from each phase i.e. from planning the type of the structure required to its design and
construction.

The first step is to consider the required information by the designer. It is also important to
consider how sensitive the structure will be to the ground conditions and soil properties.
The next stage is to obtain as much information about the site as possible from existing
records i.e. geological and topographical maps, previous site investigations in the area, local
authority/private records etc.

A site visit will then give added information on the topography, vegetation (e.g. trees) and
general conditions of the site.

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 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SITE INVESTIGATION

1. Primary Site Investigation

Primary site investigation is usually done in two phases:
i) Surface evaluation: this normally consists of topographic survey to establish
grades of drainage, land-scaping requirements and the placement of services.
ii) Sub-surface evaluation: this consists of evaluation of the soil below the surface
to establish criteria for the foundation requirements of the proposed structure.
The information (e.g. laboratory data) will provide the necessary data from which
the load-bearing properties of the soil can be established.

2. Secondary Site Investigation

This refers to chronological sequence i.e. how the approved work (design) will be carried
out once the contract has been decided on the tenders let; the prospective contractor
will be responsible for additional investigations. This will require the information for
suitable routes for the access to the site, availability of services (e.g. water, labour etc.),
local construction by-laws (e.g. for public safety etc.), site and local weather conditions
(e.g. is the area usually wet or dry?) and a safe working environment.

Typical organisation for a site investigation

In reference to fig. 2, the steps for a full site investigation are briefly listed.

Step 1: Planning i.e. decision to develop a site and carry out the implementing steps.

Step 2: Desk study

This will provide information on such things as past use, potential geological
problems, liability to flooding and mining subsidence which may vitally affect the
proposed project i.e. general land survey; permitted use and restrictions; approaches
and access; ground conditions; sources of construction materials, drainage,
electricity supply etc.

Step 3: Reconnaissance
Here, you are to ensure the following are available i.e. site plan; geological maps;
ensure access is available; for general information, traverse the whole area on foot
and check water levels, observe and record adjacent property and the likelihood of it
being affected by the proposed structure. For ground information, study and record
surface features on site e.g. buildings, roads etc. Inspect and record location and
condition of access routes to the working sites.

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Step 4: Surface and subsurface ground investigation
Investigate the type of soil on the surface and subsurface by collecting samples for
laboratory testing.

Step 5: Insitu/Field tests

The field/insitu tests are carried out at the site in order to determine the thickness
and lateral extent of the soil strata; to identify the ground-water conditions etc.

Step 6: Geotechnical report

This is prepared from the information collected above (i.e. steps 2 – 5). If this report
is accepted, the next step is to allow for design and if not accepted, the necessary
corrections will be carried out.

Step 7: This is the final step because if the report is accepted, the design of the structure is
allowed and after the design is construction.

NOTE: Continue with figures 1 and 2.

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 DESK STUDY DESIGN RECONNAISSANCE
• Geology • Scope of project • Topography and
• History of site • Types of structures vegetation: clues to
• Maps, air photos • Susceptibility to ground - soil conditions and
• Probable soil types and movements variability
variability • Scale of geotechnical - special problems
• Special problems work • Access problems
- flooding • Special problems • Existing/previous use of
- mining subsidence site
- problem soils • Buildings in vicinity
- previous use of site - types of construction
- future - foundations used
developments - problems with
- etc. existing structures
• Whether conditions in
surrounding area will
affect proposed
project
• Whether project will
affect surrounding area

PROBABLE FOUNDATION TYPES

• Need for specialist geotechnical work

• Parameters required for foundation

design, etc.
• Possible depth of investigation

• Laboratory and field tests required to

give design parameters

• Types of samples required for

laboratory tests

• Types of trial holes required (trial pits,

shell and auger boreholes, probes,
etc.)
• Extent of boring and of sampling and
testing required.
- area covered
- depth
- number of samples and tests

Fig. 1: How preliminary information is used to plan the fieldwork for a site investigation.

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1. Decision to develop site and carry out
site investigation

Geology, history, any

2. Desk study
available information

Topography, obvious problems

3. Reconnaissance

4. Groundwater Investigation
- preliminary investigation Soil profile
- main investigation

5. Field tests Samples Laboratory tests

6. Geotechnical Report

7. Design Construction

Fig. 2: Typical organization for a site investigation.

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 THE PLANNING OF SITE INVESTIGATIONS

1. OBJECTIVES

1.1 Geological: To determine the strata, ground structure and groundwater

conditions.

1.2 Soil Mechanics: To determine the relevant engineering properties of any

critical strata.

2. ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

2.1 Design: Bearing capacity, slope stability, remedial measures etc.

2.2 Construction: Excavation problems, borrow areas, choice of piling method,

etc.

3. PLANNING

3.1 Preliminary: Study existing records about site and make a site inspection.
Assess probable soil mechanics problems and make
preliminary plan for site investigation work.

3.2 Main Ground Pits, boreholes, field tests, sampling and laboratory tests. This
Investigation: may be organized in two stages:-

(a) feasibility study - to select best site and most suitable

design.
(b) design study - detailed investigation on selected site.

3.3 Construction Examine ground conditions as encountered during

Review: construction and review design assumptions; additional bore
holes may be required.

4. REPORTS

4.1 General: Each state of an investigation (3.1, 3.2 and 3.3) should be
covered by a written report; the reports will be in two parts,
factual and interpretation.

4.2 Factual Report: This should include the following information:-

(a) The site – description of site including survey and levels;

the survey should be referenced to some permanent
record, (e.g. O.S. grid).
(b) A description of all procedures that are used.
(c) The results in diagrams and tables of all the borehole and
pit logs and all the tests.
(d) Comments on the reliability of the results.

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 4.3 Interpretation This should include some of the following:-
Report:
(a) Relation of ground conditions encountered to previous
information; the inferred ground structure and
groundwater conditions.
(b) Recommended soil parameters for use in design.
(c) Recommendations for design and construction.

SOIL INVESTIGATIONS FOR FOUNDATIONS

1. Objects:
(a) Is the site stable?
(b) Bearing capacity and settlement for each stratum
(c) Type of foundation – spread footings or piles
(d) Basement design – earth and water pressures
(e) Sulphate attack on buried concrete
(f) Construction – excavation procedure and ground water problems

2. Depth of investigation:
(a) Approximately twice width of loaded area if soil profile unknown
(b) To prove base of soft strata
(c) At least 3.0 m longer than maximum pile length (1.0 – 24.0 m for small diameter
bored or driven and 36.0 m for large diameter bored).
(d) Trial pits or borings to base of any fills; if trial pits are not possible, some of the
boreholes should be for continuous 100 mm diameter sampling.

3. Information required form Preliminary Site Inspection:

(a) Topography and probable ground water conditions
(b) Geology and subsoil conditions.
(c) Any signs of natural instability (e.g. landslides)
(d) Previous uses of site, in particular, excavations, fills and old buried foundations.
(e) Possibilities of natural underground cavities, e.g. solution cavities or swallow holes.
(f) Possibilities of manmade underground cavities, e.g. mining, drainage adits etc.
(g) Age and character of any fill on site; is it still settling under its own weight? is it likely
to be an environmental hazard if disturbed, (e.g. obnoxious chemicals)?
(h) Existing buildings types of foundations used; is there any sign of distress, (e.g.
settlement cracks)?

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4. Information required from Ground Investigation:
(a) Sub-soil profile
(b) Soil classification
(c) Standard penetration tests in granular soils
(d) Undisturbed samples (100 mm diameter) in clays for laboratory testing to determine
quick undrained shear strength and consolidation properties.
(e) Sulphate analysis on soil and/or groundwater.
(f) Groundwater table (standpipe needed)
(g) Insitu permeability tests, if dewatering is to be considered.
(h) Fills – description, classification, strength, compressibility and chemical analysis.

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 4. PILES AND LOAD TESTS
Introduction

A pile is a term used to describe a structural section placed in the ground for purposes of
supporting a super imposed load.

Regardless of the type of material from which they are made (i.e. wood, steel or concrete)
all pile sections have certain basic parts. These are as shown here below:

The above terms are briefly explained here below

1. Driving head/Pile ring: This is a device placed on the head of a pile to receive
hammer blows and to protect it from injuring while it is being driven. It may be used
instead of a pile ring.
2. Butt: This is the large end before or after it has been placed in position.
3. Pile shoe: A metal cone placed on the tip of the pile to protect it from cracking or
splitting. He pile shoe also helps the pile to penetrate such materials as coarse
gravel, shale or hard pan.
4. Tip: the small end before or after it is placed in position.
5. Foot: The lower part in final position.
6. Pile cut-off: the portion of the pile that is removed after completion of driving.
7. Head: This is the upper part in final position.
8. Pile ring: A wrought-iron or steel-hoop that is placed on the head of the pile to
prevent cracking or splitting.

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 PILES CLASSIFICATION

Piles can be classified by three characteristics. These are:

(a) Pile material

(b) Method of placement
(c) Method of load transfer

Each of these classes is briefly explained here below:

(a) Pile material

Pile sections are fashioned from the traditional building materials i.e. wood, steel
and concrete. They may be composite in nature, using different materials for
different portions of the pile.

(b) Method of placement

Two methods are used for placing piles i.e. driving and pouring. Wood, steel and
precast concrete sections are driven. Concrete piles and caissons are poured into
pre-drilled shafts that may or may not be lined with steel casings. The type of pile
placements is usually determined by the soil conditions on the site and magnitude of
that must be supported.

(c) Method of load transfer

When considering the load transfer characteristics, there are four variations i.e.
bearing piles, friction piles, bearing plus friction piles and sheet piles. These are
briefly explained here below:
i. Bearing piles:
These transfer loads through the unstable surface soils to the denser, more
stable soils below. The loads are carried vertically through the pile and the
load capacity of the pile depends on the cross-sectional area and the bearing
strength of the materials on which it bears.
ii. Friction piles:
The friction pile does not necessarily reach high bearing materials, but
depends on the frictional resistance developed between the soil through
which it passes and the surface of the pile. Piles of this type are used in areas
that have deep deposits of clay soil and they may be poured in place or
driven.
iii. Driven piles:
This usually develop all their load capacity in this manner, however, some
end bearing may be realized because of the consolidation of the soil around
the end of the pile due to the driving process.

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 iv. Sheet piles:
Sheet piles are normally not intended for vertical loads but are designed to
resist horizontal pressure. The amount of pressure that they can resist is
related directly to depth to which they are driven/constructed. The principle
uses of sheet piles are to hold back earth embankments, stabilize the sides of
excavations or to serve as temporary coffer dams.

PILES CATEGORIES

Piles may be divided into two main categories depending on their method of installation.

The first category consists of driven piles of steel or precast concrete and piles formed by
driving tubes or shells which are fitted with a driving shoe. The tubes or shells are fitted with
concrete after driving. Steel H piles and tubes without a driving shoe, soil displacement is
small.

The second category consists of piles which are installed without soil displacement. Soil is
removed by driving or boring to form a shaft, concrete then being cast in the shaft to form
the pile.

The ultimate load which can be carried by a pile is equal to the sum of the base resistance
and the shaft resistance.

The base resistance is the product of the base area and the ultimate bearing capacity at
base level.

The shaft resistance is the product of the perimeter area of the shaft and the average value
of the ultimate shearing resistance per unit area, generally referred to as the ‘skin friction’
between the soil and the pile.

The weight of soil displaced or removed is generally assumed to be equal to the weight of
the pile. Thus, the ultimate load (Qf) which can be applied to the top of the pile is given by
this expression:

where: = ultimate load

= base area

= ultimate bearing capacity at base level

= perimeter area of the shaft

= average value of ultimate shear resistance per unit area (skin friction)

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The loading is as shown here below:

The loading of a test pile enables the ultimate load to be determined directly and promises a
means of assessing the accuracy of predicted values. The results from a test on a particular
pile will not necessarily reflect the performance of all other piles on the same site and as
adequate number of tests is required depending on the extent of the ground investigation.

PILE DRIVERS

Piles are driven into the ground by a pile driver striking the pile head. Small tubular pipes
and shells for cast in place concrete piles are more often pulled into the ground by a core.
The core is forced into the earth by a tapered drop hammer and pulls the shell or tube with
it.

Pile drivers may consist of a drop, mechanical or vibrating hammer. A drop hammer is the
simplest type of machine, consisting of a heavy weight lifted by a cable and guided by leads
which is a allowed to drop freely on the pile head. A vibrating hammer is secured to the
head of a pile and operates by delivering vibrations to the pile head in up and down cycles.

The skin friction can be correlated empirically with the average undrained strength ( ) of
the undisturbed clay over the depth occupied by the pile i.e.

where: is adhesion coefficient depending on the soil, the method of installation

and the pile material. The value of ranges from 0.3 to 1.5.

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The shear strength for the determination of the base resistance of a pile in clay is the
undrained strength at base level. The ultimate bearing capacity is expressed as:

where: = shear strength

= bearing capacity factor (A value of of 9 is appropriate)

Example

An under-reamed bored pile is to be installed in a stiff clay. The diameter of the shaft pile
and under-reamed base are 1.05 m and 3.00 m respectively. The pile is to extend from a
depth of 4 m to a depth of 22 m in the clay, the top of the under-ream being at a depth of
20 m. The relationship between undrained shear strength and depth is as shown here
below. The adhesion coefficient is 0.4.

Determine the allowable load on the pile to ensure:

(a) An overall load factor of 2

(b) A load factor of 3 under the base when shat resistance is fully mobilized.

Solution

At base level (22 m), the undrained strength is 220kN/m2.

It is advisable to disregard skin friction over a length of 2B above the top of the under-ream,
i.e. below a depth of 17.9 m. The average value of undrained strength between depths of 4
m and 17.9 m is 130kN/m2

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The ultimate load

The allowable load is the lesser of:

(a)

(b)

Therefore, the allowable load is 7,049kN

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 PILES

Fig 1: Principle types of piles (a) precast RC pile, (b) steel H pile, (c) shell pile, (d) concrete
pile cast as driven tube withdrawn, (e) bored pile (cast in situ), (f) under-reamed
bored pile (cast in situ).

NOTE: 1. Steel – piles (a), (b) and (c)

2. Concrete – piles (d) and (f)

3. Wood – pile (e)

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 5. TUNNELLING AND DAM CONSTRUCTION

TUNNELLING

Introduction

Tunnels are artificial underground passages constructed for transportation purposes. They
are required for highways, railways, water supply, sewage, canals and public utilities.

Tunnelling becomes necessary when open excavations of strata, become uneconomical

from the consideration of the initial project work as well as from point of view of
subsequent maintenance. The situation that calls for the construction of tunnels may be due
to:

(a) When the cost of other methods of construction are prohibitive.

(b) When tunnelling is an essential element of the project.

In the case of highways or railways, if the open cut is to exceed 15 m in depth, tunnelling
would be preferable. The advantages and disadvantages of tunnelling are:

i. Advantages
1. Reduction in overall cost by reducing the distance.
2. Provision of easier gradients i.e. saves fuel and time.
3. Avoids interference with surface traffic.
4. Freedom from snow and iceberg hazards (relevant to temperate climates)
ii. Disadvantages
1. The initial cost of construction is high
2. Special construction techniques is required
3. Comparatively long time required for construction.

TUNNELLING

The choice of tunnelling method is influenced by the following factors:

(a) Ground conditions i.e. soft ground, rock conditions, mixed surface conditions (i.e.
top soil and bottom rock).
(b) Tunnel size (i.e. minimum diameter 0.9 m, maximum diameter 12.0 m).
(c) Environmental aspects (i.e. in urban areas, water table and water drainage patterns).
(d) Local variable conditions (i.e. availability of suitable tunnelling personnel, physical
location of the site, etc.).

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 GROUND TREATMENT IN TUNNELLING

Ground treatment in tunnelling is aimed at achieving ground improvement sufficient to

allow excavation to progress with safety, without undue delay and with an acceptable
degree of control over water and debris inflow and associated collapse of rocks into the
tunnel. Ground improvement is concerned with:

i) Lowering the ground water level by drainage.

ii) Dewatering a subterranean (underground) water course.
iii) Controlling water inflow into the tunnel by compressed air
iv) Ground stabilization by grouting or freezing (make hard).

The most important factor which governs the success or failure of a tunnel project is the
proper control of ground water. Another problem that is very common in tunnelling
operations is constructing in cohesionless soils such as free-drainage sands and gravel. Also
another problem is rock conditions. This will affect the tunnelling project. Rock strengths
cover a wide range from relatively weak sedimentary rocks to strong igneous rocks. Low
rock strength may prove advantageous to machine excavation but require special support
consideration while high strength rock may preclude machine excavation but require
minimum temporary support.

Drilling and blasting operations can be restricted in connection with tunnel drainage in
urban areas. Water-table and water drainage patterns changes can result from tunnelling
activities and affect the surface. Other aspects may include occurrence of gases such as
methane.

The common methods used for creating a hole in the ground include:

1. Drilling for boreholes and wells.

2. Augering for bores and piles.
3. Machine boring for tunnels.
4. Blasting for excavating strong rocks.
5. Scrapping, rigging and digging for surface excavations for soils and weak rocks.

Each of these methods relies on its success for the ability of the method to break and
disintegrate rock and soil. As stated above (no. 3), large diameter machines may be used to
bore tunnels. They are an extension of drilling technology and carry at their head, cutters
capable of breaking and excavating the ground. Machines designed to excavate sediments
such as clay and sand are enclosed along the length by an outer tube or shield at the tail of
which is erected the permanent tunnel lining needed to support the ground. Lateral jacks
extend from the sides of this machines and press against the tunnel wall, to generate the
reaction the machine require to thrush forward when boring.

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 EMERGENCY SITUATIONS WHICH CAN ARISE DURING TUNNELLING

Hazards may be unforeseeable prior or during tunnelling, owing to insufficient detailed

knowledge of the ground conditions through which the tunnel is being driven. There is
always a need for adequate and appropriate site investigations effort in order to satisfy
proper judgement in relation to tunnelling.

The situations which can be foreseen and avoided if possible in order to prevent damage
and accidents are:

1. Ground collapse at the face: This can be accompanied by the groundwater inflows
or by wet deposit such as sand, silt, etc. flowing into the tunnel.
2. Support failure: Temporary or permanent support failure may occur near or at some
distance behind the face and can be accompanied by inflow of water or wet
deposits.
3. Flooding: Tunnel flooding can arise from intercepting particular types of water-
bearing ground conditions.
4. Oxygen deficiency: This is a hazard which may be encountered with compressed air
working especially through leakage between tunnels in close proximity.
5. Accident (moving equipment/vehicles): This may arise from the movement of plants
(i.e. machines and traffic) within the tunnel.
6. Stoppages: Tunnel stoppages may result in the need for increased support or dealing
with flooding problems.

TUNNELLING HAZARDS

Tunnelling hazards involve some physical occurrence which is associated with danger.
Tunnel hazards are categorized according to type and general occurrence. Hazards may be
unforeseeable prior to tunnelling owing to insufficient detailed knowledge of the ground
conditions through which the tunnel is to be driven. Hazards may be due to uncertainty of
ground conditions or engineering judgement. Some of the hazards are:

1. Tunnel failure: This occurs as a result of deficient or misapplied technology of causes

and effects which give rise to unanticipated event of disastrous consequences with
adverse effects on the safety aspect of the underground structure. The main types of
tunnel failure are:
i) Those failures occurring during construction.
ii) Those which happen after the tunnel structure has been commissioned and
put into service.
2. Ground behaviour: This is undoubtedly the main source of hazards in tunnelling and
this underlies the importance in thoroughness when carrying out the site
investigation. Included in this category of hazards are flooding and fire.

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 3. Accidents: The main cause of personal accidents in tunnelling include:
(a) Falling from heights i.e. tunnels.
(b) Falling on the level e.g. slipping.
(c) Materials falling from a height.

DAM CONSTRUCTION

Introduction

A dam is required to impound the water and its design and construction must be capable of
preventing the uncontrollable leakage of reservoir water (stored water) around and beneath
its structure. Reservoirs of water may be stored successfully in valleys whose floor and sides
will not permit leakage from such artificial created lakes. The volume of reservoirs is
reduced by deposition within it, if river sediments and landslides debris.

Good foundations are highly desirable, but where they are questionable or poor, the
location of a dam site becomes an exercise in locating areas where either the rocks or soils
can best be improved. The principals attributes required of a dam foundation are:

i. Adequate strength
ii. Low compressibility
iii. Moderate transmissivity

Weak and weathered rock must be removed from rock foundations, the strength assessed
of all rock surfaces, clay deposits, and residues infilling joints between separated bedding
surfaces should be removed and replaced with cement, if the rock is otherwise sound. The
contact between a dam and the ground must be protected from the adverse effects of
excessive ground water flow.

TYPES OF DAMS

There are three types of dams:

i. Embankment dams
ii. Concrete dams
iii. Composite dams

Each of these dams is briefly explained below:

I. Embankment Dams

These are made from sediment and rock i.e. earth fill and rock fill that can be placed to form
a safe embankment. They consist of a core of impermeable material, such as rolled clay,

35
supported by permeable shoulders of earth and rock fill. Embankment dams by virtue of the
slopes required for their stability have a broad base and impose lower stresses on the
ground than concrete dams of similar height. Their fill is plastic and can accommodate
deformations such as those associated with settlement, more readily than rigid concrete
dams.

II. Concrete Dams

These are constructed in three main designs i.e. Gravity, Buttress, and Arch dams. These are
briefly explained below.

a. Gravity Dams

This is a massive impermeable concrete monolith of triangular cross-section having

dimensions that give it sufficient weight to resist the load from the reservoir i.e. stored
water

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 b. Buttress Dams

These consist of a series of inclined watertight slabs as their upstream face, supported by a
series of buttresses which are triangular in vertical section.

c. Arch Dams

An arch dam is an impermeable concrete shell shaped as an arch in plan. The characteristic
of an arch dam is that it takes advantage of the arching effect to reduce its cross-section i.e.
arch dams are thin. They require the least volume of construction materials.

Note: To construct a dam, it is necessary to divert the existing river and its flood waters by
either retaining it at the side of the valley (cofferdam) or diverting it into a tunnel that
passes the abutments and discharges downstream of the dam site.

37
The geology of a valley and the available supplies of suitable construction material will
influence the location of a dam site that is to be constructed.

Beneath every dam, is built a cut-off i.e. a thin barrier that extends into the foundation and
either prevents or reduces the water leakage.

III. Composite Dams

These are favoured at sites which are unsuitable for one particular design (i.e. earth or
concrete). They may incorporate features of embankments, concrete as required by the
geology of the foundations, shape of the valley and availability of construction materials.

DAM LEAKAGE

The design of an earth dam section and where possible, the choice of soils is aimed at
reducing or eliminating the detrimental effects of seeping water. If the foundation soil is
more permeable than the dam, the control of under seepage is essential.

The common causes of dam leakage are:

i. The work of a contractor unfamiliar with dam construction

ii. Failure to remove topsoil and vegetation at the embankment site
iii. The use of an unsuitable soil type in the dam wall
iv. Failure to construct a cut-off trench.
v. Poor maintenance of the dam.

In order to control or prevent dam leakage, the above points should be carried out as
required.

Difference between a Dam and a Reservoir

Dams are massive barriers built across rivers and streams to confirm and utilize the flow of
water for human purposes such as irrigation and generation of hydroelectricity. There are
two main types of dams i.e. earth and concrete dams.

A reservoir is an artificial water body used to store water. They are either man-made or
natural. Natural ones are lakes and ponds and man-made are dams.

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 6. GEOSYNTHETICS
Geosynthetics is a term used to describe a range of generally polymeric products used to
advantage in the construction of low fills over swampy or marshy areas. Geotextiles and
geogrids are the most used geosynthetics. These products are placed on the weak
foundation and overlain with the embankment fill. The use of these materials has several
advantages i.e.

i) Permits construction of embankments on otherwise unsuitable foundations

ii) Eliminates construction lost time due to failures and delays inherent in soft
ground construction.
iii) Results in considerable savings of fill material compared to displacement
construction methods.

When geotextiles are incorporated into a soil structure, they satisfy at least one of the
following:

1. Separation

A pavement construction may be subjected to a separation if it is placed directly on the

surface of a soft subgrade. Separation presents the upward migration of particles at the
time, the subgrade soil accompanied by downward movement of the dense base
particles.

This problem is solved by placing a relatively weak strength geotextile fabric on the
surface of relatively soft subgrade, prior to constructing the base. This will provide a
permanent separation between the two materials.

2. Filtration

Where a cohesive soil antijected to seepage, a suitable geotextile can be used to prevent
the migration of the fine soil particles in exactly the same way as in the case of granular
or loaded filters.

3. Drainage

Special type of permeable geotextile fabrics can be used to form drainage layers in the
basements and behind retaining walls in exactly the same manner as layers of granular
material.

4. Reinforcement

The principle of reinforced earth is that a mass of soil can be given tensile strength in the
specific direction in lengths of a material capable of carrying tension are embedded with
it in a required direction.

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The use of Geotextiles solves the following problems:

a) They generally replace scarce raw materials sources e.g. steel, cement etc.
b) They are good alternatives to conventional designs.
c) They can be rapidly installed
d) They can revitalize the textile industries.

Generally, geosynthetics may be used for any of the following purposes:

a) Subgrade Stabilisation
A geosynthetics can be used to improve the load carrying capacity and reduce
rutting when constructing roads over weak soils. It provides a separation barrier to
prevent fill from punching into the subgrade under constructing equipment/traffic.

b) Ground Improvement
Ground improvement using geosynthetics is one of the latest and fast growing
techniques in the field of geotechnical engineering.

c) Reinforcements
Reinforcements may be in the geometric form of strips, bars, sheets etc. A wide
range of hybrid reinforcements anchoring systems are also available combining
elements of frictional reinforcements and conventional anchoring.

40