Electronics Circuits For Communications@Chapter 2

CHAPTER 2:
BASIC CONCEPTS IN RF DESIGN

Gain, Attenuation, and Decibels
Gain
• Gain means amplification. It is the ratio of a
circuit’s output to its input.
Gain
• Most amplifiers are also power amplifiers, so the
same procedure can be used to calculate power
gain AP where Pin is the power input and Pout
is the power output.
Power gain (Ap) = Pout / Pin
• Example:
The power output of an amplifier is 6 watts (W). The
power gain is 80. What is the input power?
– Ap = Pout / Pin -> Pin = Pout / Ap
Pin = 6 / 80 = 0.075 W = 75 mW
Gain
• An amplifier is cascaded when two or more stages are
connected together.
• The overall gain is the product of the individual circuit
gains.
• Example
Three cascaded amplifiers have power gains of 5, 2, and
17.The input power is 40 mW. What is the output power?
– Ap = A1 × A2 × A3 = 5 × 2 × 17 = 170
– Ap = Pout / Pin ->Pout = ApPin
– Pout = 170 (40 × 10-3) = 6.8W
Attenuation
• Attenuation refers to a loss introduced by a
circuit or component. If the output signal is
lower in amplitude than the input, the circuit
has loss or attenuation.
• The letter A is used to represent attenuation
Attenuation A = output/input = Vout/Vin
• Circuits that introduce attenuation have a gain
that is less than 1.
• With cascaded circuits, the total attenuation is
the product of the individual attenuations.
Attenuation
Attenuation
Decibels
• The decibel (dB) is a unit of measure used to
express the gain or loss of a circuit.
– The decibel was originally created to express hearing
response.
– A decibel is one-tenth of a bel
• When gain and attenuation are both converted
into decibels, the overall gain or attenuation of a
circuit can be computed by adding individual
gains or attenuations, expressed in decibels
Decibels
• Decibel Calculations:
Voltage Gain or Attenuation
– dB = 20 log Vout/ Vin
Current Gain or Attenuation
– dB = 20 log Iout/ Iin
Power Gain or Attenuation
– dB = 10 log Pout/ Pin
Decibels
• Example:
– An amplifier has an input of 3 mV and an output
of 5 V. What is the gain in decibels?
dB = 20 log 5/0.003 = 20 log 1666.67= 20 (3.22)
= 64.4
– A filter has a power input of 50 mW and an
output of 2 mW. What is the gain or attenuation?
dB = 10 log (2/50)= 10 log (0.04)= 10 (−1.398)
=−13.98
Decibels
• dBm and dBc:
– When a decibel value is computed by comparing
a power value to 1 mW, the result is a value
called the dBm. This is a useful reference value.
– The value dBc is a decibel gain attenuation figure
where the reference is the carrier.
• Example dBm:
The output of a 1W amplifier expressed in dBm
Decibels
• Example dBc:
If the spurious signal is 1 mW compared to the 10 W carrier,
the dBc is:
Quiz:
• A power amplifier has an input of 90mW
across 10k ohm. The output is 7.8V
across an 8 ohm speaker. What is the
power gain in decibels?
Reactive Components
• Virtually all communications equipment
contains tuned circuits, made up of inductors
and capacitors that resonate at specific
frequencies.
Reactive Components
Capacitors
• Example:
What is the capacitive reactance of a 100-pF capacitor at 2 MHz?
– Xc = 1/2πfC = 1/6.28 (2 ×106) (100 × 10−12 )
= 796.2 Ω.
What a capacitor looks like at high frequencies

Reactive Components
Inductors
• Example:
What is the inductive reactance of a 40-μH coil at
18 MHz?
– XL = 6.28 (18 × 106) (40 × 10-6 )= 4522 Ω
Types of inductors:
(a) Heavy selfsupporting wire
coil.
(b) Inductor made as copper
pattern. (c) Insulating form.
(d) Toroidal inductor.
(e) Ferrite bead inductor.
(f ) Chip inductor.
Reactive Components
Inductors
Reactive Components
Resistors
• At low frequencies, a standard resistor offers
nearly pure resistance.
• At high frequencies, a resistor’s leads have
inductance.
• A resistor’s lead inductance and stray
capacitance cause the resistor to act like a
complex RLC circuit.
• Tiny resistor chips used in surface mount circuits
minimize inductance and stray capacitance.
• Film resistors minimize thermal effect noise.
Reactive Components
Resistors
Equivalent circuit of a resistor at high (radio) frequencies.

Skin Effect
• Skin effect is the tendency of electrons
flowing in a conductor to flow near and on
the outer surface of the conductor
frequencies in the VHF, UHF, and microwave
regions.
• This process increases the resistance of the
conductor and greatly affects the
performance of the circuit.
Skin Effect
Skin effect increases wire and inductor resistance at high frequencies

Skin Effect
Skin Effect
• Quiz:
By calculating the cross-sectional area, find the AC
resistance 0f # 22 copper wire at a frequency of 10
MHz.
Maximum Power Transfer
• Maximum power transfer
Maximum Power Transfer
Impedance Matching
• Impedance matching is a major problem in
RF/microwave circuit design for communication.
• Impedance matching is the process of
transforming a load impedance, ZL , into the
optimal working impedance of the signal source
Z.
• Impedance matching circuits can be
implemented using L, C, transformer or
transmission line
Impedance Matching
• In a specific case, this optimal impedance may be the
complex conjugate of the source impedance (Zs), assuring
a maximum power transfer, as is usual in small-signal
amplifiers.
• As an almost general rule, the reactive component of the
source impedance must be compensated by a convenient
reactance seen at the input of the matching network, so
the signal source operates into a purely resistive load.
• Mismatching in RF power amplifiers may cause reduced
efficiency and/or output power, increased stresses of the
active devices, distortion of the output signal and so on.
Impedance Matching
• If the RF circuit operates at a fixed frequency or over a narrow
frequency band in comparison with the carrier frequency, the
above requirements must be met at only one frequency, and
narrowband matching networks should be used. Obviously, the
matching circuit must contain L and C in order to specify the
matching frequency ω0.
• If the circuit operates over a wide frequency band, the matching
requirements (or at least some of them) must be met over the
entire frequency range. This requires the use of broadband
matching network.
• At low frequencies (HF, VHF and UHF), the narrowband impedance
matching is usually achieved with lumped element circuits (will be
studied in this course). At higher frequencies, distributed element
networks are most often required.
Impedance Matching
• Essential revision : Practical components are
lossy
Impedance Matching
Impedance Matching
Series to parallel conversion and vice versa
• Series to parallel conversion and vice versa:
Impedance Matching
Series to parallel conversion and vice versa
• Note that taking into account that the quality
factor:
Then
Impedance Matching
Two-reactance matching networks (L matching network)
Impedance Matching
Pi matching network
• This circuit can be used only if:

• Recommended values of Q usually range from 1 to 10.
• The pi matching network is widely used in vacuum-tube transmitters to match
large resistance values. For small resistance values, the inductance of L becomes
unpractically small, while the capacitance of both C1 and C2 becomes very large.
This circuit is generally not useful in solid-state RF Power Amplifiers where the
matched resistances are often small.
Impedance Matching
T matching network
Impedance Matching
Two-inductance T matching network
Impedance Matching
Three-reactance L matching network
Tuned Circuits
Tuned Circuits and Resonance
• A tuned circuit is made up of inductance and
capacitance and resonates at a specific
frequency, the resonant frequency.
• The terms tuned circuit and resonant circuit
• are used interchangeably.
• Tuned circuits are frequency-selective and
respond best at their resonant frequency.
Tuned Circuits
Series Resonant Circuits
• A series resonant circuit is made up of
inductance, capacitance and resistance
connected in series.
• Series resonant circuits are often referred to as
LCR
• or RLC circuits.
• Resonance occurs when inductive and capacitive
reactances are equal.
• Resonant frequency (fr) is inversely proportional
to inductance and capacitance.
Tuned Circuits
Variation of reactance with frequency
Series RLC circuit

Tuned Circuits
• Total impedance of the circuit is given by the
expression:
• At fo, XL = XC so at resonance, the total circuit

impedance is simply the value of all series resistances
in the circuit.
• Example:
What is the resonant frequency of a 2.7-pF capacitor and a
33-nH inductor?
fo= 1/2π 𝐿𝐶
= 1/6.28 33 × 10−9 × 2.7 × 10−12 = 5.33 × 108 Hz or 533 MHz
Tuned Circuits
• At resonant frequency, total circuit
impedance is Z = R.
• So resonance in series tuned circuit can also
be defined as the point at which the circuit
impedance is lowest and the circuit current is
highest.
• Since the circuit is resistive at resonance, the
current is in phase with the applied voltage.
Tuned Circuits
• The bandwidth (BW) of a series resonant
circuit is the narrow frequency range over
which the current is highest.
• Half-power points are the current levels at
which the frequency response is 70.7% of the
peak value of resonance.
• The quality (Q) of a series resonant circuit is
the ratio of the inductive reactance to the
total circuit resistance. X L
Q=
RT
Tuned Circuits
• Selectivity is how a circuit responds to
varying frequencies.
• The bandwidth of a circuit is inversely
proportional to Q.
fo
BW=
Q
Tuned Circuits
• Quiz:
The upper and lower cutoff frequencies of a
resonant circuit are found to be 8.07 and 7.93 MHz.
Calculate:
– BW
– the approximate resonant frequency
–Q
Tuned Circuits
The effect of Q on bandwidth and selectivity in a resonant circuit

Tuned Circuits
Parallel Resonant Circuits
• A parallel resonant circuit is formed when the
inductor and capacitor of a tuned circuit are
connected in parallel with the applied voltage.
• A parallel resonant circuit is often referred to as
a LCR or RLC circuit.
• Resonance occurs when inductive and capacitive
reactances are equal.
• The resonant frequency (f0) is inversely
proportional to inductance and capacitance
Tuned Circuits
Parallel Resonant Circuits
Nonlinearity
• Harmonic Distortion
• Compression
• Intermodulation
• Dynamic Nonlinear Systems
Nonlinearity
Memoryless and Static System
Effects of Nonlinearity
Harmonic Distortion
Harmonic Distortion
Harmonic Distortion
• Example:
– An analog multiplier “mixes” its two inputs below, ideally producing y(t) =
kx1(t)x2(t), where k is a constant. Assume x1(t) = A1 cos ω1t and x2(t) = A2
cos ω2t.
– a)If the mixer is ideal, determine the output frequency components.
– b) If the input port sensing x2(t) suffers from third-order nonlinearity,
determine the output frequency components.
– A
– A
– A
– A
– A
– A
– A
Basic Issues in Radio Communication
Harmonic Distortion
• Quiz:
The transmitter in a 900-MHz GSM cellphone
delivers 1 W of power to the antenna. Explain the
effect of the harmonics of this signal.
Gain Compression
• Output falls below its ideal value by 1 dB at

the 1-dB compression point
• Peak value instead of peak-to-peak value
Gain Compression
Gain Compression
• Gain Compression: Effect on FM and AM Waveforms.
– FM signal carries no information in its amplitude and hence tolerates

compression.
– AM contains information in its amplitude, hence distorted by
compression
Gain Compression
• Gain Compression: Desensitization.
– For A1 << A2
– Desensitization: the receiver gain is reduced by the large excursions produced by the
interferer even though the desired signal itself is small.
Harmonic Distortion
• Example:
A 900-MHz GSM transmitter delivers a power of 1 W to the antenna. By how much must the
second harmonic of the signal be suppressed (filtered) so that it does not desensitize a 1.8-GHz
receiver having P1dB = -25 dBm? Assume the receiver is 1 m away and the 1.8-GHz signal is
attenuated by 10 dB as it propagates across this distance.
Solution:
– The output power at 900 MHz is equal to +30 dBm. With an attenuation of 10 dB, the
second harmonic must not exceed -15 dBm at the transmitter antenna so that it is below
P1dB of the receiver. Thus, the second harmonic must remain at least 45 dB below the
fundamental at the TX output. In practice, this interference must be another several dB
lower to ensure the RX does not compress.
• A
Cross Modulation
• Suppose that the interferer is an amplitude-modulated signal.
• Desired signal at output suffers from amplitude modulation

Gain Compression
• Example:
Suppose an interferer contains phase modulation but not
amplitude modulation. Does cross modulation occur in this case?
• Solution:
• a
Intermodulation
• a
Inter-modulation Distortion (IMD)
• a
• a
• a
• a
• a
• Intermodulation: Third Intercept Point (IP3)
– is the point where the output power at w1 equals to
output power at (2w1 - w2 )
• a
• a
• a
• a
• a
• Example:
– A low-noise amplifier senses a -80-dBm signal at 2.410 GHz and two -
20-dBm interferers at 2.420 GHz and 2.430 GHz. What IIP3 is
required if the IM products must remain 20 dB below the signal? For
simplicity, assume 50-Ω interfaces at the input and output.
• Solution:
• a
• Third Intercept Point: A reasonable estimate:
– For a given input level (well below P1dB), the IP3 can be calculated
by halving the difference between the output fundamental and IM
levels and adding the result to the input level, where all values are
expressed as logarithmic quantities
• a
Cascaded Nonlinear Stages
• a
• Let us assume x(t) =Acos ω1t + Acos ω2t and
identify the IM products in a cascade:
• a
• Example:
Two differential pairs are cascaded. Is it possible to
select the denominator of equation above such that IP3
goes to infinity?
• Solution:
• a
• Example:
Two differential pairs are cascaded. Is it possible to
select the denominator of equation above such that IP3
goes to infinity?
• Solution:
• a
Noise
• Noise Spectrum
• Device Noise
• Noise in Circuits
Noise
Noise in RF System
• a
Noise
Noise in RF System
• a
Noise
Noise as a Random Process
• a
Noise Spectrum
• To measure signal’s frequency content at 10 kHz, we need to filter out the

remainder of the spectrum and measure the average power of the 10-kHz
component.
Noise
Noise Spectrum
• Power Spectral Density (PSD)
• a
Total area under Sx(f) represents the average power carried by x(t)
Noise
Noise Spectrum
• Example :
A resistor of value R1 generates a noise voltage whose one-sided PSD is given by
where k = 1.38 × 10-23 J/K denotes the Boltzmann constant and T the absolute temperature.
Such a flat PSD is called “white” because, like white light, it contains all frequencies with equal
power levels.
– (a) What is the total average power carried by the noise voltage?
– (b) What is the dimension of Sv(f)?
– (c) Calculate the noise voltage for a 50-Ω resistor in 1 Hz at room temperature
• Solution:
– (a) The area under Sv(f) appears to be infinite, an implausible result because the resistor
noise arises from the finite ambient heat. In reality, Sv(f) begins to fall at f > 1 THz, exhibiting
a finite total energy, i.e., thermal noise is not quite white.
– (b) The dimension of Sv(f) is voltage squared per unit bandwidth (V2/Hz)
– For a 50-Ω resistor at T = 300 K
Effect of Transfer Function on Noise/ Device Noise
• Define PSD to allow many of the frequency-domain operations used with

deterministic signals to be applied to random signals as well.
• Noise can be modeled by a series voltage source or a parallel current

source
• Polarity of the sources is unimportant but must be kept same throughout
the calculations
Noise
• Example:
Sketch the PSD of the noise voltage measured across the parallel RLC
tank depicted in figure below.
• Modeling the noise of R1 by a current source and noting that the transfer
function Vn/In1 is, in fact, equal to the impedance of the tank, ZT , we write
• At f0, L1 and C1 resonate, reducing the circuit to only R1. Thus, the output noise
at f0 is simply equal to 4kTR1. At lower or higher frequencies, the impedance of
the tank falls and so does the output noise.
Noise
Noise
Noise
• Noise in MOSFETS
• Thermal noise of MOS transistors operating in the

saturation region is approximated by a current source
tied between the source and drain terminals, or can
be modeled by a voltage source in series with gate.
Noise
• Noise in Bipolar Transistors
– Bipolar transistors contain physical resistances in their base,
emitter, and collector regions, all of which generate thermal
noise. Moreover, they also suffer from “shot noise” associated
with the transport of carriers across the base-emitter junction.
• In low-noise circuits, the base resistance thermal noise and the

collector current shot noise become dominant. For this reason,
wide transistors biased at high current levels are employed.
Noise
Noise Figure
Noise
Noise Figure
Noise
Noise Figure
Noise
Sensitivity
Noise
Sensitivity
Noise
Dynamic Range
• There are many definitions for the dynamic range. We define here
spurious free dynamic range (SFDR). The SFDR is the difference, in dB,
between the fundamental frequency and the highest spur, which could
be an intermodulation harmonic, in the bandwidth of interest
Noise
Dynamic Range Compared with SFDR
Tuned Circuits
Dynamic Range
• Example:
Tuned Circuits
Dynamic Range
• Example:Comparing SFDR and DR
The upper end of the dynamic range is limited by intermodulation in the
presence of two interferers or desensitization in the presence of one interferer.
Compare these two cases and determine which one is more restrictive
• Solution:
Tuned Circuits
Dynamic Range
• Example:
The upper end of the dynamic range is limited by intermodulation in
the presence of two interferers or desensitization in the presence of
one interferer. Compare these two cases and determine which one is
more restrictive.
Resources
• [1] David Pozaz, Microwave and Rf Design of
Wireless Systems, Wiley, 2000.
• [2] P. H. Young, Electronic Communication
Techniques, Fifth Edition, Prentice-Hall, 2004.
QUESTIONS?
APPENDIX

Electronics Circuits For Communications@Chapter 2

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Electronics Circuits For Communications@Chapter 2

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

CHAPTER 2:

BASIC CONCEPTS IN RF DESIGN

What a capacitor looks like at high frequencies

Equivalent circuit of a resistor at high (radio) frequencies.

Skin effect increases wire and inductor resistance at high frequencies

• This circuit can be used only if:

Variation of reactance with frequency

Series RLC circuit

• At fo, XL = XC so at resonance, the total circuit

The effect of Q on bandwidth and selectivity in a resonant circuit

• Output falls below its ideal value by 1 dB at

– FM signal carries no information in its amplitude and hence tolerates

• Suppose that the interferer is an amplitude-modulated signal.

• Desired signal at output suffers from amplitude modulation

• To measure signal’s frequency content at 10 kHz, we need to filter out the

• Define PSD to allow many of the frequency-domain operations used with

• Noise can be modeled by a series voltage source or a parallel current

• Thermal noise of MOS transistors operating in the

• In low-noise circuits, the base resistance thermal noise and the

Вам также может понравиться