RF Based farmer friendly Agricultural Robot with motorized shovel

control System with automatic seed dispensing system

Index

Title Page

College Certificate

Acknowledgement

Declaration

Abstract

Block Diagram

Introduction to project

Introduction to Embedded Systems

Communication or technology what we are using in the project

Explanation of Each Block

Working with Keil Compiler

Advantages

Applications

Conclusion

Reference
 A PROJECT REPORT ON

RF BASED FARMER FRIENDLY AGRICULTURAL ROBOT WITH

MOTORIZED SHOVEL CONTROL SYSTEM WITH AUTOMATIC SEED
DISPENSING SYSTEM
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the award of the degree

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

____________________________________ ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

-------------------- (-------------)

--------------------- (-------------)

--------------------- (------------)

DEPARTMENT OF _______________________ ENGINEERING

__________COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

AFFILIATED TO ___________ UNIVERSITY

 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation work RF BASED FARMER FRIENDLY

AGRICULTURAL ROBOT WITH MOTORIZED SHOVEL CONTROL
SYSTEM WITH AUTOMATIC SEED DISPENSING SYSTEM .is the work done
by ____________________________ submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of ‘BACHELOR OF
ENGINEERING (B.E)’ in Electronics and Communication Engineering from _______ College of
Engineering affiliated to _________ University, Hyderabad.

________________ ____________

(External Guide) (Internal Guide)

______________

(External Examiner)
 DECLARATION

We, the undersigned, declare that the project entitled RF BASED FARMER FRIENDLY
AGRICULTURAL ROBOT WITH MOTORIZED SHOVEL CONTROL
SYSTEM WITH AUTOMATIC SEED DISPENSING SYSTEM , being submitted
in partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering Degree in Electronics and Communication
Engineering, affiliated to _________ University, is the work carried out by us.

__________ _________ _________

__________ _________ _________

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

Title of the project : RF Based farmer friendly Agricultural Robot with

motorized shovel control System with automatic seed dispensing
system

Domain : Embedded

Software : C, Keil, Proload

Power Supply : +5V, 500mA Regulated Power Supply

Communication Device : RF Module

Transmitter : STT – 433MHz

Receiver : STR – 433MHz

DC Geared Motors : 4

H-Bridge : L293D

Crystal : 11.0592MHz
ABSTRACT
ABSTRACT:

Many advances in technology have made the agriculture business a much less labor
intensive industry to be a part of. If we think back even only 50 years, farmers were just
beginning to incorporate technologies into their farming techniques. It has been said that
individuals that are involved in the farming industry are some of the least susceptible to change.
They are very set in the ways of those came before them. When we take a look at the farming
industry now, we can see that this is rapidly changing. Farmers are looking for new ways to
implement technology to cut costs and reduce labor hours.

One of the ways that farmers are beginning to explore new technologies in farming come
from the autonomous tractor. The RF based tractor is something that is very new to the
agriculture industry, but is quickly gaining popularity from agriculture research companies
around the United States. These tractors are described by Farm Industry News as a tractor that
drives its solve with a computer in control. Although still in the research phase of development,
autonomous tractors are rapidly becoming more of a reality than an idea.

When the tractor is moving on a surface, it is controlled by a RF remote. This can be

moved forward and reverse direction using geared motors of 60RPM. Also this robot can take
sharp turnings towards left and right directions. This project uses AT89S52 MCU as its
controller.

The RF modules used here are STT-433 MHz Transmitter, STR-433 MHz Receiver,
HT12E RF Encoder and HT12D RF Decoder. The Control switches are interfaced to the RF
transmitter through RF Encoder. The encoder continuously reads the status of the switches,
passes the data to the RF transmitter and the transmitter transmits the data.

This project uses regulated 5V, 750mA power supply. 7805 three terminal voltage regulator is
used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify the ac out put of
secondary of 230/18V step down transformer.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Block Diagram: Transmitter:

Power Supply

Control

RF Encoder RF
HT12E Transmitter
Switch Array
AT89S52
STT - 433

Reset

Crystal

Step Bridge Filter

down Regulator
Rectifier Circuit
Transf Power supply to all sections
ormer
Receiver:

Geared
Motor -
I

H-
Bridge

RF
Geared
Receiver
Motor -
RF II
Decoder

AT89S52 Water
Relay
Sprinkler
Automatic
ploughing

Geared
Motor - Gearing
I Mechanism

H-
Bridge

Geared
Motor -
II

Automatic
seeder

Lead Bridge Filter

Acid Regulator
Rectifier Circuit
Batter Power supply to all sections
y
RF Transmitter :

Radio frequency(RF) transmitter is a circuit which consists of transducer,modulator,wave guide

and an antenna used to transmit radio waves. Some circuits need not have a modulator when the
range of receiver(consists same blocks as transmitter but performs a reverse operation) is nearby
to transmitter.

Encoders are used to translate rotary or linear motion into a digital signal. Usually this is for the
purpose of monitoring or controlling motion parameters such as speed, rate, direction, distance or
position. When applying encoders, selecting the optimum model and specifying the appropriate
configuration are critical for success. Proper encoder selection begins by understanding the role
of the encoder in the motion control system.

To assist you with encoder selection, we’ve compiled a library of typical applications and
categorized them by both type and industry. These application examples represent a significant
portion of encoders used throughout the industrial marketplace.

RF Reciever:
An RF receiver module receives the modulated RF signal, and demodulates it. There are two
types of RF receiver modules: super heterodyne receivers and super-regenerative receivers.
Super-regenerative modules are usually low cost and low power designs using a series of
amplifiers to extract modulated data from a carrier wave. Super-regenerative modules are
generally imprecise as their frequency of operation varies considerably with temperature and
power supply voltage.[citation needed] Superheterodyne receivers have a performance advantage over
super-regenerative; they offer increased accuracy and stability over a large voltage and
temperature range. This stability comes from a fixed crystal design which in the past tended to
mean a comparatively more expensive product. However, advances in receiver chip design now
mean that currently there is little price difference between superheterodyne and super-
regenerative receiver modules.

GSM
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications, originally Groupe Spécial Mobile), is a
standard developed by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).

It was created to describe the protocols for second-generation (2G) digital cellular networks used
by mobile phones and is now the default global standard for mobile communications – with over
90% market share, operating in over 219 countries and territories.

Heart beat sensor

The basic heartbeat sensor consists of a light emitting diode and a detector like a light detecting
resistor or a photodiode. The heart beat pulses causes a variation in the flow of blood to
different regions of the body. When a tissue is illuminated with the light source, i.e. light emitted
by the led, it either reflects (a finger tissue) or transmits the light (earlobe). Some of the light is
absorbed by the blood and the transmitted or the reflected light is received by the light detector.
The amount of light absorbed depends on the blood volume in that tissue. The detector output is
in form of electrical signal and is proportional to the heart beat rate.

This signal is actually a DC signal relating to the tissues and the blood volume and the AC
component synchronous with the heart beat and caused by pulsatile changes in arterial blood
volume is superimposed on the DC signal. Thus the major requirement is to isolate that AC
component as it is of prime importance.

H bridge :

The switching elements (Q1..Q4) are usually bi-polar or FET transistors, in

some high-voltage applications IGBTs. Integrated solutions also exist but
whether the switching elements are integrated with their control circuits
or not is not relevant for the most part for this discussion. The diodes
(D1..D4) are called catch diodes and are usually of a Schottky type.

The top-end of the bridge is connected to a power supply (battery for

example) and the bottom-end is grounded.

In general all four switching elements can be turned on and off

independently, though there are some obvious restrictions.

Though the load can in theory be anything you want, by far the most
pervasive application if H-bridges is with a brushed DC or bipolar stepper
motor (steppers need two H-bridges per motor) load. In the following I will
concentrate on applications as a brushed DC motor driver.

Motor :
INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT
 Agricultural robots are the fastest growing technology developed to perform
various complex tasks that are difficult for humans to achieve. Recent news claims that the
Japanese government has taken an initiative to use robotic operators in lands swamped by March
2011 tsunami. This “Dream project” was planned to involve unmanned tractors working in the
farm on the disaster site. The robotic farmers are capable of cultivating vegetables, fruits,
soybeans, wheat and rice, which are then packed in boxes and shipped across the country by this
robotic technology. This process is accompanied by recycling of carbon dioxide using machinery
in an attempt to reduce the use of fertilizers.

A single solution to implement precision agriculture is the development of a single gantry robot
that can perform several precision agriculture related operations. The main objective of this
system is to implement soil monitoring and precision irrigation on each crop, perform de-
weeding and design a cultivated field using accurate robotic crop planning.

The idea of robotic agriculture (agricultural environments serviced by smart machines) is not a
new one. Many engineers have developed driverless tractors in the past but they have not been
successful as they did not have the ability to embrace the complexity of the real world. Most of
them assumed an industrial style of farming where everything was known before hand and the
machines could work entirely in predefined ways – much like a production line. The approach is
now to develop smarter machines that are intelligent enough to work in an unmodified or semi
natural environment. These machines do not have to be intelligent in the way we see people as
intelligent but must exhibit sensible behavior in recognized contexts. In this way they should
have enough intelligence embedded within them to behave sensibly for long periods of time,
unattended, in a semi-natural environment, whilst carrying out a useful task. One way of
understanding the complexity has been to identify what people do in certain situations and
decompose the actions into machine control. This is called behavioral robotics and a draft
method for applying this approach to agriculture is given in Blackmore.
The approach of treating crop and soil selectively according to their needs by small
autonomous machines is the natural next step in the development of Precision Farming (PF) as it
reduces the field scale right down to the individual plant or Phytotechnology (Shibusawa 1996).
One simple definition of PF is doing the right thing in the right place at the right time with the
right amount. This definition not only applies to robotic agriculture (RA) and Phytotechnology
but it also implies a level of automation inherent in the machines. Automatic sensing and control
(on-the-go) for each task is also important and many research papers have shown that these
systems are feasible but most are too slow, and hence not economically viable, to be operated on
a manned tractor. Once these systems are mounted on an autonomous vehicle, they may well
suddenly become commercially viable.
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
Embedded Systems Overview:

Introduction of Embedded System:

An Embedded System is a combination of computer hardware and software, and

perhaps additional mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a specific function. A good
example is the microwave oven. Almost every household has one, and tens of millions of them
are used everyday, but very few people realize that a processor and software are involved in the
preparation of their lunch or dinner.

This is in direct contrast to the personal computer in the family room. It too is comprised
of computer hardware and software and mechanical components (disk drives, for example).
However, a personal computer is not designed to perform a specific function rather; it is able to
do many different things. Many people use the term general-purpose computer to make this
distinction clear. As shipped, a general-purpose computer is a blank slate; the manufacturer does
not know what the customer will do wish it. One customer may use it for a network file server
another may use it exclusively for playing games, and a third may use it to write the next great
American novel.

Frequently, an embedded system is a component within some larger system. For

example, modern cars and trucks contain many embedded systems. One embedded system
controls the anti-lock brakes, other monitors and controls the vehicle's emissions, and a third
displays information on the dashboard. In some cases, these embedded systems are connected by
some sort of a communication network, but that is certainly not a requirement.

At the possible risk of confusing you, it is important to point out that a general-purpose
computer is itself made up of numerous embedded systems. For example, my computer consists
of a keyboard, mouse, video card, modem, hard drive, floppy drive, and sound card-each of
which is an embedded system. Each of these devices contains a processor and software and is
designed to perform a specific function. For example, the modem is designed to send and receive
digital data over analog telephone line. That's it and all of the other devices can be summarized
in a single sentence as well.
 If an embedded system is designed well, the existence of the processor and software
could be completely unnoticed by the user of the device. Such is the case for a microwave oven,
VCR, or alarm clock. In some cases, it would even be possible to build an equivalent device that
does not contain the processor and software. This could be done by replacing the combination
with a custom integrated circuit that performs the same functions in hardware. However, a lot of
flexibility is lost when a design is hard-cooled in this way. It is mush easier, and cheaper, to
change a few lines of software than to redesign a piece of custom hardware.

History and Future:

Given the definition of embedded systems earlier is this chapter; the first such systems
could not possibly have appeared before 1971. That was the year Intel introduced the world's
first microprocessor. This chip, the 4004, was designed for use in a line of business calculators
produced by the Japanese Company Busicom. In 1969, Busicom asked Intel to design a set of
custom integrated circuits-one for each of their new calculator models. The 4004 was Intel's
response rather than design custom hardware for each calculator, Intel proposed a general-
purpose circuit that could be used throughout the entire line of calculators. Intel's idea was that
the software would give each calculator its unique set of features.

The microcontroller was an overnight success, and its use increased steadily over the
next decade. Early embedded applications included unmanned space probes, computerized traffic
lights, and aircraft flight control systems. In the 1980s, embedded systems quietly rode the
waves of the microcomputer age and brought microprocessors into every part of our kitchens
(bread machines, food processors, and microwave ovens), living rooms (televisions, stereos, and
remote controls), and workplaces (fax machines, pagers, laser printers, cash registers, and credit
card readers).

It seems inevitable hat the number of embedded systems will continue to increase rapidly.
Already there are promising new embedded devices that have enormous market potential; light
switches and thermostats that can be central computer, intelligent air-bag systems that don't
inflate when children or small adults are present, pal-sized electronic organizers and personal
digital assistants (PDAs), digital cameras, and dashboard navigation systems. Clearly, individuals
who possess the skills and desire to design the next generation of embedded systems will be in
demand for quite some time.

Real Time Systems:

One subclass of embedded is worthy of an introduction at this point. As commonly

defined, a real-time system is a computer system that has timing constraints. In other words, a
real-time system is partly specified in terms of its ability to make certain calculations or
decisions in a timely manner. These important calculations are said to have deadlines for
completion. And, for all practical purposes, a missed deadline is just as bad as a wrong answer.

The issue of what if a deadline is missed is a crucial one. For example, if the real-time
system is part of an airplane's flight control system, it is possible for the lives of the passengers
and crew to be endangered by a single missed deadline. However, if instead the system is
involved in satellite communication, the damage could be limited to a single corrupt data packet.
The more severe the consequences, the more likely it will be said that the deadline is "hard" and
thus, the system is a hard real-time system. Real-time systems at the other end of this discussion
are said to have "soft" deadlines.

All of the topics and examples presented in this book are applicable to the designers of
real-time system who is more delight in his work. He must guarantee reliable operation of the
software and hardware under all the possible conditions and to the degree that human lives
depend upon three system's proper execution, engineering calculations and descriptive
paperwork.

Application Areas

Nearly 99 per cent of the processors manufactured end up in embedded systems. The
embedded system market is one of the highest growth areas as these systems are used in very
market segment- consumer electronics, office automation, industrial automation, biomedical
engineering, wireless communication, data communication, telecommunications, transportation,
military and so on.
Consumer appliances:

At home we use a number of embedded systems which include digital camera, digital
diary, DVD player, electronic toys, microwave oven, remote controls for TV and air-conditioner,
VCO player, video game consoles, video recorders etc. Today’s high-tech car has about 20
embedded systems for transmission control, engine spark control, air-conditioning, navigation
etc. Even wristwatches are now becoming embedded systems. The palmtops are powerful
embedded systems using which we can carry out many general-purpose tasks such as playing
games and word processing.

Office automation:

The office automation products using em embedded systems are copying machine, fax
machine, key telephone, modem, printer, scanner etc.

Industrial automation:

Today a lot of industries use embedded systems for process control. These include
pharmaceutical, cement, sugar, oil exploration, nuclear energy, electricity generation and
transmission. The embedded systems for industrial use are designed to carry out specific tasks
such as monitoring the temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc., and then take
appropriate action based on the monitored levels to control other devices or to send information
to a centralized monitoring station. In hazardous industrial environment, where human presence
has to be avoided, robots are used, which are programmed to do specific jobs. The robots are
now becoming very powerful and carry out many interesting and complicated tasks such as
hardware assembly.

Medical electronics:

Almost every medical equipment in the hospital is an embedded system. These

equipments include diagnostic aids such as ECG, EEG, blood pressure measuring devices, X-ray
scanners; equipment used in blood analysis, radiation, colonoscopy, endoscopy etc.
Developments in medical electronics have paved way for more accurate diagnosis of diseases.
Computer networking:

Computer networking products such as bridges, routers, Integrated Services Digital

Networks (ISDN), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), X.25 and frame relay switches are
embedded systems which implement the necessary data communication protocols. For example,
a router interconnects two networks. The two networks may be running different protocol stacks.
The router’s function is to obtain the data packets from incoming pores, analyze the packets and
send them towards the destination after doing necessary protocol conversion. Most networking
equipments, other than the end systems (desktop computers) we use to access the networks, are
embedded systems

Telecommunications:

In the field of telecommunications, the embedded systems can be categorized as

subscriber terminals and network equipment. The subscriber terminals such as key telephones,
ISDN phones, terminal adapters, web cameras are embedded systems. The network equipment
includes multiplexers, multiple access systems, Packet Assemblers Dissemblers (PADs),
sate11ite modems etc. IP phone, IP gateway, IP gatekeeper etc. are the latest embedded systems
that provide very low-cost voice communication over the Internet.

Wireless technologies:

Advances in mobile communications are paving way for many interesting applications
using embedded systems. The mobile phone is one of the marvels of the last decade of the 20th
century. It is a very powerful embedded system that provides voice communication while we are
on the move. The Personal Digital Assistants and the palmtops can now be used to access
multimedia services over the Internet. Mobile communication infrastructure such as base station
controllers, mobile switching centers are also powerful embedded systems.

Insemination:

Testing and measurement are the fundamental requirements in all scientific and
engineering activities. The measuring equipment we use in laboratories to measure parameters
such as weight, temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc. are all embedded systems.
Test equipment such as oscilloscope, spectrum analyzer, logic analyzer, protocol analyzer, radio
communication test set etc. are embedded systems built around powerful processors. Thank to
miniaturization, the test and measuring equipment are now becoming portable facilitating easy
testing and measurement in the field by field-personnel.

Security:

Security of persons and information has always been a major issue. We need to protect
our homes and offices; and also the information we transmit and store. Developing embedded
systems for security applications is one of the most lucrative businesses nowadays. Security
devices at homes, offices, airports etc. for authentication and verification are embedded systems.
Encryption devices are nearly 99 per cent of the processors that are manufactured end up in~
embedded systems. Embedded systems find applications in every industrial segment- consumer
electronics, transportation, avionics, biomedical engineering, manufacturing, process control and
industrial automation, data communication, telecommunication, defense, security etc. Used to
encrypt the data/voice being transmitted on communication links such as telephone lines.
Biometric systems using fingerprint and face recognition are now being extensively used for user
authentication in banking applications as well as for access control in high security buildings.

Finance:

Financial dealing through cash and cheques are now slowly paving way for transactions
using smart cards and ATM (Automatic Teller Machine, also expanded as Any Time Money)
machines. Smart card, of the size of a credit card, has a small micro-controller and memory; and
it interacts with the smart card reader! ATM machine and acts as an electronic wallet. Smart card
technology has the capability of ushering in a cashless society. Well, the list goes on. It is no
exaggeration to say that eyes wherever you go, you can see, or at least feel, the work of an
embedded system!

Overview of Embedded System Architecture

Every embedded system consists of custom-built hardware built around a Central Processing

Unit (CPU). This hardware also contains memory chips onto which the software is loaded. The
software residing on the memory chip is also called the ‘firmware’. The embedded system
architecture can be represented as a layered architecture as shown in Fig.

The operating system runs above the hardware, and the application software runs above
the operating system. The same architecture is applicable to any computer including a desktop
computer. However, there are significant differences. It is not compulsory to have an operating
system in every embedded system. For small appliances such as remote control units, air
conditioners, toys etc., there is no need for an operating system and you can write only the
software specific to that application. For applications involving complex processing, it is
advisable to have an operating system. In such a case, you need to integrate the application
software with the operating system and then transfer the entire software on to the memory chip.
Once the software is transferred to the memory chip, the software will continue to run for a long
time you don’t need to reload new software.

Now, let us see the details of the various building blocks of the hardware of an embedded
system. As shown in Fig. the building blocks are;

· Central Processing Unit (CPU)

· Memory (Read-only Memory and Random Access Memory)

· Input Devices

· Output devices

· Communication interfaces
 · Application-specific circuitry

Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The Central Processing Unit (processor, in short) can be any of the following:
microcontroller, microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP). A micro-controller is a low-
cost processor. Its main attraction is t2hat on the chip itself, there will be many other components
such as memory, serial communication interface, analog-to digital converter etc. So, for small
applications, a micro-controller is the best choice as the number of external components required
will be very less. On the other hand, microprocessors are more powerful, but you need to use
many external components with them. D5P is used mainly for applications in which signal
processing is involved such as audio and video processing.

Memory:

The memory is categorized as Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM). The contents of the RAM will be erased if power is switched off to the chip, whereas
ROM retains the contents even if the power is switched off. So, the firmware is stored in the
ROM. When power is switched on, the processor reads the ROM; the program is program is
executed.

Input devices:

Unlike the desktops, the input devices to an embedded system have very limited
capability. There will be no keyboard or a mouse, and hence interacting with the embedded
system is no easy task. Many embedded systems will have a small keypad-you press one key to
give a specific command. A keypad may be used to input only the digits. Many embedded
systems used in process control do not have any input device for user interaction; they take
inputs from sensors or transducers 1’fnd produce electrical signals that are in turn fed to other
systems.

Output devices:

The output devices of the embedded systems also have very limited capability. Some
embedded systems will have a few Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to indicate the health status of
the system modules, or for visual indication of alarms. A small Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
may also be used to display some important parameters.

Communication interfaces:

The embedded systems may need to, interact with other embedded systems at they may
have to transmit data to a desktop. To facilitate this, the embedded systems are provided with one
or a few communication interfaces such as RS232, RS422, RS485, Universal Serial Bus (USB),
IEEE 1394, Ethernet etc.

Application-specific circuitry:

Sensors, transducers, special processing and control circuitry may be required fat an
embedded system, depending on its application. This circuitry interacts with the processor to
carry out the necessary work. The entire hardware has to be given power supply either through
the 230 volts main supply or through a battery. The hardware has to design in such a way that the
power consumption is minimize
EXPLANATION OF EACH BLOCK
Power Supply Design
POWER SUPPLY:

The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e.,

230V from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier. The

output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to get a pure d.c voltage,

the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components present even

after rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure constant dc

voltage.

230V AC
D.C
50Hz Output

Step down Bridge

transformer Rectifier
Filter Regulator

Fig: Power supply

Transformer:

Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and these

voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c input

available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required voltage level. This

is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the voltage to a

required level.

Rectifier:

The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C.

The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used

because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification.

The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both

half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure. The circuit

has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally

opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the

bridge.
 For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas

diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load

resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.

For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas,

D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load

resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half

cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

Filter:

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier
and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and
load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this
point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.

Voltage regulator:

As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator is an
electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this project,
power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain these voltage levels, 7805 and 7812
voltage regulators are to be used. The first number 78 represents positive supply and the numbers
05, 12 represent the required output voltage levels. The L78xx series of three-terminal positive
regulators is available in TO-220, TO-220FP, TO-3, D2PAK and DPAK packages and several
fixed output voltages, making it useful in a wide range of applications. These regulators can
provide local on-card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with single
point regulation. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut-down and safe area
protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can
deliver over 1 A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these
devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltage and currents.
 STT-433 MHz TRANSMITTER

FACTORS INFLUENCED TO CHOOSE STT-433MHz

ABOUT THE TRANSMITTER:

 The STT-433 is ideal for remote control applications where low cost and longer range is
required.
 The transmitter operates from a1.5-12V supply, making it ideal for battery-powered
applications.
 The transmitter employs a SAW-stabilized oscillator, ensuring accurate frequency control
for best range performance.
 The manufacturing-friendly SIP style package and low-cost make the STT-433 suitable
for high volume applications.

Features

 433.92 MHz Frequency

  Low Cost
 1.5-12V operation
 Small size

PIN DESCRIPTION:

GND

Transmitter ground. Connect to ground plane

DATA

Digital data input. This input is CMOS compatible and should be driven with CMOS level
inputs.

VCC

Operating voltage for the transmitter. VCC should be bypassed with a .01uF ceramic
capacitor and filtered with a 4.7uF tantalum capacitor. Noise on the power supply will degrade
transmitter noise performance.
ANT

50 ohm antenna output. The antenna port impedance affects output power and harmonic
emissions. Antenna can be single core wire of approximately 17cm length or PCB trace antenna.

APPLICATION:

The typical connection shown in the above figure cannot work exactly at all times because there
will be no proper synchronization between the transmitter and the microcontroller unit. i.e.,
whatever the microcontroller sends the data to the transmitter, the transmitter is not able to accept
this data as this will be not in the radio frequency range. Thus, we need an intermediate device
which can accept the input from the microcontroller, process it in the range of radio frequency
range and then send it to the transmitter. Thus, an encoder is used.

The encoder used here is HT12E from HOLTEK SEMICONDUCTORS INC.

The HT 12E Encoder ICs are series of CMOS LSIs for Remote Control system applications.
They are capable of Encoding 12 bit of information which consists of N address bits and 12-N
data bits. Each address/data input is externally trinary programmable if bonded out.
ENCODER HT12E:

PIN DESCRIPTION:
PIN DESCRIPTION:
Information word

IfL/MB=1 the device is in the latch mode(for use with the latch type of
d a t a d e c o d e r s ) . W h e n t h e t r a n s - mission enable is removed during a transmission, the
DOUT pin outputs a complete word and then s t o p s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f L / M B = 0 t h e
d e v i c e i s i n t h e m o m e n t a r y m o d e ( f o r u s e w i t h t h e m o m e n t a r y type of data
decoders). When the transmission enable is removed during a transmission, the DOUT outputs a
complete word and then adds 7 words all with the “1” data code.

An information word consists of 4 periods as illustrated below.

Address/data waveform

Each programmable address/ data can be externally set to one of the following two logic states as
shown below
Transmission enable

For the TE trigger type of encoders, transmission is enabled by applying a high signal to the TE
pin. But for the Data trigger type of encoders, it is enabled by applying a high signal to one of the
data pins D12~D17.

FLOWCHART:

Why is this graph required

Graph showing Frequency versus Voltage

The graph shown above decides the resistance value to be connected to the oscillator pins of the
encoder. The oscillator resistance will have an effect on startup time and steady state amplitude.
For the data communication at a particular frequency in the RF range, both the transmitter and
receiver should be set to a particular frequency. The exact setting of the frequency can be
obtained in the encoder and decoder circuits. The frequency value can be set using the graph.
The operating voltage of encoder and decoder is 5V. Thus looking at the graph at 5V VDD, if we
select the frequency in the range of 1.25 and 1.50 we are selecting 220k resistance.

BASIC APPLICATION CIRCUIT OF HT12 ENCODER:

DEMO CIRCUIT: Transmission Circuit

The data sent from the microcontroller is encoded and sent to RF transmitter. The data is
transmitted on the antenna pin. Thus, this data should be received on the destination i.e, on RF
receiver.

FACTOR INFLUENCED TO CHOOSE STR-433MHz

RF RECEIVER STR-433 MHz:

The data is received by the RF receiver from the antenna pin and this data is available on the data
pins. Two Data pins are provided in the receiver module. Thus, this data can be used for further
applications

PINOUT:

ANT

Antenna input.

GND

Receiver Ground. Connect to ground plane.

VCC (5V)

VCC pins are electrically connected and provide operating voltage for the receiver. VCC can be
applied to either or both. VCC should be bypassed with a .1μF ceramic capacitor. Noise on the
power supply will degrade receiver sensitivity.

DATA

Digital data output.

This output is capable of driving one TTL or CMOS load. It is a CMOS compatible output.

Similarly, as the transmitter requires an encoder, the receiver module requires a decoder.
The decoder used is HT12D from HOLTEK SEMICONDUCTOR INC.
Features

 Operating voltage: 2.4V~12V.

 Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology.
 Low standby current.
 Capable of decoding 18 bits of information.
 Pairs with HOLTEK’s 318 series of encoders.
 8~18 address pins.
 0~8 data pins.

HOW DOES THE DECODER WORK?

 The 3^18 decoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications.
They are paired with the 3^18 series of encoders.
 For proper operation, a pair of encoder/decoder pair with the same number of address and
data format should be selected.
 The 3^18 series of decoders receives serial address and data from that series of encoders
that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF medium.
 A signal on the DIN pin then activates the oscillator which in turns decodes the
incoming address and data.
 It then compares the serial input data twice continuously with its local address.
 If no errors or unmatched codes are encountered, the input data codes are decoded and
then transferred to the output pins.
 The VT pin also goes high to indicate a valid transmission. That will last until the address
code is incorrect or no signal has been received.
 The 3^18 decoders are capable of decoding 18 bits of information that consists of N bits
of address and 18–N bits of data.
Oscillator frequency versus supply voltage

fosc
FLOW CHART:
BASIC APPLICATION CIRCUIT OF HT12D DECODER:
DEMO CIRCUIT: Reception circuit

1. The data transmitted into the air is received by the receiver. The received data is taken
from the data line of the receiver and is fed to the decoder .The output of decoder is given
to microcontroller and then data is processed according to the applications.

BC 557 TRANSISTOR:

Fig: Simplified outline and symbol

Fig: Pin diagram

FEATURES

· Low current (max. 100 mA)

· Low voltage (max. 65 V).

APPLICATIONS

· General purpose switching and amplification

LIMITING VALUES:

BC 557 PNP Transistor acts as a switch is used in this project.

TRANSMITTER CIRCUIT:
 Sprinkler Specifications

Product Description

High Pressure Water Pump

Built in thermal protector
Fully automatic demand pumps
Can be used as a portable sprinkler pump

Descriptions

High pressure diaphragm pump

Small size, Light weight and Stable performance.

Special valve for liquid input and output;

Ant vibration pad, easy installation with stable function.

Self-priming, Automatic Pressure Switch.

Automatic Pressure Protection.

Low Noise, with excellent resistant to chemical corrosion;

Functions

Water purification, filter machine, chemical metering and fluid

supply.
High pressure pumps used in sprayers and spray fixtures for high
plants.
Food, Beverage filling and liquid transfer.
Solar energy industry
Clean machine, road-works equipment’s, cooler system

Power: Electric
Type: Diaphragm Pump
Duty Cycle: Working Intermittent
Certifications: CE, RoHS, ISO9001: 2000
Voltage: 12vdc & 115V AC( Consult Factory for
Other Voltage
 Soil Moisture Sensor
Soil Moisture Sensor (Order Code SMS-BTA) The Soil Moisture Sensor is used to measure the
volumetric water content of soil. This makes it ideal for performing experiments in courses such as soil
science, agricultural science, environmental science, horticulture, botany, and biology

How the Soil Moisture Sensor Works The Soil Moisture Sensor uses capacitance to measure dielectric
permittivity of the surrounding medium. In soil, dielectric permittivity is a function of the water content.
The sensor creates a voltage proportional to the dielectric permittivity, and therefore the water content of
the soil. The sensor averages the water content over the entire length of the sensor. There is a 2 cm zone
of influence with respect to the flat surface of the sensor, but it has little or no sensitivity at the extreme
edges. The figure above shows the electromagnetic field lines along a cross-section of the sensor,
illustrating the 2 cm zone of influence.
 What is Zigbee Technology?

What is Zigbee Technology?

Zigbee communication is specially built for control and sensor networks on IEEE 802.15.4
standard for wireless personal area networks (WPANs), and it is the product from Zigbee
alliance. This communication standard defines physical and Media Access Control (MAC) layers
to handle many devices at low-data rates. These Zigbee’s WPANs operate at 868 MHz, 902-
928MHz and 2.4 GHz frequencies. The date rate of 250 kbps is best suited for periodic as well as
intermediate two way transmission of data between sensors and controllers.

Zigbee Modem
Zigbee is low-cost and low-powered mesh network widely deployed for controlling and
monitoring applications where it covers 10-100 meters within the range. This communication
system is less expensive and simpler than the other proprietary short-range wireless sensor
networks as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.
Zigbee supports different network configurations for master to master or master to slave
communications. And also, it can be operated in different modes as a result the battery power is
conserved. Zigbee networks are extendable with the use of routers and allow many nodes to
interconnect with each other for building a wider area network.
Zigbee Architecture

Zigbee system structure

Zigbee system structure consists of three different types of devices such as Zigbee coordinator,
Router and End device. Every Zigbee network must consist of at least one coordinator which acts
as a root and bridge of the network. The coordinator is responsible for handling and storing the
information while performing receiving and transmitting data operations. Zigbee routers act as
intermediary devices that permit data to pass to and fro through them to other devices. End
devices have limited functionality to communicate with the parent nodes such that the battery
power is saved as shown in the figure. The number of routers, coordinators and end devices
depends on the type of network such as star, tree and mesh networks.

Zigbee protocol architecture consists of a stack of various layers where IEEE 802.15.4 is defined
by physical and MAC layers while this protocol is completed by accumulating Zigbee’s own
network and application layers.

Zigbee protocol architecture

Physical Layer: This layer does modulation and demodulation operations up on transmitting and
receiving signals respectively. This layer’s frequency, date rate and number of channels are given
below.

Physical Layer of Zigbee Protocol

MAC Layer: This layer is responsible for reliable transmission of data by accessing different
networks with the carrier sense multiple access collision avoidance (CSMA). This also transmits
the beacon frames for synchronizing communication.
Network Layer: This layer takes care of all network related operations such as network setup,
end device connection and disconnection to network, routing, device configurations, etc.
Application Support Sub-Layer: This layer enables the services necessary for Zigbee device
object and application objects to interface with the network layers for data managing services.
This layer is responsible for matching two devices according to their services and needs.
Application Framework: It provides two types of data services as key value pair and generic
message services. Generic message is a developer defined structure, whereas the key value pair
is used for getting attributes within the application objects. ZDO provides an interface between
application objects and APS layer in Zigbee devices. It is responsible for detecting, initiating and
binding other devices to the network.
Zigbee Operating Modes and Its Topologies

Zigbee Communication Operation

Zigbee two way data is transferred in two modes: Non-beacon mode and Beacon mode. In a
beacon mode, the coordinators and routers continuously monitor active state of incoming data
hence more power is consumed. In this mode, the routers and coordinators do not sleep because
at any time any node can wake up and communicate. However, it requires more power supply
and its overall power consumption is low because most of the devices are in an inactive state for
over long periods in the network.

In a beacon mode, when there is no data communication from end devices, then the routers and
coordinators enter into sleep state. Periodically this coordinator wakes up and transmits the
beacons to the routers in the network. These beacon networks are work for time slots which
means, they operate when the communication needed results in lower duty cycles and longer
battery usage. These beacon and non-beacon modes of Zigbee can manage periodic (sensors
data), intermittent (Light switches) and repetitive data types.

Data transfer
The data is transferred in packets. These have a maximum size of 128 bytes, allowing for a
maximum payload of 104 bytes. Although this may appear low when compared to other systems,
the applications in which 802.15.4 and ZigBee are likely to be used should not require very high
data rates.
The standard supports 64 bit IEEE addresses as well as 16 bit short addresses. The 64 bit
addresses uniquely identify every device in the same way that devices have a unique IP address.
Once a network is set up, the short addresses can be used and this enables over 65000 nodes to
be supported.
It also has an optional superframe structure with a method for time synchronisation. In addition
to this it is recognised that some messages need to be given a high priority. To achieve this, a
guaranteed time slot mechanism has been incorporated into the specification. This enables these
high priority messages to be sent across the network as swiftly as possible.

MICROCONTROLLER OVERVIEW

A microcontroller is a small and low-cost microcomputer, which is

designed to perform the specific tasks of embedded systems like displaying
microwave’s information, receiving remote signals, etc.

The general microcontroller consists of the processor, the memory (RAM,

ROM, EPROM), Serial ports, peripherals (timers, counters), etc.

Difference between Microprocessor and

Microcontroller
The following table highlights the differences between a microprocessor and a
microcontroller −

Microcontroller Microprocessor

Microcontrollers are used to execute a single task within an Microprocessors

application. are used for big
applications.

Its designing and hardware cost is low. Its designing and

hardware cost is
high.

Easy to replace. Not so easy to

 replace.

It is built with CMOS technology, which requires less power to Its power
operate. consumption is
high because it
has to control the
entire system.

It consists of CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O ports. It doesn’t consist

of RAM, ROM, I/O
ports. It uses its
pins to interface to
peripheral devices.

Types of Microcontrollers
Microcontrollers are divided into various categories based on memory,
architecture, bits and instruction sets. Following is the list of their types −

Bit
Based on bit configuration, the microcontroller is further divided into three
categories.

 8-bit microcontroller − This type of microcontroller is used to execute

arithmetic and logical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication
division, etc. For example, Intel 8031 and 8051 are 8 bits microcontroller.

 16-bit microcontroller − This type of microcontroller is used to perform

arithmetic and logical operations where higher accuracy and performance is
required. For example, Intel 8096 is a 16-bit microcontroller.

 32-bit microcontroller − This type of microcontroller is generally used in

automatically controlled appliances like automatic operational machines,
medical appliances, etc.

Memory
Based on the memory configuration, the microcontroller is further divided
into two categories.
  External memory microcontroller − This type of microcontroller is designed
in such a way that they do not have a program memory on the chip. Hence, it is
named as external memory microcontroller. For example: Intel 8031
microcontroller.

 Embedded memory microcontroller − This type of microcontroller is

designed in such a way that the microcontroller has all programs and data
memory, counters and timers, interrupts, I/O ports are embedded on the chip.
For example: Intel 8051 microcontroller.

Instruction Set
Based on the instruction set configuration, the microcontroller is further
divided into two categories.

 CISC − CISC stands for complex instruction set computer. It allows the user to
insert a single instruction as an alternative to many simple instructions.

 RISC − RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computers. It reduces the
operational time by shortening the clock cycle per instruction.

Applications of Microcontrollers
Microcontrollers are widely used in various different devices such as −

 Light sensing and controlling devices like LED.

 Temperature sensing and controlling devices like microwave oven, chimneys.

 Fire detection and safety devices like Fire alarm.

 Measuring devices like Volt Meter.

8051
8051 microcontroller is designed by Intel in 1981. It is an 8-bit
microcontroller. It is built with 40 pins DIP (dual inline package), 4kb of
ROM storage and 128 bytes of RAM storage, 2 16-bit timers. It consists of
are four parallel 8-bit ports, which are programmable as well as addressable
as per the requirement. An on-chip crystal oscillator is integrated in the
microcontroller having crystal frequency of 12 MHz.
Let us now discuss the architecture of 8051 Microcontroller.

In the following diagram, the system bus connects all the support devices to
the CPU. The system bus consists of an 8-bit data bus, a 16-bit address bus
and bus control signals. All other devices like program memory, ports, data
memory, serial interface, interrupt control, timers, and the CPU are all
interfaced together through the system bus.

The pin diagram of 8051 microcontroller looks as follows −

 Pins 1 to 8 − These pins are known as Port 1. This port doesn’t serve any other
functions. It is internally pulled up, bi-directional I/O port.

 Pin 9 − It is a RESET pin, which is used to reset the microcontroller to its initial
values.

 Pins 10 to 17 − These pins are known as Port 3. This port serves some
functions like interrupts, timer input, control signals, serial communication
signals RxD and TxD, etc.

 Pins 18 & 19 − These pins are used for interfacing an external crystal to get
the system clock.

 Pin 20 − This pin provides the power supply to the circuit.

  Pins 21 to 28 − These pins are known as Port 2. It serves as I/O port. Higher
order address bus signals are also multiplexed using this port.

 Pin 29 − This is PSEN pin which stands for Program Store Enable. It is used to
read a signal from the external program memory.

 Pin 30 − This is EA pin which stands for External Access input. It is used to
enable/disable the external memory interfacing.

 Pin 31 − This is ALE pin which stands for Address Latch Enable. It is used to
demultiplex the address-data signal of port.

 Pins 32 to 39 − These pins are known as Port 0. It serves as I/O port. Lower
order address and data bus signals are multiplexed using this port.

 Pin 40 − This pin is used to provide power supply to the circuit.

8051 microcontrollers have 4 I/O ports each of 8-bit, which can be

configured as input or output. Hence, total 32 input/output pins allow the
microcontroller to be connected with the peripheral devices.

 Pin configuration, i.e. the pin can be configured as 1 for input and 0 for output
as per the logic state.

o Input/Output (I/O) pin − All the circuits within the microcontroller

must be connected to one of its pins except P0 port because it does not
have pull-up resistors built-in.

o Input pin − Logic 1 is applied to a bit of the P register. The output FE

transistor is turned off and the other pin remains connected to the power
supply voltage over a pull-up resistor of high resistance.

 Port 0 − The P0 (zero) port is characterized by two functions −

o When the external memory is used then the lower address byte
(addresses A0A7) is applied on it, else all bits of this port are configured
as input/output.

o When P0 port is configured as an output then other ports consisting of

pins with built-in pull-up resistor connected by its end to 5V power
supply, the pins of this port have this resistor left out.
Input Configuration
If any pin of this port is configured as an input, then it acts as if it “floats”,
i.e. the input has unlimited input resistance and in-determined potential.

Output Configuration
When the pin is configured as an output, then it acts as an “open drain”. By
applying logic 0 to a port bit, the appropriate pin will be connected to
ground (0V), and applying logic 1, the external output will keep on
“floating”.

In order to apply logic 1 (5V) on this output pin, it is necessary to build an

external pullup resistor.

Port 1
P1 is a true I/O port as it doesn’t have any alternative functions as in P0,
but this port can be configured as general I/O only. It has a built-in pull-up
resistor and is completely compatible with TTL circuits.

Port 2
P2 is similar to P0 when the external memory is used. Pins of this port
occupy addresses intended for the external memory chip. This port can be
used for higher address byte with addresses A8-A15. When no memory is
added then this port can be used as a general input/output port similar to
Port 1.

Port 3
In this port, functions are similar to other ports except that the logic 1 must
be applied to appropriate bit of the P3 register.

Pins Current Limitations

 When pins are configured as an output (i.e. logic 0), then the single port pins
can receive a current of 10mA.

 When these pins are configured as inputs (i.e. logic 1), then built-in pull-up
resistors provide very weak current, but can activate up to 4 TTL inputs of LS
series.

 If all 8 bits of a port are active, then the total current must be limited to 15mA
(port P0: 26mA).
  If all ports (32 bits) are active, then the total maximum current must be limited
to 71mA.

Interrupts are the events that temporarily suspend the main program, pass
the control to the external sources and execute their task. It then passes
the control to the main program where it had left off.

8051 has 5 interrupt signals, i.e. INT0, TFO, INT1, TF1, RI/TI. Each
interrupt can be enabled or disabled by setting bits of the IE register and
the whole interrupt system can be disabled by clearing the EA bit of the
same register.

IE (Interrupt Enable) Register

This register is responsible for enabling and disabling the interrupt. EA
register is set to one for enabling interrupts and set to 0 for disabling the
interrupts. Its bit sequence and their meanings are shown in the following
figure.

It disables all interrupts. When EA = 0 no interrupt will be

EA IE.7
acknowledged and EA = 1 enables the interrupt individually.

- IE.6 Reserved for future use.

- IE.5 Reserved for future use.

ES IE.4 Enables/disables serial port interrupt.

ET1 IE.3 Enables/disables timer1 overflow interrupt.

EX1 IE.2 Enables/disables external interrupt1.

ET0 IE.1 Enables/disables timer0 overflow interrupt.

EX0 IE.0 Enables/disables external interrupt0.

IP (Interrupt Priority) Register

We can change the priority levels of the interrupts by changing the
corresponding bit in the Interrupt Priority (IP) register as shown in the
following figure.

 A low priority interrupt can only be interrupted by the high priority interrupt, but
not interrupted by another low priority interrupt.

 If two interrupts of different priority levels are received simultaneously, the

request of higher priority level is served.

 If the requests of the same priority levels are received simultaneously, then the
internal polling sequence determines which request is to be serviced.

- IP.6 Reserved for future use.

- IP.5 Reserved for future use.

PS IP.4 It defines the serial port interrupt priority level.

PT1 IP.3 It defines the timer interrupt of 1 priority.

PX1 IP.2 It defines the external interrupt priority level.

PT0 IP.1 It defines the timer0 interrupt priority level.

PX0 IP.0 It defines the external interrupt of 0 priority level.

TCON Register
TCON register specifies the type of external interrupt to the microcontroller.
DC GEARED MOTORS
DC motor
A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity.
DC Motor Connections
Figure shows schematically the different methods of connecting the field and armature circuits in
a DC Motor. The circular symbol represents the armature circuit, and the squares at the side
of the circle represent the brush commutator system. The direction of the arrows indicates the
direction of the magnetic fields.

THEORY OF DC MOTOR

The speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to the supply voltage, so if we reduce

the supply voltage from 12 Volts to 6 Volts, the motor will run at half the speed. How can this be
achieved when the battery is fixed at 12 Volts? The speed controller works by varying the
average voltage sent to the motor. It could do this by simply adjusting the voltage sent to the
motor, but this is quite inefficient to do. A better way is to switch the motor's supply on and off
very quickly. If the switching is fast enough, the motor doesn't notice it, it only notices the
average effect.

When you watch a film in the cinema, or the television, what you are actually seeing is a
series of fixed pictures, which change rapidly enough that your eyes just see the average effect -
movement. Your brain fills in the gaps to give an average effect.

Now imagine a light bulb with a switch. When you close the switch, the bulb goes on and
is at full brightness, say 100 Watts. When you open the switch it goes off (0 Watts). Now if you
close the switch for a fraction of a second, then open it for the same amount of time, the filament
won't have time to cool down and heat up, and you will just get an average glow of 50 Watts.
This is how lamp dimmers work, and the same principle is used by speed controllers to drive a
motor. When the switch is closed, the motor sees 12 Volts, and when it is open it sees 0 Volts. If
the switch is open for the same amount of time as it is closed, the motor will see an average of 6
Volts, and will run more slowly accordingly. The graph below shows the speed of a motor that is
being turned on and off.

Principles of operation
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-carrying
conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it
will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the
external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite
(North and South) polarities attract, while like polarities (North and North, South and South)
repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic interaction
between a current-carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to generate rotational
motion.
Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a magnet or
winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with a "South"
polarization).

Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator, field
magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors (and all that Beamers will see), the external
magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent magnets. The stator is the stationary part
of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole
pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotates with respect to the
stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically
connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor layout -- with the rotor
inside the stator (field) magnets.

The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that when power
is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and
the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches
alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding.
Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the direction of current through the
rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic field, driving it to continue rotating.

In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is a very common
number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You can imagine how with
our example two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly aligned
with the field magnets), it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a
moment where the commutator shorts out the power supply (i.e., both brushes touch both
commutator contacts simultaneously). This would be bad for the power supply, waste energy, and
damage motor components as well. Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it
would exhibit a high amount of torque "ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is cyclic
with the position of the rotor).

So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker with the workings of one
via an interactive animation.

You'll notice a few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a time (but two
others are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions from one commutator contact to the
next, one coil's field will rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge up (this
occurs within a few microsecond). We'll see more about the effects of this later, but in the
meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the coil windings' series wiring:
The use of an iron core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is quite common, and has a number
of advantages. First off, the iron core provides a strong, rigid support for the windings -- a
particularly important consideration for high-torque motors. The core also conducts heat away
from the rotor windings, allowing the motor to be driven harder than might otherwise be the
case. Iron core construction is also relatively inexpensive compared with other construction
types.

But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron armature has a relatively high
inertia which limits motor acceleration. This construction also results in high winding
inductances which limit brush and commutator life.

In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features a 'coreless' armature winding.
This design depends upon the coil wire itself for structural integrity. As a result, the armature is
hollow, and the permanent magnet can be mounted inside the rotor coil. Coreless DC motors
have much lower armature inductance than iron-core motors of comparable size, extending brush
and commutator life.

DC motor behavior
High-speed output
This is the simplest trait to understand and treat -- most DC motors run at very high output
speeds (generally thousands or tens of thousands of RPM). While this is fine for some BEAM
bots (say, photo poppers or solar rollers), many BEAM bots (walkers, heads) require lower
speeds -- you must put gears on your DC motor's output for these applications.

H-BRIDGE:
An H-bridge is an electronic circuit which enables DC electric motors to be run forwards or
backwards. These circuits are often used in robotics. H-bridges are available as integrated
circuits, or can be built from discrete components.

The two basic states of a H-bridge. The term "H-bridge" is derived from the typical
graphical representation of such a circuit. An H-bridge is built with four switches (solid-state or
mechanical). When the switches S1 and S4 (according to the first figure) are closed (and S2 and
S3 are open) a positive voltage will be applied across the motor. By opening S1 and S4 switches
and closing S2 and S3 switches, this voltage is reversed, allowing reverse operation of the motor.

Using the nomenclature above, the switches S1 and S2 should never be closed at the same
time, as this would cause a short circuit on the input voltage source. The same applies to the
switches S3 and S4. This condition is known as shoot-through.

Operation

The H-Bridge arrangement is generally used to reverse the polarity of the motor, but can also be
used to 'brake' the motor, where the motor comes to a sudden stop, as the motors terminals are
shorted, or to let the motor 'free run' to a stop, as the motor is effectively disconnected from the
circuit. The following table summarizes operation.

S1 S2 S3 S4 Result

1 0 0 1 Motor moves right

0 1 1 0 Motor moves left

0 0 0 0 Motor free runs

0 1 0 1 Motor brakes

H-Bridge Driver:

The switching property of this H-Bridge can be replace by a Transistor or a Relay or a Mosfet or even by
an IC. Here we are replacing this with an IC named L293D as the driver whose description is as given
below.

Features:

 600mA OUTPUT CURRENT CAPABILITY

  PER CHANNEL
 1.2A PEAK OUTPUT CURRENT (non repetitive)
 PER CHANNEL
 ENABLE FACILITY
 OVERTEMPERATURE PROTECTION
 LOGICAL "0" INPUT VOLTAGE UP TO 1.5 V
 (HIGH NOISE IMMUNITY)
 INTERNAL CLAMP DIODES

DESCRIPTION

The Device is a monolithic integrated high voltage, high current four channel driver designed to accept
standard DTL or TTL logic levels and drive inductive loads (such as relays solenoides, DC and stepping
motors) and switching power transistors. To simplify use as two bridges each pair of channels is equipped
with an enable input. A separate supply input is provided for the logic, allowing operation at a lower
voltage and internal clamp diodes are included. This device is suitable for use in switching applications at
frequencies up to 5 kHz. The L293D is assembled in a 16 lead plastic packaage which has 4 center pins
connected together and used for heatsinking The L293DD is assembled in a 20 lead surface mount which
has 8 center pins connected together and used for heatsinking.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:
ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS
PIN CONNECTIONS
BATTERY
Battery (electricity), an array of electrochemical cells for electricity storage, either individually
linked or individually linked and housed in a single unit. An electrical battery is a combination of
one or more electrochemical cells, used to convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy.
Batteries may be used once and discarded, or recharged for years as in standby power
applications. Miniature cells are used to power devices such as hearing aids and wristwatches;
larger batteries provide standby power for telephone exchanges or computer data centers.

Fig: Various batteries (top-left to bottom-right): two AA, one D, one handheld ham radio battery,
two 9-volt PP3, two AAA, one C, one camcorder battery, one cordless phone battery.
How batteries work
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of a
number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by a
conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the
electrode to which anions (negatively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the anode or negative electrode;
the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively-charged
ions) migrate, i.e. the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery,
reduction (addition of electrons) occurs to cations at the cathode, while oxidation (removal of
electrons) occurs to anions at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are
electrically connected by the electrolyte. Many cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes.
In that case each half-cell is enclosed in a container, and a separator that is porous to ions but not
the bulk of the electrolytes prevents mixing.
Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric
current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference
between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta. Therefore, if the electrodes have
emfs E1 and E2 and , then the net emf is E2 - E1 ; in other words, the net emf is the difference
between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.
The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal
voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither
charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell.
Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in
magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging
exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would
maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell
maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one Coulomb then on complete discharge it would
perform 1.5 Joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge, and
the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted
against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to
the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.

As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of
the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and carbon-zinc cells have
different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH
cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other hand
the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium
cells emfs of 3 volts or more.
SWITCH INTERFACING:

CPU accesses the switches through ports. Therefore these switches are connected to a
microcontroller. This switch is connected between the supply and ground terminals. A single
microcontroller (consisting of a microprocessor, RAM and EEPROM and several ports all on a single
chip) takes care of hardware and software interfacing of the switch.

These switches are connected to an input port. When no switch is pressed, reading the input port
will yield 1s since they are all connected to high (Vcc). But if any switch is pressed, one of the input port
pins will have 0 since the switch pressed provides the path to ground. It is the function of the
microcontroller to scan the switches continuously to detect and identify the switch pressed.

The switches that we are using in our project are 4 leg micro switches of momentary type.

Vcc

P2.0

Gnd

Fig: Interfacing switch with the microcontroller

Thus now the two conditions are to be remembered:

 1. When the switch is open, the total supply i.e., Vcc appears at the port pin P2.0
P2.0 = 1

2. When the switch is closed i.e., when it is pressed, the total supply path is provided to ground.
Thus the voltage value at the port pin P2.0 will be zero.
P2.0 = 0

By reading the pin status, the microcontroller identifies whether the switch is pressed or not.
When the switch is pressed, the corresponding related to this switch press written in the program will be
executed.
Software Tools
KEIL SOFTWARE:

Keil compiler is a software used where the machine language code is written and
compiled. After compilation, the machine source code is converted into hex code which is to be
dumped into the microcontroller for further processing. Keil compiler also supports C language
code.

STEPS TO WRITE AN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAM IN KEIL AND HOW TO

COMPILE IT:

1. Install the Keil Software in the PC in any of the drives.

2. After installation, an icon will be created with the name “Keil uVision3”. Just drag this icon onto
the desktop so that it becomes easy whenever you try to write programs in keil.

3. Double click on this icon to start the keil compiler.

4. A page opens with different options in it showing the project workspace at the leftmost corner
side, output window in the bottom and an ash coloured space for the program to be written.
5. Now to start using the keil, click on the option “project”.
6. A small window opens showing the options like new project, import project, open project etc.
Click on “New project”.

7. A small window with the title bar “Create new project” opens. The window asks the user to give
the project name with which it should be created and the destination location. The project can be
created in any of the drives available. You can create a new folder and then a new file or can
create directly a new file.
8. After the file is saved in the given destination location, a window opens where a list of vendors
will be displayed and you have to select the device for the target you have created.
9. The most widely used vendor is Atmel. So click on Atmel and now the family of microcontrollers
manufactured by Atmel opens. You can select any one of the microcontrollers according to the
requirement.

10. When you click on any one of the microcontrollers, the features of that particular microcontroller
will be displayed on the right side of the page. The most appropriate microcontroller with which
most of the projects can be implemented is the AT89S52. Click on this microcontroller and have a
look at its features. Now click on “OK” to select this microcontroller.

11. A small window opens asking whether to copy the startup code into the file you have created just
now. Just click on “No” to proceed further.

12. Now you can see the TARGET and SOURCE GROUP created in the project workspace.
13. Now click on “File” and in that “New”. A new page opens and you can start writing program in it.
14. After the program is completed, save it with any name but with the .asm extension. Save the
program in the file you have created earlier.
15. You can notice that after you save the program, the predefined keywords will be highlighted in
bold letters.
16. Now add this file to the target by giving a right click on the source group. A list of options open
and in that select “Add files to the source group”. Check for this file where you have saved and
add it.
17. Right click on the target and select the first option “Options for target”. A window opens with
different options like device, target, output etc. First click on “target”.

18. Since the set frequency of the microcontroller is 11.0592 MHz to interface with the PC, just enter
this frequency value in the Xtal (MHz) text area and put a tick on the Use on-chip ROM. This is
 because the program what we write here in the keil will later be dumped into the microcontroller
and will be stored in the inbuilt ROM in the microcontroller.

19. Now click the option “Output” and give any name to the hex file to be created in the “Name of
executable” text area and put a tick to the “Create HEX file” option present in the same window.
The hex file can be created in any of the drives. You can change the folder by clicking on “Select
folder for Objects”.

20. Now to check whether the program you have written is errorless or not, click on the icon exactly
below the “Open file” icon which is nothing but Build Target icon. You can even use the shortcut
key F7 to compile the program written.

21. To check for the output, there are several windows like serial window, memory window, project
window etc. Depending on the program you have written, select the appropriate window to see
the output by entering into debug mode.

22. The icon with the letter “d” indicates the debug mode.

23. Click on this icon and now click on the option “View” and select the appropriate window to
check for the output.

24. After this is done, click the icon “debug” again to come out of the debug mode.

25. The hex file created as shown earlier will be dumped into the microcontroller with the help of
another software called Proload.
PROLOAD:

Proload is a software which accepts only hex files. Once the machine code is converted
into hex code, that hex code has to be dumped into the microcontroller placed in the programmer
kit and this is done by the Proload. Programmer kit contains a microcontroller on it other than the
one which is to be programmed. This microcontroller has a program in it written in such a way
that it accepts the hex file from the keil compiler and dumps this hex file into the microcontroller
which is to be programmed. As this programmer kit requires power supply to be operated, this
power supply is given from the power supply circuit designed above. It should be noted that this
programmer kit contains a power supply section in the board itself but in order to switch on that
power supply, a source is required. Thus this is accomplished from the power supply board with
an output of 12volts or from an adapter connected to 230 V AC.

Steps to work with Proload:

1. Install the Proload Software in the PC.

2. Now connect the Programmer kit to the PC (CPU) through serial cable.

3. Power up the programmer kit from the ac supply through adapter.

4. Now place the microcontroller in the GIF socket provided in the programmer kit.

5. Click on the Proload icon in the PC. A window appears providing the information like
Hardware model, com port, device type, Flash size etc. Click on browse option to select
the hex file to be dumped into the microcontroller and then click on “Auto program” to
program the microcontroller with that particular hex file.

6. The status of the microcontroller can be seen in the small status window in the bottom of
the page.

7. After this process is completed, remove the microcontroller from the programmer kit and
place it in your system board. Now the system board behaves according to the program
written in the microcontroller.
ADVANTAGES:

 Sophisticated security
 Monitors all hazards and threats
APPLICATIONS:

 Security purpose
 Remote monitoring,
 Agricultural applications
CONCLUSION

In This Project We Have Studied and Implemented A RF Based farmer friendly Agricultural
Robot with motorized shovel control System with automatic seed dispensing system for
REFERENCES

1. WWW. howstuffworks.com

2. EMBEDDED SYSTEM BY RAJ KAMAL

3. 8051 MICROCONTROLLER AND EMBEDDED SYSTEMS BY MAZZIDI

4. Magazines

5. Electronics for you

6. Electrikindia.

7. WWW.google.com

8. WWW.Electronic projects.com