International Journal of Research and Innovations in Earth Science
Volume 2, Issue 3, ISSN (Online) : 2394-1375
Geology of Rajpura-Dariba Group of Rocks
P. K. Yadav
Email: pyarekrishna@gmail.com
Abstract – Stratigraphic position of Rajpura-Dariba Group
of rocks has been worked out by different workers and
varied status has been given by them. These different views
have been discussed in the present paper, Considering
lithology, airborne and ground geophysics and
geochronological data in the present paper an attempt has
been made to compare these different views on the
stratigraphy. On the basis of presence of basal conglomerate,
volcanics and variation in the environment of deposition a
new threefold classification has been proposed. Stratigraphic
status of host lithology has been identified for use as tool for
prognostication of base metals in the Rajpura-Dariba Grou[
of rocks.
Keywords – Lithological Setup, Host Lithology,
Prognostication, Stratigraphy, Structure.
INTRODUCTION
Rocks of the Rajpura-Dariba-SindesarKhurd-Bethumbi-
Surawas area belong to Precambrians. Stratigraphic
position of these rocks has been worked out by different
workers and status of these rocks has been differently
given by them. According to these workers in general an
ensemble of gneiss-granite-amphibolite and associated
high grade sediments constitute the basement over which
successive younger metasediments and metavolcanic
cover sequences were deposited. According to a few an
unconformity separate basement rocks from the overlying
cover rocks. Status of high grade meta-sediments
according to these workers is either Lower Proterozoic or
Archean. According to a few workers Rajpura-Dariba
group of rocks rest on migmatised Aravallis. Rocks of
Rajpura-Dariba are equivalent to the Aravalli Supergroup
of rocks. The age for basement gneiss is Meso–Archean
and age for intrusive Untala granite is Neo-Archean.
However there is no dispute about status of Aravalli
Supergroup of rocks starting above unconformity and they
are of Lower Proterozoic age.
In Rajpura–Dariba belt mineralisation of lead and zinc
was established on the basis of gossan. Lead and Zinc are
the basic requirement of many industries. Almost all the
areas in Rajpura–Dariba belt which show oxidation and
also in the extension of all these areas gossans have been
searched for Lead and Zinc mineralisation. Recent deep
drilling by HZL in Rajpura-Dariba-SindesarKhurd has
increased earlier estimated reserves of Lead and Zinc. It
has given a new hope for searching additional targets of
Lead and Zinc in the Rajpura–Dariba belt. Rajpura–Dariba
has been explored extensively for several years using
sophisticated means. Thus, exploration geologists are
posed with a question of searching new ore sites based on
cost effective integrated techniques and discovery of
mineralised targets is thus, a challenge. Therefore,
exploration of lead and zinc requires review of all the data,
Copyright © 2015 IJRIES, All right reserved
89
collection of new data and in totality adopting a holistic
integrated approach to find new sites for exploration.
Study area lies around village Sindesar Khurd which is
accessible by road from Dariba mines and Rail Magra; a
Tehsil headquarter. The area consists of a physiographic
ridge composed of series of hills looking like a chain of
train bogies.
Stratigraphically the sequence in the Rajpura-Dariba
Group of rocks was considered by Gupta (1934) to belong
to Aravalli “system.” Later Raja Rao et al. (1971) of
Geological Survey of India recognized the cover sequence
to be Pre-Aravalli meta-sediments on the basis of
differences with the Aravalli‟s in lithology and grade of
metamorphism. In the major stratigraphic revision,
Geological Survey of India grouped the basement rocks
under the Mangalwar Complex and the cover meta-
sediments of Dariba area were grouped under Rajpura
Dariba Group of the Bhilwara Supergroup of Archean age
(Gupta et.al, 1980; 1995).
On the basis of Pb-Pb model ages of stratiform galena
occurrences which lie in Bhilwara Supergroup; showed
that they are all around 1.8 Ga old (Deb and Thorpe,
1989,2004) it was supported by Roy et al. (1981) on the
basis of tracing the structural and physical continuity of
the Aravalli superacrustals into Bhilwara rocks. Roy et al.
(1981) have claimed that they have traced continuity of
band of quartzite from southeast of Nathdwara, Nathuwas,
and Dhanera (south of Rajpura Dariba mines) to the west
and south of Bhinder. (Naha and Roy, 1983; Roy 1988,
1999) an idea originally mooted by Heron (1953) and
Crookshank (1948) and have indicated that the rocks of
Rajpura-Dariba rest on migmatised Aravallis. Rocks of
Rajpura-Dariba are thus equivalent to the Aravalli
Supergroup of rocks.
The rocks of Rajpura-Dariba unconformably overlie the
Potla formation of the Mangalwar Complex in the north
where as in the south near Dhanera and Akola an
unconformable relation is seen with the Lasaria Formation
of the Mangalwar Complex (Gupta et al., 1995, p.27).The
geological map of study area and surroundings (Roy,
2004) lacks study of aerogeophysical and gravity and
integrated data based evidences which have been earlier
studied by (Saurabh Ray and R. Srinivas Rao, 2000).
Tracing continuity of the band of quartzite from southeast
of Nathdwara, to Nathuwas, and Dhanera (south of
Rajpura Dariba mines) to the west and south of Bhinder
has evoked serious doubts (Saurabh Ray and R.Srinivas
Rao, 2004, GSI). According to Saurabh Ray and
R.Srinivas Rao (2004) there is absence of correlation
factor between aerogeophysical and gravity data with the
formations of Aravallis and Rajpura-Dariba belt.
According to him in the geophysical data there is clear
difference in basement and cover. The
linear/elliptical/ovoid shaped Proterozoic basins
 International Journal of Research and Innovations in Earth Science
equivalent to pre Aravalli sediments within Archean
gneisses geophysicaly comes out sharply in contrast to the
BGC. Similar to Roy (2004) based on discordant structural
relations, presence of folded unconformity, metamorphic
brakes and lithofacies contrasts between the migmatitic
substrate and the sedimentary cover, and intrusive
relationship of the Berach Granite (ca.2.5 Ga) with the
substrate migmatite and not with the cover rocks has led
Sinha Roy (1984 b) and Sinha-Roy et al. (1998) also to
give a judgment that the enclave rocks of BGC in
Bhilwara belt are isolated Proterozoic cover sequences in
synformal keels within the BGC gneisses. These belts
have been considered Paleo-Mesoproterozoic pull-apart
basins, genetically linked with regional strike slip faults by
Sinha-Roy in 1989.These strike slip faults were
responsible for opening of main Aravalli basin. The
lithostratigraphy of BGC is a composite rock sequence in
which Sinha-Roy (1985) first recognized dismembered
granite- greenstone sequence. Later Sinha-Roy (1993);
Mohanty and Guha, (1998, 1993a) have identified
komatiites, ultramafics, cherts, basic tuffs, graywackes,
amphibolites and carbonates. Greenstone affinity of BGC
is also indicated by Upadhyaya et.al. (1992).
REVIEW OF GEOPHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF
RAJPURA-DARIBA GROUP OF ROCKS
Rajpura-Dariba Group of rocks occurs as a linear
northeast-southwest basin. The Bhilwara
metasedimentaries Rajpura-Dariba Group of rocks (cover
rocks), are flanked by the basement rocks of the Banded
Gneisses, Mangalwar Complex (Gupta et al. 1995). This
linear alignment is further depicted in linearly arranged
volcano-sedimentaries and sulphide facies within
northeast-southwest extending shear. There are several
sub-parallel NE-SW trending faults indicating
intercontinental rift related development of Bhilwara
meta-sedimentary basin. In the Dariba-Sindesar Khurd-
Bamania Kalan area narrow gravity high of lower
amplitude is noticed; representing rift sites of deposition
of cover rocks. Cover rocks are characterised by abrupt
change in the magnetic intensity i.e. with higher
amptitude/wave length ratio of isomagnetics contours.
Cover rocks are characterised by narrow elongated zones
like chains of AEM zones. Over the basement rocks
magnetic contours 7200 gamma (except patchy highs over
metabasics or magnetic bearing rocks e.g. metapellites)
have much lower isomagnetic contour gradient that
becomes gentler on cover rocks. The average density of
metasediments varies from 2.6-2.7 gm/c.c., while the
mineralised zone has about 4.0 gm/c.c. A positive gravity
zone (with 8-10 milligals), is noticed over Rajpura-Dariba-
Sindesar Khurd area and it sharply abuts against a gravity
low located over Mangalwars. Gravity data looks like a
structural „horst‟ between a western and an eastern low.
Presence of i) linear intrusive granite ii) basement highs, at
several places intersected in drill holes, and iii) at the same
reduced level occurrence of meta-argillites and deep sea
sediments suggest that these basinal fault structures have
rejuvenated. Deposition of meta-sediments took place in
Copyright © 2015 IJRIES, All right reserved
90
Volume 2, Issue 3, ISSN (Online) : 2394-1375
such linear zones. Depositional basin had parallel horst
and half-graben structures. In these sites volcano-
sedimentary and exhalites of metal rich fluids were
deposited. The rifting was accompanied by development
of parallel minor shears, faults and fractures could have
resulted in formation of basement slices between adjacent
packages of Supracrustals.
The Rajpura–Dariba Group of rocks in Sindesar Khurd
area has been covered by airborne and ground geophysical
survey. From the study of airborne geophysical map,
depicting total intensity magnetic contours, Airborne
Electro Magnetic (A.E.M.) zones and mineralised
prospects the following features emerge:
i) In the total magnetic contour maps cover rocks stand
out prominently in the background of rocks of Mangalwar
complex. Cover rocks are characterised by abrupt change
in the magnetic intensity i.e. with higher amptitude/wave
length ratio of isomagnetic contours. Cover rocks are
characterised by narrow elongated zones like chains of
Airborne Electro Magnetic (AEM) zones. All the
prospects containing base metals have recorded strong
magnetic and AEM anomalies (6 to 5 channels i.e. IP/OP,
input, output, ratio >3) and are associated with the
magnetic discontinuities. The magnetic discontinuities
also reflect faults or ductile shear zones e.g. those trending
N-S, NNW-SSE, E-W and NS-SE in the present area.
Over the basement rocks magnetic contours 7200 gamma
(except patchy highs over metabasics or magnetic bearing
rocks e.g. metapellites) have much lower isomagnetic
contour gradient that becomes gentler on cover rocks.
ii) The metallotects are characterised by intersection of
faults in N-S and E-W which are reflected by magnetic
breaks and also associated with magnetic anomalies.
Rajpura-Dariba-Sindesar Khurd area has registered strong
magnetic response >13000 gamma due to presence of
banded iron formations, magnetite quartzite, iron sulphide
rich pellites.
iii) Corroboration of aerogeophysical anomalies with
regional geology is further reflected in aeromagnetics
displaying the tectonic trends differentiating clearly the
cover belts from the basement and also higher magnetic
susceptibility minerals and host rocks. Host rocks for
basemetals and shear zones show high order AEM
anomalies(Saurabh Ray and R.Srinivas Rao, 2004).
The ground geophysical data comprising electromagnetic
(EM), self potential (SP) and magnetic at wide interval
(170m) and close interval (80m), covering different strike
lengths selected on the geological criteria were used in
different sectors of the study area. The ground magnetic
data is useful in defining shear zones.
The residual gravity map (Reddi and Ramakrishna,
1981, 1998) depicts a very prominent lineament with sharp
gradient. The maps with sharp contrast mark an N-S
lineament coinciding with aeromagnetic discontinuities
which coincide with extensive shear zones. The average
density of metasediments varies from 2.6-2.7 gm/c.c.,
while the mineralised zone has about 4.0 gm/c.c. A
positive gravity zone (with 8-10 milligals), is noticed over
Rajpura-Dariba-Sindesar Khurd area and it sharply abuts
against a gravity low located over Mangalwars. Gravity
 International Journal of Research and Innovations in Earth Science
data looks like a structural „horst‟ between a western and
an eastern low. These features depict an ideal locale of ore
mineralisation. The gravity axis also depicts structural
trends. Further narrow gravity high over lower amplitude
represents rift sites of deposition of cover rocks. Seismic
soundings with hammer seismograph could detect
thickness of the overburden.
Resistivity values of different litho units of present area
overlap with the exception of graphitic mica schist. The
graphitic mica schist is marked by self potential lows 100-
250 and it can be distinguished from other rocks based on
resistivity profiling geophysical survey. Graphitic mica
schist shows resistivity values of the order of 2-10 ohm m
against high values 200-500 ohm m on other adjoining
rocks and over graphitic mica schist magnetic response is
flat. Quartz mica schist is characterised by flat magnetic
response where as amphibolite shows high magnetic
response. Quartz mica schist is characterised by highly
fluctuating resistivity values (300-500), while quartzite
gives (200-500) ohm m resistivity (Ramgopal and R.N.
Agarwal, 1993).
GSI has also carried out photogeological and remote
sensing studies of the area. It depicts several lineaments
and faults.
GEOCHRONOLOGICAL DATA OF RAJPURA-
DARIBA GROUP OF ROCKS
Geochronology indicates that BGC are Archean in age
3.5 Ga age from U-Pb data of Vinogradov et. al. (1964);
3307±65 Ma (Gopalan et al. 1990), Sm-Nd age, Roy and
Kroner (1996) obtained age of 3230± 5 Ma by single
zircon method, amphibolites from Rakhiawal gneisses
gave 2828±46 Ma whole rock Sm-Nd, cf; Gopalan et al.
(1990) and 3230 Ma (single zircon U-Pb, cf; data of
Goswami, et. al. (1994) suggested that metamorphic
zircon population ages in the range of 2800-2975, Roy and
Kroner, (1996) obtained. 2660±6 Ma for Untala Granite
intrusive in Mewar Gneisses by single zircon evoparation
and Mc Dougal et. al. (1983,84) dated Untala Granite by
Rb-Sr gave 2900 ±150. BGC is older than the intrusive
Berach Granite 2450 by single zircon U-Pb, cf.
Wiedenbeck et al., (1994) and 2533 Ma by whole rock Rb-
Sr, Crawford, (1970), 2610 Ma for Berach Granite. These
data suggest Meso-Archean age for the gneisses and Neo-
Archean age for associated intrusive Untala Granite.
Galena samples analysed from Dariba mines gave U-Pb
zircon age 1808-1931 Ma, Pb-Pb and model age 1799 Ma
(Deb and Thorpe, 2004;Deb et.al.1989) and Bamnia Kalan
in the northern part of Rajpura-Dariba belt gave Pb-Pb and
model age 1799 Ma (Deb and Thorpe op.cit.). Samples of
zircon from graphitic tuff band found in the hanging wall
side of Rajpura Dariba deposit were analysed for
determining U-Pb zircon age. Zircons were colourless,
slightly tan to pink. Most of the grains showed variable
morphology having rounded to subhedral outline.
Rounding of zircon grains has been explained by
resorption or by physical comminution, characteristics of
detrital zircons. A distinct colourless population of
minuscule prismatic grains, containing minute black
Copyright © 2015 IJRIES, All right reserved
91
Volume 2, Issue 3, ISSN (Online) : 2394-1375
mineral inclusions, was analyzed as representing primary
igneous grains. The 207Pb/206Pb ages of seven zircons
grains range from 2355-1808 Ma. If detrital character is
accepted then youngest age of 1808 Ma by 207Pb/206Pb
provides deposition age of tuff. The presence of a much
older detrital zircon in the Rajpura-Dariba tuff sample is
demonstrated by the 207Pb/206Pb age of 2355 Ma for the
pink zircon grain. Age of Tuff estimated from zircon
grains is 2355-1808 Ma. This age data gives unsatisfactory
data. If lead and zinc mineralisation is synsedimentary
than tuff and galena should have shown nearly same age.
Further that the tuffs occur at different stratigraphic level
and regional metamorphism up to amphibolite facies could
have readjusted Pb isotopes and would have formed
rounded zircons in tuffs but these have been indicated as
of detrital origin suggesting less significance of present
age data.
Oldest age of Aravallis is more than 1900Ma and less
than 2500Ma.
GEOLOGY OF RAJPURA-DARIBA GROUP OF
ROCKS
Rajpura–Dariba (RD) Group of meta-volcano-
sedimentary rocks has been considered in the present work
overlying the Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC) (Named
as Mangalwar Complex by Gupta et. al.1995). The
consideration is on the basis of discordant structural
relations (Sinha-Roy, 2004), basal polymict conglomerate
at Gavardi (Ameta and Sharma, 2008) and also basal
conglomerate around Dhanera and Akola (Gupta et al.
1995) where display of unconformable relation with the
underlying Lasaria Formation of the Mangalwar complex
and lithofacies contrasts between Aravalli Supergoup of
rocks and Mangalwars is clearly seen (Raja Rao et al.
1971). The Mangalwar lithologies have entirely different
characteristics in comparison with Aravalli Supergroup.
Most of metabasic samples from Wari, Ladana and Dariba
are komatitiic in nature (Saurabh Ray 2004). The typical
tholeiite, greywacke, carbonate, fuchsite quartzite
constitute Tanwan Group, younger sequence within
Mangalwars. The pellites within Mangalwars are entirely
free from graphitic bands. Heterogenity in Mangalwars
trend and contrast with Aravalli Supergroup at some
places, deformation in Mangalwars has been reported to be
different than that of Aravalli Supergroup (Saurabh Ray,
2004). All these characteristics of Mangalwars are
different than that of the Aravalli Supergroup and are
easily distinguishable. Attempt has been made during the
present work to trace continuity of band of quartzite from
southeast of Nathdwara, Nathuwas to Dhanera (south of
Rajpura Dariba mines) as reported by Roy et al. (1981)
which has been used by him to site an evidence that the
Rajpura Dariba Group of rocks are equivalent to Aravalli
Supergroup of rocks. But in these areas such continuity of
above reported quartzite is not seen. Contrary to it
quartzite occurs as detached band in BGC or an
assemblage of thin discontinuous quartzite and mica schist
has been noticed in BGC. Therefore, considering reports
of presence of conglomerate at Gavardi, Dhanera and
 International Journal of Research and Innovations in Earth Science
Akola, lithological contrast and different geophysical
properties in the rocks of Aravalli and rocks of BGC the
mega-enclave of cover rocks (Rajpura Dariba Group) of
BGC in Bhilwara belt have been considered as isolated
Archean cover sequences in synformal keels within the
BGC gneisses and are not equivalent to Aravalli
Supergroup. The rocks south of Dariba closure
(Sammaddar;1987), comprise biotite schists and quartzite
which extend in west up to Gavardi (Ameta and Sharma,
2008) and up to Dhanera and further in south up to
Bhinder (Basu 1964, Dutta,1970 and Gupta et
al.1980).The rocks up to Bhinder have also been included
in the Rajpura-Dariba belt in the present study. Rajpura-
Dariba belt extend beyond Bethumbi to Surawas-Bharak
as indicated by (Yadav and Sharma, 1991; Yadav
et.al.1991), (Deb and Pal, 2004). Comparisons of litho
stratigraphy of the study area with that of Pur-Banera
sequence suggest that both are similar and Banded Iron
Formation is present in the upper lithounits in both
sequences. Therefore, these stratigraphic successions are
comparable and suggest similar environment of deposition
and they are time equivalent.
The Mangalwar Complex (Gupta et al., 1980) is
exposed on either side of the metasedimentary cover,
Rajpura–Dariba Group of rocks. The Mangalwar Complex
comprises mainly granite gneisses, moderate to intensely
migmatised composite gneisses, feldspathised
metapellites, para amphibolites, hornblende schist and
numerous concordant metabasics. Meta sedimentary
enclaves are common e.g. Biotite, muscovite-chlorite and
sericite schists, fuchsite quartzite exposed near north of
Bhinder, ferruginous dolomite exposed south of Bhinder,
feldspathic quartzite with impersistent dolomite exposed
in Dariba, Udakhera. The Mangalwar lithologies have
entirely different charecrastics in comparison with
Aravalli Supergroup. In the Mangalwar lithologies most of
the metabasic samples of rocks from Wari, Ladana and
Dariba are komatitiic in nature (Saurabh Ray, 2004). The
amphibolites (typical tholeiite), greywacke, carbonate, and
fuchsite quartzite constitute Tanwan Group (younger
sequence within Mangalwars (Mohanty and Guha, 1994).
The pellites within Mangalwars are entirely free from
graphitic bands, heterogenity in Mangalwars trend and
contrast with Aravalli Supergroup at some places,
deformation in Mangalwars has been reported to be
different than Aravalli Supergroup (Saurabh Ray, 2004).
The Sindesar Khurd zinc and lead deposit is located in
the central part of the Rajpura–Dariba Group of rocks. The
Sindesar Khurd deposit is situated in the NE-SW trending
Sindesar ridge which prominently looks like a train. Meta-
volcano- sedimentary rocks of Rajpura–Dariba Group
occur in the Sindesar ridge. These have been correlated
with Aravalli Supergroup age ranging from 2500-2000
Ma, by Roy and Kataria, (1999) where as Gupta et al.
(1995) and in the present work these rocks have been
correlated with Bhilwara Supergroup on the basis of
intrusive Berach Granite which has been dated at 2610 Ma
(Sivaraman and Odom, 1982), Rajpura - Dariba Group of
rocks overlie gneisses and schists belonging to the
Archaean crystallines, an unconformity has been reported
Copyright © 2015 IJRIES, All right reserved
92
Volume 2, Issue 3, ISSN (Online) : 2394-1375
by Ameta and Sharma, (2008) marked by the presence of a
conglomerate at Gavardi, south-east of Dariba.
Conglomerate is polymictic and it separates BGC from
overlying formations of the Rajpura-Dariba Group.
Rock formations of the Rajpura-Dariba Group are made
up of interbanded sequence of tuffaceous mica schist / ash
beds, carbonaceous and argillaceous schist ( ± garnet ±
staurolite ± kyanite), tuffaceous / calcareous mica schist,
acid and basic volcanics, calc-silicates, dolomitic-marble,
quartzite, hematite bearing garnetiferous quartzite (Yadav
and Avadich, 2007), quartzite, conglomerate (Ameta and
Sharma, 2008) and amphibolite. In Sindesar Khurd area
only interlayer sequence of quartzite and tuffaceous mica
schist are exposed. Other rock types described above are
concealed under thick soil cover. Granite intruding into
Rajpura-Dariba formations was intersected in the
boreholes of Crown Mining Private Limited (CMPL).
Sammaddar, (1987) described stratigraphy of the Dariba
area and has shown Banded Gneissic Complex as the
basement rocks of Dariba-Bethumbi belt. Banded Gneissic
Complex is overlain by Bhilwara Supergroup of rocks
with an unconformity. In the younging direction basal
formations were described as dolomite/metabasic
rock/quartz biotite schist, in order of superposition
followed by carbonaceous schist (Pb-Zn-Fe sulphide
bearing) ±staurolite ±kyanite, next unit is inter banded
mica schist with lenses of calc silicate bearing
marble/dolomite (Pb-Zn-Fe sulphide bearing), chert
dominant/schist dominant/ferruginous chert
breccia/gossan, next unit is carbonaceous schist, Fe
sulphide bearing with staurolite and kyanite, it is overlain
by mica schist-chert/dolomite (Pb-Zn-Fe sulphide bearing)
and intrusive quartz vein. Yadav et al. (1990) described
stratigraphy of the Sindesar Khurd area and stated banded
gneiss as basement rocks belonging to Mangalwar
complex of Archean age which are overlain by metamarl a
footwall rock at places with diopside,garnet bearing calc
silicate skarn rock which is stratigraphically oldest rock of
study area in the mineralised ore zone, followed by
dolomite and calc silicate marble with 6-12% Pb-Zn
mineralisation, followed by in younging direction
tuffaceous calcareous mica schist having 3-4% Pb-Zn
mineralisation, followed by tuffaceous mica schist
interlayered with metachert and also included hematite
bearing garnetiferous quartzite (Yadav and Avadich,
2007). Yadav and Sharma (1991) have shown continuity
of Dariba-Bethumbi belt in NE direction up to Surawas.
Ameta and Sharma (2008) revised earlier geological map
of Dariba-Bethumbi belt by Samaddar(1987). According
to them feldspathic gneisses and migmatites of Mangalwar
complex occur forming base on which Bhilwara
Supergroup rest with an unconformity. The basal
formations were considered conglomerate followed
upward in younging direction by quartzite, metapsammite
and amphibolite, followed by dolomitic marble, mica
schist, meta marl and amphibolite bands, tuffaceous
calcareous carbonaceous schist ±garnet ±graphite±
kyanite± staurolite with greywacke, calc-gneiss, marble,
dolomite and sulphides of Pb+Zn, cherty quartzite and
schist and tuff/marble and dolomite, carbonaceous schist
 International Journal of Research and Innovations in Earth Science
±garnet ±staurolite ±kyanite, marble and dolomite with
sulphide bands, intruded by dolerite dyke, vein quartz and
youngest gossan.
STRATIGRAPHY OF THE SINDESAR KHURD
AREA
During present study stratigraphy has been developed
(Table.1) on the basis of surface geological data and
borehole studies on the drill cores of CMPL. Borehole
studies have indicated that meta-volcano-sedimentary
rocks of Sindesar Khurd area unconformably overlie on
the Banded Gneissic Complex of Archean age. Drill cores
of CMPL have indicated presence of intrusive granite in
the area. Present work suggests that the enclave rocks of
BGC in Bhilwara belt are isolated cover sequences in
synformal keels within the BGC gneisses. In the Sindesar
ridge interlayer sequence of tuffaceous mica schist and
quartzite is exposed. Other rocks were intersected in the
boreholes and are concealed 150m below soil cover.
Stratigraphicaly rock types of cover sequence of Sindesar
Khurd have been divided on the basis of i) presence or
absence of volcanics and ii) environment of deposition.
Cover sequence of Sindesar Khurd have been divided into
three main lithostratigraphic units, from base to top
namely as: 1.Lower unit, 2.Middle unit, and 3.Upper unit.
Stratigraphyic sequence of Sindesar Khurd rock types is
given in Table – 1.
Mangalwar Complex of Bhilwara Supergroup
(Basement rocks): Mangalwar complex of Bhilwara
Supergroup constitute the basement for the Rajpura-
Dariba Group of rocks. The main rock types in this group
include banded gneiss, migmatite displaying different
structures like banded, augen, agamatic, granite gneiss,
muscovite sericite schist, mica schist, quartz mica schist,
quartzite and amphibolite. These rocks have been intruded
by granite, aplite, pegmatite and quartz veins. These
basement rocks are exposed in the eastern and western
contact zone of Rajpura-Dariba Group of rocks. Overlying
the gneisses a polymict conglomerate has been reported by
Ameta and Sharma, (2008) marking unconformity.
The rock types like banded gneiss, migmatite,
feldspathic gneiss, psammitic gneiss, grey quartzite, mica
schist, amphibolite constitute the basement which are
either noticed intersected in the drill holes or exposed in
the southwestern and eastern contact with the cover rocks.
These rocks are exposed in the low lying flat ground in the
east and west at the margins of Rajpura-Dariba Group of
rocks. The contact is covered under soil. At the western
contact, mica schists dominate. The gneissic rocks exhibit
granoblastic, porphyroblastic and gneissic texture. The
gneissic rocks comprise quartz, k-feldspar, microcline,
perthite, albite, biotite, muscovite, garnet, chlorite,
epidote, hornblende, and opaques. Thin bands of quartzite
are seen in biotite schists.
Migmatite is dominant rock. Paleosome of the
migmatite is dominantly biotite schist. At few places
amphibolite also occur with biotite in the paleosome. The
neosomes comprise rock displaying granoblastic texture
and consists of k-feldspar and quartz with minor albite.
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Migmatites show stromatotic (neosome occur as layers),
agmatitic, nebulitic and ptygmatic structures.
Pegmatite, calcite and quartz veins: In the Mangalwar
complex these rocks occur as thin to 1-2 m wide veins
parallel or oblique to the foliation. The pegmatite mainly
contains feldspar, quartz, muscovite and biotite. Thin few
millimeter thick calcite veins are seen in migmatite, biotite
schist and amphibolite. Thin bands of amphibolites are
seen in the migmatite and biotite schists. These show
schistose texture and comprise hornblende, quartz, calcite,
altered feldspar, chlorite, biotite, actinolite and minor
opaques. North-east of Gavardi near Anjana „Tourmalinite
rock‟ composed of 80% tourmaline, muscovite, quartz,
minor feldspar and biotite were noticed near thick quartz
veins in sheared gneissic rocks.
In the bore holes, gneissic and migmatitic rocks show
sharp contact with overlying RD rocks e.g. meta-marl,
marble interlayer with mica schist and mica schist.
However near Gavardi in the southern part of the belt
overlying the gneisses a polymict conglomerate horizon
has been reported by Ameta and Sharma, (2008) marking
unconformity with RD rocks.
Table 1:- Lithostratigraphic succession of the Sindesar
Khurd area
Quartz Vein, pegmatite and aplite.
Intrusive
Granite
Upper Unit:
Interbanded cherty quartzite at places
arkosic and mica schist / ash bed /
tuffaceous mica schist / graphite mica
schist, Hematite bearing garnetiferous
quartzite
Middle Unit:
Rajpura – Limonitised graphite mica schist, silicified
Dariba /gossanised ferruginous chert breccia
Group Graphite±garnet±staurolite±kyanite mica
schist, micaceous cherty dolomite, calc-
silicate marble, acid-basic volcanics,
tuffaceous / calcareous / carbonaceous /
mica schist
Lower Unit:
Marble, amphibolite, meta-marl, quartzite
and polymict conglomerate
……………… Unconformity …………………
Mangalwar
Migmatite Gneisses and schists
Complex
RAJPURA-DARIBA GROUP OF ROCKS
The rocks of this group overlie Mangalwar Complex. It
has been divided into three units viz. Lower Unit, Middle
unit and Upper Unit.
1. Lower Unit: The Basal unit of Sindesar Khurd area
comprises calcareous schists with meta-marl and
dolomitic/calc silicate rocks with bands of amphibolite
resting unconformably on the gneissic basement. All
different units of this assemblage show discordant
transgressive contacts and abrupt terminations having
disrupted continuity with the migmatite. The gneissic
 International Journal of Research and Innovations in Earth Science
basement is an irregular surface, fault bounded and in the
basement surface highs and lows are noticed on which
basal calcareous unit rests unconformably. A polymict
conglomerate consisting of granite gneiss, banded gneiss,
amphibolites. Quartzite, magnetite quartzite, fuchsite
quartzite, biotite schist, muscovite schist, amphibolites
occur as pebbles in the conglomerate.
2. Middle Unit: This unit is separated from lower and
upper unit because it contains volcanic and volcanoclastic
and synsedimentary rocks. It is overlying the calcareous
schist of the Lower Unit with this unit is having
transgressive contact and mailnly volcano – sedimentary.
This unit comprises rocks formed during sedimentation
contemporaneous with volcanism. Volcano – sedimentary
unit is composed of lavas of mafic and acid composition,
volcanoclastic rocks and synsedimentary rocks. Volcanic
rocks represent bimodality. Marginal brecciation of
volcanic rocks with phyllite and quartzite unit is noted.
Volcanic rocks show sharp contact with sedimentary
rocks. The contact of the volcanic rock fragments show
chilled margin with quartzite. It displays chilled sharp
contact of acid volcanics with quartzite. Volcanics also
occur as small size irregular shaped fragments in argillitic
and arenaceous sediments. Slump structures are noticed in
the sediments. It indicates that sedimentation and
volcanism were simultaneous. Middle rock unit
conformably overlie Lower unit. This unit comprises
bimodal volcanics, ash beds, tuffaceous/mica schist with ±
garnet ± staurolite ± kyanite ± graphite,
graphitic/calcareous schist, and thin dolomitic marble
bands, calc- silicate marble and thin quartzite. Volcanic
rocks occur in the middle parts of this stratigraphic
succession. Dolomite, graphite mica schist, meta-
tuffaceous / mica schist, calcareous / mica schist with ±
garnet ± staurolite ± kyanite ± graphite, acid and basic
volcanics and brecciated dolomite and marble are the host
rock for lead and zinc ores. Middle unit is partially
exposed and all varieties of rocks described above were
intersected in the boreholes.
3. Upper Unit: This unit is separated from middle and
lower unit because it contains Hematite bearing
garnetiferous quartzite.This unit is composed of alternate
bands of tuffaceous mica schist and cherty quartzite. At
places in the schistose bands which alternate with cherty
quartzite comprise graphite schist with ash beds and
tuffaceous mica schist are noticed. The tuffaceous mica
schist and quartzite bands are few centimeters to few
meters thick. Hematite bearing garnetiferous quartzite is
also noticed near Dariba mines shaft. Ash beds display
fine laminations and comprise altered volcano clasts of
acid volcanics and the contact with quartzite is erosive. It
displays thin laminations in volcanic ash and quartzite and
both occur inter laminated. Presence of volcanic ash in
quartzite indicates that volcanic eruption centers were far
away. Rock displays irregular erosion surface of volcanic
ash on which arenaceous sediments were deposited. These
features indicate that the deposition of sediments was
simultaneously with volcanism. Upper unit of interlayer
tuffaceous mica schist and cherty quartzite unit
conformably overlie middle unit. Quartzite shows bedding
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marked by compositional layering and sedimentary
structures like convolute bedding. Quartzite at times
contain detrital grains of feldspar thus arkosic. At places
within quartzite thin fragments of basic volcanics are
noticed. Irregular shaped large and fine size fragments of
basic volcanics are seen in quartzite.
DETAILS OF GEOLOGY OF HOST ROCKS OF PB
– ZN MINERALISATION OF SINDESAR KHURD
Lead–Zinc mineralisation in Sindesar Khurd is hosted
by volcano-sedimentary rocks. The other host rocks
comprise graphite-mica schist, cherty dolomitic- marble,
acid volcanics and tuffaceous/calcareous mica schist.
Details of petrography of these rocks are given below.
Tuffaceous mica schist: Light gray to green and
foliated schistose rock occurs interlayered with cherty-
quartzite (Described in next unit) and it also occurs in the
foot wall of ore zone and intersected in the drill holes
drilled in the Sindesar ridge. It consists of fine grained
schistose laminated mica schist with layers, bands or small
fragments of volcanoclastic rocks and comprises quartz,
microcline, plagioclase, biotite, minor chlorite, muscovite,
sericite, carbonate, and garnet (almandine), graphite,
occasionally staurolite and kyanite. It also contains
euhedral feldspar mostly altered, opaques, devitrified
glass, carbonaceous dust, tremolite, actinolite, sphene and
unrecognizable microlites, glass shreds, microlites and
microcline laths indicating tuffaceous nature. Under
microscope and in drill cores flow layering is noticed.
Glass shows shredded nature and remains dark grey to
dark under crossed nicols and it is devitrified. Occurrence
of detrital quartz grains is also a common feature which
displays overgrowth retaining the original boundary in
some cases. On the weathered surface decomposed
feldspars occur as kaolinitic clay comprising laths of
microcline and quartz.
Tuffaceous mica schist interlayered with cherty
quartzite: Mica schist and tuffaceous mica schist of 0.5m
to 5-12m thickness occurs interlayer with cherty quartzite
in the Sindesar ridge and foot hills. Schistose rocks show
layers of mica schist, meta-tuff and fine grained
volcanoclastic rocks. On the surface these rocks occur as
circular to elliptical fragments which are kaolinitic altered
feldspars. The schistose portions display intergrown garnet
and graphite. Megascopically it contains quartz,
muscovite, graphite ± garnet (almandine) ±staurolite
±kyanite ±biotite. It is gray with cherry red coatings due to
alteration of pyrite grains. Schistose rocks show sharp
contact with quartzite. The composite interlayer sequence
is having gradational contact with underlying calcareous
mica schist and tuffaceous mica schist. It also occurs in the
foot wall of ore zone as intersected in the drill hole. Under
microscope it shows quartz, biotite, minor chlorite,
muscovite and garnet (almandine) and occasionally
staurolite and kyanite, euhedral feldspar, devitrified glass,
glass shreds and microlites and microcline laths indicate
tuffaceous nature. Under microscope flow layering is also
noticed. On the weathered surface decomposed feldspars
 International Journal of Research and Innovations in Earth Science
occur as kaolinitic clay comprising laths of microcline and
quartz.
The grey, buff and white cherty quartzite comprises
95% quartz, muscovite, occasional pyrite grains and
altered feldspar. Minor amount of biotite, tourmaline,
chlorite and zircon is also noticed. The detrital grains of
quartz are noticed in the matrix of sericite, biotite. It also
shows interlocking texture in grains of quartz with often
undulose extinction. At places thin chert bands traverse
parallel to foliation.
Graphite mica schist: It is dark grey foliated and
overlies tuffaceous mica schist and at times occurs
interlayered with dolomitic marble. It comprises graphite,
biotite, chlorite, muscovite and quartz. It also shows
tuffaceous features. On the weathered surface feldspars are
altered to clay. In the drill cores devitrified glass is seen.
Graphite occurs as black cloudy mass. In thin sections
crystals of staurolite, garnet and kyanite are noticed. When
this rock is noticed near acid volcanic, thin intrusive layers
of acid volcanics are seen in it. Flow banding of volcanics
is noticed swirling around phenocrysts. When mineralized,
it contains disseminatios and bands of pyrite and
pyrrhotite sphalerite and galena. It is also interlayered with
carbonates light colour bands comprising carbonates and
dark layers graphite schist.
Calcareous mica schist: Dirty greenish gray, light
purple and foliated rock consisting of calcite, dolomite,
biotite, chlorite, quartz and garnet. It shows gradational
contact with dolomitic marble and also occurs
interbanded. Occasionally it occurs interlayered with
graphite mica schist. Along foliations thin laminations,
disseminations and veins of pyrite, galena and sphalerite
occur in these rocks.
Meta-marl: It is purple, black and greenish purple and
occurs at times interlayered with thin bands of
marble/dolomite. It occurs in the foot wall of mineralised
ore bodies. Schistose bands comprise biotite, calcite,
dolomite and quartz. Schistose part occasionally exhibits
graphite. Micaceous layers show schistose texture and
carbonate rich bands are granulose. Schistose bands
are1cm to 1m wide and carbonate bands are also equally
thick. It shows gradational contact with marble and
overlying carbonates.
Dolomitic–marble and Calc-silicate: Gray, pink,
light green, bluish shades of dolomitic marble/calc-
silicate/dolostone are coarse to medium grained, display
banding and contain calcite, dolomite, tremolite, actinolite,
diposide, quartz, biotite, chlorite, muscovite, epidote and
garnet in abundance of one of these minerals or aggregate
of a few minerals in various proportions. It exhibits
granoblastic texture. In the massive mineralized zone it is
brecciaed. It is main host rock for sphalerite and galena. It
displays gradational contact with calcareous mica schist.
When it is in contact with calcareous mica schist gray
purple marl is noticed at the contact. The dolostone
consists of medium- to coarse-grained white sparry
dolomite that has replaced a fine-grained dolostone host.
Volcanic rocks and facies analysis: The volcanic
rocks are associated with mineralisation and occur in the
footwall and exhibit facies variations which have not been
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reported earlier from the present area. Facies types and
their associations with ore bearing litho units have been
distinguished according to their descriptive volcanic and
sedimentary features. These include composition of facies
and their geometry, lateral and vertical variations of
volcanic and sedimentary textures, fragmentation and
transportation. Emplacement process of the volcanoclastic
rocks has been evaluated in the present study to assess the
origin of volcanoclastic rocks and their mode of
emplacement. These rocks occur in the footwall of
massive ore zones. These studies are described here as
follows.
(A) Acid volcanic facies: In this facies, extrusive and
intrusive acid volcanic rocks noticed in the drill cores have
been included. Acid volcanic rocks depending upon
degree of fragmentation, include coherent (none
fragmented), peperitic acid volcanic facies and autoclastic
rocks. Coherent facies grade into autoclastic and
surrounding sedimentary rocks. Intrusive acid volcanic
rocks also occur in the form of thin dykes.
(A i) Non-fragmental acid volcanic rocks: They
comprise of porphyritic to apharitic acid volcanic igneous
rocks. Phenocrysts of embayed quartz grains, biotite flakes
up to 2mm and altered feldspar grains up to 5mm in size
occur in the rocks. These phenocrysts occur in fine-
grained matrix which is composed of aggregate of quartz,
feldspar, carbonate, sericite and chlorite exhibiting
spherulitic and micropoikilitic texture. Mesoscopic
structures include flow banding, flow / slump folds and
laminations. Irregular shaped unsupported clasts of
volcanics rest on flow bands indicating slump structures
and black layers represent flow layer. Coherent facies are
enclosed by autoclastic facies. Acid volcanics fragments
have been noticed displaying chilled contacts with the
quartzite.
(Aii) Autoclastic Acid Volcanic facies: The facies
comprise monomict poorly sorted breccia of acid volcanic
composition and occurring wide spread over distance of
nearly 150 m. The autoclasts of acid volcanics are blocky
in shape with slightly rounded and matching surfaces of
few millimeters to centimeters size and are flattened
parallel to main foliation of Dariba rocks. Flow banding is
parallel to Dariba foliation. Texturally it consists of biotite
and occasional plagioclase and K-feldspar phenocrysts
altering to sericite and carbonates. The groundmass is
extensively altered to chlorite, sericite, silica and
carbonate bearing assemblage. In these diffused to
moderate flow banding is seen with spherulite.
The autoclastic acid volcanic facies rocks displays
porphyritic to aphanitic texture and flow layering. These
represent insitu brecciation. The autoclastic insitu
fragmentation texture suggests hydroclastic fragmentation
and indicates that water is involved in cooling of magma
(Mc Phie. et.al, 1993). There is little evidence of clast
transport. Local areas of autoclastic facies without insitu
breccia textures are attributed to strong clast rotation (Cas,
1992). Zones of fragments are surrounded by coherent
facies and within matrix thin layers of mud are seen
indicating that acidic lavas were emplaced in the wet
sediments.
 International Journal of Research and Innovations in Earth Science
(Aiii) Peperitic Acid Volcanic facies: These facies
include acid volcanic clasts in sedimentary matrix. It is
attributed to shallow magmatic emplacement in wet,
poorly unconsolidated sediments. It involves mixing of
hydroclasts and magma (Soriano and Marti, 1999). These
peperitic insitu acid volcanic facies consist of insitu clast
supported, hyaloclastite breccias with sandy to arkosic
matrix and occur in the marginal part of acid volcanic
packages. Hyaloclasts are of millimeters to few
centimeters in size. These hyaloclastites grade into
coherent acidic volcanic facies. Matrix is altered to
chlorite, sericite, carbonates and quartz. Intrusion near
sedimentary rocks exhibit chilled margins against
sediments. The sediment matrix is silicified and exhibits
marginal recrystalisation of grains near chilled contact.
(B) Mafic Volcanic facies: The mafic volcanic facies
include those rock types which form from the
emplacement of basaltic magmas. Mafic facies have been
divided into coherent and autoclastic facies according to
their structural features.
(B i) Coherent Mafic Facies: Some of the mafic
volcanic rocks in Rajpura Dariba belt are coherent (non
fragmental) altered basalt with an equigranular texture of
intergrown crystals. They are composed of highly altered
plagioclase and clinopyroxene crystals with minor quartz,
biotite and sericite. They occur as very thin bands
alternating with quartz rich layers.
(B ii) Autoclastic Mafic facies: These facies comprise
monomict, poorly sorted breccia of mafic blocky shape
with angular to rounded surfaces of centimeters size.
Irregular shaped and altered clasts of basic volcanics are
noticed in acid volcanic. Angular disoriented fragments of
basic volcanics in leucocratic acid volcanic indicate
vocanic breccias. Pyrrhotite is seen parallel to flow lines.
Sometimes they occur as thin sills in acid volcanic and
vice versa. These autoclastic mafic volcanic rocks display
relict porphyritic texture. These represent insitu
brecciation and suggest hydroclastic brecciation (Waters
and Wallace, 1992). The rock shows phenocrysts of
pyroxene altering to epidote, quartz and grains of
plagioclase and the fine grained ground mass is composed
of quartz, chlorite, biotite, sericite and carbonate.
(C) Reworked Volcanic facies: In contrast to the
primary volcanic facies, in the reworked volcanic facies
there is absence of structures formed by hot emplacement
such as flow layering. This facies comprise tabular
massive beds displaying weak erosive bases, irregular ash
bed surface indicating erosion. Large size fragments and
fine fragments indicate depositon near the source. The
beds are heterogeneous in composition, clast supported
coarse sandstone. The facies is mainly composed of
quartz, biotite and fragments of volcanic rocks. The
textural inhomogenity is attributed to reworking and
mixing of clasts from different sources. Rock exhibits
grading and suggest transport and deposition from high-
density mass flow. The grain size of sediments suggests
that the mass flow was non-cohesive. Occasional erosive
base suggest a weakly turbulent transport mechanism
(Soriano and Marti, 1999). These are massive, monomict
and also polymict breccia types. Pebbles of acid and basic
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volcanics occur in the quartz-sericite-ground mass of fine-
grained nature. The volcanics show chilled margin and at
the contact sediments show recrystallisation.
(D) Slope Instability facies: Slope instability facies has
been distinguished in order to highlight the basin
paleotopography. It comprises volcanic rock types
attributed to the gravitational failure of slope surfaces and
exhibit synsedimentary deposition of beds. It includes
slumped, and synsedimentary faulted beds that are
interbedded with undisturbed beds. These are considered
non-pyroclastic but deposited by gravity. The deposition is
attributed to synsedimentary faulting and dislocation of
volcanics and transported, reworked and deposited with
sand sediments; few rounded grains are also seen. Such
features indicate heterogenity and poor sorting (Soriano
and Marti1999).
ERUPTIVE STYLE OF VOLCANICS
Monomict mafic volcanolastic rocks lateraly grade into
peperitic facies and acid volcanics. Monomict acid
volcanic rocks become fine-grained and thin upward.
Volcanics form amalgamated beds within fine-grained
clastic and argillitic sediments. Slope instability volcanic
facies are interbedded with arkosic-meta sandstone. The
facies association suggests that basic magma preceded
acid volcanism. Volcanism was through faults and
volcanic debris was deposited near the source in meta-
arenites by gravity.
CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIP OF
VOLCANIC ROCK
Contact between acid and basic volcanics is sharp, mafic
volcanoclastic fragments occur in acidic lavas suggest
mafic volcanism preceded acid volcanism. Volcanism was
synchronous with sedimentation and when sediments were
poorly consolidated. Reworked angular and tabular
volcaniclastics suggest deposition near source and
synchronous with faulting. Deepening of basin was due to
faulting. Volcanism was explosive and pyroclastics could
have formed in shallow basin near the areas of massive
sulfide deposition. Occurrence of peperitic facies also
supports shallow emplacement. Pebbles of acid and basic
volcanics occur in the quartz-sericite-ground mass of fine-
grained nature. The volcanics show chilled margin and at
the contact sediments show recrystallisation.
MAGMATISM
Intrusive synkienematic granite is noticed showing
sharp contacts with phyllite–quartzite unit, volcano-
sedimentary unit and calcareous units. Intrusion of granite
has produced thermal metamorphic rocks in the
metasedimentary units like phyllite and calcareous rocks.
Andalusite has developed in the schists and skarn minerals
like garnet and diopside have developed in the marble
indicating thermal metamorphism at the contact of granite.
Recrystallisation of quartzite and quartz-arenites is noticed
 International Journal of Research and Innovations in Earth Science
near the contact of granite. The granite shows foliation at
some places and foliation is parallel to the main foliation
of Dariba rocks. The granite rock is pale cream in colour
and exhibits granular hypidiomorphic texture. It consists
of microcline which is mostly altered, perthite intergrowth,
albite, quartz, biotite, muscovite, sericite, zircon and
opaques.
HYDROTHERMAL FACIES
Sindesar Khurd mineralised area exhibits different ore
morphology at different places comprising startabound ore
lenses of polymetallic sulfides of a few meters thickness.
Based on borehole data of the Geological Survey of India
(GSI) and CMPL these have been grouped into three
categories (facies) depending on the internal structure (i)
Vent Complex Facies (ii) Bedded Ore Facies (iii) Distal
Sedimentary Ore Facies (Goodfellow,2004). These three
types have been located in the boreholes drilled by GSI
and CMPL. In the western most part (Borehole NSRU – 3,
9, 28), (Bore hole NSRU-5, 7) in the mineralised zone
hosted in marble enclosing rounded to angular fragments
of blocky marble and calcareous tuffaceous schist occurs
with massive sulfides. In two more sections similar
features have been described under heading „description of
ore bodies in the profiles‟. It indicates a fault zone filled
by massive sulfides. In contrast to the layered appearance
of the bedded ore facies these hydrothermal stratabound
vent complex facies are heterogeneous and composed of
massive zones, replacement patches, and disseminations of
sulphides. Mineral assemblage is dominant galena,
sphalerite, pyrite and pyrrhotite. At the same place
coarsely crystalised Pb+Zn sulphides occur with fine
grained sulphides. Structures in vent complex indicate
reaction of up flowing ore fluids with host sediments
resulting in replacement. Vent complex hydrothermal
facies have a zone of reaction between up flowing ore
fluids and footwall sediments, which is called feeder pipe
zone. The extent of feeder pipe zone is dependent on
physical properties and mineralogy of footwall lithologies,
temperature and chemical composition of ore fluids. Host
sediments are altered veined and brecciated. Alteration
minerals are muscovite, chlorite, carbonates and quartz.
Sulphide content in the alteration zones is low. In the
Sindesar Khurd area, the feeder zone appears to be rooted
in a synsedimentary fault zone. Fault disrupted
laminations indicate synsedimentary fault (Soriano &
Marti, 1999). Abrupt facies changes, fault breccia, debris
flow, and disoriented host rock blocks are the evidences of
faulting. Presence of rotated blocks of host sedimentary
and volcanic rocks and deformation features like tectonic
foliation in galena indicate that ore fluids passed through
fault (Large, 1980). Volume of brecciated blocks is less in
comparison to that of ore minerals it indicates probably
there were multiple episodes of hydrothermal discharge
from the same vent.
The feeder pipes are represented by silicified siltstone,
meta-volcanic rocks fractured and brecciated meta- silty
rocks and carbonate rocks. These rocks are filled by veins
of ore minerals of Pb and Zn. The sediments are intensely
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brecciated near the core of the feeder pipe either by
syndepositional faults or by tectonic movement. The wall
rocks bear evidence of alterations in the form of sericite,
chlorite, carbonate, and muscovite along with
silicifications. Thus hydrothermal faciess comprises
startabound ore lenses of polymetallic sulfides of several
meters thickness. Depending on the internal structure the
facies may be divided into (i) Vent Complex Facies (ii)
Bedded Ore Facies (iii) Distal Sedimentary Ore Facies
(Goodfellow, 2004). These three types have been located
in the boreholes drilled by GSI and CMPL. General
characters of the mineral deposit are described further
under general characteristics of the mineral deposit.
STRUCTURE OF THE AREA
Stratigraphically the total sequence in the Bhilwara
basin was first described by Gupta (1934) and then Heron
(1935 a,b; 1953) and they considered it belonging to
Aravalli System. Later GSI workers Raja Rao et al. (1971)
recognized the cover sequence to be Pre Aravalli meta-
sediments. The study area was geologically mapped on
scale 1:63360 scale by R.K.Mathur (1963) and Dutta
(1967). In the regional geological map of the Rajpura-
Dariba belt based on photogeological interpretations on
1:63,360 scale prepared by Poddar and Chatterjee, (1964-
65) and in the geological maps prepared by R.K.Mathur
(1963), and Dutta (1967) continuity of Rajpura-Dariba
formations have been shown extending up to several
kilometers south of Dariba. Later Sammaddar (1987)
prepared geological map of the area from Dariba to
Bethumbi on 1:10,000 scale and indicated that Dariba-
Bethumbi is a doubly plunging synform which closes in
the south at Dariba and Bethumbi in north.
Three phases of folding (F1, F2 and F3) have been
recognized in the Sindesar Khurd ridge area (Plate 5B)
(Yadav, 1991); (Yadav et al. 1991); (Yadav and Sharma,
1992); (Yadav et al. 1993). Earliest F1 folds are preserved
limitedly and are reclined with ESE and axial plane
trending N-S steeply dipping towards east and coaxial
with F2. Folds of third generation F3 are upright with E-W
axial trace causing instability of F3 leading to culmination
and depressions.
Near Dariba in the Rajpura-Dariba regional synformal
eastern limb has been shown hosting Dariba east lode and
which extend from Dariba-Mokanpura-Sindesar Kalan
east to Bamnia-Bethumbi east where as western limb has
been shown extending from Dariba-Rajpura-Malikhera-
Railmagra-Jitawas-Bamnia-Kalan ka Khera-Bethmbi.
Sammaddar (1987) has shown meta-sedimentaries closing
1.5 km northeast of Bethumbi village and Dariba area
forming hinge of the mega fold in south. The lithounits
form a tight isoclinal synformal F2 fold, with axial plane
trending N-S to N5°E-S5°W with a steep dip towards east.
Synformal closure at Bethumbi was shown plunging (20°-
45°) towards WSW and at Dariba (55°-60°) towards ENE
(Sammaddar 1987). The Rajpura-Dariba belt was
designated as the western limb of Banera-Bhinder synform
(Basu, 1964; Dutta, 1970; Gupta et al. 1980). In the
Sindesar ridge cherty quartzite interlayered with
 International Journal of Research and Innovations in Earth Science
tuffaceous mica schist shows tight isoclinals folding and
polyphase deformation.
The area exhibits multi phases of deformation giving
rise to complex structural geometry to the units and
mineralised zones. The structural features observed in the
area are described below:
Primary structures
Bedding plane and slump structures are observed as
primary features as described below.
Bedding plane (SO): Bedding plane is recognisable on
all the lithounits. It is recognised on the basis of color
banding and compositional variations. However, it is
difficult to recognize bedding plane in massive chert bands
and highly metamorphosed schists. The general strike of
SO varies between N-S and N 30° E - S 30° W with 40°-
60° easterly dips.
Lamination: Marble and schist bands show laminated
character and this may be due to original sedimentation
conditions. Alternate thin lamina of marble and schist is
typical feature of the marl sediments, which have been
metamorphosed.
Secondary structures
The area has suffered multiphase deformation and
metamorphism, which formed different secondary
structures defined by planar and linear structure. These are
described below.
Foliation plane (S1): These are penetrative secondary
planar structures present in schists on regional scale. In
general, S1 is found sub parallel to the S0 with N-S trend,
however, it shows oblique trend near the closure of F1
folds. The parallel orientation of fine and coarse flakes of
mica with other lath shaped and elongated minerals
constitutes foliation plane (S1) in schistose rocks. Pyrite,
pyrrhotite, sphalerite and galena are found to occur along
these foliations.
Crenulation foliation (S2): These have developed
over the S1 with small angle and are crenulated flaky
minerals. These are best developed in the interbanded
schists with cherty quartzite. These are also observed in
the cores of boreholes. Sulfide minerals are seen along
these planes as remobilised ores. The general trend of S2 is
NNE - SSW with 70° - 80°easterly dip.
Folds
The folds of three deformations have been recognized in
the area which exhibit different geometry and style. The
characters of folds belonging to each deformation are
described as under:
Folds of first phase (F1): The tight, overturned,
isoclinal, slip or similar folds belong to F1 deformation.
The amplitude of these fold is more than the wave length
(a/s > 1, a = amplitude, s = wave length). The F1 folds
phase shows different geometry like upright, recumbent
and neutral folds due to later deformation. These folds are
mapped on macro scale and are observed in the mica
schist with cherty quartzite bands exposed in the South
Sindesar Ridge area. However, on meso scale these are
invariably observed in the area. The axial trace of F1, in
general, trends NNE-SSW with 45° easterly dips, however,
it also dips due west at different angle due to later
deformation. During this deformation, S1 structure galena define schistosity and that they crystallised during
Copyright © 2015 IJRIES, All right reserved
98
Volume 2, Issue 3, ISSN (Online) : 2394-1375
developed parallel to the axial plane of F1 folds. These
folds generally plunge due north or south with varying
plunge amount.
Folds of second phase (F2): The folds of second
phase are asymmetrical, open and flexural slip types. Here
the limb with steeper dip is shorter than limb with gentle
dip. The amplitude is almost equal to wave length (a / s =
or > 1). Also the steeply dipping limb is thinner than the
gently dipping limb. The folds of F2 phase in the mica
schist and cherty quartzite bands have been mapped on
macro scale. The axial trace of antiform and synform trend
NNE-SSW and the axial plane dips at 70°- 80° easterly.
The folds generally plunge due north with 10° - 30°.
During this phase the crenulation foliation (S2) has
developed sub parallel to the axial plane of F2 folds.
Sulphide mineralisation especially as coarse grained ore is
found to occur at places, along the crenulation foliation.
Folds of third phase ( F3 ): The folds of third phase
are depicted by broad and open warps on macro scale
where as on mesoscopic scale, these are present as open
flexural folds with amplitude less than wave length ( a/s <
1 ). The axial plane of these folds trend WNW- ESE and
plunge mostly due east. However, westerly plunging folds
are seen in westerly dipping cherty quartzite and schist.
The axial plane of these folds generally dips at 70°-80°
due north. The cross folds (F3) have refolded the open
folds of F2, forming culminations and depressions in the
area. Due to this superimposition, the mineralised zone,
which is not exposed on the surface, seems to come up at
higher levels in the zone of culmination and the same
occurs at lower horizons in the zone of depression. During
deformation of F1 phase, the compressive forces along
WNW -ESE direction were responsible to form tightly
appressed, isoclinal, overturned F1 folds with NNE- SSW
axial planes. These forces did not die out even after first
phase of deformation and continued to remain active and
refolded the folds of F1 along NNE-SSW axial plane
(coaxial) forming asymmetrical F2 folds. At the end of F2
deformation, the compressive force along WNW- ESE
died out and the intermediate balancing force along NNE-
SSW became active giving rise to F3 folds with NW-SE
axial planes. After F3 fold, the compressive forces died out
and no major deformation took place later in the area.
Faults and shears: Prominent dislocations have not
been observed except for minor slips along the bedding
and axial planes. Transverse faults of limited extents are
noticed in the south-eastern part of the Sindesar Ridge.
The faults trend WNW-ESE to NW-SE with subvertical
dips. The bedding shear is evident by the brecciation in
chert, marble and in calc-silicate marble. The contact
between mineralised units (schist and calc-silicate
marble/dolomite) and underlying is sheared as evident by
the sheared contact.
METAMORPHISM
The textural relation of porphyroblasts to microfolds and
foliations suggest that biotite, graphite, muscovite,
hornblende, quartz and pyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite and
 International Journal of Research and Innovations in Earth Science
first deformation. Poikiloblasts of garnet and staurolite in
graphite schist and diopside in calc silicates have “S”
shaped inclusions of quartz suggest that were formed prior
to development of foliation. S1 foliation swirls around
phenocrysts like staurolite and kyanite phenocrysts. It
indicates that metamorphism started during F1 and
continued during post S1 period with F2. In the calcareous
mica schist, graphite mica schist, mica schist and
dolomitic marble presence of mineral assemblage like
garnet (Almandine), staurolite, graphite, tremolite,
actinolite, epidote and kyanite indicate metamorphism of
the order of kyanite-muscovite subfacies of almandine-
amphibole facies. It suggests regional metamorphism
under temperature ranging from 550°-700°C and pressure
from 4 kilobars to 8 kilobars (Turner and Vehroogan,
1961). Deb and Bhattacharya (1980) have suggested 5.4
kb/550°C and Misra and Mookherjee (1991) have
suggested 5 kb/ 525° C pressure and temperature condition
of metamorphism. Ores have undergone isofacial
metamorphism with enclosing minerals. The sulphide
minerals reflect overprinting effects of deformation and
metamorphism and show recrystalisation, locally
mobilized by pressure dissolution and transposed parallel
to main cleavage direction. Pyrite and pyrrhotite minerals
occur as porphyroblasts and have inclusions of sphalerite
and galena. Porphyroblastic growth of these minerals may
be similar to development of garnet, staurolite etc. Near
granite due to contact metamorphism in the mica schist
andalusite has developed and in the marble garnet,
diopside has developed due to contact metamorphism
which is later to the regional metamorphism.
CONCLUSION
In the Banded Gneissic Complex rifting developed basin
and on the margin of basin through fissures eruption of
basic volcanics took place which was followed by
deposition of arkosic conglomerate and quartzite. Later
due to continued rifting and deepning of basin
argillites/carbonaceous argillites/dolomites, tuffaceous
rocks intermixed with argillites, basic volcanics and acid
volcanics were deposited through deep fissures, at the
same time volcanic dust and near fractures volcanoclasts
were deposited. Volcanics were saturated with lead and
zinc which were exhaled and in the interspaces of all type
argillites carbonaceous/ calcareous and dolomites and
small amount in quartzites lead and zinc were deposited.
The youngest rocks like mica schist/quartzite and banded
hematite quartzite are barren of lead and zinc
mineralisation. All the rocks have undergone low to
medium grade of metamorphism. Deep zones were quite
later involved in granitic intrusion which produced lead
and zinc melt and such melt got injected through shears,
faults and fractures and deposited in cavities of dolomite
as hydrothermal ore along with blocky and rounded quartz
and dolomite.
Rajpura-Dariba Group of rocks by now is having more
than 100 Mt of reserves of lead and zinc. Initial finding of
mineralisation in this belt is due to locating spectacular
gossan at Dariba hill. Later discoveries have been due to
Copyright © 2015 IJRIES, All right reserved
99
Volume 2, Issue 3, ISSN (Online) : 2394-1375
drilling on grid pattern and concentrated drilling efforts
around dolomite hosted rich positive intersections of lead
and zinc. Presently there are several methods to discover
hidden lead and zinc deposits like geochemical and
geophysical prospecting namely mobile metal ion
exchange method, pH method, magnetostratigraphy and
borehole logging. In present area based on these
techniques no major discovery has been made. It is felt
that there is need to adopt integrated technique of
exploration and continuous review of failures. Adopting
new techniques after each review of failures may lead
success.
Rajpura-Dariba belt is a craton of transgressive
sequence with basal unconformity. Host rocks of Pb-Zn
sedimentary sequence comprises black
carbonaceous/calcareous tuffaceous meta-argillites with
dolomite and marble. Dariba belt is a major geofracture
with several large-scale oblique fractures. This type of
tectonic and synsedimentary volcanic setup is broadly
ideal locale for mineralization of lead and zinc. Acid
volcanics are regional scale guide to massive sulfides and
minor ore is localised in mafic volcanics also. The most
characteristic acid volcanic associated with mineralization
is brecciated flows and pyroclastics. The stringer
mineralized tuffaceous mica schists and graphite mica
schists, chlorite, sericite wall rock alterations around
massive pipes are good guides to the massive sulfides in
the vicinity. These ore guides help in narrowing the target
areas from regional to local scale. Target areas lie in the
vicinity of fault bounded zones, intersection of faults helps
further in precisely narrowing target areas. Presence of
marginal deposits of base metals and fragmented volcano-
sedimentary facies are key to search rich massive
lensoidal/pipe like bodies. Such areas should be
prospected geophysicaly as the ore bodies in Sindesar
Khurd area are concealed. Combination of magnetic and
gravity geophysical survey may be carried out to locate
faults or intersection of faults and pyrrhotite rich ore
bodies. These pyrrhotite rich ore bodies may be occurring
as a cap over pipe like massive ore bodies or bedded ore
bodies of sphalerite and galena.
It is thus suggested that ground magnetic, gravity, IP, SP
and EM geophysical surveys combination will enable to
distinguish faults by identifying zones of magnetic lows
and discontinuities. High resolution and high sensitivity
aeromagnetic surveys are especially capable of detecting
patterns in the distribution of opaque oxide minerals in a
region in which geology is favorable for certain kinds of
ores. Relationship occurs between magnetic minerals and
depositional environments. There are many geological
events other than ore forming processes which affect
magnetite and these will tend to overprint ore environment
magnetic signatures. The pitfalls and ambiguities that
beset the interpretation of magnetic data are numerous.
Sedex deposits of present area under study are having
pyrite and pyrrhotite. The magnetic anomalies caused by
the pyrrhotite tend to be extremely weak and erratic. Other
geophysical methods e.g. gravity, IP, EM and SP will
separate out base metals from graphitic mica schist. Thus
this integrated combination geophysical technique may be
 International Journal of Research and Innovations in Earth Science
carried out in the selected blocks. Considering anomalies
after such geophysical survey, areas may be narrowed
down for ground geochemical and mobile metal ion
exchange technique of geochemical exploration for
selecting areas/sites for drilling. In the present area
behavior of ore texture, morphology, mineralogical
association of constituent minerals and their ratio and
geological setting is different in vent proximal and vent
distal deposits interpretation of magnetic data is more
challenging.
The areas having outcrops could be surveyed
geochemically. Integration of geological, aeromagnetic
and electromagnetic data could be done by transferring all
the different layers on one scale. The geological layers
contained lithological variations including gossan and host
rocks. The structural layers to contain (a) faults, (b)
fractures / lineaments, (c) shear zones, (d) fold axis and (e)
trend lines. The airborne electromagnetic data and ground
geophysical data acquired by GSI/RP holders may provide
important input as they indicate conductivity of the rock
formations and associated sulphide ore bodies. Magnetic
high and low axes and discontinuities can be used as
inputs for identification of faults. These data sets could be
integrated.
Detailed/ local scale exploration: Ground Geophysical
signature: Induced polarization (IP) methods can be
applied in RD terrain as sufficient conductive minerals
such as galena, pyrite, and pyrrhotite are present and the
chargeability of the host carbonates is low. Ground
electromagnetic (EM) methods may work for deposits sites
with sufficient concentrations of iron sulphide minerals.
Seismic, magnetic, and gravity methods can be used to
identify some geological features associated with these
deposits, such as basement highs beneath sedimentary
successions, faults, sinkholes and carbonate/ shale facies.
Airborne magnetic surveys were successfully used in
delineating lineaments. Since sphalerite and gangue
minerals have different densities, gravity surveys could
prove useful in exploring for sulphide bodies containing
mainly sphalerite.
Geochemical anomalies: Zinc, lead, iron, silver,
barium and manganese can be detected in residual soil
samples and stream sediments.
Alteration: Clay minerals and chlorite, muscovite and
sericite alterations are useful exploration tools when
integrated with geological data and hydrothermal
alterations around ore zone e.g. sericite, quartz and
carbonate
Element / metal zones: For local scale exploration
element zoning consisting dominance of pyrite followed
by pyrrhotite in the periphery of lead-zinc deposit.
Appearance of galena and sphalerite is noticed after vide
zones of pyrite and pyrrhotite are characteristic features.
Pyrrhotite zonation is noticed above hydrothermal vent
extending to Pb–Zn zone in the vent.
Rocks of Bhilwara Supergroup are endowed with some
of the best zinc resources of country. These are Sediment
Hosted and include Massive Sulphides (SHMS) of Pb-Zn.
SHMS deposits occur in intracratonic rift in half graben
sediments. At the basin floor hydrothermal discharges
Copyright © 2015 IJRIES, All right reserved
100
Volume 2, Issue 3, ISSN (Online) : 2394-1375
were focused at the intersection of extensional and
transform faults. Presence of mafic bodies in most of the
ore environments suggest that hydrothermal convection
systems were driven by high level magma bodies. In most
cases low rigidity, permeability and thermal conductivity
of host sediments helped to focus and prolong
hydrothermal discharge to a number of limited sites.
Rajpura Dariba deposit displays biphase mineralisation
including stratiform sulphides and post metamorphic
epigenetically melt introduced independently occurring
sulphides. Salient features of vein ores such as occurrences
as pods, segregation veins or open space fillings traversing
the banded ores, absence of deformation and
recrystalisation textures, angular blocks of dolomite and
rounded quartz and dolomite indicate that these veins are
post-metamorphic and could have formed from a different
ore fluid which has filled open spaces and ,fault zone. The
cavity filling nature of vein ore and their occurrence in
irregular shear planes suggest their environment of ore
formation was different than imprints of metamorphism in
banded ores. Open space fillings by massive ore and veins
traversing the banded ores indicate that the source of this
fluid could be intrusive granite (Misra, B. and Mookerjee,
A. 1984; Mishra, B., 2000) which has been located by the
present author during present studies.
Ore search would thus require identification of faults as
sites of ore concentration in environment of favourable
host rocks. In thickly concealed terrain it could be
achieved using magnetic data to select regional targets.
Identification of volcanoclastic rocks, graphite mica-
tuffaceous schist and marble as host rocks coupled with
hydrothermal alteration and element / metal zoning will
demarcate local targets for selecting drill sites
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