PRINCIPLES OF

AQUACULTURE
(AKU3201)
LeSSon 5

Water and Soil Management

WATER QUALITY
 Water distribution on earth
Of all the world’s water supply:

• 97% is sea water

• 2% is freshwater frozen in glaciers and polar ice

caps.

• Only 1% is freshwater available for human

consumption (95% is groundwater. Only 5% is
surface water!)
 Water quality
• Very important! Indicator of success or failure of
aquaculture operation

• MUST measure, record & manage throughout

growing season

• Problem: Leftover feed, feces

• Affect feeding, metabolism & reproduction

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 Common substances in water
• Gases – O2, CO2, NH3, H2S

• Minerals – Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe, Al –usually present as

ions or complex molecules.

• Soluble organic matter – humic acids, tannins, plant

pigments, urea

• Suspended inorganic matter – suspension of soil

particles

• Suspended organic matter – suspended remains of

organisms, living planktons, fungi & bacteria.
 Water Quality in Aquaculture
In aquaculture, we are concerned about the
quality of water in 3 major areas:

 Quality of water at source (influent)

 Water quality requirements in the culture
system
 Impact caused by aquaculture effluent
 Surface water
Fresh water source for aquaculture :

• Sources: rivers, streams, lakes, ponds and reservoirs.

• Often contaminated: high levels of silt & clay particles,

predators, disease, pesticides and quality varies with
season.
 Surface water
Sea / brackish water source for aquaculture :

• Same potential for contamination as fresh-water

sources, especially in the coastal area.

• Main concern: pump intake location, biofouling of

intakes, salinity fluctuations, increased potential
for hydrocarbon contamination
 Surface vs Ground water

Ground water Surface water

 Low turbidity
 Absent of or less predators &
disease vectors
 Less exposure to contaminants
 High mineral content
 Low or no DO
 High iron, Fe content
 High hardness (more Ca and
Mg)
 Higher extraction cost
 High turbidity
 More predators & disease
vectors
 Greater exposure to
contaminants
 Low mineral content
 DO present
 Low iron content
 Low hardness
 Lower extraction cost
 Alternative water sources
• Rainwater:
free, unpredictable, only a supplement, often acidic,
poorly buffered.

• Municipal water:
limited potential due to cost/unit volume, also contains
disinfectants (e.g., chlorine).

• Recycled water:
Conserves water, environmentally friendly, biofiltration
required, high pumping cost.
 Water Quality in Aquaculture

The key challenge in aquaculture is to maintain

high growth rates under high stocking densities
without degrading the water quality.

Poor water quality = poor harvest

 • Different animal, different optimum
water quality conditions

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 Water Quality in Aquaculture
• Parameters that could influence water quality in an aquaculture
pond can be divided into physical, chemical and biological
factors.

• Physical factors:
Temperature, stratification, particulate matter, turbidity and light
intensity.

• Chemical factors:
pH, DO, ammonia, CO2, H2S, nitrite,...

• Biological factors:
Ecosystem, aquatic plants, macrophytes, plankton, ...
 Important water quality parameters
• Water quality parameters often tested are:

– Turbidity / Suspended Solids

– Dissolved oxygen
– Water temperature
– pH
– Total Ammonia Nitrogen
– Nitrite
– Alkalinity/Hardness
– Salinity
– BOD
Portable water quality test-kit
 1) Temperature
• Poikilothermic? Metabolic rate controlled by
temperature

• Dif. aquatic species = dif. optimum temperature

• Electronic better than glass thermometers

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 Temperature
• Controls the biochemicals rate of reaction

• In general, for each 10°C (18°F) rise in temperature,

the metabolic rate of fish doubles (including
physiological processes and growth) – Van’t Hoff’s law

• Influences the solubility of gases in water

– DO?

• Influences toxicity of ammonia. More toxic at higher

temperatures.
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 Temperature
• All animals have a temperature range, the ‘biokinetic range’, within
which they can survive.

• This range is limited by the upper and lower tolerance limit, and
beyond these critical temperatures the animals may live briefly but
would eventually die.

• Species with wide range of tolerance - eurythermal

• Species with a narrow range of tolerance – stenothermal

• Eurythermal fish – Goldfish, Common Carp

• Stenothermal fish – Salmonids

• Temperature acts as a controlling factor regulating metabolism and

thereby growth – important for aquaculturists.
 Linkage of temperature with..
1) Amount of feed to be given

1) Abundance of natural food (phytoplankton &

zooplankton)

-Important particularly for temperate countries

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 Temperature
Consequences of temperature for aquaculture:

– Feeding regime must be appropriately adjusted to the water

temperature

– Know that grow-out period, milt production and ovulation

rate will be affected by environmental temperatures

– Need to avoid abrupt temperature changes

– To minimize stress while transporting fish, it may be

advisable to reduce the water temperature thus reducing fish
activity and toxic waste accumulation

– Cultured species must be carefully selected to match their

temperature requirements to the regional environmental
temperatures
• Make sure no rapid oC changes (esp. during
fish transfer)
- Need to acclimatize first

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 2. Light penetration
• Euphotic zone – Zone where photosynthesis
exceeds respiration (1% or more of incident
radiation).

• In aquaculture ponds, the euphotic zone will

normally be less than 1 meter due to dense
plankton density.

• Secchi disc visibility multiplied by 2 gives an

estimate of the depth of euphotic zone in
aquaculture ponds.
 Thermal stratification

• Water temperature in ponds is related to solar radiation and air

temperature.

• Heat is absorbed more rapidly near the surface, making the

upper waters warmer and less dense than the deeper waters.

• Stratification occurs when the differences in density between

these layers become so great that they can’t be mixed by wind

• Transfer of heat to lower layers depends on mixing by wind (or

aeration).

• More turbid water heats up faster than less turbid water

because of greater absorption of energy by dissolved and
particulate organic matter
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 Thermal stratification
• Epilimnion – higher temperature, abundant
oxygen, higher pH, less dense

• Thermocline – transition zone, variable oxygen, an

area of greatest temperature drop (at least 1°C/ m
in lakes but generally more in deep aquaculture
ponds)

• Hypolimnion – lower temperature, lower oxygen,

lower pH, denser
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 Thermal stratification
How does thermal stratification result in low DO at pond bottoms?

• In hot, calm sunny days and in ponds with high plankton bloom, the
surface layer of ponds become warmer and lighter while the cooler-
denser water forms a layer underneath.

• Photosynthesis in deeper areas of the pond is reduced due to self-

shading of planktons.

• The already low oxygen levels are further reduced through

decomposition of waste products, which settle to the pond bottom.

• Mixing of oxygenated surface water with low oxygen at pond bottoms

is prevented because of the different densities between the two
layers of water.

• Dissolved oxygen depletion poses a very real problem to the fish

farmer if supplemental aeration is not available.
 3) Dissolved oxygen (DO)
Earth’s atmosphere = 200,000 mg/L

H2O oxygen (saturated) = ~10 mg/L or <

H2O oxygen (super-saturated)= ~30 mg/L

Conclusion: O2 in water < O2 atmosphere

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 FISH
• DO > 5 mg/L (atleast)

- DO < 2.0 mg/L

- Fish starts to gulp at the surface

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 What is DO

The amount of oxygen dissolved in

water, expressed in mg/L or ppm

Measures the amount of oxygen in

water that is available for respiration
by aquatic organisms.
Dissolved Oxygen
 Dissolved Oxygen
• Atmospheric O2 enters to water through
diffusion
- O2 move from region of high conc. (air) to
region of low conc. (water)
• Faster through wind (water circulation)
- Why?

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 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
• Dissolved oxygen (DO) is by far, the
most important water quality
parameter in aquaculture.

• Like humans, fish require oxygen for

respiration, survival and growth.

• Oxygen consumption and DO

requirement by fish increase with
temperature and food consumption
 Dissolved Oxygen
• Biological processes that influence DO
concentration in aquaculture ponds
are:

– Photosynthesis by green plants

– Respiration by all aquatic animals

 Dissolved Oxygen
• In intensive aquaculture systems, DO often
becomes the first Limiting Factor

• Limiting factor : A factor that limits the

survival, growth or reproduction of an
organism.

• Factors = nutrient, resource, element,

condition (biological, chemical, physical)
 Dissolved Oxygen
DO depletions are more troublesome in the
following weather conditions:

– High water temperature

– Cloudy, still weather

– Sudden cold rain or thunderstorm – pond turnover

DO consumption & limits
The levels of oxygen required to
support life, good health and
growth of aquaculture organisms
vary, depending on factors such as:
– species
– body size
– water temperature
– feeding rates
– stress level
 DO consumption & limits
Implications:

• At a given temperature, smaller fish consume more

oxygen per unit of body weight than larger fish - for
the same total weight of fish in a tank, smaller fish
require more oxygen than larger fish.

• Actively swimming fish consume more oxygen than

resting fish. In raceways, high exchange rates will
increase energy expenditures for swimming, and
oxygen consumption.

• Generally, minimum DO should be greater than 5

mg/L for growth of warmwater fish and 6 mg/L
coldwater fishes at their optimum temperature
 DO consumption & limits
0 to 2 ppm
small fish may survive a short exposure, but lethal if
exposure is prolonged. Lethal to larger fish.

2 to 5 ppm
most fish survive, but growth is slower if prolonged;
may be stressful; aeration devices are often used
below 3ppm.

> 5 ppm to saturation

the
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desirable range for all.
 Dissolved Oxygen
• Too much oxygen – hyperoxia - gas bubble disease.

• Too little oxygen – hypoxia - fish surfacing/suffocating.

• Total lack of oxygen – anoxia – fish dies.

• Most fish stops eating and starts dying below 30% DO

saturation.

• A good rule of thumb – Maintain DO levels at

saturation or at least 4 ppm at all times.
• Phytoplankton during day
• Decline DO during night

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 Dissolved Oxygen
How to prevent DO depletion at night?

• Run aeration at night

• Maintain Secchi disk visibility above 30-50 cm.

• Use moderate stocking and feeding rates

• Apply fertilizers in moderate amounts and only when needed to

promote plankton blooms.
 Dissolved Oxygen
How to prevent DO depletion at night?

• Select and manage good-quality feeds – less fines feed and

wastage

• Exchange water

• Dry out bottoms between crops and apply lime to enhance

organic matter decomposition.
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 Paddlewheel aerators

• Increase amount of water surface area

• Create a current = New O2

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 4) Alkalinity & Hardness
• Alkalinity
- capacity of water to neutralize acid
- Measure of carbonate & bicarbonate ions
- Alkalinity includes : [HCO3-] + 2[CO32-] + [OH-] – [H+]

Carbonate : bicarbonate buffer system

a) CO2 + H2O => H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
b) bH2CO3 => H+ + HCO3 (bicarbonate ion) - HCO3-
c) CO3-2 – Carbonate ion
- CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3– ↔ 2 H+ + CO32–
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Alkalinity
 Alkalinity
- Maintain 30-200 mg/L

- Minimum 20 mg/L, if below, water cannot

resist changes in pH

- If low, add carbonate source e.g.,

limestone

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 Hardness
• Hardness
- Concentration of calcium & magnesium

HCO3 + Ca2+ => CaCO3

Soft water = 0-55 mg/L

Slightly hard = 56-100 mg/L
Hard water = 201-500 mg/L

Optimum = Maintain > 75 to 300 mg/L

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 5) pH
• pH => expresses the intensity of the acidic of
basic character of the water
• pH scale log function
• Increase of one unit, water becomes less or
more acidic
• Freshwater fish = 6.5 – 8.5
• Marine system
• e.g., Mollusc culture = must be >7

Why?
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• Soft water & low alkalinity => unstable
pH

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 pH

• The pH and mineral content of water are the result

of interactions between the soil beneath a pond and
the water used to fill it

• The recommended pH range for aquaculture is 6.5

to 9.0

• Fish and other vertebrates have an average blood

pH of 7.4

• Fish may become stressed and die if the pH drops

below 4 or rises above 11
 pH

• Pond pH varies throughout the day due to

respiration and photosynthesis

• pH in ponds can be increased and

stabilized (buffered) by the addition of
liming materials such as calcium carbonate
(CaCO3)
 Salinity

• Salinity = measure of the total conc. Of

dissolved solids

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 Salinity
As a guide:
Freshwater < 0.5 ppt
Brackishwater 0.5 - 30 ppt
Seawater > 30 ppt (35 ppt average)

• Salinity – simply a measure of the total concentration of all

ions in water.

• Salinities of brackishwater ponds near estuaries are

influenced by river discharge during dry and wet seasons.
 Osmoregulation in fish
• A fish's gills are permeable to water. Salt in sea
water is more concentrated than the fish's body
fluids. Water is drawn out…
 In fresh-water fish, large amounts of water enter
through the fish's skin and gills. This is because the salt
concentration in a fish (approximately 0.5 %) is higher
than the salt concentration of the water. Fish is
contantly struggling to prevent the “diffusion” of water
into its body, large amounts of water are excreted by
the kidneys. As a result, the salt concentration of the
urine is very low.

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 Ammonia
• Ammonia => byproduct of metabolism
• Formation of ammonia
1) Fish digest the protein in their feed &
excrete ammonia via gills & feces
2) Uneaten feed/ dead algae

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• Ammonium (NH4+)
- Not toxic
- By-product of metabolism
- Excreted through gills
- Can transform to NH3

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• Unionized ammonia (NH3)

- Toxic
- Very low level, toxic to small fish
- Poor growth & gill deformities

- TAN = NH3 + NH4+

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 Ammonia – Effects on fish

• High Ammonia ?
• High concentrations of ammonia in water
inhibit the excretion of ammonia from fish
gills by diffusion because it has to go
against a concentration gradient.

• High ammonia concentrations cause gill

hyperplasia (swollen gills)
 Nitrite
• Quite rare in natural waters – quickly
transformed by bacteria to nitrate

• In aquaculture system
– can be high esp. when the required bacteria
are not present
- High animal density
• Tolerance dependent on animal species
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• Nitrite + haemoglobin in fish =
methaemoglobin
• Haemoglobin = chemical that carries
oxygen throughout fish body
• Methaemoglobin = will not combine
with oxygen
- Fish will be asphyxiated
- Chocolate brown blood
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 Nitrate, phosphorus

• Nitrate & phosphorus

- Promote algal growth
- Algal growth promote zooplankton
- Both types are the first foods of
aquaculture animals

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• Aquaculturist monitor plankton growth
through measurement of water clarity

• Healthy plankton = ~30 cm

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 Additional info
• Benthos
• Benthic organism
= organism that live in, on the
bottom of sea or lake

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 BOD
• Biochemical oxygen demand = amount of
oxygen that would be consumed if all the
organics in one liter of water were oxidized
by bacteria and protozoa
• Biological oxygen demand = measure of
oxygen used by microorganisms to
decompose waste.

• Clear lake water vs sewage

• BOD high = what happens?
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• THANK YOU