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SPECIALIZATION: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

Focus: Human Anatomy and Physiology


By: Dr. Brian M. Limson
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

SPECIALIZATION: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES


Focus: Human Anatomy and Physiology
By: Dr. Brian M. Limson

Competencies:
1. Describe the structural levels of organization.
2. Describe and explain how the following organ system works.
3. Cite instances when the body systems work together.
4. Describe common diseases.
5. Describe how to maintain one’s health.

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE


The Human Body:

Human Anatomy and Physiology are related to each other even as they differ in the
branch of science. This relationship is supported by the fact that every part in human anatomy
corresponds to a specific function and that the specific organs of the body has a physiological
function within the body systems.

The levels of organization make up the entire human body. It has a lot of components
which starts from tiny particles known as the atom, the basic component of matter. Atoms
combine to make up a molecule. Then molecules merge forming a complex structure which is the
cell. Cell is the basic unit of life since its structure and function depends on the chemical activities
taking place for every organelle. The cells of the same kind form together becoming a tissue (e,g.
nervous tissue). Tissues connect with the same kind and function forming an organ. An organ is
made up of complex tissues which perform a specific function. Combining different organs make
up an organ system. Various organ systems consolidate to accomplish a required task. Finally the
highest level making up all different organ systems is the organism level.

The human body is capable of achieving homeostasis. It is a state of balance between


the body systems in relation to the environment. To be able attain equilibrium, there are three
components involved namely: the sensor, regulatory center, and an effector. The sensor is
essential for survival since it detects an impending danger in ones environment. The regulatory
center interprets the stimulus which gives the signal to the effector to act. The effector works to
counteract the impending danger directing the body to its normal condition. The negative
feedback keeps the body in a constant state. It is a kind of homeostatic condition keeping the
body within normal range such as temperature, heart rate, pulse rate, respiratory rate and blood
pressure. However, if this condition is unsuccessful, it leads to a positive feedback such as
acquiring infections or disorders that may be detrimental to ones health.

This area will focus on the different body systems in relation to structure and function.
The various body organs are described and the processes involved in their specific functions will
also be discussed. Certain topics are presented in condensed manner while some topics are
shown in illustration in addition to the text narratives provided.

I. THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The integumentary system protects us from harmful elements such as microorganisms


that could cause diseases, prevents us from dehydration, synthesizes Vitamin D and regulates
body temperature. It has three components basically the skin hair and nails.

1. SKIN

 The skin is known to be the largest among the body organs as it protects us from harmful
elements such as pollutants, disease-causing agents, from ultraviolet rays
 This is possible due to the presence of a pigment called melanin which is produced by
melanocytes
 The skin also synthesizes Vitamin D which could be activated in the presence of sunlight.

The skin has two layers namely the epidermis and dermis. The hypodermis, which could
be considered as the third layer is composed mainly of fats.

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SPECIALIZATION: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Focus: Human Anatomy and Physiology
By: Dr. Brian M. Limson
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Layers of the Skin

1. Epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin consists of five strata which are the
following:

 stratum corneum: the first layer of the epidermis is composed mainly of dead
cells. A protein component which is keratin may also be found on this layer.
 stratum lucidum: the second layer which is also made up of dead cells with a
protein component called eleidin. This layer is mostly present on the palms and
soles of the feet and is noted to be a protective layer against ultraviolet rays.
 stratum granulosum: this plays a big role in keratinization.
 stratum spinosum: this is where the process of cell division takes place to replace
the old cells over the surface of the skin.
 stratum basale. This is the last layer where mitosis happens in order to replace
old cells of the outermost layer of the skin.

2. Dermis is the second layer of the skin which contains several accessory structures
namely glands, muscle, hair follicles, blood vessels, and nerves. The sebaceous gland,
also known as the sudoriferous gland, is one of the glands present under the dermis. This
gland is close to the hair follicle secretes an oily substance called sebum which prevents
our skin from getting dry. If this gland gets clogged with foreign bodies or bacteria, acne
or folliculitis develops. Another structure present in the dermal area is the arrector pili
muscle. This is an involuntary muscle attached to the hair follicle and upon contraction; it
causes the hair to rise which eventually gives us “goose bumps.”
Sweat glands are also present in this layer. Three types of sweat gland can be found
here.
1. The eccrine gland which is present on the entire human body
2. The apocrine sweat glands which resides on the axillary area, areola of the
nipples, genitals and anal region,
3. The merocrine sweat gland which could be found on the palms and soles of the
feet.

3. Hypodermis is also known as the subcutaneous layer. The structures present here are
the adipose tissues, blood vessels and nerves as well. This layer functions as an
insulator as well as cushioning to our body.

2. HAIR

Hair is present all throughout the body. It is made up of the protein keratin and the outer
layer consists of dead cells.

There are three major parts of the hair and these are the following:

 the shaft: protrudes over the epidermis which is made up of dead cells.
 hair follicle: found beneath the dermal area. This part is capable of mitosis.
 hair bulb: an extension of the hair follicle. This part is located in the hypodermal area
where it is
supplied by blood.

3. NAILS

Nails are hard structures that are adaptations of the epidermis and made up of the
protein keratin. These structures have several functions such as for protection, for helping us
grasp objects and for scratching.

Diseases of the Skin

Acne

This condition results when there is an inflammation of the hair follicles and sebaceous
glands. The common areas affected are the face, chest, back and sometimes the scalp. An over
secretion of sebum could block the sebaceous glands that lead to blackhead and eventually to
acne or pimple. In fact, the blockage contains bacteria that lead to accumulation of pus. Some
factors that lead to acne are puberty, exposure to dusts and other pollutants, genetics, stress and
some medicines. Proper treatment is done upon consult from a skin specialist. For this reason,
taking antibiotics, application of topical creams or ointments and cleaning the affected areas
regularly are usually advised. Self medication is highly discouraged since it could lead to
detrimental to ones health.

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SPECIALIZATION: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Focus: Human Anatomy and Physiology
By: Dr. Brian M. Limson
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Allergic Contact Dermatitis

A common skin disorder that occurs when our skin is exposed to substances present in
jewelries, soaps, cosmetics, lotion, deodorants and other materials that we come in contact with
and irritates the integument. Itchiness could be felt along with rashes on affected areas. Proper
medication is given if early consult is done. On the contrary, failure to do this could result to a
bacterial infection resulting to another skin problem.

II. THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Muscles give shape to the human body along with the skeleton. Relatively, there are six
hundred muscles present in the body. It also provides movement along with our bones in line with
this; it gives us posture and is capable of heat production.

Structural muscles are held in bundles or fascicles making up a connective tissue. These
connective tissues form a fascia that gives rise to a tendon. Tendons attached muscles to a bone.

Types of Muscles

There are three types of muscles constructing the human body. These are the skeletal,
cardiac and smooth muscles. Each muscle types play a big role in performing different tasks
along with the various body systems.

Table 1 Muscle Types


Type of Descriptions
Muscle
Skeletal They are long and striated muscle fibers attached to the bones. Another
feature is that this type of muscle is multi-nucleated with long cylindrical
cells. It also provides voluntary movements, contributes to posture and heat
production.

Cardiac These are located in the walls of the heart. The fibers are noted to be short,
striated, branching and are uni-nucleated. Representing this muscle type is a
structure known as the intercalated disks which serve as a partition among
cardiac muscle fibers. It also initiates a quick response in delivering an
impulse from one cell to the other. Involuntary movement mimics this muscle
type.

Smooth Spindle-shaped and non-striated. These are located in the respiratory


system, hollow visceral organs, and blood vessels, excretory and
reproductive systems. This type of muscle tends to be involuntary.

The Neuromuscular System

Contraction of muscles may come in contact to a muscle cell through a nerve fiber. One
of the neurotransmitters released by a neuron is acetylcholine which is essential to muscle
movements. The neuromuscular junction involves a synapse, which serves as a passageway
between a motor neuron and a muscle cell.

Muscle Contraction

There are two types of protein myofilaments are involved in muscle contraction. These
are the actin where the filaments appear thin and light, and myosin comprising thick and dark
filaments. Each slide past to each other making the muscle short hence, contracting the muscle.
A mineral known as calcium is also essential for muscle contraction to happen. It is in the
endoplasmic reticulum where calcium is stored and is released every time stimulation occurs.

Body movement involves the use of energy with the help of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). Production of ATP entails oxygen, glucose and some nutrients. Oxygen is stored in muscle
cells in the form of myoglobin and glycogen which is stored in the liver and muscles is being
converted to glucose during strenuous activities.

Body exhaustion could lead to muscle fatigue in which oxygen is depleted leading to
anaerobic respiration. As a result, lactic acid is formed and accumulates in the affected muscle. In
the event that this is taking place, the person involved could experience cramps.

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SPECIALIZATION: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Focus: Human Anatomy and Physiology
By: Dr. Brian M. Limson
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Diseases of the Muscular System

Muscular dystrophy

An inherited disorder of unknown cause brought about by an advancing body weakness


leading to the deterioration of the muscles. This happens during early childhood. Skeletal
muscles are commonly affected but since this is known to be progressive, cardiac muscles could
be affected in the long run. There is disintegration and degeneration of muscle fibers and build up
of connective tissues and fats. Currently, there is no known cure and specific treatment.
Supportive treatment could be done such as proper diet, exercise, physical therapy and
sometimes surgery of the affected part.

Myasthenia gravis

This is an autoimmune disease of unknown cause which there is too little acetylcholine
reaching the neuromuscular junction causing severe exhaustion and muscle fatigue.
Manifestations of this kind usually occur at the second decade of life. There is no cure as of the
moment. Hence, supportive treatment could be done such as proper diet and physical therapy.

III. THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Bones are essential to human life as it gives us framework and support to protect the vital
organs and other structures of the human body. The bones, cartilages, joints and connective
tissues merge to make up the whole of the skeletal system. The functions of the skeletal system
are the following: provides framework and support the whole body, allows us to move, protects
the vital organs, promotes the synthesis of Vitamin D, storage of calcium and other minerals, and
produces red blood cells.

The Cartilage

The cartilage is made up of a solid and tough connective tissue but not as potent as the
bone. Blood vessels and nerves are not present in these structures. There are three types of
cartilage present in our body. These are the following: fibro-cartilage, hyaline, and elastic.

The Bone

The long bone comprises the diaphysis or shaft and epiphysis located at the ends of the
shaft. The yellow marrow, which is made up of fats, is found in the central cavity of the shaft.
Spongy bone is present at the end of the long bones. This is the site where blood cells are
formed.

The outer covering of the bone is called the periosteum and the inner layer is the
endosteum which serves as a lining of the marrow cavity.

Development and Growth of the Bone

Bone formation, otherwise known as ossification begins during the first trimester of
pregnancy. A number of cells are responsible for this process namely: the osteoblasts, osteocytes
and osteoclasts.

Bone Cells
1. Osteoblasts- are the bone-forming cells which build up the matrix of the bone.
2. Osteocytes- known to be the mature bone cell; these are developed when a bone matrix
has already been formed.
3. steoclasts- responsible for the resorption of bones.

Skeletal Division

The skeletal system is divided into two parts and is shown on the table below:

Table 2 Skeletal Division


Axial Appendicular

 Comprises of the skull, thorax and the  Constitutes the shoulder girdle, upper
vertebral column extremities, pelvic girdle and the lower
 Skull includes the cranium, facial bones extremities.
and bones of the middle ear.  The shoulder girdle includes the clavicle
 Thorax contains the ribs and sternum. and the scapula.
 Vertebral covers the following structures:  The upper extremities make up the
cervical, thoracic, lumbar sacral and following structures: humerus, radius,

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SPECIALIZATION: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Focus: Human Anatomy and Physiology
By: Dr. Brian M. Limson
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coccygeal bones. ulna, carpals, metacarpals and


phalanges.
 The pelvic girdle comprises the ilium,
ischium and pubis.
 The lower extremities include the
following structures: femur, patella, tibia,
fibula, tarsals, metatarsals and
phalanges.

Types of Joints

The skeletal system is composed of jointed structures. There are three types of joints and
these are cartilaginous, fibrous and synovial joints.

Table 3 The Types of Joints

Cartilaginous Fibrous Synovial

freely movable since this has a cavity lined by a


slightly movable membrane which produces the synovial fluid
attached to a cartilage immovable joints fluid lubricates our joints hence making it freely
found in the joints which is present in movable
between the the sutures of the Ligaments in which it is attached by two bones
vertebral column and skull. play a significant role in making the joints freely
costal cartilages movable
which is attached to The tendons maintain the structure of the
the sternum. synovial joint.
As the person ages, it could result to a
degenerative disease of the bone known as
osteoarthritis.

Diseases of the Skeletal System

Scoliosis

This is a bone disorder causing an abnormal lateral curvature of the spine which is noted
to be of unknown cause and hereditary at times. Other factors that lead to this condition are
congenital defects, viral infection such as polio and cerebral palsy. Supportive treatment is done
like proper diet, exercise and physical therapy. Surgery would be an option if the condition
progresses.

Osteoporosis

This is a condition where the bones of our body become brittle and porous due to a
decrease in calcium and phosphorous. As we age, bone cells become less active making our
bone mass and density limited which makes us susceptible to fractures and deformities. The
bones commonly affected are the spine, hips and lower extremities. Menopausal women are
likely to experience this condition due to the loss of estrogen in the body. However, men could
experience this condition at the sixth or seventh decade of life due to a depletion of testosterone
levels in the blood. Some risk factors include inadequate intake of calcium, smoking, certain
medications like the use of steroids and sedentary lifestyle. Exercise, proper diet and intake of
calcium supplements are some of the measures undertaken in order to prevent this condition.

IV. NERVOUS SYTEM

The nervous system takes charge of the nerve functions and impulses throughout the
body. It is divided into several divisions. The two major divisions are the central nervous system
and peripheral nervous system. The central is composed of the brain and the spinal cord, while
the peripheral nervous system is composed of the somatic and the autonomic nervous system.
Lastly, the autonomic nervous system is made up of the two more systems – sympathetic and
parasympathetic. These divisions will be discussed more extensively in the succeeding portions
of this topic.

The Nerve Cell

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SPECIALIZATION: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Focus: Human Anatomy and Physiology
By: Dr. Brian M. Limson
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The nerve cells or neurons are composed of the following, a cell body, a nucleus, an axon
and a dendrite. These structures are responsible for passing out electrical signals upon the
presence of a stimulus in order to generate a response.

The Major Parts of a Neuron


1. Dendrites- move an impulse towards the cell body.
2. Axons- convey an impulse away from the cell body. A structure known as the myelin
sheath surrounds the axons that work like an insulator to speed up the conduction of
impulses received by the human body.

The Central Nervous System

The Central Nervous System gives rise to two major structures namely the brain and the
spinal cord. These structures play a big role in coordinating an action or a response the way we
would want it to portray in accordance with a specific stimulus. The parts of the CNS are as
follows:

1. Brain

The brain is protected by the cranium and weighs about 1500 grams. It is highly
vascularized and contains billions of nerve cells. The brain is covered by meninges which are of
three types namely the dura mater, arachnoid and pia mater.

A fluid that flows throughout the brain is the cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid also transports
the inner spaces of the brain ventricles as well as the spinal cord. Its role is for cushioning and
protection. The brain has four principal parts namely the cerebrum, diencephalon, brain stem and
the cerebellum

Table 4 Parts of the Brain and their Functions


Cerebrum This is the largest part. The cerebrum is essential for human beings since it
entails awareness and consciousness. It is divided into two, basically, the left
and right cerebral hemispheres which is known to be the diencephalon. Each
of the hemispheres has four lobes and has specific functions. These are the
frontal for planning and cognition, temporal for hearing and language, parietal
for sensory input and occipital lobes for visual perception
Diencephalon Contains the left and right hemispheres and has a structure which divides the
two. This is known as the corpus callosum. Two existing structures could be
found here, the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus processes all
sensory inputs while the hypothalamus mange to control body temperature,
thirst, hunger and even sexual urges. Underneath the hypothalamus is a small
gland known as the pituitary gland which is known as the master gland which
plays a major role in homeostasis. This gland controls metabolic activities,
growth, and production of sex hormones. Likewise, the limbic system which
lies close to the central portion of the cerebral lobes and diencephalon, depicts
a role in managing our behaviors and emotions.

Brainstem Includes three structures which are the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
The Cerebrum, diencephalons, and the spinal cord link these structures
together.
The midbrain which is beneath the thalamus and hypothalamus conveys
auditory and visual responses. The pons which is located between the
midbrain and medulla is responsible for respiration. Lastly, the medulla
oblongata which lies before the spinal cord carry out different functions such as
breathing, heart beat, regulation of blood flow and blood pressure.

Second largest part of the brain. This is also known to be the “little brain.” This
Cerebellum regulates coordination of body movements, balance and positioning with the
involvement of muscle contractions.

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SPECIALIZATION: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
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By: Dr. Brian M. Limson
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Figure 1 The Human Brain

2. Spinal cord

This is the other part of the CNS which extends from the brainstem up to the terminal
portion of the vertebral column. It contains 31 spinal nerves which communicate between the
brain and the rest of the body in terms of eliciting a response.

Cranial Nerves

There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves innervating our human body and each of these
nerves performs different tasks and functions. It serves as sensory to a certain body part, motor
for some or even accomplish both functions. For this reason, we are able to perform, interpret
and perceive things within our surroundings. Listed below are the different cranial nerves that
give rise to a specific function for each body organ.

Table 5 Cranial Nerves


Cranial Nerve Function
I. Olfactory Smell
II. Optic Vision
III. Oculomotor Eye muscle movements
IV. Trochlear Eye muscle movements
V. Trigeminal Sensory to the face, corneal reflex, chewing
Eye muscle movements
VI. Abducens ives facial expressions
VII. Facial Hearing and balance
VIII. Auditory Taste, secretion of saliva, swallowing
IX. Glossopharyngeal Swallowing, talking, regulates heart beat,
respiration and digestion
X. Vagus Shoulder shrugging
Tongue movements
XI. Accessory
XII. Hypoglossal

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

This is another division of the nervous system which serves as a receiving site of nerve
impulse transmission coming to and from the brain and spinal cord. In fact, the cranial nerves
provide assistance to everything that we feel like doing and thinking. Moreover it also controls our
involuntary movements. There are two subdivisions under this system basically the somatic and
autonomic nervous system.

The somatic explains our voluntary movements perceived by our body. This pertains to
conscious actions taking part by the skeletal system. The autonomic nervous system deals with
unconscious actions which connotes that this division maneuvers involuntary actions.

It has two types of activity, the parasympathetic and sympathetic. The parasympathetic
activity is involved in making our body calm and relax. However, if we encounter a stressful
situation the sympathetic activity takes its course by arousing the system and thereby making us
move faster and quicker.

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SPECIALIZATION: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
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Diseases of the Nervous System

Bell’s Palsy

This condition is brought about by a damage of the facial nerve (CN VII) leading to a
unilateral paralysis of the facial muscles. Moreover, the person loses its ability to close the eye on
the affected side along with muscle weakness, loss of taste and facial deformity. In line with this,
an inflammation of the internal auditory meatus is a factor which is associated by an infection,
trauma, tumor or meningitis. This condition occurs among individuals across ages. The mode of
treatment is intake of steroids like prednisone. This drug decreases tissue inflammation and
enhancing the flow of blood. Physical therapy and proper diet will also help the person’s recovery.

Alzheimer’s Disease

This is a type of dementia causing progressive memory loss and deterioration of


intellectual capacity. Alzheimer’s is also known as the neurodegenerative disease of the old. The
primary cause is unknown but there are circumstances that lead to this condition like a decrease
in acetylcholine receptors, smoking, alcoholism, infection and heredity. Forgetfulness is common
which advances as the person ages. Supportive treatment like intake of foods high in vitamin B
complex and avoidance of products containing aluminum would be helpful.

V. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

There are four indispensable factors of circulation and they are the following: the blood,
heart, blood vessels and valves.

The Blood

The blood is known to be the river of life. It distributes oxygen and necessary nutrients
needed by the body. Along with this, it also carries substances in line with the immune system.
Below is a diagram showing blood composition as it enters the system:

Blood
The blood is composed of fifty percent plasma and the remaining forty five percent is
composed of other elements. Plasma is composed of water, proteins, electrolytes, and other
substances. Proteins are made up of fibrinogen, albumin, and globulin while the rest is composed
of nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones. The formed elements on the other hand
contain erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. Erythrocytes transports oxygen and carbon
Plasma
dioxide while leukocytes function for defense and immunity. LeukocytesFormed
are also made up of
55% and agranulocytes. Lastly, the platelets shown in the illustration
granulocytes, Element are essential in
blood clotting. s
The Heart, Blood Vessels and Valves 45%
Transports
Water O2 and of
The heart regulates the flow of blood to maintain proper circulation with the assistance
Erythrocytes
the blood vessels namely the veins, arteries and capillaries. Veins carry blood towards CO2
the heart
except for the pulmonary vein, while arteries carry blood away from the heart except for the
Fibrinogen
pulmonary arteries. Veins are thin-walled compared to arteries. Capillaries are the thinnest of all
Defense
the blood vessels, they are almost one-cell-thick and this is where exchange of materials takes
Proteins Albumin Leukocytes and
place. These blood vessels are like stack of wires that serves as a pathway for supplying
Immunity
nutrients, oxygen and other substances needed by the body. This is a continuous cycle as long as
Globulin
the person breathes. It also supplies the brain with oxygen which makes us conscious.

Electrolytes
Granulocytes: Agranulocytes:
Basophils Lymphocytes
Eosinophils Monocytes
Nutrients Neutrophils
Others Waste
products
Gases
Hormones
Blood
Platelets Clotting

Enters the cardio vascular


system
Figure 2 Blood composition as it enters the system
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SPECIALIZATION: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
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By: Dr. Brian M. Limson
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Figure 3 The Human Heart

Blood flow starts with the deoxygenated blood coming from the different body systems
and terminates to the superior and inferior vena cava and fills the right atrium which eventually
contracts. This causes the tricuspid valve to open delivering blood to the right ventricle. This valve
closes when blood is filled in the right ventricle. Pressure increases in this area which leads to the
opening of the pulmonary valves. This is the onset of pulmonary circulation where deoxygenated
blood becomes oxygenated as blood diffuses in the lungs. Moreover, after blood has become
oxygenated, it passes towards the pulmonary veins directing the blood in the left atrium. Once the
left atrium is filled with blood, pressure builds up causing the mitral or bicuspid valves to open
where blood is delivered to the left ventricle. Again, blood fills up this chamber creating an
increase in pressure which initiates the aortic valve to open. Systemic circulation begins when
oxygenated blood is delivered from the aorta to the rest of the body. On the next page is an
illustration showing the process in which the blood enters the heart.

Figure 4 Blood Flow in the Human Body


Diseases of the Circulatory System

Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever

This is a viral infection brought about by a day biting mosquito known as Aedes aegypti .
High grade fever associated with flu-like symptoms is experienced by the person. As soon as the
virus invades the blood stream, there is a destruction of the platelets hampering the clotting
mechanism. As a result, internal hemorrhage may occur which is life threatening. Administration
of dextrose solution plus fluid intake and bed rest are the supportive measures commonly done to
treat the person having this condition. Sometimes, blood transfusion is also given.

Hypertension

This occurs when there is sudden increase in the blood pressure. Usually the systolic and
diastolic pressures are elevated. The primary cause could be unknown but there are several
conditions that lead to this disease. The following are the possible conditions: heredity, sedentary
lifestyle, lack of exercise, smoking, drinking, unhealthy eating habits and stress. On the contrary,
this could be treated by having regular check-ups with a specialist, proper education and
awareness about hypertension, exercise and by eating the right food. If left untreated it could lead
to a heart attack or even stroke.

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SPECIALIZATION: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
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VI. THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Breathing is an involuntary process that occurs simultaneously with the circulation of the
blood. This action is essential since we are able to acquire oxygen from the environment, which
eventually is transported to the rest of the body with the involvement of the blood protein
hemoglobin. Likewise, waste products such as carbon dioxide are being excreted in the process
of exhalation. On the next page is a diagram showing the divisions of the respiratory system.

Process of Ventilation
1.Gas Exchange- takes place during the process of inhalation by a process called diffusion.
Oxygen enters the lungs while carbon dioxide exits.
2.Gas Transport- oxygen is transported through the bloodstream by a protein known as
hemoglobin. This protein is present in the entire circulation supplying the entire body with
oxygen.
3.Regulation- the entire breathing mechanism is controlled by two specific structures in the
brainstem. Namely the pons and medulla oblongata.

The process of ventilation involves the intercostals muscles of the thorax and diaphragm.
As we inhale oxygen, our lungs expand as our intercostals muscles contract pulling the ribcage
upward and outward together with the downward movement of our diaphragmatic muscles.
Thereafter, exhalation follows where the opposite happens.

Diseases of the Respiratory System

Tuberculosis

This is a highly contagious disease which could be transmitted airborne. The name of the
bacteria responsible for this disease is known as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This
communicable disease is found in countries with a tropical climate. Aside from the lungs, several
organs may be affected namely the meninges of the brain, spine and small intestines. Signs and
symptoms such as fever, night sweats, fatigue and coughing with blood might be experienced by
the person. This could be treated by giving the proper medications with regular check-ups from a
physician. This could be fatal if no treatment is done.

Pneumonia

This condition results when the lungs are inflamed associated with fluid blocking the
alveolar passages. The person may acquire this if the immune system is low. It could be brought
about by viruses, bacteria, fungi, cigarette smoking or upon exposure to harmful chemicals. The
person may acquire this via airborne especially if the immune system is impaired. As a result,
fever associated with productive cough and chest pains may be felt. The person may recover
having the right medications given by a physician.

VII. THE LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEM

The lymphatic system is a series of an open structural network that circulates throughout
the body containing a clear fluid called lymph. It drains an ample amount of water and proteins
flowing to the entire body and restoring it to the blood thereby maintaining its fluid balance, sieves
out unwanted substances harmful to the body, drains the fat from the intestinal tissues into the
blood, protects the entire body form pathogens rendering a life-long immunity.

Composition of the Lymphatic System

There are major components comprising the lymphatic system. Each structure is
essential from keeping the human body free from disease.

1. Lymphatic capillaries- gather interstitial fluid from body tissues. These unite to form an
immense amount of vessels called lymphatics.
2. Lymphatics- form a cluster of vessels in order to transport lymph from the lymphatic
capillaries to the bloodstream via subclavian veins.
3. Lymph nodes- where the lymphatic vessels unite and filter substances reaching the
bloodstream.
4. Tonsils- located posterior to the tongue, which filters out foreign substances that may be
harmful to the body.

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SPECIALIZATION: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
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By: Dr. Brian M. Limson
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5. Thymus gland- present in newborn babies and manufactures antibodies. This gland
initiates the formation of the immune system.
6. Spleen- about the size of a clenched fist serves as a filtering organ for the blood to be
cleansed every 120 days, replaces old worn out red blood cells and even stores blood.
This is laterally located at the left upper quadrant of the abdomen.
7. Peyer’s patches- an aggregate of lymph nodules in the small intestines protect the organ
from harmful agents by secreting antibodies.

IMMUNITY

We encounter diseases at some point in our life. It could be harmless or even


bothersome. That is why we have protective barriers which are part of the immune system. These
are the ones encountered by antigens to safeguard our state of health. These are the mechanical
and cellular defenses. For this reason, we produce antibodies to ward off foreign substances. The
ability to topple this effect is called immunity. The barriers to immunity are depicted below:

Types of Immunity:

1. Inborn Immunity- is obtained through genetic predisposition. We receive this type of


immunity from our parents and ancestors. Acquired immunity progresses the moment a
person is born.
2. Acquired Immunity- antibodies could be obtained when we are exposed to antigens.
This happens in a natural and artificial manner.
a. Naturally Acquired Immunity- happens in active or passive form.
1. Active- if a person comes in direct contact with a disease which provides
a permanent immunity.
2. Passive-obtained during fetal development through the mother’s
placenta and by breastfeeding upon rearing the newborn. This may last
for a short period of time.
b. Artificially Acquired Immunity- can also be in an active and passive manner.
1. Active- administering a prepared vaccine, whether weakened or dead
antigens, to stimulate the production of definite antibodies. In some
instance, booster shots are needed. May require a long lasting immunity.
2. Passive- this is given promptly once a person has been exposed to a
precarious disease which could be detrimental to ones health
(eg.diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, rabies, snake bite). An immune serum
preparation is administered to the person; provides immunity for a short
period of time.

Antibodies

Antibodies are proteins produced from the circulating lymphocytes that have the capacity
to ward off foreign substances. The so-called immunoglobulins are classified into five types, the
IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE and IgD. These are stimulated with the presence of antigens in our body which
eventually destroys them. Antigens are foreign substances which could be detrimental to our
health.

Five types of antibodies:


1. IgG- is mainly present in the circulation which comes in contact directly to pathogens.
2. IgA- mostly exists in bodily secretions such as saliva, tears and breast milk as well as in
the mucosal linings of the digestive and respiratory tracts. They affix to antigens so as not
to reach the bloodstream.
3. IgM- is also found circulating in the body and known to be the broadest. They are the first
to encounter the pathogens that reach the bloodstream.
4. IgE- plays a big role in allergic reactions stimulating the release of histamines.
5. IgD- signifies antigen-antibody type differentiation. These are attached to the surface of
B-cells.

Diseases of the Immune System

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

This is a highly contagious illness brought about by a viral infection known as the Human
Immunodefieciency Virus (HIV). It could be acquired by an exchange of body fluids during sexual
intercourse form an infected individual, blood transfusion, sharing of needles, tattoing, body
piercing and even from mother to fetus. The virus weakens and destroys the immune system
specifically the T-helper cells. As a result, various infections may result brought about by
opportunistic bacteria, viruses and fungi. Currently, there is no known cure.

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Elephantiasis

This parasitic infection is also known as filariasis and is widely spread in tropical
countries . The parasitic worms could be passed on to humans by a mosquito bite. Once bitten,
the worms travel via the lymphatic ducts causing obstruction to the lymphatic drainage. In relation
to this, possible enlargement of the following organs could manifest such as the upper and lower
extremities, scrotum and breasts. Anti-parasitic medications are given to treat the infection.
However, the enlarged organs can no longer be brought back to normal.

VIII. THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The nervous and endocrine system corresponds with each other. This serves as a check
and balance by how the body reacts with the outside world. The pituitary gland is the master
gland which controls the release of the hormones. It is divided into the anterior and posterior
portions. Below is an illustration showing the glands and their hormonal secretions.

Function of different hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland:


1. Growth hormone (GH)- carries out the effect on body tissues and also triggers the
development of muscles and lengthening of the bones.
2. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)- is responsible for the body’s metabolic needs. There
are three types of hormones under this. The first two which are the triiodothyronine (T3)
and thyroxin (T4) is for the development and growth of the body tissues. The third type is
the calcitonin which plays a role in lowering down the calcium level in the blood.
3. Parathyroid hormone- raises the calcium level in the blood.
4. Prolactin- responsible for the production of milk by nursing mother.
5. Cortisol- which plays role in regulating the blood sugar level and protein breakdown.
6. Aldosterone- regulates the sodium and potassium content in the kidneys
7. Sex hormones- act on the reproductive organs and sex characteristics.
8. Epinephrine and norepinephrine- alerts the body during a stressful event.
9. Testosterone- regulates the male reproductive system and activates the male secondary
sexual characteristics.
10. Estrogen and Progesterone- regulates the female reproductive system and activates the
female secondary sexual characteristics.

Functions of the hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary gland.


1. Oxytocin- targets the uterus which brings about uterine contractions during child birth,
and regulates the mammary glands for milk ejection.
2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)- maintains the water balance in the body during the process
of reabsorption from the kidneys.

Diseases of the Endocrine System

Diabetes Mellitus

An endocrine disorder brought about by an insufficient production of insulin. This could be


hereditary or acquired. A person with this condition has difficulty in dissolving the excess sugar in
the blood which could possibly damage other organs. Likewise, this is followed by long term
complications such as weakness, severe weight loss, blurring of vision, kidney damage and
atherosclerosis. This could be controlled by monitoring the blood sugar regularly, taking insulin
shots, intake of medicines, proper diet and exercise, and regular consult with a specialist.

Diabetes Insipidus

This happens when the body releases an insufficient amount of anti-diuretic hormone
(ADH) resulting to an excessive release of diluted urine. The cause is unknown but could be
hereditary. Excessive thirst, frequent urination at night which could even interrupt sleep and
dehydration could be experienced by the person. Administration of vasopressin is given to correct
the fluid imbalance of the body.

IX. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

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The digestive system is essential in procuring food. It breaks down the food into tiny
pieces to be able to distribute nutrients to the specific parts of the body to sustain energy.

The process of digestion starts from the mouth. When food is chewed or masticated,
mechanical and chemical digestion happens. Mechanical digestion breaks down the food into
smaller pieces with the help of the teeth and tongue. While chemical digestion happens
simultaneously with the aid of the saliva since it contains enzymes that converts the food into
starch. The food, transformed into bolus passes through the pharynx while being swallowed. The
esophagus receives the bolus by peristalsis as it goes to the stomach in the event that it becomes
a chyme. Then it goes to the small intestines for absorption. The rest of the undigested food is
carried in the large intestines to be further excreted through defecation. Below is a diagram
showing the process.

Along with the entire process, there are three accessory organs involved in digestion. The
liver, this produces bile to emulsify the fats contained in the foods that we eat. The gall bladder,
located within the lobes of the liver, stores the bile. Lastly, the pancreas regulates the blood sugar
by secreting the hormones insulin and glucagon. The mechanical and chemical digestion process
is shown below.

Swallowing Pharynx
Mouth Mastication
Teeth
Saliva
Esophagus
Large
Intestines
appendix
ascending, Peristalsis
Small
transverse, Intestines
descending duodenum
sigmoid jejunum Stomach
rectum ileum
anus

Figure 5 Pathway of Food in the Body

Diseases of the Digestive System

Hepatitis

This is a contagious viral infection resulting to an inflammation of the liver. The duration
may be acute or chronic and the mode of transmitting this disease varies according to the type of
hepatitis. Weakness, fever, abdominal pain, headache and sometimes jaundice could be
experienced by the person. Since this is a viral infection, the condition is self-limiting. Blood test
and regular consult with a physician to be done to limit the spread of infection.

Cholelithiasis

This is a disease of the gall bladder causing an unusual build up of cholesterol coming
from the bile substances. For this reason, formation of stones takes place causing obstruction in
the bile ducts. Likewise, inflammation of the gall bladder occurs accompanied by a severe
abdominal pain. Excessive intake of fatty foods, high cholesterol diet and obesity are some
factors that lead to this condition. Surgery is the only option to treat this condition.

X. EXCRETORY SYSTEM

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Every time we take in something whether it be eating or drinking, our body is capable of
absorbing and filtering the substances that are essential to our body. Just the way we also
eliminate substances unnecessary for the body’s need.

The excretory system has four major components to attain this process. These are the
kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra. For this reason, we get rid of waste products in the
form of urine.

Four Components:

1. Kidneys- are a pair of bean-shaped organs situated posterior to the abdominal cavity. It
contains the nephron which serves as the functional unit of the kidneys. An enzyme
called rennin is also present which plays a role in the regulation of blood pressure.
Moreover, these organs take part in regulating the control of red blood cell production
regulated by the hormone erythropoietin.
2. Ureters- these are tubes which transports urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary
bladder.
3. Urinary System- a hollow muscular organ capable of storing the urine temporarily.
4. Urethra- a tiny tube where it moves out urine from the urinary bladder. In males, this also
serves as a passageway of sperms during ejaculation. Females have shorter urethra
which is why they are more susceptible to urinary tract infections.

The kidneys filter out unwanted substances. This is one way of maintaining homeostasis
throughout the body. And to be able to attain this process, urine formation comes in three ways
namely glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion.

Process of Urine Formation:

1. Glomerular filtration - the nutrients and waste products enter the glomeruli via the afferent
and efferent arterioles. In turn, the waste products are further eliminated in the form of
glomerular filtrate which enters the Bowman’s capsule.
2. Tubular Reabsorption- happens in the renal tubules and allows necessary nutrients and
substances to be absorbed by the blood while eliminating ammonia, urea and other
waste products.
3. Tubular Secretion- urine is already formed in this final process and allows further
elimination of wastes products including excess potassium. All of which takes place in the
distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.

Diseases of the Human Excretory System

Urinary tract infection

An inflammation to any of the parts of the urinary tract could lead to infection. This is
brought about by a bacterial infection which commonly occurs in females due to its close
proximity of the vagina from the anus.

Moreover, females have a shorter urethra compared to males thereby making it more
susceptible to infection. Fever, urgency to urinate and flank pains is the common manifestations
experienced by the person. Intake of antibiotics along with proper hygiene is needed to eliminate
the infection.

Pyelonephritis

This condition is caused by an ascending bacterial infection of the kidneys resulting to


inflammation. The renal pelvis is the most common site of infection. People who are sexual active
are at risk of having this disease. Likewise, pregnant women and people with diabetes are not
exempted from this infection. Failure to seek medication could result to septicemia which may be
lethal to ones health.

XI. THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The reproductive system is essential for the perpetuation of species. This is also
responsible in making up the sexual characteristic of an individual. It is made up of a series of
structures of structures known as the gonads. There are two kinds of gonads which fall under
this system, the testes giving rise to male sexual characteristics and reproductive functions, and
ovaries contributing to the female sexual characteristics reproductive functions.

The Male Reproductive System

Parts:

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1. Scrotum: Sac-like structure enclosing the testes.


2. Testes: suspended outside the body by a loose protective skin known as the scrotum.
These almond-shaped structures secrete the hormone testosterone that is mainly
responsible for keeping the male reproductive organ intact likewise; give rise to male
secondary sexual characteristics.
3. Seminiferous tubules: coiled structures inside the testes where sperms are produced.
4. Epididymis: further houses the sperm for maturation.
5. Vas deferens: duct where sperms pass through
6. Seminal Vesicles: links to the vas deferens and attached posterior to the urinary bladder.
It secretes sugar, protein, and other substances that nourish the sperm.
7. Ejaculatory duct: results from the fusion of the seminal vesicle and the vas deferens
8. Prostate gland: located beneath the urinary bladder having the size of a walnut. This
gland also secretes an alkaline fluid neutralizing the vagina from its acidic condition.
9. Bulbourethral glands: pea-sized structure situated below the prostate gland and helps
lubricate the penis during intercourse.

The Penis

This is also known as the shaft and is an organ for coitus. Lying within this organ is the
urethra. Aside from being part of the urinary system, the urethra is where the semen and sperm
passes through during ejaculation. Along with the blood vessels and nerves, the penis has two
kinds of erectile tissues. A pair of spongy tissue located dorsolaterally within the shaft called the
corpora cavernosa and a single tissue that resides ventrally known as the corpus spongiosum.
This single tissue surrounds the urethra.

Components of the Sperm Cell

Millions of sperms are released for every ejaculate. These cells are capable of fertilizing
the egg cell but only one sperm cell would be sufficient for doing this.

1. Head- the anterior portion of the sperm which contains the acrosome that has enzymes
capable of penetrating the egg cell. Likewise, the nucleus, chromosomes and genetic
materials are confined in this area.
2. Body or Mid-piece- is equipped with mitochondria to supply energy for the moving cell.
3. Tail or Flagellum- allows motility for the sperm.

The Female Reproductive System

Parts:
1. Ovaries- are the male counterpart of the testes. It secretes the following hormones
namely the estrogen and progesterone. These two main hormones contribute to the
maintenance of the female reproductive system and giving its female secondary sexual
characteristics. Both are regulated by the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and the
luteinizing hormone (LH) secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. Also, both of these
hormones are beneficial in the ovulation process.
2. Fallopian Tubes- are paired oviducts which extend from the ovaries towards the entrance
of the uterus. It serves as a passageway for both the egg cell and the sperm cell for
fertilization to occur.
3. Uterus- a pear-shaped muscular organ where it accommodates the fetus for growth and
development.
4. Vagina- receives the erected penis in preparation for coitus. It also provides a
passageway for the fetus to be delivered during the process of giving birth.
5. Bartholin’s glands- these are paired glands situated at the posterior aspect of the vaginal
opening which contributes to the secretions of the vagina during sexual activity.
6. Vulva- part of the vagina located externally. Incorporated in this area are pairs of lip-like
structures known as the labia. The outer portion is the labia majora and the inner is the
labia minora.
7. Mammary glands- also part of the female reproductive system. During pregnancy, these
are enhanced by the hormones estrogen and progesterone to produce milk under the
hormone prolactin. Oxytocin is also released during the suckling reflex by the baby
causing the milk to be ejected from the breast.

Diseases of the Reproductive System

Gonorrhea

This is a common sexually transmitted infection of both the male and female. The
causative agent is the bacterium known as Neisseria gonorrhoeae . The signs and symptoms
include an unusual yellowish discharge accompanied by an inflammation of the urethra, difficulty

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and pain while urinating, pelvic pain and fever. Prompt treatment is needed as this may lead to
complications like sterility and even sepsis.

Syphilis

This sexually transmitted infection penetrates the mucosal linings of the reproductive
tracts causing ulcerations. The bacterium is known as Treponema pallidum having a cork screw
shape in appearance making it mobile. For this reason, it may reach the bloodstream and
lymphatic system. In chronic cases the infection may become systemic with signs and symptoms
such as skin rashes, alopecia, fever and body aches. Likewise, it may reach the brain resulting to
a mental illness and paralysis that could possibly lead to death.

PART II – ANALYZING TEST ITEMS


Competency 1: Describe the structural levels of organization

1. Which of the choices below show the correct sequence of the descending levels of
organization of the human body
a. Atom, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
b. Tissue, atom, cell, organ, organ system, organism
c. Organ, organ system, organism, tissue, atom, cell
d. Organism, cell, organ system, atom, tissue, organism

Explanation:

Choice A: (Correct Answer) This is the correct answer because the levels of
organization in descending order starts from the smallest particle which is
the atom to the largest structure which is the organism.

Choice B: This is not the appropriate choice because tissue appears on the third level
Choice C: This is incorrect because the organ come after the tissue level
Choice D: This is incorrect since the organism is the last level of organization in
descending order

Competency 2: Describe the parts and functions of the body systems

2. The sequence of events happen in urine formation :


a. Secretionfiltrationreabsorption c. Reabsorptionsecretionfiltration
b. Filtrationsecretionreabsorption d. Filtrationreabsorptionsecretion

Explanation:

Choice D: (Correct Answer) This is correct because nutrients and waste products are
being filtered first in the form of glomerular filtrate then enters into renal
tubules to be absorbed by the blood then tubular secretion happens last in
the distal tubules and the collecting ducts and eventually goes to the
ureters.

Choices A to C: These are incorrect because they can never happen since the filtration of
nutrients and waste products begins at the Bowman’s capsule which is
part of the nephron.
Competency 3: Cite instances when the body systems work together

3. In a normal breathing process, inhalation happens when,


a. The diaphragm contracts and goes down as the ribcage goes upward and
outward
b. The diaphragm contracts and goes up as the ribcage goes downward and inward
c. The diaphragm contracts and goes down as the ribcage goes downward and
inward
d. The diaphragm contracts and goes up as the ribcage goes upward and outward

Explanation:

Choice A: (Correct Answer) This is the correct answer because as air rushes in the
lings, the diaphragm automatically contracts downward while the ribcage
moves upward thereby causing a decreased pressure in the lungs

Choice B: This is not the appropriate choice because this happens during exhalation or
exhaling process
Choices C and D: These are not the appropriate choices because these do not happen

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Competency 4: Describe the common diseases

4. Which of the following characterizes tuberculosis


a. Fever c. Coughing with blood
b. Night sweats d. All of the above

Explanation:

Choice D: (Correct Answer) Choices A, B and C are the correct descriptions of


tuberculosis

Competency 5: Describe how to maintain one’s health

5. Osteoporosis can be prevented by


a. Intake of calcium supplements c. Regular exercise
b. Proper diet d. All of the above

Explanation:

Choice D: (Correct Answer) Choices A, B and C are all preventive measures of


osteoporosis

6. A 20-year old female has been experiencing fever, difficulty of breathing, chest pain and
productive cough for the past five days. Consult was made and was given medications to
treat her condition. She is most likely suffering from :
a. Bronchial asthma c. Pertusis
b. Diphtheria d. Pneumonia

7. The blood vessels which carry deoxygenated blood coming from the pulmonary trunk to
the pulmonary circulation are the:
a. Carotid arteries c. Capillaries
b. Pulmonary arteries d. Pulmonary veins

8. The following are examples of diuretics except:


a. Tea c. Cola
b. Coffee d. Juice

9. Martha is a varsity player of their school. She always practices basketball early in the
morning until the early afternoon. One physiologic condition happens to her face which is
redness of the cheeks or what is known as blushing. What happens to the blood vessels
as a result of this condition?
a. Vasodilate c. a&b
b. Vasoconstrict d. Neither

10. Reena is a 68- year old postmenopausal woman. She always complains of backache
every time she does household chores. She was advised by her doctor to take calcium
supplements everyday. A bone disorder that might have led to her condition is:
a. Rickets c. Osteomalacia
b. Osteoporosis d. Scoliosis

11. A leaf-like structure on top of the larynx that prevents the food and other foreign particles
from entering the lungs is called the :
a. Pharynx c. Alveoli
b. Trachea d. Epiglottis

12. The structures of the lower respiratory that is most likely clogged with mucous in an
asthmatic person who has difficulty of breathing is:
a. Bronchi c. Alveoli
b. Bronchioles d. Trachea

13. Mang Mario, a 45-year old carpenter was accidentally punctured by a nail while repairing
a cabinet. He immediately went to the emergency room and was injected tetanus immune
globulin to prevent lockjaw brought about by tetanus infection. This type of immunity is an
example of:
a. Natural active immunity c. Artificial passive immunity
b. Artificial active immunity d. Natural passive immunity

14. A twenty five year old male stumbled over the stairs because of an imbalance. He had a
drinking spree prior to the accident. The part of brain affected due to alcohol drinking is:

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a. Cerebrum c. Hypothalamus
b. Cerebellum d. Medulla oblongata

15. A 28-year old pregnant woman goes to her physician for a pre-natal check-up on an
irregular basis due to financial reasons. She has not been taking the prescribed
supplements that was given to her and was found out to be undernourished and vitamin
D deficient. A condition could possibly happen to her bones is called
a. Osteoarthritis c. Osteogenesis imperfecta
b. Osteomyelitis d. Osteomalacia

16. A 15-year old male high school student engaged in a drinking spree. After consuming four
bottles of beer he felt dizzy and could not balance well while walking. The part of the
brain that is most likely affected is the:
a. Thalamus c. Pons
b. Brainstem d. Cerebellum

17. After suffering from a brain stroke, Amelia’s glossopharyngal nerve had been damaged.
Which of the following conditions would she most likely suffer from:
a. She would experience double visions
b. She would most likely have problems with hearing
c. She would not be able to take in solid chunks of food.
d. She would have hallucinatory experiences

18. The following are innominate bones except:


a. Sacrum c. Ilium
b. Ischium d. Pubis

19. Len looks pale and is experiencing dizziness. She is fond of eating junk food and
vegetable is not a part of her daily diet. Which of the following would explain her current
condition:
a. Her platelets are low c. Her Eosinophil level is high
b. Her hemoglobin level is low d. None of the above

20. What part of the brain regulates body temperature?


a. Cerebrum c. Hypothalamus
b. Thalamus d. Encephalon

PART III – ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS


1. The muscle associated with hair follicle are:
a. Pectoralis major c. Gastrocnemius
b. Arrector pili d. Sartorius

2. A 14 –year old female Caucasian has been complaining of her freckles that are widely
distributed throughout her body. The pigment responsible for her condition is called:
a. Carotene c. Melanin
b. Lycopene d. Keratin

3. The deepest layer of the epidermis which consists of cuboidal or columnar cells and
plays a big role for mitotic division every 19 days is the:
a. Stratum corneum c. Stratum germinativum
b. Stratum granulosum d. Stratum basale

4. When exposed to sunlight, the skin is capable of producing a molecule that can transform
into what type of vitamin?
a. Vitamin A c. Vitamin C
b. Vitamin E d. Vitamin D

5. The organ that serves as a filtering agent of bacteria, old red blood cells, bacteria and
other foreign particles is the :
a. Liver c. Kidney
b. Spleen d. Gall bladder

6. Helena, a 14-year old female is always conscious about her face because of her pimples
and oily skin. The gland responsible for causing this condition is:
a. Eccrine gland c. Sebaceous gland
b. Merocrine gland d. Apocrine gland

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7. Raymond, a 10-year old child suffered a fracture on his right forearm due to a fall from a
tree three weeks ago. Tissue repair begins and fibrocartilage fills the end of the damaged
bones. The step where this process happened is what is called?
a. Bony callus c. Hematoma
b. Remodeling d. Fibrocartilaginous callus

8. Our muscles are capable of contracting regularly. The neurotransmitter enabling the
movement of muscles is known as:
a. Serotonin c. Acetylcholine
b. Epinephrine d. Norepinephrine

9. A person who has diabetes inspidus excretes a large amount of urine. What hormone is
defective in response to this condition?
a. Antidiuretic hormone c. Erythropoietin
b. Renin d. Oxytocin

10. A person who is hypertensive loses elasticity of the coronary arteries. This condition is
known as:
a. Atherosclerosis c. Arteriosclerosis
b. Embolism d. Phlebitis

11. The hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland is:


a. Prolactin c. Growth hormone
b. Antidiuretic hormone d. Calcitonin

12. A milky fluid which comprises the fat globules and lymph is known as:
a. Lacteals c. Chyle
b. Colostrum d. None of the above

13. What part of the male reproductive system in which sperms are stored?
a. Epididymis c. Vas deferens
b. Seminiferous tubules d. Urethra

14. The immune system comprises the T-cells which develop in the:
a. Adrenal glands c. Thyroid gland
b. Thymus gland d. Spleen

15. Which gland is part of the endocrine system?


a. Seminal vesicles c. Prostate gland
b. Bulbourethral gland d. Testes

16. After having a full meal, the hormone secreted by the pancreas which regulates the
production of blood sugar in the body is :
a. Somatostatin c. Insulin
b. Glucagons d. Oxytocin

17. The hormone which promotes ovulation and progesterone production in the ovary and
testosterone synthesis in the testis is the:
a. Luteinizing homone or interstitial cell stimulating
b. Antidiuretic hormone
c. Calcitonin
d. Prolactin

18. A 28-year old mother has been breast feeding her child for the past three months. The hormone
responsible for the production of milk is called:
a. Oxytocin c. Insulin
b. Prolactin d. Calcitonin

19. A 25-year old pregnant woman is on her last month of pregnancy and has been
experiencing uterine contractions every 20 minutes. The hormone responsible for having
this contractions is called:
a. Prolactin c. Insulin
b. Cortisol d. Oxytocin

20. In the blood flow through the heart, after the blood passes to the pulmonary circulation or lung
tissues it goes directly to the:
a. Right atrium c. Pulmonary veins

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b. Pulmonary arteries d. Aorta

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