ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE

Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee

Advanced Legal Studies Institute

P.O.Box 3013, Islamabad
Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 The Problem With the Meaning of Jurisprudence 1
1.2 A Format of the General Theory of Law . . . . . 3
1.3 A Model for the Study of the General Theory of
Islamic Law or Us.ūl al-Fiqh . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 The Subject-matter of Us.ūl al-Fiqh . . . . . . . . 14
1.5 The Scope of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 The Meaning of Us.ūl al-Fiqh and Basic Terms 21

2.1 The Literal Meaning of Fiqh . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2 Earlier General Meaning of Fiqh . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3 Later Shāfi‘ite Definition of Fiqh . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Analysis of the Definition of Fiqh . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 Distinctions Based on the Definition . . . . . . . 30
2.5.1 Distinction between sharı̄‘ah and fiqh . . 31
2.5.2 Distinction between mujtahid and faqı̄h . 31
2.5.3 Distinction between ijtihād and taqlı̄d . . 32
2.5.4 Distinction between a muqallid and a
faqı̄h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6 A Wider Definition of Fiqh: Criticising the Nar-
row Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.6.1 What in reality is the dalı̄l tafs.ı̄lı̄? . . . . 33
2.6.2 The legal structure of the evidences (adil-
lah) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6.3 Identifying the defects of the narrow
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

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2.6.4 Redefining fiqh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

2.7 Rejection of the Narrow Definition of Fiqh and
its Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.8 The Meaning of As.l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.9 The Nature of the Qawā‘id Us.ūliyyah: the Basis
of the Schools of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.9.1 The Meaning of a School of Law . . . . . 46
2.10 Us.ūl al-Fiqh Defined: Combining the Meaning
of Fiqh and Us.ūl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.11 The Nature of the Qawā‘id Fiqhiyyah: Are These
Evidences too? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.12 A Wider Definition of Us.ūl al-Fiqh . . . . . . . . 51

I The H
. ukm Shar‘ı̄ 55
3 The H
. ukm: What is Islamic Law? 61
3.1 The Three Elements of the H . ukm Shar‘ı̄ . . . . . 62
3.2 The Meaning of the H . ukm Shar‘ı̄ or the Mean-
ing of Islamic Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3 The H . ukm Taklı̄fı̄—Obligations and Duties . . . 67
3.3.1 The h.ukm taklı̄fı̄ from the perspective of
the us.ūlı̄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.3.2 The h.ukm taklı̄fı̄ from the perspective of
the faqı̄h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3.3 The h.ukm taklı̄fı̄ according to the H . anafı̄s 70
3.4 The H . ukm Wad . ‘ı̄—Declaratory Rules . . . . . . 72
3.5 The Distinction Between the H . ukm Taklı̄fı̄ and
the H . ukm Wad.‘ı̄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4 Classification of Rules in Islamic Law 75

4.1 The Meaning of Wājib (Obligatory Act) and its
Different Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.1.1 The h.ukm or rule for the wājib . . . . . . 79
4.2 The Classifications of the Wājib (Obligatory Act) 80
4.2.1 Classification based on the time avail-
able for performance: mut.laq and muqayyad 81

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4.2.2 Classification based on the extent of the

required act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.3 Classification based on the subjects who
are required to perform . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2.4 Classification based on the identifica-
tion of the object of the required act . . . 86
4.3 The Meaning of Mandūb (Recommended Act)
and its Different Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.3.1 Types of Mandūb . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.4 The Meaning of H . arām (Prohibited Act) and its
Different Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.4.1 The types of h.arām . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.5 The Meaning of Makrūh (Disapproved Act) and
its Different Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.6 The Meaning of Mubāh. (Permitted Act) and its
Different Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.7 The H . ukm Wad.‘ı̄ or the Declaratory Rule . . . . 97
4.7.1 Sabab, shart. and māni‘ . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.7.2 S.ih.h.ah, fasād and but.lān (validity, viti-
tation and nullity) . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.7.3 ‘Azı̄mah and rukhs.ah (initial rules and
exemptions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.8 The Purpose of the Classification . . . . . . . . . 102

5 The Lawgiver (H. ākim) 105

5.1 Allah is the True Source of all Laws . . . . . . . . 105
5.2 The Fundamental Norm of the Legal System . . 107
5.3 The Law and the Interest of Man . . . . . . . . . 108
5.3.1 Is Man the sole purpose of creation? . . . 109
5.3.2 Can we employ mas.lah.ah (interest) for
new laws? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.4 Are the Sharı̄‘ah and Natural Law Compatible? . 111

6 The Act (Mah.kūm Fı̄h) 117

6.1 Defining the Mah.kūm Fı̄h . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

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6.2 The Conditions for the Creation of Obligation

(Taklı̄f ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2.1 The act to be performed or avoided
must be known . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2.2 The subject should be able to perform
the act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.3 The Nature of the Act (Mah.kūm Fı̄h) . . . . . . 121
6.4 Classification of the H . ukm Taklı̄fı̄ on the Basis
of Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.5 Classification of Duties: Original and Substitutory 127
6.6 The Importance of the Classification of Rights
for Islamic Criminal Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.7 Human Rights and Other Classifications . . . . . 133
6.7.1 Developing the Islamic Theory of Rights
and Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.7.2 The analysis of rights . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.7.3 The nature of duties in Islamic law . . . 137
6.7.4 Natural rights and rights given by the law 138

7 The Subject (Mah.kūm ‘Alayh) 141

7.1 Ahliyyah or Legal Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.1.1 The two parts of legal capacity . . . . . . 143
7.1.2 Dhimmah and legal capacity . . . . . . . 143
7.2 The Underlying Bases of Legal Capacity . . . . . 144
7.2.1 Insāniyyah and ‘Aql . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.2.2 Mental maturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.2.3 Legal capacity and liability . . . . . . . . 146
7.3 Complete Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.3.1 Legal effects of complete capacity . . . . 147
7.3.2 The stages leading to complete legal ca-
pacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.4 Deficient and Imperfect Capacity . . . . . . . . 149
7.4.1 Cases of deficient legal capacity . . . . . 150
7.4.2 Cases of Imperfect Capacity . . . . . . . 155

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8 Causes of Defective Legal Capacity 161

8.1 Natural Causes of Defective Capacity . . . . . . 163
8.1.1 Minority (s.ighar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.1.2 Insanity (junūn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.1.3 Idiocy (‘atah) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.1.4 Sleep and fits of fainting (nawm, ighmā’) 165
8.1.5 Forgetfulness (nisyān) . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.1.6 Death-illness (marad. al-mawt) . . . . . 166
8.2 Acquired Causes of Defective Capacity . . . . . . 170
8.2.1 Intoxication (sukr) . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.2.2 Jest (hazl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
8.2.3 Indiscretion (safah) . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.2.4 Coercion and duress (ikrāh) . . . . . . . 174
8.2.5 Mistake and ignorance (khat.a’, shub-
hah, and jahl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

II The Primary Sources of Islamic Law 181

9 The Meaning of Primary and Secondary Sources 185
9.1 The Meaning of “Source” in Islamic Law . . . . . 186
9.2 The Classification of the Sources . . . . . . . . . 187
9.2.1 Agreed upon and disputed sources . . . 187
9.2.2 Transmitted and rational sources . . . . 188
9.2.3 Definitive and probable sources . . . . . 189
9.2.4 Primary and secondary sources . . . . . 192
9.3 Grades of the Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

10 The Qur’ān 199

10.1 The Qur’ān as the Primary Source of Law . . . . 200
10.1.1 Justification of the Qur’ān as a source . . 202
10.1.2 The recording and revelation of the Qur’ān 203
10.2 Legal strength and indication of ah.kām in the
Qur’ān . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.3 The kinds of ah.kām in the Qur’ān . . . . . . . . 206
10.4 Can one text of the Qur’ān abrogate another? . . 207

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11 The Sunnah 209

11.1 The Sunnah as a Primary Source . . . . . . . . . 210
11.1.1 Definition of the Sunnah . . . . . . . . . 210
11.1.2 Kinds of Sunnah . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
11.1.3 Justification of the Sunnah as a source
of law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
11.1.4 Justification of the different types of
Sunnah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
11.2 Status of the Sunnah With Respect to the Qur’ān 227
11.2.1 The manner in which the Sunnah lays
down the ah.kām . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
11.2.2 Modern views about the relationship
between the Qur’ān and the Sunnah . . . 231

12 Consensus of Legal Opinion (Ijmā‘) 235

12.1 The Meaning of Ijmā‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
12.1.1 Technical or legal meaning . . . . . . . . 237
12.1.2 Conditions for the validity of ijmā‘ . . . 237
12.1.3 Types of ijmā‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
12.1.4 The legal force of ijmā‘ as a source . . . . 241
12.1.5 The sanad of ijmā‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
12.1.6 Likelihood of the occurrence of ijmā‘ . . 246
12.1.7 Cases of ijmā‘ transmitted in books of fiqh 248
12.1.8 Role of ijmā‘ in the modern world . . . . 248

III The Secondary Sources of Islamic Law 251

13 Mas.lah.ah and the Maqās.id al-Sharı̄‘ah 257
13.1 The Meaning of Mas.lah.ah (Interest) and the
Doctrine of Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
13.1.1 The Meaning of Utility and Bentham . . 260
13.1.2 Mas.lah.ah in Islamic Law . . . . . . . . . 260
13.2 The Classification of Mas.lah.ah . . . . . . . . . . 261
13.2.1 First classification: mas.lah.ah acknowl-
edged or rejected by the sharı̄‘ah . . . . . 262

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13.2.2 Second classification: mas.lah.ah accord-

ing to its inner strength . . . . . . . . . 264
13.2.3 Third classification: definitive and prob-
able interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
13.2.4 Fourth classification: public and private
interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
13.3 The Doctrine of Mas.lah.ah and Maslah.ah Mur-
salah: Distinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
13.4 Maqās.id al-Sharı̄‘ah or the Purposes of Islamic
Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
13.4.1 What is beyond the purposes? . . . . . . 268
13.4.2 Maqās.id al-sharı̄‘ah and the texts . . . . 269
13.5 The Nature and Structure of the Purposes of the
Sharı̄‘ah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
13.5.1 Primary purposes in the service of the
Hereafter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
13.5.2 The two faces of the maqās.id . . . . . . . 272
13.5.3 Primary and secondary purposes . . . . 274
13.5.4 Priorities within the maqās.id . . . . . . 276
13.5.5 Mas.lah.ah, Public Interest and Human
Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

14 Qiyās (Analogy) 283

14.1 Definition of Qiyās . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
14.2 Elements of Qiyās . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
14.3 Examples of Qiyās . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
14.4 Conditions Pertaining to the Elements . . . . . . 289
14.4.1 Conditions of the as.l or the case in the
texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
14.4.2 Conditions pertaining to the h.ukm of
the as.l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
14.4.3 Conditions pertaining to the far‘ or new
case needing a h.ukm . . . . . . . . . . . 291
14.4.4 Conditions pertaining to the ‘illah and
meaning of ‘illah . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
14.5 Types of Analogy (Qiyās) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

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14.5.1 The first type: probable and definitive

or qat.‘ı̄ and z.annı̄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
14.5.2 The second type: classification accord-
ing to the strength of the h.ukm estab-
lished in the far‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
14.5.3 Qiyās jalı̄ and qiyās khafı̄ or manifest
and concealed analogy . . . . . . . . . . 300
14.6 Justification of qiyās as a source of Islamic law . . 301
14.6.1 Arguments of those who uphold qiyās . . 301
14.6.2 Arguments of those who reject qiyās . . . 303

15 Istih.sān (Juristic Preference) 307

15.1 The Meaning of Istih.sān . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
15.1.1 Istih.sān is a method for looking at the
consequences of a decision . . . . . . . . 309
15.2 Examples of istih.sān . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
15.3 Types of Istih.sān . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
15.3.1 Distinction between the various types . . 314
15.4 Justification of Istih.sān . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

16 Istis.h.āb (Presumption of Continuity) 315

16.1 The Meaning of Istis.h.āb . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
16.2 The Principles That Form the Basis of Istis.h.āb . . 316
16.2.1 Types of Istis.h.āb and Their Legal Validity 317
16.3 Istis.h.āb al-H
. āl Cannot Establish a New Rule . . . 319
16.4 Istis.h.āb al-H
. āl and the Islamisation of Laws . . . 320

17 Mas.lah.ah Mursalah (Extended Analogy) 321

17.1 The Meaning of Mas.lah.ah Mursalah . . . . . . . 321
17.2 The Conditions for the Validity of Mas.lah.ah
Mursalah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
17.3 Illustrations of Mas.lah.ah Mursalah . . . . . . . 324
17.4 The Process of Using Mas.lah.ah Mursalah . . . . 326
17.5 Identifying Mas.lah.ah That is Gharı̄b . . . . . . . 328
17.6 Identifying Mas.lah.ah That is Rejected (Mulghā) . 330
17.7 Justification of Mas.lah.ah Mursalah . . . . . . . . 331

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18 Sadd al-Dharı̄‘ah (Blocking the Lawful Means to an Un-

lawful End) 333
18.1 Types of Lawful Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
18.2 Disagreement of Jurists About the Legality of
the Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

19 Other Secondary Sources 339

19.1 Companion’s Opinion (Qawl al-S.ah.ābı̄) . . . . . 340
19.1.1 Views of those who accept it as a source . 340
19.1.2 Views of those who do not consider it
binding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
19.1.3 Opinions of the Followers of the Com-
panions (Tābi‘ūn) . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
19.2 Shar‘ Man Qablanā (Earlier Scriptures) . . . . . 342
19.2.1 Types of earlier laws . . . . . . . . . . . 343
19.2.2 Reason why the earlier laws are not
binding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
19.3 Custom (‘Urf ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
19.3.1 Types of ‘urf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
19.3.2 Can the Western laws obtaining in Pak-
istan be treated as custom? . . . . . . . . 346

IV Ijtihād (Interpretation) 349

20 The Meaning of Ijtihād and its Modes 353
20.1 The Meaning of Ijtihād . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
20.2 Ijtihād is not Independent of the Qur’ān and the
Sunnah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
20.3 The Task of the Mujtahid . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
20.4 Basic Assumptions Made by the Mujtahid . . . . 356
20.5 Texts That are not Subject to Ijtihād . . . . . . . 358
20.6 The Three Modes of Ijtihād . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
20.6.1 The first mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
20.6.2 The second mode . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
20.6.3 The third mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
20.7 The Complete Process of Ijtihād . . . . . . . . . 361

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20.8 The H . ukm of Ijtihād and its Types . . . . . . . . 362

20.9 The Qualifications of the Mujtahid . . . . . . . . 363
20.9.1 Who is a mujtahid today? . . . . . . . . 366
20.10 Ijtihād a Legislative Function: The Need for an
Islamic Theory of Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . 367

21 The First Mode of Ijtihād: Interpreting the Texts 371

21.1 The Concept of Bayān (Elaboration) . . . . . . . 374
21.1.1 Bayān taqrı̄r (complementary expres-
sion or elaboration) . . . . . . . . . . . 377
21.1.2 Bayān tafsı̄r (enabling expression) . . . . 377
21.1.3 Bayān taghyı̄r (elaboration by exception) 378
21.1.4 Bayān tabdı̄l (conditional expression) . . 379
21.1.5 Bayān d.arūrah (elaboration by necessity) 379
21.2 Literal Interpretation of the Texts . . . . . . . . 380
21.2.1 The structure of interpretation . . . . . 381
21.2.2 The four general literal methods of es-
tablishing the ah.kām (dalālāt) . . . . . . 383
21.2.3 The literal methods of establishing the
ah.kām practised by the Shāfi‘ı̄s . . . . . 392
21.2.4 Amr (command) and nahy (proscrip-
tion): the nature and type of h.ukm es-
tablished . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
21.2.5 The number or categories affected by
the h.ukm: ‘āmm; khās..s; mushtarak; and
mu’awwal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
21.2.6 The clarity or ambiguity with which the
h.ukm is established . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
21.2.7 The effect of the use of words in the ac-
tual or metaphorical meanings . . . . . 403

22 The Second Mode of Ijtihād: Reasoning by Analogy 407

22.1 Moving From the First Mode of Ijtihād to the
Second . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
22.2 The Methods of Discovering the Underlying
Cause (Masālik al-‘Illah) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

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22.2.1Discovering the cause in the new case:

tah.qı̄q al-manāt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
22.3 Analogy and the Modern Jurist . . . . . . . . . . 413

23 The Third Mode of Ijtihād: Employing the Maqās.id al-

Sharı̄‘ah 415
23.1 Moving From the Second Mode of Ijtihād to the
Third: the ‘Illah and the H . ikmah . . . . . . . . . 416
23.2 The Interplay Between General Principles and
the Maqās.id al-Sharı̄‘ah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
23.3 A Value Oriented Jurisprudence . . . . . . . . . 420
23.3.1 Distinction between the value system in
Islamic law and Western jurisprudence . 422
23.4 Mas.lah.ah and the Modern Jurist . . . . . . . . . 423

24 Abrogation (Naskh) and Preference (Tarjı̄h.) 425

24.1 The Doctrine of Abrogation (Naskh) . . . . . . . 426
24.1.1 Examples of repealing and overriding laws 427
24.1.2 The wisdom behind the doctrine of ab-
rogation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
24.1.3 Distinction between naskh (abrogation)
and takhs.ı̄s. (restriction) . . . . . . . . . 428
24.1.4 Types of abrogation . . . . . . . . . . . 429
24.1.5 The attributes of the abrogating and ab-
rogated evidences . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
24.2 Justification for the Doctrine of Abrogation . . . 430
24.2.1 Comparing the Impact of Abrogation
and Restriction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
24.3 The Rules of Preference (Tarjı̄h.) . . . . . . . . . 432
24.3.1 Reconciliation (jam‘) . . . . . . . . . . . 433

V The Faqı̄h and His Methodology 435

25 Taqlı̄d as a Methodology 439
25.1 Taqlı̄d as a Basis for the Islamic Theory of Adju-
dication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

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25.2 The Literal Meaning of Taqlı̄d . . . . . . . . . . 442

25.3 The Technical Meanings of Taqlı̄d . . . . . . . . 442
25.4 The H . ukm of Taqlı̄d and Ijtihād . . . . . . . . . 443
25.5 Taqlı̄d in Law is an Exemption from the General
Rule of Prohibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
25.6 Taqlı̄d in the Pakistani Legal System . . . . . . . 446
25.7 Taqlı̄d and the Islamic Legal System . . . . . . . 446
25.7.1 The grades of the jurists . . . . . . . . . 448
25.7.2 The mujtahid and the faqı̄h . . . . . . . 450
25.8 The Layman Moving From One School to Another 452

26 The Sources of Islamic Law for the Faqı̄h 455

26.1 The Task of the Faqı̄h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
26.2 The Output/Result of Ijtihād is a Source for the
Faqı̄h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
26.3 The Established Principles of Islamic Law are a
Source for the Faqı̄h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
26.3.1 Principles stated explicitly or impliedly
in the texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
26.3.2 Principles derived by the jurist from a
number of existing cases in the law . . . 464
26.3.3 Examples of principles from al-Dabbūsı̄ . 466
26.4 Al-Dabbūsı̄ on the Methodology of the Faqı̄h . . 470
26.5 The Faqı̄h May Formulate a New Principle if it
Meets the Prescribed Conditions . . . . . . . . . 472
26.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472

21 Select Bibliography 473

21 Detailed Bibliography 477

22 Glossary 515

Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee Advanced Legal Studies Institute