The Question of Genetically Modified Organisms and

Their Role in the American Food System

Celeste Basken

CAP 9 Green Group

May 13, 2019

 The United States Congress must regulate genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in the

Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) because they lead to a lack of crop diversity,

encourage unsustainable and harmful farming practices, and can bankrupt farmers. Humans have

been influencing the DNA of other organisms for as long as we have been interacting with them.

Charles Darwin introduced the concept of natural selection, a process in which species with only

the most desirable traits survive, but humans have been contributing to natural selection through

selective breeding for thousands of years (Rangel). But in 1973, the lengthy and imperfect

practice of genetic influence by selective breeding changed when ​Herbert Boyer and Stanley

Cohen, university scientists, created the first genetically modified organism (GMO), influencing

the genetics of bacteria by inserting desirable foreign genes (Rangel, “Herbert Boyer and Stanley

Cohen”). Now, less than half a century later, more than 90% of staple crops such as corn,

soybeans, sugar beet, and cotton grown in the United States are genetically modified. Eighteen

million farmers around the world grow ​genetically modified organisms (Jaffe). ​The crops grown

are all from one seed genome per species, which leads to a lack of crop diversity that is

dangerous to the ecosystem and vulnerable to pests (​GMOs and Pesticides)​ . T​he National

Institute of Health (NIH) defines pesticides as “any substance used to kill, repel, or control

certain forms of plant or animal life that are considered to be pests” (“Health and Education”).

Scientists create GM crops to be used in conjunction with pesticides, even though studies have

shown that consistent use of pesticides has significant negative effects on biodiversity and

ecological health (Geiger). Growing genetically modified organisms can be highly detrimental to

farmers as it can cause them to lose legal, financial, and biological control over their crops

(Martens). One main concern is that “there is no comprehensive federal legislation specifically

1
addressing GMOs” currently existing in US legal framework (Acosta). Congress must amend the

United States Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) to fund scientists to help them

create a variety of seeds, to regulate seed companies regarding pesticide use, and to change the

laws so farmers don’t have to buy new seeds every year.

Farmers grow a limited variety of genetically modified crops on a large scale, which

leads to a lack of biodiversity that is detrimental to environmental health (Rose). Scientists know

of close to 400,000 plant species in the world, but only 10 species have been genetically

modified for human consumption (Rangel). Conventional breeding, which uses pesticides and

GMOs, has led to a situation in which just four crops- maize, potatoes, wheat, and rice- to

provide half the world’s food. This is because it takes an average of eight years and $135 million

to create a new genetically modified seed (“What Does It Take”). Having only a few varieties of

a specific species can have national economic implications when the production of one crop fails

(Rose). An example of this occured in 2010, when the Chinese discovered an unapproved variety

of genetically engineered (GE) corn in grains that farmers were attempting to import from the

United States. The ships containing the grain were turned away, and since it was the farmers’

only variety of grain, it was a significant financial loss for the grain farmers (Carpenter). Another

significant financial loss of thousands of dollars occurred when corn borers, a prevalent pest that

eats corn, developed a tolerance for GM corn and destroyed the yield, simply because farmers

only grew one strain of that crop (Charles). The United States has the highest number of

herbicide-resistant weeds as well as pests, with “over 130 herbicide-resistant weeds confirmed in

the United States” which are found on “millions of acres of farmland” (Carpenter, Jaffe).

Overuse of pesticides on Bt corn, a GM version of corn that scientists altered to be poisonous to

2
insects, has led to immune corn rootworm populations (Jaffe). The pesticides are also hurting

organisms not labeled or intended as pests. Genetically modified crops have been shown to have

significant negative effects in laboratory studies on the monarch butterfly, which is not regarded

as a pest. Since genetically modified organisms are a recent phenomenon, many negative

environmental and ecological impacts have yet to be discovered (Carpenter).

Genetically modified crops encourage unsustainable farming practices, such as overuse

of pesticides and dangerous soil erosion. More than 70% of GM crops grown internationally

have been genetically modified to resist pesticides (Makanya). To kill bugs and weeds, scientists

engineer the crops to be tolerant to high doses of herbicides. According to the American

Association for the Advancement of Science, “for both soybean and maize, [genetically altered]

GT adopters used increasingly more herbicides relative to nonadopters” (Perry). Genetically

modified crops have been shown to lead to significant soil damage and erosion. While

considered a pest, some species, such as the corn borer, actually help the environment. Bt corn is

shown to increase soil erosion due to the reduced populations of corn borers (Motavalli).

Genetically modified crops are also damaging the soil by stripping it of nutrients (Carpenter).

Studies have shown that the roots of genetically modified crops exude chemicals into the soil

that diminish the levels of important nutrients such as organic acids, H+ ions, sugars, and

phosphatases (Motavalli). In Iowa between 1995 and 2010, an increase in acres planted with

genetically modified corn and soybeans led to a direct decline in soil health. This was due to the

nutrient levels in the soil. When one crop is planted on the same land year after year, the crop

draws the same nutrients out of the soil and ends up leaving behind infertile and unusable land.

3
Poor farming practices with little or no crop overturn encouraged by GM scientists have

noticeably decreased Iowa’s soil health (Cox).

The millions of farmers who grow genetically modified crops are often bankrupted by

them (Stauffer). While many farmers switch to genetically modified crops in the hopes of

increasing their yields and therefore profit, data shows that it isn’t the farmers getting the money

from the extra yields but the companies who sell them their seeds (Jaffe) Farmers in Brazil are

losing money to GM companies due to the exorbitant prices of pesticides that the genetically

modified corn requires, especially now that the southern grass worms are tolerant to the

pesticides used (Stauffer). Another issue for farmers is relating to the patents of seed companies.

Farmers who plant herbicide-tolerant soybeans produce larger yields, but seed companies force

them to rebuy seeds every year, so they are making less money and losing control over what they

grow (Jaffe). When farmers buy genetically modified seeds, they typically have to sign an

agreement saying that they will not save the seeds to replant as the companies want to sell the

farmers new seeds every year (“Patented Plants”). When farmers violate these policies, they are

often sued by the companies who own patents on the GM crop. Between 2003 and 2012, seed

giants like Monsanto received $23.5 million from patent infringement lawsuits that were settled

in court; and even more confidentially from undisclosed arrangements with farmers (Barker).

Farmers who aren’t even growing genetically modified crops are now losing money and

credibility due to GM crops. Scientists Catherine Moyes and Philip Dale of the John Innes

Institute in England say that “it is probably unavoidable” for organic crops grown near GM crops

to not end up genetically contaminated. This means that farmers who grow organic crops might

be discredited as organic and not allowed to sell under that label, which could cost them money

4
as well as their reputation (Martens). Numerous examples exist for genetic contamination across

species. Genetically modified canola in Australia was found to have contaminated organic canola

fields two miles away (Reiger). Genetically engineered bentgrass, grown on golf courses, was

found by researchers to have contaminated wild grass nine miles away only one year after it was

planted (“Health and Education”). Genetically engineered crops are harming farmers, and the

United States’ Congress could help the issue by requiring more checks and balances on the

power of companies that make genetically modified seeds.

Despite evidence of harm from genetically modified crops, companies that produce

genetically modified crops have raised hopes that GM crops could play a key role in eliminating

world hunger (Gerry). Experts agree, however, that “​hunger is not an issue of agriculture or food

quantity, but one of poverty and equity” (“GMOs Don’t Feed the World”). The solution to world

hunger will not be found by growing food with more chemicals and greater costs, it will be found

by helping people distribute and access food (Brooks). For farmers on small rural farms, GM

crops cost more than traditional ones to plant since farmers are in situations where they have less

land and capital than large factory farms (Makanya). Howard Vlieger, an Iowan corn farmer,

reported that growing genetically modified Bt corn, when compared with regular corn, cost him

about $58 more yearly per acre (Bartolotto). He also found that his sows who ate Bt corn were

1.5 times more infert​ile, a fact that concurs with studies published by the National Institute of

Health (Gao). Farmers in poverty, once they switch to GMO, become reliant on buying new

seeds every year. In African nations, this is especially financially burdensome since currently

“more than 80% of the small-scale farmers in Africa save their on-farm produced seeds for the

next season” (Makanya). GM companies also convince rural farmers to switch to a limited

5
number of crops. A study of GMO crops in foreign environments showed that the “introduction

of [genetically modified] Bt cotton in India resulted in a reduction in on-farm [crop] diversity

due to the introduction of the [GM] technology in only a small number of varieties” (Carpenter).

So, while genetically modified crops may be sold as the panacea to world hunger, they actually

make conditions worse (Bartolotto).

Genetically modified organisms are a new and promising technology, but the United

States needs to keep tight regulations on this resource that could help as well as hurt the

environment and the farmers who grow the world’s food. The only way to ensure that America is

safely and responsibly addressing this concern is by updating the United States Federal Food,

Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA). Congress must subsidize scientists to create a wider variety

of seeds in order to increase biodiversity. Congress needs to create regulations to force seed

companies to reduce pesticide use and laws to protect farmers so they don’t have to buy new GM

seeds each year. These steps will allow farmers, both domestically and internationally, to safely

cultivate crops for the growing world.

6
 Works Cited

Acosta, Luis. "Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms: United States." ​Library of

Congress​, www.loc.gov. Accessed Mar. 2014.

Barker, Debbie. "Seed Giant vs US Farmers." ​The Center for Food Safety​, Saving Our Seeds,

2013, www.centerforfoodsafety.org. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019.

Bartolotto, Carol. "A Farmer's Perspective on GMOs." ​Huffpost,​ 4 Mar. 2014,

www.huffpost.com. Accessed 30 Mar. 2019.

Brookes, Graham, and Peter Barfoot. "Economic Impact of GM crops: the Global Income and

Production Effects 1996-2012." ​GM Crops & Food​ vol. 5,1 (2014): 65-75.

doi:10.4161/gmcr.28098

Carpenter, Janet E. "Impact of GM Crops on Biodiversity." ​United States NIH.​ ​National Institute

of Health,​ www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Accessed 30 Mar. 2019.

Charles, Dan. "How GMOs Cut The Use Of Pesticides — And Perhaps Boosted It Again."

National Public Radio,​ 1 Sept. 2016, www.npr.org. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019.

Cox, Craig. "Debunking the Myth That GE Crops Reduce Soil Loss." ​Environmental Working

Group,​ 9 Oct. 2014, www.ewg.org. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019.

Gao, M. "Link between Infertility and Genetically Modified Foods." ​US National Library of

Medicine​, National Institute of Health, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Accessed 2014.

Geiger, Flavia. "Persistent Negative Effects of Pesticides on Biodiversity and Biological Control

Potential on European Farmland." ​Science Direct​, Mar. 2010, www.sciencedirect.com

Accessed 26 Mar. 2019.

7
Gerry, Christopher. "Feeding the World One Genetically Modified Tomato at a Time: A

Scientific Perspective." ​Harvard University,​ sitn.hms.harvard.edu. Accessed 30 Mar.

2019.

GMOs and Pesticides: Helpful or Harmful?​ Harvard University, 10 Aug. 2015,

sitn.hms.harvard.edu. Accessed 30 Mar. 2019.

"GMOs Don't Feed the World." ​Green America,​ greenamerica.org. Accessed 30 Mar. 2019.

"Health and Education; Pesticides." ​National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.​

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences,​ www.niehs.nih.gov. Accessed 30

Mar. 2019.

"Herbert Boyer and Stanley N. Cohen: Genetic Modification." ​Genetics and Genomics Timeline​,

Genome News Network, www.genomenewsnetwork.org. Accessed 30 Mar. 2019.

Jaffe, G. "Genetically Engineered Foods and their Regulation: the Way Forward after Twenty

Years of Adoption." Regulatory Focus. August 2016. Regulatory Affairs Professionals

Society.

Makanya, Zachary. "Twelve Reasons for Africa to Reject GM Crops." ​Grain,​ Agroecology

Fund, 24 July 2004, www.grain.org. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019.

Martens, Mary-Howell R. "Genetic Drift: Protecting Your Crops from Contamination." ​Eco

Farming Daily,​ Acres USA, 6 July 2017, www.ecofarmingdaily.com Accessed 31 Mar.

2019.

Motavalli, PP. "Impact of Genetically Modified Crops and Their Management on Soil

Microbially Mediated Plant Nutrient Transformations." ​US National Library of Medicine​,

National Institute of Health, May 2004, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019.

8
"Patented Plants: What do GMO Patents Mean for Farmers, Researchers, and Consumers?"

Living Non-GMO​, livingnongmo.org. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019.

Perry, Edward D., et al. "Genetically Engineered Crops and Pesticide Use in U.S. Maize and

Soybeans." Science Advances, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1

Aug. 2016, www.advances.sciencemag.org.

Rangel, Gabriel. "From Corgis to Corn: A Brief Look at the Long History of GMO Technology."

Harvey University,​ 9 Aug. 2015, sitn.hms.harvard.edu. Accessed 30 Mar. 2019.

Rose, Nick. "Expert Analysis: Will GM Foods Solve World Hunger or Just Increase Corporate

Profit." ​The Feed​, 13 July 2018, www.sbs.com.au. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019.

Stauffer, Caroline. "Farmers Say GMO Corn No Longer Resistant to Pests." ​Scientific American​,

Reuters, www.scientificamerican.com. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019.

"What Does It Take to Bring a New GM Product to Market?" ​GMO Literacy Project​, Monsanto,

gmo.geneticliteracyproject.org. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019.

9
 Annotated Bibliography

Acosta, Luis. "Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms: United States." ​Library of

Congress​, www.loc.gov. Accessed Mar. 2014. This source helped me understand the

existing legal framework within the United States to deal with genetically modified

organisms.

Barker, Debbie. "Seed Giant vs US Farmers." ​The Center for Food Safety​, Saving Our Seeds,

2013, www.centerforfoodsafety.org. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019. This source helped me have

a foundational understanding of genetically modified organisms and their impact on

farmers.

Bartolotto, Carol. "A Farmer's Perspective on GMOs." ​Huffpost,​ 4 Mar. 2014,

www.huffpost.com. Accessed 30 Mar. 2019. This news article, which included an

interview of an Iowan corn farmer who tried growing GMOs, gave me insight into a

farmer's perspective.

Brookes, Graham, and Peter Barfoot. "Economic Impact of GM Crops: the Global Income and

Production Effects 1996-2012." ​GM Crops & Food​ vol. 5,1 (2014): 65-75.

doi:10.4161/gmcr.28098 This review, published in the US National Library of Medicine

at the National Institute of Health, helped me formulate the argument regarding the

economic impact of GM crops.

Carpenter, Janet E. "Impact of GM Crops on Biodiversity." ​United States NIH.​ ​National Institute

of Health,​ www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Accessed 30 Mar. 2019. The potential impact of GM

crops on biodiversity. This review takes a biodiversity lens to this literature, considering

the impacts at three levels: the crop, farm and landscape scales. Within that framework,

10
 this review covers potential impacts of the introduction of genetically engineered crops

on: crop diversity, biodiversity of wild relatives, non-target soil organisms, weeds, land

use, non-target above-ground organisms, and area-wide pest suppression.

Charles, Dan. "How GMOs Cut The Use Of Pesticides — And Perhaps Boosted It Again."

National Public Radio,​ 1 Sept. 2016, www.npr.org. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019. This source

helped me understand the relationship between genetically modified crops and pesticide

use.

Cox, Craig. "Debunking the Myth That GE Crops Reduce Soil Loss." ​Environmental Working

Group,​ 9 Oct. 2014, www.ewg.org. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019. This source helped me

understand the relationship between soil conservation and genetically modified crops.

Gao, M. "Link between Infertility and Genetically Modified Foods." ​US National Library of

Medicine​, National Institute of Health, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Accessed 2014. This

source helped me back up the findings of an Iowan corn farmer that indeed there is a link

between infertility and genetically modified foods.

Geiger, Flavia. "Persistent Negative Effects of Pesticides on Biodiversity and Biological Control

Potential on European Farmland." ​Science Direct​, Mar. 2010, www.sciencedirect.com.

Accessed 26 Mar. 2019. This source explained how loss of landscape elements, enlarged

farm and field sizes and larger inputs of fertilizer and pesticides relate to the impact of

GM crops.

Gerry, Christopher. "Feeding the World One Genetically Modified Tomato at a Time: A

Scientific Perspective." ​Harvard University,​ sitn.hms.harvard.edu. Accessed 30 Mar.

11
 2019. This source gave me a scientific perspective on how genetically modified

organisms impact the environment.

GMOs and Pesticides: Helpful or Harmful?​ Harvard University, 10 Aug. 2015,

sitn.hms.harvard.edu. Accessed 30 Mar. 2019. This article helped me understand a

university's understanding of how genetically modified organisms impact the levels of

pesticides present in our environment.

"GMOs Don't Feed the World." ​Green America,​ greenamerica.org. Accessed 30 Mar. 2019. This

source helped me formulate the rebuttal portion of my paper.

"Health and Education; Pesticides." ​National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.​

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences,​ www.niehs.nih.gov. Accessed 30

Mar. 2019. This government source helped me understand the United States' perspective

on what pesticides are and how they are impact the use of GMOs.

"Herbert Boyer and Stanley N. Cohen: Genetic Modification." ​Genetics and Genomics Timeline​,

Genome News Network, www.genomenewsnetwork.org. Accessed 30 Mar. 2019. This

article helped me understand how genetic modification was invented.

"How FDA Regulates Food from Genetically Engineered Plants." ​US Food and Drug

Administration​, 4 Jan. 2018, www.fda.gov. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019. This source helped

me understand how the United States Food and Drug Administration regulates food from

genetically modified crops.

Jaffe, G. "Genetically Engineered Foods and their Regulation: the Way Forward after Twenty

Years of Adoption." Regulatory Focus. August 2016. Regulatory Affairs Professionals

Society I used this article to review the history and impact of Genetically Engineered

12
 crops over two decades, and explain the federal oversight of GE crops. The article

suggested improvements to federal oversight to ensure the safety of GE crops and greater

consumer confidence in GE foods. I also used the article to determine public attitudes

toward GE foods and the issues surrounding the labeling of those foods, including the

law requiring mandatory disclosure signed by President Obama on 29 July 2016.

Makanya, Zachary. "Twelve Reasons for Africa to Reject GM Crops." ​Grain,​ Agroecology

Fund, 24 July 2004, www.grain.org. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019. This source helped me

understand how small non-profits see the issue of small rural farmers.

Martens, Mary-Howell R. "Genetic Drift: Protecting Your Crops from Contamination." ​Eco

Farming Daily,​ Acres USA, 6 July 2017, www.ecofarmingdaily.com. Accessed 31 Mar.

2019. This source for farmers helped me understand how the possibility of genetic drift is

impacting organic farmers.

McEvoy, Miles. "Organic 101: Can GMOs Be Used in Organic Products?" ​U.S. Department of

Agriculture​, 17 May 2013, www.usda.gov. Accessed 30 Mar. 2019. This source helped

me understand the government's perspective on genetically modified organisms and

organic products.

Motavalli, PP. "Impact of Genetically Modified Crops and Their Management on Soil

Microbially Mediated Plant Nutrient Transformations." ​US National Library of Medicine​,

National Institute of Health, May 2004, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019.

This source added to my argument on the environmental impact of GM crops.

"Patented Plants: What do GMO Patents Mean for Farmers, Researchers, and Consumers?"

Living Non-GMO​, livingnongmo.org. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019. This source helped me

13
 understand the impact of genetic drift on organic farmers. It explores what GMO patents

mean for farmers, researchers, and consumers.

Perry, Edward D., et al. "Genetically Engineered Crops and Pesticide Use in U.S. Maize and

Soybeans." Science Advances, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1

Aug. 2016, www.advances.sciencemag.org. This source helped my paper in my second

argument. I learned a lot about my topic and gained valuable knowledge by using this

source.

Rangel, Gabriel. "From Corgis to Corn: A Brief Look at the Long History of GMO Technology."

Harvey University,​ 9 Aug. 2015, sitn.hms.harvard.edu. Accessed 30 Mar. 2019. This

article helped me understand how did the original practice of selective breeding evolve

into the concept of genetically modified organisms.

Rose, Nick. "Expert Analysis: Will GM Foods Solve World Hunger or Just Increase Corporate

Profit." ​The Feed​, 13 July 2018, www.sbs.com.au. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019. This source

offered a perspective on how world hunger actually relates to genetically modified foods.

Stauffer, Caroline. "Farmers Say GMO Corn No Longer Resistant to Pests." ​Scientific American​,

Reuters, www.scientificamerican.com. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019. This source helped me

understand farmer's perspectives and pest resistance.

"What Does It Take to Bring a New GM Product to Market?" ​GMO Literacy Project​, Monsanto,

gmo.geneticliteracyproject.org. Accessed 31 Mar. 2019. This source helped me

understand how expensive it is to create a new GM seed, and why seed companies

produce a limited variety of each crop.

14