Introduction

but it is a measurement of the

capacity to do work, which
can be stored and measured
ENErgy in many forms. In fact, this
concept of energy is
Energy cannot be created nor summarized in the work-
destroyed, but it just transferred energy theorem (Simmons,
from one form to another, doing n.d.).
work in the process. The standard
unit of energy is joules, J, which is
defined as a Newton meter, N∙m. In
mechanics, one joule is the energy
transferred when a force of one
Newton is applied to an object and
moves it through a distance of one
meter (Encyclopædia Britannica,
2019). There is another unit of
energy which is calorie, the amount
of energy in an item of food. One
calorie is the amount of energy
required to increase one kilogram
of water by one degree Celsius
(Szalay, 2015). Also, energy is a
scalar quantity because it has only
magnitude. To illustrate, an object Work-Energy Theorem
heading to the right at a certain left
at a same distance (O’Connell, The work-energy theorem
2016). Furthermore, energy and states when work is done on
matter are everywhere, and an object, there will be a
everything is composed of energy change in that object’s kinetic
and matter. Matter is a material energy, which is the energy of
substance, whereas energy is not, motion. This means that an

04
object in motion is able to do
work on another object. The
work-energy theorem bridges
concepts from Newton’s laws
and kinematics to describe
motion. Energy describes a
property of an object or
system that can be transferred
into another object or system,
often in a form of work. There
are two main types of energy.
Kinetic energy is the energy
an object possesses by its
motion (Khan Academy, n.d.).
According to the Newton’s
second law of motion, F = ma,
the application of some net
force will move an object with
some mass at some constant
acceleration. Since work is
equal to force times distance,
if we account for the distance
travelled by this object, we
get that W = Fd equals to W =
mad. The kinematic equation
for an object experiencing
constant acceleration, v2 = u2
+ 2ad, can be rearranged to
acceleration times
displacement in terms of initial
and final velocity, ½(v2 - u2) =
ad, which can be plugged into the
W = mad equation for work. After
finishing simplifying the equation,
we will get W = ½mv2 - ½mu2,
which can also be written in Wnet =
△KE. The term one-half mass times
velocity squared, ½mv2, represents
the kinetic energy of a system. All
in all, the work-energy theorem is
when an external force does work
on a system, the amount of work
will be equal to the change in
kinetic energy of the system. If the
value of the W is positive, the
system increases its kinetic energy,
but if that of the W is negative, the
system decreases its kinetic energy,
where the change in kinetic energy
will be equal to the work done on a
system (Lumen Learning, n.d.).
05
 Work
Work is defined as action done on
an object whereby an applied force
causes a displacement of that
object, and it is equal to the
magnitude of the applied force
times the displacement of the
object, W = Fd, so it has units of
force times distance, which is
Newton meter, N∙m, or Joules, J.
This means that work can only be
done when displacement occurs
(Encyclopædia Britannica, 2017). In
addition, only the components of
the applied force that are parallel
to the displacement are considered
to be contributing to work. For
example, if applied force is at a
downward angle, only the x-
component contributes to work
while the y-component is not. In
such a scenario, the displacement
of the object is needed to be
multiplied by the angle from the
horizontal, which can be written in
the formula of W = Fdcos⍬, giving
us the portion of the applied force
that is operating in the horizontal
direction. If theta is 0º — meaning
the applied force is horizontal,
cosine theta will be equal to one,
06
which leaves the formula of W
= Fd. Conversely, if theta is
90º — meaning the applied
force is vertical, cosine theta
will be equal to zero, which
leaves the equation is equal to
zero, so it means that no work
is done on an object;
therefore, it will not move.
Any angle less than 90º will be
some motion (Friedl, n.d.).
Additionally, because work is a
scalar, it can have a positive or
negative value. In case it has a
positive value, the applied
force is in the same direction
as the object’s motion; in case
it has a negative value, the
applied force is in the
opposite direction as the
object’s motion. Therefore,
the sign of the value of the
work is important because it
tells us whether the speed of
an object will increase or
decrease as a result of
applying the work (Jones,
2019).

Kinetic Energy
As mentioned earlier, kinetic
energy is the energy an object
has because of its motion. If
we want to accelerate an
object, we must apply some
amount of force. Applying a
force requires us to do work.
After the work has been done,
energy has been transferred
to the object, and the object
will be moving with a new
constant speed. The energy
transferred is known as kinetic
energy, and it depends on the
mass and speed achieved.
The formula of the kinetic
energy is equal to one-half of
mass in kilograms times velocity
squared in meters per second, KE
= ½mv2. As we can see, the more
mass an object has, the more
kinetic energy it contains, and as
the velocity of an object is squared,
it significantly impacts the kinetic
energy of an object more than the
mass does. In particular, this is
called translational kinetic energy,
KEtrans. There is also rotational
kinetic energy, which is kinetic
energy due to rotational motion or
spinning object, and rolling kinetic
energy, which is kinetic energy due
to linear motion and rotational
motion. Rotational kinetic energy is
equal to one-half of moment of
inertia in kilogram meter squared, I,
times angular velocity squared in
radians per second, ω, which can
be written in a formula of KErot =
½Iω2. Rolling kinetic energy is
equal to one-half of mass in
kilograms times velocity squared in
meters per second plus one-half of
moment of inertia in kilogram
meter squared, I, times angular
velocity squared in radians per
second, ω, which can be written in
a formula of KErolling = ½mv2 +
½Iω2. If it is not slipping, then
07
 v
 the less potential enemy it
ω = , where v is the linear velocity
r has, and as an object is pulled
of an object and r is radius of the
circular path (Khan Academy, n.d.).
Potential Energy
Potential energy, which is always
with kinetic energy, is the energy an
object possesses by its position in a
field, whether that is a gravitational
field, an electromagnetic field, or
any other types of field, and this
type of energy is like a kind of
stored energy of an object’s
location. As an object goes up
above the ground, it gains
gravitational potential energy.
Once the object is released to the
ground from the above, its
potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy of motion as it falls.
Therefore, the closer an object is to
the center of gravity of the earth,
08
up away from the ground, it
gains potential energy
because it has an increasing
potential to fall some distance
to the ground (Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2019). Gravitational
potential energy for any
object on earth will be equal
to the mass of an object in
kilograms, m, times the free
fall acceleration due to gravity
for the earth in meters per
second squared, g, which has
the value of 9.8 meters per
second squared, times the
height of the object in meters,
h, which formula can be
written in PE = mgh. Since the
force due to gravity is equal to
mass times gravitational
acceleration, if we account for
the mass times gravitational
acceleration, we get that PE =
mgh equals to PE = Fgh. The
greater the height, the greater
the potential energy, as this
represents the work that can
be done by gravity to produce
the motion of a falling object.
Nonetheless, if the height has

a great value, the gravitational
field is not uniform. According
to the Newton’s law of
gravitation, the attractive force
between to masses, m1 and
m2, in kilograms decreases
with the separation distance,
r, squared in meters. This can
be written in an equation of
Gm1m2 , where G is the
Fg =
r2
Newton’s universal
gravitational constant that has
a constant value of 6.67 ✕
10-11. As the distance between
the two masses becomes
large, the gravitational force
tends rapidly towards zero.
Hence, the closer an object to
the earth, the more energy is
required to escape the gravity
(Khan Academy, n.d.). In
addition, as the potential
energy of a system depends
on the relative positions of its
components, so some
reference level, which is the
position where gravitational
potential energy is defined as
zero, needs to be defined in
order to measure the
differences in energy (Lumen
Learning, n.d.). There are also other
types of potential energy. Any
object that can act like a spring or a
rubber band can have elastic
potential energy, which will be
equal to one-half the spring
constant in Newtons per meter, k,
times the distance stretched in
meters, x, and this expression can
be written as PE = ½kx2. For
example, the potential energy of a
compressed spring or an arrow
ready to be released from a bow is
called elastic potential energy,
where the kinetic energy of motion
comes from (HyperPhysics, n.d.).
Albert Einstein also recognized
potential energy of mass itself. He
said that mass is energy by its very
nature. This energy of an object, E0,
is equal to the object’s mass, m, in
kilograms times the speed of light,
c, squared in meters per second.
This concept is represented by the
famous formula of E 0 = mc 2
(European Nuclear Society, n.d.)
09

Conservation of Energy
Just as kinetic and potential energy
can be altered as an object moves,
like the way potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy when
an object experiences free fall
towards the ground, so too energy
can be transformed in a variety of
ways. While energy can change
forms, the total energy of a closed
system will always be conserved,
that is to say, there always be
conservation of energy. As an
object falls, potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy, but
the sum of the potential and kinetic
energies of the object will be the
same at every instant during the
free fall. The sum of these types of
energy is called mechanical energy
of the system. This concept can be
easily visualized using the simple
10
harmonic motion of a mass-
spring system which utilize
elastic potential energy, but
we can also use the pendulum
of a grandfather clock, which
will use gravitational potential
energy. At the top of the
swing, the pendulum
possesses its maximum
potential energy and zero
kinetic energy. At the very
bottom of the swing, it
possesses its minimum
potential energy and its
maximum kinetic energy. As
these two forms interchange
again and again, there is
conservation of energy, and
the total mechanical energy is
constant. This concept can be
described mathematically by
the equation of ME = PE +
KE. If mechanical energy is the
sum of kinetic energy and
potential energy, which are in
turn represented by the
expression of ME = ½mv2 +
mgh, and the value of
mechanical energy, ME, is
conserved, then ½mvi2 + mghi
= ½mvf2 + mghf, where i
stands for initial and f stands
stands for final. This shows
that the sum of the kinetic and
potential energy of a system
like the pendulum will be the
same at every point in its
motion. However, this
expression is assumed that
there is no friction present,
but for systems like a swinging
pendulum, we can use it
anyway as the force of friction
will be negligible. The label of
mechanical energy is just a
way of categorizing energy
(Khan Academy, n.d.). It
distinguishes kinetic energy of
motion and gravitational or
elastic potential energy from
other forms of energy, which
we call non-mechanical
energy, including thermal
energy, chemical energy —
energy released from the
burning of fossil fuels and
during digestion, radiant
energy — energy carried by
electromagnetic waves,
nuclear energy — energy
released with the structure of
an atom’s nucleus changes,
electrical energy — energy
associated with charged
particles, etc (Lehigh University,
n.d.). These are also some kind of
kinetic or potential energy as they
involve the motion of tiny vibrating
particles, the energy stored in an
atomic nucleus, or some other
forms of energy associated with
either motion or storage, but they
differ in nature from mechanical
energy since non-mechanical
energy has the energy lying at the
level of atoms and does not affect
motion on a large scale. Again,
energy can be transformed to one
form to another since it cannot be
created nor destroyed, so it is
always conserved. For instance, a
car engine converts chemical
energy stored in gasoline through a
series of steps to eventually
produce the kinetic energy that is
the movement of the car. When we
metabolized food, we are
converting chemical energy within
the food into the chemical energy
in ATP which can then be used as
kinetic energy to move our bodies
around. When we slap our hands
down on a table, all the kinetic
energy is transformed into thermal
energy by heating up the table
slightly, as well as acoustic energy,
11

which is the sound we will hear.
However, friction do affect the law
of conservation of energy (Alcocer,
n.d.).
Frictional Force
Whenever an object is in motion
along a surface the surface exerts a
force upon the object. One
component of this force is the
normal force, which is
perpendicular to the surface. There
is also a component of this force
that is parallel to the surface, which
is the frictional force, or friction.
Friction is the force that will resist
the motion of the object along the
surface. Every surface has some
frictional coefficient that will vary
12
depending on its composition.
Every surface has a different
coefficient of friction, µ.
Surfaces differ in resistance to
motion due to their different
composition. Smooth surfaces
offer less friction, or less value
of the coefficient of friction.
Even surfaces appear to be
perfectly smooth, they will
have some imperfections on
the microscopic level that
provide some friction. As the
object moves across the
surface, there are select points
of contact where atoms in the
objects interact with atoms in
the surface, and this attractive
interaction hinders motion to
some measurable degree —
no matter how small. There
are two main types of friction:
static friction and kinetic
friction. Static friction is the
friction that resists the
initiation of motion. If we try
to lightly push an object
placed on the surface into
motion, the object will first
resist that motion because of
the frictional force operating
in the direction opposite the
applied force of the push. We
can push an object harder, but
it will remain still because the
frictional force will always
precisely oppose the applied
force. Static friction will
increase until the magnitude
of the applied force exceeds
the maximum static frictional
force the surface can exert.
Then the force of the push can
no longer be cancelled out
and the block will begin to
accelerate. This frictional force
is proportional to the normal
force, so the heavier the
object, the greater the normal
force, and the greater the
frictional force. This is because
as the weight of the object
increases, the harder it presses
down on the surface which will
increase the number of
contact points between the
object and the surface. The
static frictional force will be
anywhere from zero to the
maximum possible value,
depending on the forces
operating on the object since
the static frictional force will
be equal to the applied force
until the maximum is reached. The
magnitude of this maximum can be
calculated this way: maximum static
frictional force is equal to the
coefficient of static friction, µs,
times the magnitude of the normal
force in Newtons, N, which can be
written in an equation of Fmax =
µsN. This coefficient has no unit
and is unique to a particular
surface. This equation involves
scalar quantities, so it implies
nothing about direction. Once an
object is in motion, it is now
moving against kinetic friction,
which is the force that opposes
relative sliding motion. Kinetic
friction is always lesser than static
friction. To illustrate, it is easier to
keep an object moving on a surface
than to get an object going. The
magnitude of the kinetic frictional
force acting on a sliding object can
be calculated this way: the kinetic
frictional force is equal to the
coefficient of kinetic friction, µk,
times the magnitude of the normal
force in Newtons, N, which can be
written in an equation of Fk = µkN
(Cox, n.d.) Friction is not always a
nuisance, but it can also be used to
our advantage. For example, when
13

we walk, the static friction between
our feet and the ground allows us
to propel ourselves forward, rather
than our feet simply sliding back.
Car tires take an advantage of
friction to move the care forward,
and they are designed with
grooves to divert water away, so
that it does not interfere with the
contact between the tire and the
ground. This allows it to maintain
traction rather than skidding (Khan
Academy, n.d.). Moreover, air
resistance is another type of fluid
friction. When an object moves
through the atmosphere, the air
hinder its motion, offering some
kinetic friction. This is true of
motion through any fluid in a way
that depends on the viscosity of
the fluid, which is a fluid’s
resistance to flow (National
Aeronautics and Space
Administration, n.d.).
14
Thermal Energy and
Friction
Thermal energy, which is the
sum of the kinetic energy and
potential energy stored within
the particles of a system that
is responsible for the
temperature, can be resulted
from friction. Since friction is a
resistive motion, some of the
kinetic energy is converted to
thermal energy when two
bodies move against each
other, so the amount of kinetic
energy of a system reduced. If
an object is moving up a
slope, in the absence of
friction all the kinetic energy
of the body would have been
converted to gravitational
potential energy, but due to
friction, a part of it gets
converted to heat. This
reduces the total gravitational
potential energy acquired by
the body. Mechanical energy
is reduced due to friction and
converted to heat. This is the
reason why there is an
increase in temperature in
objects that move against
each other (Weber State increased thermal energy in the
University, n.d.). To clarify, take system. After all, the role of friction
an object being pushed across in a closed system is to convert a
the floor as an example. Since part of the total energy to heat
the friction is a non- (Khan Academy, n.d.).
conservative force, the work
done is not stored as potential
energy. Thus, all the work
done by the friction force
results in a transfer of energy
into thermal energy of the
system. This thermal energy
flows as heat within an object
and floor, eventually raising
the temperature of both of
these objects. Beyond that,
when an object moves
Discussion of
through a fluid, some Physic
momentum is transferred, and
the fluid is set in motion. If the concepts
object were to stop moving,
there would still be some Roller coasters, which are elevated
residual motion of the fluid. railway with steep inclines and
This would gradually descents that carries a train of
disappear after some time. passengers through sharp curves
What is happening here is that and sudden changes of speed and
the large scale motions of the direction for a brief thrill ride, are
fluid are eventually re- the most popular amusement park
distributed into many smaller rides in the world, with millions of
random motions of the people riding them each year.
molecules in the fluid. These Because of this reason, when
motions represent an constructing roller coasters,

15
 

engineers must take into account the object, x, in meters that it acts
laws of physics to create a safe and upon. The spring will not work
fun ride for the passengers. if it is stretched exceeding its
elastic limit, where it will no
longer be springy. In fact,
most people might think that
the coaster is propelled
around the track by a motor or
pulled by a hitch, but the
coaster is actually complete
the ride on its own after it is
pulled to the top of the first
hill at the beginning of the
ride. Therefore, the first hill of
a roller coaster is important
because it has to build the
gravitational potential energy
How Does It Related to from the gravitational field for
Conservation of Energy? the rest of the ride. The
Roller coasters are usually not process goes like this: The
launched, but they are pulled up to coaster gains its maximum
get to the first hill by a cable and gravitational potential energy
then propelled by gravity. However, when it reaches the top of the
some are launched by a spring. The first hill. Indeed, there are
spring must push the train with actually other types of
enough force so that it can get potential energy, too: elastic
over the first hill. The force of the potential energy caused by
spring can be calculated using deformation of some elastic
Hooke's law: force exerted by the object, like a ball attached to
spring equals to a negative spring a spring that’s been stretched
constant, k, in Newtons per meter out, electric potential energy
times the displacement of the and magnetic potential

16
energy. After that, it goes does vertical loops, curves, and
down from the hill because of other hills along the way. These
the gravity. At this point, the other forces eventually bring the
gravitational potential energy roller coaster to a stop, despite
is gradually converted into with some help from air brakes at
kinetic energy. Once it reaches the very end of the ride. In
the most bottom of the ride, particular, these other forces are
all of the gravitational mainly friction and air resistance.
potential energy is now The friction from wheels rub along
converted to kinetic energy, the rails and the air that the coaster
causing the coaster gains its fly through gradually slows the
maximum kinetic energy. This coaster because some amount of
great amount of the kinetic the mechanical energy in the roller-
energy drives the coaster coaster system is converted to
forward and up to the hill thermal energy. Although the total
again. While the coaster is mechanical energy is reduced, the
going up to the hill, its kinetic total energy in the system remains
energy is gradually converted the same.
to gravitational potential
energy. Once it reaches the
top of the hill, all of the kinetic
energy is converted to
gravitational potential energy,
causing the coaster gains its
maximum gravitational
potential energy again. Then
the process keeps going until
the coaster finishes its ride.
However, the ride of the
coaster does not keep going
forever because it loses its
energy to other forces as it

17
 Discussions of
Design
Not only the physics concepts are
essential to be consider in order to
create safe and fun roller coaster,
but also the design of the roller
coaster is the important part of the
manufacturing process. Because
each roller coaster is unique, every
detail must be designed literally
from the ground up.
Which Material Should Be
Used to Construct Roller
Coasters?
18
Roller coasters can be
wooden or steel, and can be
looping or non-looping.
Wooden coasters use massive
wooden trestle-style structures
to support the track above the
ground. The wood is generally a
construction grade such as
Douglas fir or southern yellow
pine and is painted or otherwise
treated to prevent deterioration.
The wooden components are
supported on concrete
foundations and are joined with
bolts and nails. Steel plates are
used to reinforce critical joints.
In general, wooden roller
coasters are non-looping. They
are also not as tall and not as
fast, and they don't feature very
steep hills or as long a track as
steel ones do. If the riders are
looking for extreme thrill, then
wooden coasters do offer one
advantage over steel coasters
because wooden coasters sway
a lot more. Steel coasters may
use thin, trestle-style structures
to support the track, or they
may use thick tubular supports.
The track is usually formed in



Materials
sections from a pair of welded
round steel tubes held in
position by steel stanchions Model making
attached to rectangular box • Polytubes
girder or thick round tubular
track supports, and all exposed
steel surfaces are painted.
Steel coasters can be just as
complex as wooden ones, but
tubular steel coasters allow
more looping, higher and
steeper hills, greater drops and
rolls, and faster speeds.

• L-shaped Clamps

19
 

• Wooden Stick • Bolts

• Screws • Acrylic Spray Color

20


• Wooden Board • 3D Tape

• Model Grass Mat • LED Light

21
 

• Feature Board • Hard Colored Paper

• Basket • Golf Ball

22


Calculations
• Stopwatch • Measuring Tape

• Rope • Pen

23

• Electronic Balance
Method
Model making
The first step of roller coaster
project was choosing suitable
materials for roller coaster model,
so we bought two wood sticks for
making poles, one medium size of
wood for the base, one golf ball as
a coaster, and two long sizes of
polytube for the track. In second
step, we drew out the design of
the roller coaster model that we
are interested in and related to the
laws of Physics. In the third step,
we measured the area to estimate
where should we put the wood
24
stick on to be poles. In the
fourth step, we painted the
base, poles, and track with
acrylic spray color. In the fifth
step, we stuck wood sticks on
the base to be poles for the
roller coaster. In the sixth step,
we attached L-shaped clamp on
wood sticks according to our
design to support the poly tube.
In the seventh step, we started
to put two polytubes in a
parallel way to be the track in
order for the golf ball to roll
down. The eighth step, we stuck
the polytube on L-shaped clamp
to stabilize the polytube. In the
ninth step, we tested our roller
coaster model to make sure that
the golf ball can travel freely
throughout all parts of the roller
coaster. Thus, if it had an error,
we can fix it immediately to
make it works.
 
 rope flat on the floor and used the
measuring tape to measure the
length from the beginning of the
rope to those two marks. For the time
measurement, we started the timer
when the ball was released from the
beginning of the tube and then stop
the timer when it reached each of
those two points. Next, we measured
the height of the those two points
from the ground by placing the
measuring tape vertically from the
floor to each of the two points. For
the weight measurement of the golf
ball, we placed the golf ball on the
Calculations electronic balance and waited for the

First of all, we measured the

length of the tube from the
beginning, which is the very
top part that the golf ball is
released, to the point where
the connection between the
yellow and white color is and
the point where the connection
between the white and blue
color tube is by placing the
rope on the polytube from the
beginning down to the two
points as mentioned. After
that, we used a pen to mark on
the rope where those two
points are. We then placed the

25
 


Calculations
At point A, which is the location between yellow and white color, the
distance from the starting point is 369 centimeters, and the time used to
travel to this point is 2.50 seconds. The height from the ground to this
point is 48 centimeters, and the mass of the ball is 45.20 grams.

• First, calculate the velocity of the ball along with changing the unit
of its distance from centimeters to meters.

• Second, calculate the kinetic energy of the ball along with

changing the unit of mass from grams to kilograms.

• Third, calculate the potential energy of the ball along with

changing the unit of mass from grams to kilograms and the
unit of height from centimeters to meters.

26
 


• Lastly, calculate the mechanical energy of the ball.

At point B, which is the location between white and blue color, the
distance from the starting point is 541 centimeters, and the time used to
travel to this point is 4.63 seconds. The height from the ground to this
point is 41 centimeters, and the mass of the ball is 45.20 grams.

• Second, calculate the kinetic energy of the ball along with changing the
unit of mass from grams to kilograms.

27
 

• Third, calculate the potential energy of the ball along with
changing the unit of mass from grams to kilograms and the
unit of height from centimeters to meters.

• Lastly, calculate the mechanical energy of the ball.

28
 B

29

Conclusion
In conclusion, we confirm that
energy is conserved in a closed
system, and can be transformed
from one type to another.
According to the calculations,
point A has the mechanical
energy of 0.262 Joules, and
point B has that of 0.213 Joules,
where some amount of the
mechanical energy is
transformed to other types of
energy, such as thermal energy
and acoustic energy, through
friction and air resistance.
30
Recommendations
With the purpose to emphasize
the concept of conservation of
energy, we would encourage
further studies on finding more
efficient ways to convert energy
from natural sources like solar
and wind energy into the
energy that our civilization
needs to operate all of our
technology as we progress
through the 21st century.
Equally important, we would
recommend further studies on
other physics concepts that
related to roller coaster: for
instance, Newton’s first law of
motion, G-forces, and circular
motion.



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WOrklog
Name
Vanitta Rangsitanan
Suthasinee Lohawannarat
Supitchaya Raksakaeo
Chutiphon Theerakulwijan
Role
Writing Preface
Writing Abstract
Writing Introduction
Writing Discussion of Physic
Concepts
Writing Discussion of Design
Do the Calculations
Writing Conclusion
Writing Recommendation
Do the References in APA style
Decorate the Report
Writing Materials
Writing Methods for Calculations
Build the Model
Writing Methods for Calculations
Build the Model
Writing Methods for Model
Making
Build the Model

34