Interior Thermal Variation by The Rooftop Application of BIPV or BAPV

学校代码 10699
分类号 TK01+9
密级
学号 2016280009
题目
Interior Thermal Variation by the Rooftop
Application of BIPV/BAPV
Editor Muhammad
Touseef Zafar
Power Engineering and Engineering

学科、专业
Thermophysics
指导教师 Cheng Ke
申请学位日期 2019 年 01 月
西北工业大学
硕士学位论文
（学位研究生）
Title: Interior Thermal Variation by the Rooftop Application

of BIPV/BAPV
作者： Muhammad Touseef Zafar

学科专业： Power Engineering and Engineering
Thermophysics
指导教师： Cheng Ke
二零一九年一月
Title: Interior Thermal Variation by the Rooftop
Application of BIPV/BAPV
By
Muhammad Touseef Zafar
Under the Supervision of Associate Professor

Cheng Ke
A Dissertation Submitted to
Northwestern Polytechnical University
In partial fulfillment of the requirement

For the degree of
Master of Power Engineering and Engineering Thermophysics
Xi’an P. R. China
Jan 2019
ABSTRACT
ABSTRACT
The 21st century is lately seeing a widespread development boom in the construction industry with
rising quantity of high-rise buildings. However, the increasing demand of expansion and progress
in economic situation of the world, alarming levels of GHG gases and CO2 emissions have deeply
shaken the stakeholders and scientists. It is necessary to use the environmentally friendly
construction materials and estimate the degree of harm being done to atmosphere in the form of
embodied energy (EE) and embodied CO2 (CE) at the same time.
The cement-built structures have urban heat island (UHI) effect which converts the suburbs of a
city as a specified canopy with elevated temperature compared to its surroundings. The increasing
trend of renewable energy has given rise to the injection of PV technology in the existing and
future buildings. The building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) is recently seen as the future
technology to diminish the UHI and energy demand (specifically cooling) of the structures,
generate the electrical power and provide thermal comfort particularly in summer. The BIPV has
already been implemented in the building envelope and concluding results are promising which
indicate it will be an imminent future trend. In this thesis, the EE and CE is calculated for five
materials including PVC, Cement, Mud Brick, Aluminum and Glass with the boundary condition
of cradle to gate. The two case studies are discussed to signify the importance of EE and CE.
Two models are simulated, analyzed and assessed in this thesis. The first model is the photovoltaic
(PV) greenhouse located in Xining, China. The PV panels are installed on the roofing of PV
greenhouse in three orientations; 30% and 60% PV panels from top to bottom and 30% PV in the
middle of the roof. The four typical days; summer solstice, winter solstice, spring equinox and
autumn equinox are investigated with three different placements of PV panels. The evaluation
indicates that the 60% PV panel placement on roof is the optimized way. There is a significant
drop in the temperatures of ground, soil layer at 30cm below ground, and air layer at 50cm above
the ground.
The second model is the Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model of a small PVC house model
which is designed and simulated in ANSYS Fluent with and without BIPV. The effect of internal
temperature of model and soil was examined at morning, noon and afternoon. The efficiency ratio
calculated for solar model house is 3.42% .
I
西北工业大学硕士学位论文
In conclusion, the temperature measurements are satisfactory and clearly indicate that the
integration of the BIPV with the models achieved the required thermal comfort. The results of the
two evaluated models clearly show that the addition of BIPV to the buildings has lot of benefits
such as decrease in temperatures of rooftop and soil layer.
This research is useful in analyzing the relationship between external atmosphere with interior
thermal comfort of the buildings according to different seasons, daytime and orientations of BIPV.
The research results can be used in the application of building energy conservation and emission
reduction.
II
Contents
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................. I
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 01 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 3
1.1 Climate Change and CO2 ................................................................................................... 3

1.2 Energy Technologies to Mitigate the Impact of CO2 ....................................................... 5
1.2.1 Hydropower ................................................................................................................................ 6
1.2.2 Wind Power ................................................................................................................................ 7
1.2.3 Solar Power................................................................................................................................. 7
1.2.4 Bio-Energy .................................................................................................................................. 8
1.2.5 Geothermal Power ..................................................................................................................... 9
1.2.6 Ocean Energy ............................................................................................................................. 9
1.3 Solar Power .......................................................................................................................... 9

1.3.1 Solar Thermal Systems .............................................................................................................. 9
1.3.2 Electric System or PV Systems ............................................................................................... 11
1.4 Thesis Structure................................................................................................................. 13

CHAPTER 02 LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH BACKGROUND ................................ 15
2.1 Thermal Comfort .............................................................................................................. 15

2.2 Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) ................................................................. 17
CHAPTER 03 BUILDING INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS ....................................................... 21
3.1 Building Applied Photovoltaic and Building Integrated Photovoltaic ......................... 21

3.2 Installation Variation between BAPV and BIPV ........................................................... 22
3.3 BIPV Classification ........................................................................................................... 23
3.3.1 General BIPV Categories ........................................................................................................ 23
3.3.2 Architectural Integration of BIPV ......................................................................................... 24
3.3.3 BIPV Installation ..................................................................................................................... 25
3.3.4 Existing Projects of BIPV ........................................................................................................ 26
3.4 BIPV Advantages .............................................................................................................. 27

3.5 Future Trend and Market of BIPV ................................................................................. 27
3.6 BIPV Challenges and Future Research Directions ........................................................ 28
CHAPTER 04 EMBODIED ENERGY AND CO2 ................................................................................. 29
4.1 Importance of Embodied Energy and CO2 assessment in buildings ............................ 29
III
4.2 System Boundary .............................................................................................................. 31

4.2.1 First Boundary ......................................................................................................................... 31
4.2.2 Secondary Boundary................................................................................................................ 31
4.2.3 Third Boundary ....................................................................................................................... 32
4.2.4. Fourth Boundary..................................................................................................................... 32
4.3 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Methods ........................................................................... 32

4.3.1 Process-Based Analysis ............................................................................................................ 32
4.3.2 Input-Output (IO) Analysis..................................................................................................... 32
4.3.3 Hybrid Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 33
4.4 Data Collection and Inventories....................................................................................... 33

4.5 Mathematical Calculations for Calculation of EE and Embodied CO2 ....................... 33
4.5.1 PVC General............................................................................................................................. 35
4.5.2 Cement ...................................................................................................................................... 35
4.5.3 Mud Brick (Brick A) ................................................................................................................ 36
4.5.4 General Aluminum .................................................................................................................. 36
4.5.5 General Glass ........................................................................................................................... 36
4.6 Case Studies of Embodied Energy and Embodied CO2................................................. 38

4.6.1 Case Study 1 ............................................................................................................................. 38
4.6.2 Case Study 2 ............................................................................................................................. 39
CHAPTER 05 THEORY BASICS ........................................................................................................ 43
5.1 Basic Theory of Heat Transfer ......................................................................................... 43

5.1.1 Thermal conduction ................................................................................................................. 43
5.1.2 Thermal Convection ................................................................................................................ 43
5.1.3 Thermal Radiation ................................................................................................................... 43
5.2 Basic Governing Equations in Fluid Calculation ........................................................... 44

5.2.1 Continuity Equation (Quality Conservation Law)................................................................ 44
5.2.2 Equation of Motion (Momentum conservation Law) ........................................................... 44
5.2.3 Energy Equation (Energy Conservation Law) ...................................................................... 46
5.3 Turbulence Model ............................................................................................................. 46

5.3.1 Direct Numerical Simulation Algorithm (DNS Algorithm) ................................................. 46
5.3.2 Large Eddy Simulation Algorithm (LES Algorithm) ........................................................... 47
5.3.3 Reynolds time average algorithm (RANS Algorithm) .......................................................... 47
5.4 Radiation Model ................................................................................................................ 49

IV
Contents
5.4.1 Rooseland Radiation Model ............................................................................................. 49

5.4.2 P1 Radiation Model ................................................................................................................. 49
5.4.3 Discrete Transfer Radiation Model (DTRM) Radiation Model .......................................... 49
5.4.4 Surface to Surface (S2S) Radiation Model ............................................................................ 50
5.4.5 Discrete Ordinates (DO) Radiation Model ............................................................................ 50
5.5 CFD Models ....................................................................................................................... 50

5.5.1 Model 1 Establishment ............................................................................................................ 50
5.5.2 Model 2 Establishment ............................................................................................................ 51
5.6 Boundary Condition Settings ........................................................................................... 54

5.6.1 Sky Effective Radiation ........................................................................................................... 54
5.6.2 Solar Loading Model ............................................................................................................... 54
5.6.3 Interior House Medium ........................................................................................................... 55
5.7 Differential Equations ....................................................................................................... 56

5.7.1 Pressure Based Solver .............................................................................................................. 56
5.7.2 Density Based Solver ................................................................................................................ 57
CHAPTER 06 RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION................................................................ 59
6.1 Model 1 ............................................................................................................................... 59

6.1.1 Site Location ............................................................................................................................. 59
6.1.2 PV Greenhouse ......................................................................................................................... 59
6.1.3 Temperature Distribution Field of PV Greenhouse.............................................................. 60
6.1.4 Seasonal Temperature Changes ............................................................................................. 61
6.1.5 Temperature Distribution of Soil Layer ................................................................................ 65
6.2 Model 2 ............................................................................................................................... 68

6.2.1 Geographical Location ............................................................................................................ 68
6.2.2 Model House Temperature ..................................................................................................... 69
6.2.3 Temperature of Soil Layer ...................................................................................................... 72
6.2.4 East-West and North-South Cross section Viewing of the Model ....................................... 72
6.2.5 Temperature of PV Panel ........................................................................................................ 74
6.2.6 Absolute Difference and Efficiency Ratio .............................................................................. 75
Chapter 7 CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................................................... 79
7.1 Research Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 79
7.2 Future Development and Recommendations............................................................................ 80
ACHIEVEMENTS .................................................................................................................................... 81
V
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 83
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................................ 87
VI
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
VII
INTRODUCTION
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BIPV Building Integrated Photovoltaic

BAPV Building Applied Photovoltaic
UHI Urban Heat Island
EE Embodied Energy
CE Embodied CO2
OE Operational Energy
PV Photovoltaic
RES Renewable Energy Sources
GHG Greenhouse Gases
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamic
BPSRWE BP Statistics Review of World Energy
LCA Life Cycle Assessment
SAPV Standalone Photovoltaic System
1
2
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 01 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Climate Change and CO2
The climate change can simply be defined as the variation in weather patterns over decades. It can
take place either due to natural or human factors. The rising average temperature is just one factor
of the widespread climate changes which include high temperatures, floods, storms, rising levels
of sea, low quality food production, and fatal and infectious diseases. Nevertheless, the scientific
and political entities have been aware of the alarming situation of the greenhouse gases (GHG)
and climate change for a long time. In short, GHG can be defined as the trapping of the sun’s
radiation to maintain the temperature of the planet sustainable for life. In recent years, the GHG
gases have been on rise due to the ruthless burning of conventional fuels such as coal, oil, and
deforestation. Despite, knowing all of the clear-cut facts, the responsible entities have been unable
or quite slow to respond and implement the required actions to diminish the risks. The key
information databases of measuring the climate change are Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) by United Nations and the World Meteorological Organization. If the modernized
policies would not be implemented soon, the global earth temperature will exceed 2 o C . In 1970,
a paper published by the Club of Rome predicted that the ongoing exponential growth cannot be
supported with the restricted planet resources. Since 1850, three key datasets can be found
explaining the rise of temperatures. The land measurements clearly show an increase of 1.1-1.3
o
C . The figure 1-1 shows the global surface temperature from 1880-2014 [1].
Figure 1-1 Instrumental Temperature Data (GISS) 1880-2014
Since the 1750’s industrial revolution, the largest proportion among the GHG in the atmosphere is
carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) followed by methane ( CH4 ). The concentrations of CO2 have seen a
dramatic rise from 278 parts per million ( ppm ) to 401 ppm from 1960-2015 [1]. The exponential
rise of the concentration of the CO2 can be seen in the figure 1-2 as observed by Mauna Loa
Observatory from 1974 until now [2].
3
Figure 1-2 CO2 concentrations observed at Mauna Loa Observatory since 1974
The construction sector accounts for almost 40 % of the entire consumption of energy, 30% of the
consumption of raw material, 25% of solid waste, 12% of land use, and 33% of the GHG emissions.
The construction sector needs to be taken into consideration with immediate effect to reduce the
environmental effects. Many of the firms have started to search new ways such as preventing the
pollution by adopting new strategies and improving their environmentally friendly performance
[3]
by implying the environmental management systems . The main issue prevailing in the urban
centers is the ever-increasing urban temperature produced by UHI. Due to UHI, the air temperature
in the cities is higher than suburban or towns. In addition, this rise in temperature indirectly affects
the cooling energy demand during the summer season. Moreover, the vegetated parts in the cities
are also being integrated into existing cities which adds to already high temperature [4].The high
temperature from UHI in the cities can fluctuate the heat balance, moisture and momentum by
producing heat in bulk, anthropogenic heat, and also spreading pollution in the environment [5].
There are different materials used around the world for the construction of the houses or buildings
which include extruded hollow brick, concrete blocks, sun dried mud-brick, and fried red brick etc.
The conventional materials used in the construction of houses is mud brick. There are numerous
benefits of using mud as a construction material such as large thermal capacity and heat sink in
high temperature zones. The thermal mass of the mud wall can be utilized for heating in the day
time and while cooling at the night time. Approximately, 30% of the world’s population still dwell
in the structures made by earth made brick. The earth is considered as the cheap, eco-friendly and
commonly widespread material [6].
While, the other generally used material for construction is cement. The historical evidences of
usage of cement obtained from burning gypsum were found in Egyptian history. However, the
4
INTRODUCTION
history of modern cement goes back to 1824 when Joseph Aspdin applied for the patent of Portland
cement. The main materials required for the manufacture of cement are chalk and limestone which
are labelled as calcareous materials and also shale or clay named as argillaceous materials. The
manufacturing process of Portland cement simply consists of grinding the required raw materials
and burning them in the kiln at a temperature around 1300-1500 o C after mixing them depending
on their purity and composition. After this process, the materials convert into a nodular shaped
clinker. The obtained clinker is cooled and added with 3-5% gypsum and then crushed to fine
powder. However, there are three type of processes depending on the conditions in which materials
are mixed and grounded named as wet, dry or semi-dry processes [7].
There are several problems which are linked with the use of concrete in construction. It is a widely
building construction material such as that 5% of the total anthropogenic CO2 global production
is connected to the cement production process. The concrete can be considered as a relatively good
construction material for high rise buildings. However, the outcome of production of one ton of
cement results into the same amount of CO2 which spreads from the reactions of the breakdown
of calcium carbonate and reaction on 1500 o C .
The use of air-conditions and cooling equipment of the building constitutes a large amount of total
energy required such as 40% and 28% in Hong Kong and Taiwan respectively. The component of
the building envelope which is frequently exposed to the sun radiation is the rooftop and it is
responsible for heat transfer in and out of the building. The heat transfer of the buildings can be
controlled by the installation of the cool roofs or roof insulation technology or making the already
existing roof environment friendly [8].
Therefore, the urgency is to tackle the ever-increasing energy demands and degradation of
environment by implementing and exploiting renewable energy technologies.
1.2 Energy Technologies to Mitigate the Impact of CO2

The impact of CO2 on the environment can be diminished by increasing the usage of renewable
energy sources (RES). These sources are diverse and can be found abundantly in various forms.
The renewable sources can be taken from the natural processes, in which their production rate is
directly proportional to their rate of consumption. The different technologies can be utilized to
derive the renewable energy from sources like sunlight, flowing wind and water, geothermal gas,
5
biomass, and etc. These sources are vital for decreasing the reliance of the power derivation by
burning of the fossil fuels and to lessen the emission of CO2 gas [9].
Natural Resources can be classified into two categories i.e. renewable and non-renewable
resources. The resources which can be utilized in finite times are named as non-renewable
resources. The stocks of iron ore, fuels such as coal and oil, minerals such as copper, zinc, natural
stone, gypsum, and etc. can be included in this classification. The reserve can be defined as the
natural storage facility which can be extracted or produced at the required time. The resources of
common materials used in construction such as aggregates, clay, lime, stone, gypsum, and quartz
are generally considered large or sufficiently large. However, the main concern is the least found
[10]
materials used is buildings such as coal and oil . On the other hand, the resources such as
hydropower, solar and wind energy, geothermal and biomass energy, and ocean energy are named
as the RES. Recently, the focus is being paid to novel technologies considering the modern small-
scale hydropower, solar PV and wind electricity. The biomass is the RES which can be obtained
in the form of solid fuel from vegetable and animal matter. The key biomass fuels in the poor
countries are agricultural residues, charcoal and firewood and dung which can often be regarded
as the traditional biomass in a broader aspect [11].
1.2.1 Hydropower
The widespread technology to harness the electrical power from nature is hydropower over the
previous 50 years. The hydropower capacity of 1500 TWh in 1975 was increased up to 2994
TWh in 2005. According to BP statistics review of world energy (BPSRWE), the growth of
hydroelectric power was 0.9% in 2017 and 2.9% from 2006-2016 per annum, with a total capacity
of 4059.9 TWh [12]. In 2035, the electrical power generated by hydropower is expected to grow up
to 1680 GW . The water stored by the big hydropower dams can be utilized to supply water for
crops, population and industries. It acts as a primary storage of water and energy and can be utilized
in the shortage time. The hydroelectric power is beneficial in terms of peak power demand from
the consumer side. However, there are some grave problems related with hydropower such as
relocation of local residents, high price initial investment and environmental related issues. The
expansion of this technology has some barriers such as agreement of local population, high initial
investment cost, and economic and political risks [13].
6
INTRODUCTION
The hydroelectric power can be generally classified into three types including run-off-river, stored
reservoir and pumped storage. In run-off-river type, the electrical generator is installed on the path
of a river or a stream. The water is stored in a large reservoir and then passed through electric
rotors. In the pumped storage type, the water is again pushed to the existing reservoir to be run
through the electric rotors again [13].
1.2.2 Wind Power
The wind source is free to utilize and abundant in nature. The wind turbines are used to convert
the wind to electrical power. The total installed wind power around the global was estimated as
514,798 MW in 2017 with a growth rate of 10.1% according to BPSRWE [12].
1. On-Shore Wind Power
The size of wind turbines can vary from micro to macro scale ranging from 1 kW to 8 MW
according to nature of application. The wind turbines employed can vary according to the size of
wind farm from 1.5-3 MW . The wind turbine with upwind design and three blades are dominant
in the industry. The application of wind turbines was equivalent to 4.4% CO2 emissions in power
sector in 2013. The wind turbine can be installed as off grid or on grid. A conventional off grid
wind turbine system of 10 kW can save 1.2 tons of air pollutants with an operation life of 30-50
years.
2. Off-Shore Wind Power
The off-shore wind power is the phenomenon in which the wind turbines are installed on the shores
of the sea or ocean to harness the wind resources more as compared to off shore wind turbine.
These wind turbines are directly installed into the sea bed and generally located near to the
population to reduce the transmission cost. In 2012, the number of operational off shore wind
farms in Europe was 85. These turbines are manufactured in big sizes from 3-5 MW due to their
high installation costs. As stated by Massachusetts, the 1 MW off shore wind farm can provide
electrical power for 400 homes and reduced 2600tons of CO2 .
1.2.3 Solar Power
The solar power systems directly convert the sunlight into electrical power through PV modules
and panels. The PV panels are injected on the rooftop of the residential homes or buildings. The
mono and poly crystalline silicon and thin films like cadmium telluride are the commonly used
materials of PV. According to BPSRWE, total 399,613 MW solar power was installed around the
world in 2017 with Asia Pacific region contributing 50% amount of entire installed solar power
7
i.e. 219,123 MW [12]. The distributed solar power generation can easily decrease the stress on the
national power grid by the provision of local electrical power. The solar power can be implemented
at utility scales where PV modules can be arranged in the form of ground-based PV arrays with
various tilt options such as fixed, moveable, single and dual axis tracking. The high efficiency can
be increased with tracking but with high cost. The solar power can also be converted into the
electricity by using the phenomenon of concentrated solar power (CSP). In CSP, the solar light
coming from the sun is concentrated on a tower by mirrors or lenses to achieve high temperature
for steam generation to drive steam turbine and generator. The CSP and utility-based PV plants
can range from 1-100 MW in size. There is a constant decreased in the prices of solar power with
the advancement in solar PV technologies and increase in PV cells efficiency. However, there are
some limitations by these solar power technologies such as bad aesthetics, large occupied land,
and release of chemicals at site etc. The solar energy is dependent on the environment and can
easily be affected by polluted environment and cloudy weather. The other restrictions related with
solar power are unpredictability of constant sunlight which is different in various seasons, sites
and times of a day. The PV panels can be integrated with the building envelope to generate
electrical power.
1.2.4 Bio-Energy
The bio-energy is generally obtained from the organic matters or residuals such as plants. The
manufacturing industries linked with the processing of large input from agricultural waste
generally can provide bulk amount of bioenergy source. The bioenergy includes several categories
such as bio power, biofuels and bio-based products. The annual production of biofuels including
ethanol and biodiesel was estimated by BPSRWE to be 84,121thousand tons oil equivalent in 2017
with 3.5% annual growth rate [12].
 Bio power
The biomass can replace coal in the heating process of industries which emits less sulfur and
nitrous oxide. The biomass can be converted into gas to generate the electrical power. The
generation of methane obtained from the landfills of biomass can be utilized to generate power
and it can be converted into pyrolysis oil when heated without oxygen.
 Biofuels
The liquid fuels can be generated and transported from the biomass named as biofuels. These
biofuels are beneficial for use in vehicles and stationary power stations with high energy density.
The biomass with high percentage of carbohydrates is fermented to make ethanol. The ethanol is
8
INTRODUCTION
made from corn and can be used as additional way of reducing ozone. It is also used in cars as E85
mixture- the combination of 15 % gasoline and 85% ethanol. The other common biofuel is
biodiesel which is manufactured from fats of animals and vegetables.
 Bio based products

Some of the biomass products such as wheat, wood, corn etc. can be used to make chemicals that
can replace the petroleum materials. Lately, the corn starch is being used to daily life plastics such
as utensils etc.
1.2.5 Geothermal Power

The geothermal power is generated from the underground thermal energy produced by formation
of Earth as a residual or generated by constant decay of radioactive elements. In 2017, the global
installed geothermal power was 14,305 MW with an increase of 4% growth from 13,751 MW in
[12]
2016 as predicted by BPSRWE . The overall capability of the modern systems to utilize this
power is somehow limited. The thermal energy from underground can be utilized in three different
ways; dry steam, flash steam and binary cycle. In dry steam, the underground steam of temperature
150 o C or high is used directly to run a turbine. In flash steam, temperature 180 o C or greater is
required where the steam with large pressure is pulled from a separator with low pressure to
produce a flash steam enough to run a turbine. Finally, in binary cycle, the water with temperature
of 57 o C can be used with other fluid of less boiling point to run a turbine.
1.2.6 Ocean Energy
The ocean energy can generate electrical power in two ways; thermal and mechanical. The thermal
energy of the waves or the ocean’s water can be boiled to mechanically run an electrical turbine
and then electrical generator. The energy of tidal waves of the ocean can be converted by
mechanical devices by transferring to some fluids or directly run an electrical turbine or generator.
1.3 Solar Power
The solar power technologies can be classified into main two categories; thermal systems and
electric system.
1.3.1 Solar Thermal Systems
In the solar thermal systems, the thermal energy or sunlight is directly used in various ways such
as drying, cooling, evaporation and heating. There are many products which come under the
category of solar thermal systems like solar water heaters. Most of thermal products are native to
9
local communities and rather less used internationally. Some of the main thermal systems are
highlighted below.
1. Solar Thermal Power Plants
The high temperatures are achieved by receiving high penetrating sunlight power through solar
concentrators or collectors. This high temperature then generates steam through water or fluid to
run turbine and then generator. The concentrator types include parabolic reflector, tower and
trough. The main components of solar thermal PV systems are concentrator, receiver, transport-
storage and conversion-systems. The solar radiation is initially captured and concentrated at
concentrator and then passed to receiver. The heat energy transferred from concentrator is then
converted into a working fluid or steam. The transport-storage passes this working fluid to the
power plants and some of this thermal energy can be stored for later. The conversion system
converts this thermal energy to generate electric power. Most of these thermal plants use Combined,
Brayton or Rankine cycles. One example of thermal power system is Solar Power Tower. In the
surrounding of this tower, there are lot of two axis tracking reflectors or mirrors which divert and
reflect the sunlight onto the top of main tower. The power block receives the thermal power
generated from working fluids (water, liquid, salt, air, etc.) of the main tower. In the power block,
this thermal energy is used to run the generator.
2. Solar Water Heating
The sunlight can be used directly to heat the water and commonly solar heating systems consist of
a collector and storage space for water. The collector is mounted on a south facing house which
receives the sunlight to increase the temperature of either water or other working fluid. Then after
the water is heated and stored in a storage tank. There are three categories of solar collectors;
concentrated, evacuated tube and flat plated.
 Flat plated solar collector
The most widespread solar collector in use is flat plated solar collector. It consists of an absorber
covered under cover with transparency. It is weatherproof and has insulation.
 Evacuated Tube Collectors
These collectors consist of many transparent tubes arranged in parallel. Each tube has two
coverings; outer and inner. The inner tube is named as absorber which absorbs the incoming
sunlight but with heat loss.
 Concentrated collectors
10
INTRODUCTION
In this type of collector, the heat is first received by a parabolic shaped mirror or reflector and then
concentrated on tubes for absorbing. This absorbing fluid stores the transferred heat in the form of
fluid.
3. Solar Cooking
The increasing deforestation and unavailability of firewood has arisen the significance of the solar
cooking. The solar cookers can provide cleaner air as compared to interior home cooking. There
are two basic classifications of solar cookers; stove or oven. The difference between solar cookers
lies in the place of application of sunlight to cook the food. In the solar stove, the sunlight is
directed to the bottom of the pot whereas all of the cooking area of solar oven has solar intensity.
1.3.2 Electric System or PV Systems
In this type of solar power, the sunlight is directly converted to electrical power by using PV cells.
The quantity of electric power is directly proportional to the amount of the available sunlight.
Therefore, in both summers and winters, these electric systems are capable of generating electrical
power. The amount of sunlight and the PV generated electrical power is generally maximum in
the summers although this trend can remain constant in the countries along the equator line. The
PV power has variation during the different time sections of a day such as maximum at noon. The
other variable weather factors can affect the performance of PV such as cloudy weather and rainfall.
PV systems generally use the sunlight and electric connection to make electricity by using PV
semiconductor devices to get DC power. The most commonly used material in making PV cells is
silicon almost 87%.
1. PV cell technologies
There are several technologies used in making PV cells. Some of them are discussed below
 Mono crystalline and Poly crystalline PV cells
The mono crystalline PV cell is obtained from a single sole silicon wafer in which all the Si atoms
are heading in the similar direction with a conversion efficiency of 12-15%. However, the Poly Si
PV cells are manufactured by mixing the pure Si wafer with other materials. The poly Si cells are
not expensive and simple to manufacture. The efficiency of Poly Si PV cells is 11-14%.
 Thin Film Solar Cells
The thin film solar cells are manufactured by combining a thin layer of PV materials with a back
support of plastic, steel or glass. The structure of thin film PV cell is more unorganized and
unstructured as compared to mono and poly crystalline PV cells. The efficiency of thin film solar
11
cell is around 5-12%. These PV cells are cheaper and ideal for usage having no condition of
achieving high efficiency.
 Multiple Junction PV Cell
In these type of PV cells, two or more layers of unalike materials are combined to enhance the
overall efficiency of the PV cell. These PV cells are capable of receiving much larger spectrum
hence increasing the efficiency up to 30 %.
The PV system is mainly dependent on its primary and key block i.e. PV cell. These PV cells are
interlinked together to manufacture PV module. These PV modules are then joined together to
form PV array. This PV array in working conditions requires other electrical components such as
inverter, batteries, charge controller, Inverter (DC-AC) and other auxiliary equipment such as
wiring, etc.
2. PV system classifications based on Grid
The PV systems can be commonly classified into three types on the basis of their connection with
the power grid; off grid, on grid and hybrid.
 On-Grid PV systems
These PV systems are directly connected with the power grid. The key electric components of grid
connected PV systems include PV modules and inverter (DC/AC), safety equipment, frames for
mounting and installation equipment. The DC power generated by the PV arrays or modules is
converted to AC power with the inverter which is directly injected into the power grid. The grid
connected PV systems does not require battery bank to store the DC power. The AC power is not
directly injected but with safety and protection. The supply of AC power to the power grid must
be in accordance and phase with the AC power of the grid. The PV modules and entire system
needs to be grounded through the electric surge arresters.
 Standalone Off-Grid PV systems
These types of PV systems are used for the supply of electric power to the households or villages.
The key components of standalone off grid PV systems are same as grid connected PV systems
with addition of battery banks and charge regulator. The rechargeable battery banks are needed to
supply the AC power to the household during the nighttime. The charging regulator is an important
component which controls the undercharging, overcharging and deep discharge of the battery. The
inverter can also directly supply the AC power to the low power AC products or appliances. The
other renewable power generating sources can be interlinked with standalone PV systems such as
wind turbine and diesel generator.
12
INTRODUCTION
 Hybrid PV systems
The hybrid PV systems combines the components of both off grid and on grid PV systems. It is
equipped with battery bank and at the same time connected with the power grid. The main
components of hybrid PV systems include charge controller, battery bank, grid-tie inverter (battery
based), and electric power meter. The battery bank receives the extra power after feeding all of the
appliances with the electric power. Once the battery is charged, it will no longer receive additional
power. However, this extra power rejected after the battery is full charged will be then fed into the
utility grid through a power meter.
1.4 Thesis Structure

In accordance to the introductory part, the thesis has been arranged into five chapters. The section
2 explains the difference of BAPV and BIPV, BIPV classifications based on architecture and
installation, merits and demerits of BIPV, future aspects and few existing examples of BIPV. The
section 3 is based on the previous research work already done on the major topic of this thesis.
The section 4 describes the definition of EE and CE, Life cycle assessment (LCA) methods, data
collection inventories, calculation of EE and CE for PVC, Cement, Mud Brick, Aluminum and
Glass. The Chapter 5 is based on theory topics of heat transfer including fluid governing equations,
fundamental theory of heat transfer, fluid simulation algorithm, radiation models, CFD model
establishment and mess generation for two models, solver for differential equations. The chapter
6 analyzes the simulation results of the two models discussed in this thesis. The chapter 7 contains
the conclusions and suggestions that will be helpful in future research.
13
14
BUILDING INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS
CHAPTER 02 LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH

BACKGROUND
This section will highlight some of the key performed research studies in summarized form. In this
section, various techniques from other researches are mentioned to emphasize the importance of
different roof cooling impact and techniques such as cool paint, BIPV application, etc. Likewise,
the BIPV integration with the buildings is signified by taking examples of various practical
implementations of thermal comfort. The literature review has been divided into two sections;
thermal comfort and BIPV.
2.1 Thermal Comfort
The evaluation of variation in temperature and humidity was done for 15 homes built by earthen
brick and blocks during the early hours of daily work. The questionnaires and survey was done
which consisted of 218 samples. The results totally conformed to the expectations and the humidity
in the new structure was measured to be 67% as compared to 73% in the old buildings. Although,
the air temperature inside the rooms increased with the 2 o C mean difference during both seasons
of the year. However, the internal comfort of the rooms was found to be sufficient expect for the
case of marble [14].
The urban constructions in four climatic zones of India were assessed and evaluated in terms of
embodied and operational energy (OE). The highest EE was recorded in case of structure with RC
frame and monolithic RC walls i.e. 10.5GJ/m2 . Contrarily, the EE in the case of stabilized soil
blocks and rammed earth, burnt clay masonry walls, RC frame structure and masonry infill walls
was 2GJ/m2 , 2.4-2.9GJ/m2 , and 3.8-4.25GJ/m2 respectively. The dwellings utilizing the masonry
infill walls and RC frame structure had increased EE because of high energy consuming materials
such as aluminum, steel, etc. This study clearly states that using walling materials such as rammed
earth blocks and stabilized soil blocks can greatly reduce the EE of the building [15].
The school building located in Athens, Greece was painted with cool paint and indoor, roof and
ceiling surface temperatures were recorded by thermal performance indicators (TPIs). The
assessment also included measurements of reflectance of outdoor building surfaces and scanning
of roof thermal-camera. The ceiling temperature of the rooms equipped with the cool paint was 1-
2.5 o C lower than that without cool paint. The simulated and measured data showed a decrease of
2 o C in indoor air temperature. The 12% decrease in the consumption of annual heating energy
15
was also recorded. The roof temperature with and without application of roof top paint was 6.5 o C
and 15 o C respectively [16].
The five systems in Bahrain having different kinds of rooftops such as metal decking, bituminous
roofing felt, lightweight concrete screed, light and dark color ceramic tiles were examined and
assessed. The temperatures of air and surface of the rooftop were decreased with high Solar
Reflective Index (SRI) in case of metal decking roof and light tile roof. On the contrary, SRI was
lower in cases of roofs using dark tile, bituminous and screed. In case of metal decking rooftop
system and light tile roof system, the reduction of 14.6% and 12% respectively was seen in cooling
degree days (CDD). However, the light tile roof system performed best as compared to its
counterparts and with the addition of insulation material, the cooling was further decreased up to
1.3% [17].
The reduction of UHI by the application of rooftop solar PV and cool roof were analyzed by a
modelling system utilizing the regional climate. It can be clearly seen that the deployment of cool
roof and solar PV greatly reduces the UHI in the metropolitan area. In the aspect of cooling the
rooftop, the cool roofs are more effective than solar PV. However, in the case of nocturnal UHI
magnitude, the solar PV equipped rooftop can directly put impact on the effects of the urban
development. The temperature of near surface was reduced up to 0.8%. The overall average
reduction in the cooling energy demand was recorded 8-11% and 13-14% in the cases of rooftop
solar PV and cool roofs respectively [18].
The traditional and newly built homes are compared in the warm and humid climate zone of
Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu, India with same outdoor conditions. The total difference in the air
temperature between the modern and old home is measured to be 4 o C . Due to the limitation of
natural ventilation, the indoor diurnal variation in the case of traditional building was estimated to
be 6 o C as compared to 8 o C in modern building. The main reason of low diurnal variation in the
old homes is because of thick walls, broad veranda, courtyards, and etc. While, the new structures
have roof built by concrete, thin walls and small openings. The indoor air temperature was
measured to be 24  30 o C and 28  36 o C in the cases of traditional home and modern home
respectively. The comfortable environment and climate in the traditional home was recorded
during the time periods of 1-12am and then 2-12pm. However, the modern home only offered the
thermal comfort during 1-6am. After 6am, the interior air temperature in modern home falls in
16
thermal discomfort zone. The experiment clearly explains that the old homes provided better
thermal comfort when compared to newly built homes [19].
The PV curtain wall (PVCW) was installed in one of the buildings in Institute of Building Energy,
Dalian University of Technology, China. The solar PV modules were manufactured at the same
laboratory and were injected with 500mm air gap on the external south face of the building. The
experiment was carried out to determine various factors such as indoor comfort, wind, production
of electrical power, thermography and also visual inspection was done. With a strong presence of
solar radiation intensity ranging from 700-1000W/m2 during 8am-2pm, the solar PV modules
absorbed more solar radiation and generated electrical power. The temperature of the indoor
environment was much comfortable being recorded at 21o C . Apart from being an addition to
achieve the internal comfort, this research depicts that solar PV modules also generated electrical
power about 16kWh/day sufficient for air conditioning and illumination [20].
2.2 Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV)

L.Lu and H.X.Yang assessed the greenhouse payback (GPBT) and Energy Payback time (EPBT)
of a building located in HongKong equipped with grid connected rooftop BIPV. The PV modules
are directed south with an angle of 22.5 o and local weather data of years 1996-2000 is used. The
Balance of system (BOS) and PV modules contributed 29% and 71% respectively of the total
205,815kWh of the EE of the entire system. This system was found to be effective with a total 20-
30 years life span. However, site location has to be selected very carefully to achieve maximum
efficiency and results [21].
Gayathri Aaditya etc., examined the real time performance of BIPV system installed in the Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore of 5.25kWp with fixed slope. The parameters including generated
AC and DC power, temperature of PV cell and etc. were closely measured. The 6% efficiency was
found on average with a performance ratio of 0.5 [22].
A.J. Aristizabal, C.A. Perez investigated and assessed the one-year performance of the 6kW roof
installed grid connected BIPV system located in a laboratory building of Colombia. The
monitoring of one year was done by measuring solar irradiance, exterior temperature and AC/DC
power. The results show a high performance of BIPV output system with 53kWh/year with yearly
savings of 1022 US dollars. The BIPV system achieved and met all of the international and national
required standards [23].
17
M.D’Orazio, C.Di Perna and E.DI Giuseppe experimented installation of roof integration with
three PV modules in Italy. One PV module was attached by rack with roof tiles by 0.2m air gap.
However, other two were installed directly on the same surface level of roof tiles; one injected and
other with 0.04m air gap. The parameters relating to environment, temperature and heat flux were
measured. It was seen that PV module with ventilated gap maintained a constant low PV cell
temperature as compared to others. In conclusion, the PV module with 0.04m air gap was seen
effective in terms of reducing the overheating [24].
Ghimar Merhy examined the BIPV potential of the Mediterranean region by the integration ways
and basing the study on previous research. Numerous situations and sites were chosen to analyze
and, then rooftop and façade mounted grid connected BIPV systems were simulated. It was found
that the utilization of BIPV in Lebanon can easily provide 22% of the total energy consumed and
can decrease the 50,000 tons of CO2 emission nationwide [25].
Martial Aloys Ekoe a Akarta etc., examined the building equipped with BIPV for the tropical
region of Yaounde, Cameroon. The two parameters are measured; air temperature and humidity.
The types of BIPV being studied are façade based and rooftop based with an area of 290m2 . The
different combinations of building envelope materials combining with and without BIPV can lead
to a decrease of 4 o C indoor temperature. The roofing BIPV system is seen more effective in
decreasing interior temperature and humidity as compared to façade BIPV system. The 1%
decrease of interior relative humidity was recorded with respect of relative temperature difference
[26]
of 2 o C .
Yiping Wang etc., examined four different types of rooftop BIPV building envelope which
included; ventilated and non-ventilated BIPV with air gap, roof attached BIPV and conventional
roof with having no PV and air gap. The 1D transient model is simulated for these cases to examine
heating and cooling loads of the building. In summers, the best BIPV option is the ventilated BIPV
with air gap because of high efficiency and less loads of cooling. Contrarily, in the case of summers,
the unventilated BIPV with closed air duct was founded to be optimized [27].
V.Kapsalis and D. Karamanis investigated four cases in Western Greece for energy demand in
various seasons. These cases include unequipped roof and roof with 9.6kW rooftop PV system.
Several other considerations were taken into account such as climate patterns, production of
electrical power and the architecture of the canopy. Experimentally, the 17.8% decrease was
18
observed in the cooling demand and total 3.2% decrease in both cooling and heating demands of
the upper story. The author suggested that the inclusion of seasonal BIPV on the rooftop can
increase the energy demand performance of a building and net zero energy operation can be
achieved [28].
Vasilis C. Kapsalis and etc., used the TRNSYS software to simulate the cooling and shading effects
of roof attached PV by utilizing the weather conditions provided locally. The temperature of the
rooftop was measured with and without PV modules. The author mentioned that the energy
demand of the building was decreased during the summers with an additional benefit of generating
electrical power. The reverse behavior of the roof can be seen during the night with unshaded roof
having decreased roof temperature [29].
SEUNG-HO YOO and etc., studied a unique type of BIPV installed on the roof and south facade
of the building located in Gihung area of Korea. The design was meant to provide shading effects
in the summer, reduce the energy demand, and permitting some of the sunlight to enter the building
in daylight. The author emphasized on the importance of tilt angle to achieve optimized power
which in this case was on 32 o . The shadow formed by shaded PV modules on other modules
should be handled carefully and also the accumulation of dirt. It was measured that implementation
of BIPV in this building covered almost 10% of the entirely summer demand of lighting system
of building [30].
The key indicators summarized from above discussed literature work are
1) BIPV and BAPV can be effective techniques to reach satisfactory cooling energy demands of
the buildings.
2) The estimation of EE and CE of the construction materials needs to be considered and analyzed
beforehand, and proper selection of materials can lead to construct buildings more
environmental friendly.
3) The rooftop of the building can be injected with various technologies such as cool paint,
insulation and PV modules in the form of BIPV and BAPV, and thermal comfort can be
achieved in the form of reduced interior temperatures during summers.
The impact of BIPV on thermal comfort, and EE and CE of the materials will be considered and
analyzed by simulating the two models in this research.
19
20
CHAPTER 03 BUILDING INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS

The implementation of the integration of the PV in the existing buildings or structures is on the
rise in the last 10 years. The rise in this technology will be seen in the upcoming future because of
the feed-in-tariff policies in some of the countries, the reduction in the consumption of the energy
from fossil fuels, increase in the usage of renewable energy, and also the decrease in the cost of
energy production.
3.1 Building Applied Photovoltaic and Building Integrated Photovoltaic

When the PV panels are integrated on building structure instead of conventional structural
materials, this type of PV system is known as BIPV system. The PV panels can be injected in the
building structure on roof and façade. The simple schematic diagram of implementation of BIPV
is given in figure 3-1 for both roof and façade. In result, the use of materials such as windows,
louvers, roof tiles and others can be replaced by PV panels. The PV panels are installed in the
structure’s second layer i.e. on the roof’s insulation. If the PV panels are injected in the structure
without the air gap, the PV panel becomes heated and drop in efficiency occurs. In this case,
increase of temperature is expected and cooling loads will be increased. Therefore, an air gap is
required between the PV panels and the buildings so that air flows between this gap and cools
down the overheating PV panels. The ventilation in this gap can be carried out naturally or
unnaturally by using fans. However, this ventilation depends heavily on the climatic environment,
[31]
location and conditions of the building . One example of BIPV façade is shown in figure 3-2
[32]
which has a curved façade with energy output of 39 kWp .
Figure 3-1 Schematic Diagram of BIPV installation in façade and rooftop
21
Figure 3-2 Ferdinand-Braun-Institute, Berlin
However, on the other hand, Building Applied Photovoltaic (BAPV), as the name indicates, is just
used for generating solar energy for the building. Nevertheless, it is not taken as a proper or
replaced component of the building envelope. It can be added as an architectonical part in the
building and can be assembled as coplanar but not injected in the roofs or facades of the building
[33]
. The example of BAPV of a building in the Netherlands is given in figure 3-3 [34].
Figure 3-3 BAPV project in Netherlands
In modern times, the BIPV has evolved truly as a key structural element of a building which can
be incorporated as roof, façade, skylight, etc. For instance, the Stillwell Avenue Station of New
York which is constructed from glass and steel has thin-film PV panel systems combined with
clear glass to produce about 250 kWp . The benefits of the BIPV usage are on constantly rise. BIPV
systems are highly reliable for a long-term planning being feasible for almost 20-25 years [35].
3.2 Installation Variation between BAPV and BIPV

The BAPV are the PV modules that are installed on the rooftop or façades of the building through
supplementary methods such as racking method. BAPV can be classified into two categories; stand
off and rack-mounted. The PV modules installed parallel to the horizontal surface of the rooftop
are named as stand-off BAPV. However, BAPV installed on the rooftop with rack at orientation
22
and suitable tilt for maximum output are named as Rack mounted BAPV. The concept of BAPV
and BIPV can easily be confused and intermixed if the PV modules are attached very tightly with
the rooftop’s surface [36].
The BAPV can be easily integrated with the existing building envelope with no special need of
replacing the older structural parts with brief mounting and cheap maintenance. The benefit of
BAPV is the air gap between the rooftop of the building and PV modules since the PV’s module
and cell efficiency is affected with increased temperature. Standoff BAPV type is a worthy choice
because of low heat gain [36].
Contrarily, the BIPV can be directly injected and integrated with the building envelope and can
replace the windows, curtain walls and etc. It is architecturally aesthetic and reduces the cost
required for roofing and glazing materials. The breakage or damage of building attached with
BIPV can directly affect the performance of the building [36].
3.3 BIPV Classification

3.3.1 General BIPV Categories
The BIPV systems can be categorized on the various types such as type of solar cell, installation
in existing structures or implementation in new buildings, and their nomenclature in the market.
[37]
There are two types of solar PV cell; silicon and non-silicon . The injection of BIPV in the
building structure can be done in various ways such as on flat and sloping roofs, facades and also
the shading systems e.g. parking. The achievement of best angle from the sun can be achieved by
implementing BIPV on a south facing roof. The BIPV can replace the already existing structural
parts of a building or just lay on the roof. The BIPV is considered as both power generating unit
and also structural envelope material. The types of BIPV which are available in the market can be
categorized as tiles, modules, foils and glazing solar cells. The implementation of BIPV in the
building can save materials and also generate the electrical power. The BIPV can be implemented
on the flat roofs in three ways; mechanically mounted on the roof, based on weight foundation and
integration. However, in this study, the BIPV is mechanically mounted on the roof with no
[38]
inclination and it is horizontally laid on the roof . The various type of BIPV products can be
seen in the figure 3-5 [39]. The classification of BIPV in various categories are shown in the figure
3-4.
23
Figure 3-4 BIPV Categories and Classifications
Figure 3-5 BIPV market’s products
When the PV modules or panels are implemented into the external structure of the house, several
aspects should be taken into consideration such as air gap between the PV modules and the rooftop.
The air gap is essential to provide enough air flow underneath the PV modules because the
increased temperature can decrease the efficiency of PV panels specially for mono crystalline Si
and poly crystalline Si. Some other considerations are roof inclination, geographical position and
orientation of the PV modules according to the sun and location of the building [40].
3.3.2 Architectural Integration of BIPV
The main structural parts of a building integrated with the BIPV are rooftop and façade. In the
northern Europe, the 57% roofs have solar tiles as BIPV option. The tiles are one of the simplest
ways to combine the solar cells with the geometry of the structure specially roofing system.
However, the main demerits of solar tiles is the complexity of installation and high cost. The other
PV architectural elements include water proof PV (specially manufactured for opaque flat-plat and
roofs with slope), opaque PV elements (flexible), and roof transparent element and their
percentages in the real-life implementation are 35%, 27% and 6% respectively. However, recent
24
trend has been shown in the injection of structural inflating membranes which is a new technology
in the construction market. The various implementations of BIPV elements in the roofing system
of the buildings are shown in the figure 3-6 [41].
Figure 3-6 BIPV elements integration in roofing system
The only 2% of BIPV elements are installed on the building without being attached to the roofs or
facades. However, the supply of BIPV elements for installation in the façade of the building is
customized and less because of various factors such as dimensions, thickness, appearance, and
insulation. The figure 3-7 shows that 82% of façade systems are continuous façade and 65.5 % are
implemented on windows. While, 17.2% BIPV elements are attached as shading system and 17.2%
are available in different varieties of color [41].
Figure 3-7 BIPV implementation in Building’s Façade
3.3.3 BIPV Installation

 Installation on Sloped Roofs
The PV modules are unhooked and frameless when they are attached to the sloped roofs with
different anchoring systems by using frames of aluminum. These frames are directly attached to
the roof either with or without the existing ordinary roof tiles. These frames can be installed with
the slope angle of 20-50o with the horizontal. The usual life span of these aluminum frames is 30
years and cost varies according to the situation. The example of BIPV installed on sloping roof is
given in the figure 3-8 [42].
25
Figure 3-8 BIPV modules implemented on sloped roofs
 Installation of BIPV on flat roofs
The BIPV can be implemented on flat roofs either by proprietary modules or standard modules
with various sizes as compared to the standard PV module size. In general, the installation method
of PV panels on the flat roofs is similar with the sloped roofs by directly anchoring the aluminum
frames on the roof [42].
3.3.4 Existing Projects of BIPV

 Mont-Cenis Herne Academy
Mont-Cenis Herne Academy is located in Germany and PV panels are injected on the rooftop and
façade. The main problem encountered in implementing BIPV was the coexistence of shading and
day-lighting at the same time. Therefore, BIPV modules with different translucency were used to
produce pattern of cloud sky. The Pilkington glass-glass technique was used to create six unlike
modules with different amounts of embedded solar cells. The area of the roof is 9800m2 with
2900 PV modules and 284 PV modules are injected in the façade of southwest. The mono
crystalline and polycrystalline solar PV cells with efficiencies of 16% and 12.5% respectively were
used to achieve 1MW power. The Mont-Cenis Herne academy is shown in the figure 3-9 [43].
Figure 3-9 Mont-Cenis Herne Academy (Germany)
26
 NTT Tower Building
The NTT Tower building is situated in the Yokohama city, Japan. The Japan is known as one of
the fastest developing country in the field of PV. This building was one of the first structures to
include PV panels in the façade (entrance hall and the parapet) which can be seen as one of the
best examples of merging modern architecture and BIPV. The NTT tower building is shown in the
figure 3-10 [43].
Figure 3-10 NTT Tower Building, Yokohama
3.4 BIPV Advantages

The BIPV is high feasible for long term plans i.e. 20-25 years. It has low maintenance cost and
acts as a power generating unit of a structure. Apart from the power generation aspect of the BIPV,
it has lot of other merits which include electromagnetic shielding, aesthetics, noise protection, wind
proof and water proof, shadowing and protection against excessive day sunlight, safety, provision
of thermal insulation including heating and cooling [44].
3.5 Future Trend and Market of BIPV

The contribution of BIPV in the renewable energy market is still very less and has vast potential
for development. For instance, the BIPV potential in Germany is estimated up to 3000km2
building surface with peak capacity of 300GW . In statistics, until 2010, only 29.3GW of peak
installed capacity has been achieved that is only 10% of the building surface of Germany. In 2016,
the market for BIPV was estimated to be 830 US million dollars which tends to increases on yearly
basis. The growing demand of BIPV products is because of easy availability of BIPV components
and the increasing trend of constructing zero energy buildings. The European “Directive on the
energy performance of buildings” states that from 2021 all the existing and planned buildings
27
should be constructed on the principle of “nearly zero-energy buildings”. In this directive, the
planning of these electricity sources must be renewable which can be sited nearby buildings such
as solar PV and on site. They have encouraged the injection of more and more production of power
from solar PV. Therefore, apart from the improvement in the energy efficiency of buildings,
massive production of BIPV will also be required in the coming future [45].
3.6 BIPV Challenges and Future Research Directions

The major challenge for the injection of BIPV in the local house market is its high cost. It requires
the assistance of the state’s aids in the form of subsidies and tax incentives to decrease the price
of BIPV. With an average estimated cost of 8 euro/W and the installation capacity of 3 kW for a
household, the integration cost could exceed 24,000 Euros. The countries like Italy and France has
provided the expensive feed-in tariffs for those who are willing to invest in the BIPV industry by
taking the loans from the banks. The current BIPV projects implement highly customized PV
panels. The BIPV modules can contribute about 60% of the total cost in a big project and rest of
40% is added by installation, glazing, design, wiring, and water-proofing which is generally termed
as Balance of System (BOS). Moreover, the majority of the cost of the BIPV system comes from
the use of BIPV modules and inverters. This indicates that the manufacturers of the PV panels
have a major share in BIPV market as compared to the companies who manufacture the inverters
and other components. There is also research vacuum in the field of BIPV which include the
improper LCA with unclear and missing impacts environmentally. There advanced research is
needed for PV materials and PV modules to achieve increased efficiency [46].
Some of the future research in the field of BIPV includes the improvement of design of PV panels
in form of increased efficiency and reflectance, cost assessment of BIPV materials, attracting the
involvement and assessment of stakeholders, and proper adjustment and injection of BIPV in
existing envelope to achieve thermal comfort. The installation of the BIPV in the facades and
rooftop of the existing building structures can lead to decreased metropolitan temperatures. In this
thesis, the two BIPV models are simulated to examine the thermal comfort. The research related
with BIPV in this thesis will be helpful in analyzing the relation between the external and internal
temperature of building, variation of temperature according to various seasons and different
sections of day.
28
EMBODIED ENERGY AND CO2
CHAPTER 04 EMBODIED ENERGY AND CO2

4.1 Importance of Embodied Energy and CO2 assessment in buildings
The buildings are the key consuming entities of energy in modern day cities. There are various
types of energy consumed by the building in the form of life disposal and demolition energy,
maintenance and OE, and EE. The EE represents the energy consumed during the process of
construction of building which includes the overall EE of building materials, energy of
construction, and energy consumed in transportation. The EE energy can be limited by specifying
the selection of the construction’s materials. For instance, the consumption of materials like brick,
cement, glass, etc. is much higher as compared to other materials in respect of EE of buildings [47].
However, on the other hand, OE is the term mostly used for the energy required for cooling,
conditioning and lighting of the building. It is mostly dependent on the climatic zone of the
specified area and the comfort requirements of the dwellers. The people living in extreme climate
conditions such as hotter areas have cooling demands as compared to high heating demands in
colder conditions. The large OE of a building is mainly due to the usage of electro-mechanical and
electric systems for achieving cooling and lighting loads. Mainly, the electric motors and pumps
drive the electro-mechanical space conditioners and the key components of space conditioners are
heaters and fans which are driven by electricity [47].
In a nutshell, the EE as a term can be described as the quantity of energy utilized in all the processes
which are linked with the buildings from mining, manufacture, transportation and then the
deliverance of the material. In the past, the OE was considered essential and the OE is the energy
used in heating, lighting, ventilation, etc. of the building. According to the Australian based
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Organization (CSIRO), an average home has about
1000GJ of EE used in the construction which is equivalent to 15 years of OE.
The production stage of construction materials releases large amount of CO2 in the environment
as CE. Gonzalez and Navaroo [48] evaluated the CE of three different dwellings in Spain and found
that the proper selection of construction materials can reduce the CO2 emissions up to 27.28%. C.
Thormark [49] studied the Swedish scheme named as CEPHEUS project in the European Thermie
Programme which consists of 20 apartments in 4 buildings of two floors. The evaluation indicates
that the EE of a conventional building can be reduced up to 10-15% by proper selection of
construction materials.
The relationship between the EE and OE sometimes is cause-effective. It means that increase in
one can lead to decrease in other. For instance, the OE can be decreased by the improvement of
29
the insulation materials of the structure or solution of the technical problems. However, in this
case, the EE will rise because of the utilization of the highly consumed energy materials. This
relationship between the OE and total energy per year [49] is shown in the figure 4-1.
Figure 4-1 Relationship between the Operational Energy and Total Energy of a Building
The EE and CO2 emission are affected equally by every phase of life cycle of the building. Apart
from the difference in consensus among the researchers, the life cycle of a building can constitute
the phases of production, construction, usage and end of life as shown in figure 4-2.
Figure 4-2 Life Cycle of a Building
The most used method to evaluate the life cycle analysis of a building is LCA. LCA is the most
common tool for the assessment of environmental impacts and has been widely accepted as a
comprehensive tool by reliable institutions such as US Environmental Protection Agency,
European Union, International Standard Organization and UK.
30
4.2 System Boundary

The system boundary is a phenomenon through which we can include the various processes of a
product. In this way, we can determine and specify which things are included and omitted in the
evaluation of entire life cycle of a new structure or remaining life cycles of an already existing
structure. The various boundaries of a system can be seen in the figure 4-3.
Figure 4-3 Boundary System of a Life Cycle of Building
4.2.1 First Boundary

The first boundary includes the production phase of a material. This process comprises of the
extraction of the material from the original site and transportation to the manufacturing site where
various materials can be taken out from the sample. Then these manufactured materials are taken
to the construction place. The physical boundary of the first boundary includes the material from
cradle to gate. This method has great merits due to easy availability of the data from inventory of
carbon and energy for different materials developed by the Bath University.
4.2.2 Secondary Boundary
The phase of construction is the secondary boundary. There are two types of categories in this
boundary. The first type includes activities happening in the erection of the structure. This category
includes the installation of site, transportation of equipment and plants, usage of transported
equipment and plant, and the use of other momentary materials. The second category take accounts
of the waste materials from unpacking of the equipment and its transportation. In general, site
installation has limited scope to be considered, and EE and CE of the construction materials
utilized in the erection of the structure are commonly considered for the calculations.
31
4.2.3 Third Boundary

The third boundary consists of the consumption of OE in the building. Some equipment is
degraded and weary and has some defection, therefore, this boundary assesses the maintenance
and replacement of these fatigued parts of the site. The OE and operational CO2 are determined
from the characteristics of the equipment and appliances. In broad sense, this category can include
the installation of the site, usage and transportation of appliances and waste, operation of local
office, and usage of temporary materials. The frequency of repairs is required to calculate the
maintenance energy.
4.2.4. Fourth Boundary
The fourth boundary is commonly known as end-of-life phase. The final stage of the structure is
the demolition. These materials must be discarded after they are of no use. These materials need
to be recycled by the means of demolishing or deconstructing the building or put in landfill or
taken to incinerator or these three processes can be combined. The discussion of these boundaries
give rise to the techniques which we will be using to calculate and assess the LCA.
4.3 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Methods

There are lot of methods to calculate the LCA of a building structure. However, the three widely
used techniques are mentioned here.
4.3.1 Process-Based Analysis

This process is based on taking into account all of the processes which are linked with life cycle
of a product and all of the inputs and outputs of every process are also included. All of the processes
and products which are used in the construction of a building are accumulated in the form of
environmental impacts. The specification of the system boundary is the first step to recognize how
to perform various types of process-based analysis. There are four types of process-based analysis.
These categories include Cradle-Gate (Extraction of Materials to the Gate of Factory), Cradle-
Grave (Assessment of complete life cycle of a material or product), Cradle-Cradle (Specified
Assessment of Cradle-Cradle and Recycling of Waste Material), and Gate-Gate (Assessment of
One Value Process in the Complete Process of Manufacturing). The Process based analysis can be
sometimes complex if there are too many construction materials.
4.3.2 Input-Output (IO) Analysis

The IO Analysis is mainly based on the assessment and estimation of the usage of energy, materials
and the emissions which are linked to the economic sector. This analysis mainly considers all the
32
possible inputs and outputs of the industrial and financial sector which permits this analysis to
include all of the inputs and outputs which may be discarded or neglected in other assessment
techniques. Therefore, industrially, this analysis is taken very important to calculate the impact
percentage of various industrial sectors which are vital for the construction of the building. The IO
analysis also has some demerits which include over accumulation of the sample data.
4.3.3 Hybrid Analysis

The main idea of hybrid analysis is to remove the drawbacks and demerits of the Process Based
Analysis and IO Analysis. In this analysis, the methodologies of first two analysis are combined
with precise data.
The process-based analysis is the most widely used technique out of three mentioned
methodologies.
4.4 Data Collection and Inventories

The computation of EE and CE needs the accurate, competent and relevant inventory data.
However, in most of the cases, the data is approximately compromised and it is normally
impossible to exactly evaluate the case. The data of various inventories is insufficient for the entire
calculation and assessment. Therefore, a combination of different inventories is used to carry out
the process of estimation. The most common inventories of CE and EE include
 The Bath Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE) which includes various emissions factors of
different construction materials. It is the most widely used and popular datasets of emission
factors. This inventory database is developed at the University of Bath;
 Eco-Inventory Database from Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories;
 Bilan Carbon 6 developed by the French Environment and Energy Management Agency
Likewise, there are other inventories developed by UK Department of Transport, DEFRA, etc.
However, the most widespread is the Bath ICE and it will be considered in this study.
4.5 Mathematical Calculations for Calculation of EE and Embodied CO2

The emission factors are used to evaluate the emissions to simply avoid the involvement of tedious
chemical equations. The emission factors are defined in terms of quantity of EE or CE per unit.
For instance, the emission factor of virgin aluminum is 11.46 kgCO2 /kg which shows the quantity
of virgin aluminum in 1 kg unit. Therefore, to calculate the emission of a particular material, a
simple multiplication is required between the entire quantity and emission factor. The EE and CE
of a material can be calculated from the equations 4-1 and 4-2.
33
EE  (1  ).q. (4-1)
CE  (1  ).q. (4-2)
Where EE - embodied energy of the material ( MJ ),  - waste factor of the material, q -Complete
quantity of a material ( kg ),  - Embodied Energy Factor ( MJ / unit ), CE - Embodied CO2 of a
material ( kgCO2 ),  - Embodied Energy Factor of a material ( kgCO2 / unit ). In order to simplify
the equations 4-1 and 4-2, the waste factor is taken as 0, so the above equations are given as.
EE  q. (4-3)
CE  q. (4-4)
If there are more than one material that need to be analyzed and assessed in this process then the
equations 4-1 and 4-2 would yield as follows.
n
EEi   (1   i ).qi . i (4-5)
i 1
n
CEi   (1   i ).qi . i (4-6)
i 1
Where EEi - embodied energy of the material type i ( MJ ),  i - waste factor of the material type i,
qi - complete quantity of material type I ( kg ),  i - Embodied Energy Factor of material type i
( MJ / unit ), CEi - Embodied CO2 of material type i ( kgCO2 ), i -Embodied Energy Factor of
material type i ( kgCO2 / unit ). Similarly, as the waste factor is 0 then equations 4-5 and 4-6 will
be given as follows.
n
EEi   qi . i (4-7)
i 1
n
EEi   qi . i (4-8)
i 1
The relation of mass Q of a material with volume V can be given by the equation 4-9.
Q  pV (4-9)
3
Where Q -Mass of Material ( kg ), p - material density ( kg / m ), V - Volume ( m ).3
The volume of a structure of substance can be calculated by the equation 4-10.

V  LW
. .T (4-10)
Where V - Volume ( m ), L - length ( m ), W - Width ( m ), T - Thickness ( m ).
3
However, here we consider the model house built separately by one material only. For further
simplifications, the volume, width and thickness of a material will be selected as 1m. The boundary
condition implemented is from cradle to gate. Therefore, V=1m3 for each material. The materials
34
selected for the evaluation and analysis of EE and CE are PVC general, Cement, Mud brick (type
A), general aluminum (25.6% extrusions, 55.7%rolled and 18.7% castings), and general glass. The
data used in this analysis e.g. EE per unit, CE and material density will be taken from the Bath
Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE) [50]. The calculations are given below:
4.5.1 PVC General

kg
p  1380 3
, V  1m3
m
kg
q  pV  1380 3 1m3  1380kg
m
MJ kgCO2
  77.2 ,   2.41
kg kg
MJ
EE  q  1380kg  77.2  106536 MJ
kg
kgCO2
CE  q  1380kg  2.41  3325.8kgCO2
kg
4.5.2 Cement
kg
p  1860 3
, V  1m3
m
kg
q  pV  1860 3 1m3  1860kg
m
MJ kgCO2
  4.6 ,   0.83
kg kg
MJ
EE  q  1860kg  4.6  8556MJ
kg
kgCO2
CE  q  1860kg  0.83  1543.8kgCO2
kg
35
4.5.3 Mud Brick (Brick A)

kg
p  1920 3
,V  1m3
m
kg
q  pV  1920 3 1m3  1920kg
m
MJ kgCO2
 3 ,   0.22
kg kg
MJ
EE  q  1920kg  3  5760MJ
kg
kgCO2
CE  q  1920kg  0.22  422.4kgCO2
kg
4.5.4 General Aluminum

kg
p  2700 3
, V  1m3
m
kg
q  pV  2700 3 1m3  2700kg
m
MJ kgCO2
  155 ,   8.24
kg kg
MJ
EE  q  2700kg 155  418500MJ
kg
kgCO2
CE  q  2700kg  8.24  22248kgCO2
kg
4.5.5 General Glass

kg
p  411 3
,V  1m3
m
kg
q  pV  411 3 1m3  411kg
m
MJ kgCO2
  15 ,   0.85
kg kg
MJ
EE  q  411kg  0.85  6165MJ
kg
kgCO2
CE  q  411kg  0.85  349.35kgCO2
kg
36
The calculation results show that EE for PVC general, cement, mud brick (Brick A), general
aluminum and general glass is 106536 MJ , 8556 MJ , 5760 MJ , 418500 MJ , and 6165 MJ
respectively. The CE for PVC general, cement, mud brick (Brick A), general aluminum and
general glass is 3325.8 kgCO2 , 1543.8 kgCO2 , 422.4 kgCO2 , 22248 kgCO2 , and 349.35 kgCO2
respectively. The EE and CE for these materials are mentioned in details in table 4-1.
Table 4-1 Embodied Energy and Embodied CO2 of PVC, Cement, Mud Brick, Aluminum and Glass
Material 𝜌 Mass δ α EE CE
( MJ/kg ) ( kgCO2 /kg )
3
( kg/m ) ( kg ) ( MJ ) ( kgCO2 )
PVC 1380 1380 77.2 2.41 106536 3325.8
(General)
Cement 1860 1860 4.6 0.83 8556 1543.8
Brick A 1920 1920 3 0.22 5760 422.4
Aluminum 2700 2700 155 8.24 418500 22248

(General)
Glass 411 411 15 0.85 6165 349.35

(General)
The EE and CE is calculated for five different materials under the same volume condition. The
length, width and thickness were considered identical as 1m . The results clearly express that the
materials like PVC and Aluminum having EE of 106536 MJ and 418500 MJ , and CE of 3325.8
kgCO2 and 22248 kgCO2 respectively both consumes high energy from their extraction site until
their manufacturing stage. These materials also have high emissions related with CO2 .The
aluminum, glass and cement all dominated in terms of EE and CE. The most common materials
for the construction of dwellings, homes and skyscrapers building structures are mud and cement.
In this context, the cement definitely emits more CO2 i.e. 1543.8 kgCO2 as compared to mud brick
with 422.4 kgCO2 . In terms of EE, the mud brick performed well as compared to other analyzed
materials with EE of 5760 MJ and for embodied CO2 , the glass performed better than other
materials with embodied CO2 of 349.35 kgCO2 . However, for long term stability, the mud as a
sole material cannot be implemented in high rise buildings due to issues with mechanical
instability, durability and ineffectiveness with weather conditions. Among the material assessed
here, cement and glass can be considered as viable and environment friendly construction materials.
Apart from their environment friendly aspect, cement and glass are common construction materials
37
used in modern buildings. Therefore, when considering the materials for construction sites, the
factors EE and CE are very crucial in reducing the impact of building on environment. The further
research is needed to replace the conventional materials with renewable and more ecological
materials.
4.6 Case Studies of Embodied Energy and Embodied CO2
4.6.1 Case Study 1
In this case study, standalone photovoltaic (SAPV) system located at University of Murica
Espianardo Campus in Spain is being analyzed. It is constructed in order to supply electric power
for the illumination system of Animal Service Laboratory. The system contains 40 mono Si PV
modules with a total power capacity of 4.2 kWp . The specification of one PV module is 24V and
[51]
106 Wp . The PV panels are rack mounted on the rooftop of the building with an area of 35m2 .
The BAPV system is given in figure 4-4.
Figure 4-4. SAPV system facility at University of Murica
The LCA is performed on this facility in terms of life cycle energy and GHG emissions with a
presumed 20 years life time. The data used in this calculation was based on other analysis due to
lack of standardized life cycle data in the Spain. The methodology used can be divided into six
steps; system boundary definition, material database compilation, energy used during the life cycle
compilation, GHG emissions compilation, power generated by SAPV system, and evaluation of
environmental related factors.
The influx of the materials in SAPV is considered only in construction phase because SAPV have
no materials influx during phases of operation and decommissioning. The most important
components of SAPV are batteries and PV panels. The other components included inverter, charge
regulators, structures for mechanical and wires. The EE of the SAPV system was estimated to be
38
45.692MWhel with thermoelectric efficiency of 35%. The CE evaluated for SAPV system is
13.166 metric tons. The major emissions and energy consumptions were recorded in the phase of
construction. The components with the highest energy consumption are PV panels and lead acid
batteries. The EE for transportation and recycling is 0.11% and 2.1% respectively. Likewise, the
CE for transportation stage and recycling process is 1.7% and 3.67% respectively. The site was
estimated to payback its embodied energy in 9.08 years.
4.6.2 Case Study 2
In this case study, a building located in tourist club area of Abu Dhabi, UAE was examined for
reduction in EE and CE by replacing the conventional materials with alternate building materials.
The most commonly used old construction materials are considered as reinforced concrete, rock
wool, polyurethane, marble, etc. which are usually imported [52]. The elevated plan and typical plan
of the building considered in this case study in shown in figures 4-5 and 4-6 respectively.
Figure 4-5 Tourist Club Area, Abu Dhabi UAE
39
Figure 4-6 Typical Plan of Building
The dead load of the building (paint, electrical and mechanical works) were neglected because of
their relatively less weight. The cement was the major weight contributing material to the building
with 61.5% of its total weight following steel (19.9%) and block units (13.7%). The total weight
of the materials of the building was multiplied with EE and CE factors obtained from ICE
University of Bath. The total EE and CE of the whole building was calculated to be
127,433,013MJ and 12,853,824kgCO2 respectively. The steel slabs contributed major part of EE
and CE with 58,670,225MJ and 5,122,477kgCO2 respectively following by other steel and
concrete slabs.
The author mentioned two techniques to decrease these values, either by reducing the weight or
replacing conventional materials with materials of low value of EE and CE. Some of the
replaceable considered materials are high performance concrete for OPC, concrete with 20%,
recycled steel, glass with 50% recycled glass, cork etc. After the replacement of these materials in
the building envelope, the weight of the structure decreased by 12%, entire EE and CE decreased
by 53% and 59% respectively. The building with new materials has low weight which will help
in imposing less weight stress on its foundation and requires less money spending on structure.
The generation of electric power from renewable sources like solar energy is free. However, it is
still linked with the bulk amount of energy consumption in the form of transportation and
manufacturing. It is very essential to estimate the impacts of these materials on environment. The
40
estimation of these materials can be calculated by using LCA. The two case studies mentioned
above clearly show that the LCA is an essential part of planning buildings with and without BIPV
for reducing entire cost of the building and making it more environmental friendly with the proper
selection of materials.
41
42
THEORY BASICS
CHAPTER 05 THEORY BASICS

5.1 Basic Theory of Heat Transfer
5.1.1 Thermal conduction
There are three methods of heat exchange in the research of small house model which are heat
conduction, heat radiation and heat convection.
The surrounding climate of the models mentioned in this paper is affected by the external
environment and temperature. The heat transfer mechanism around the external and internal wall
of the models is heat conduction. Apart from this, the soil also transfers the heat from high to low
section, therefore, the heat exchange method in soil section is also heat conduction. The quantity
of heat exchange q produced per unit area can be calculated by the following equation 5-1.
q   (dt / dx) (5-1)
Where q -heat exchange capacity per unit area, W / m ;  -thermal conductivity, W / (m.K ) ;
dt / dx – the amount of change in temperature along the x direction, K / m . When dt / dx ˃ 0 then
q ˂0, the temperature constantly increases in the x direction. Contrarily, when dt / dx ˂ 0 and q ˃
0, the temperature also rises in the direction of increasing x but the negative sign indicates that the
direction of heat propagation is opposite to the rising temperature of the model.
5.1.2 Thermal Convection

In thermal convection, the heat is transferred to an object through the flow of some liquid or fluid.
The thermal convection in the model is mainly focused when the air flows through the solid wall
and generates the heat. The heat convection can be calculated from the equation 5-2.
h  7.2  3.4v (5-2)
Where h -convective heat transfer, W / (m2 .K ) ; v - external wind speed, m / s .
5.1.3 Thermal Radiation

The thermal radiation is the phenomenon in which the heat is transferred to an object in the form
of electromagnetic waves. When there is the absence of any heating source, the thermal radiation
is the only source of energy for the model. The solar radiation coming from the sun divides into
three parts. Some of energy is absorbed by the outer wall, some of radiation is emitted and some
of it passes through the wall and enters the model. According to the law of conservation of energy,
the energy entering the interior of the house can be calculated by the equation 5-3.
     1 (5-3)
43
Where  - the ratio of the object’s absorption of the light;  - the ratio of the object/s reflection
to sunlight;  - the ratio of the object’s penetration to the sunlight. In the case of solids and liquids,
the power of penetration of thermal radiation is much less than absorption and reflection capacity.
The equation 5-3 can be simplified for the case of model of the house as follows.
   1 (5-4)
Likewise, for the gases there is no such reflection ability for the radiant energy of the sunlight.
Therefore, considering the case of reflectance of the air inside the house model the equation 5-3
can be formulated as equation 5-5.
   0 (5-5)
5.2 Basic Governing Equations in Fluid Calculation

The fluid flow needs to follow the law of conservation of physics which is law of conservation of
mass, momentum and energy. While, the law of conservation of physics can be expressed by three
equations; continuity equation, motion equation and energy equation. The law of conservation of
physics governed by the equations can be explained in three parts.
5.2.1 Continuity Equation (Quality Conservation Law)

According to the law of conservation of mass of the fluid, the continuity equation can be derived
as follows
 (  u ) (  v) (  w)
   0 (5-6)
t x y z
Where  - fluid density, kg / m3 ; t - time, s ; u , v, w – the components of the flow velocity vector
V in the x, y , z directions at time t respectively.
The internal air of the model house belongs to natural convective heat transfer and uses the
Boussinesq hypothesis that the density of the fluid is the function of temperature. The mass
conservation equations applicable to this case is given in equation 5-7.
u v w
  0 (5-7)
x y z
5.2.2 Equation of Motion (Momentum conservation Law)
According to the law of conservation of momentum of the fluid, the equations of motion can be
derived as follows
( u ) p   yx  zx
 div( uV )    xx    Fx (5-8)
t x x y y
44
THEORY BASICS
 (  v) p  xy  yy  zy
 div(  vV )       Fy (5-9)
t y x y z
(  w) p   yz  zz
 div(  wV )    xz    Fz (5-10)
t z x y z
Where p -Pressure per unit mass of fluid, Pa ;  ij - viscous stress tensor per unit mass of fluid,
Fx , Fy , Fz - the components of the external mass force F in the x, y and z directions per unit mass
of the fluid. In the model studied in the paper, the y axis is vertically upward. Therefore,
Fx =0,Fy =-ρg and Fz =0 .
Viscous stress tensor  ij is given as
u
 xx  2   div(V ) (5-11)
x
u
 yy  2   div(V ) (5-12)
y
u
 zz  2   div(V ) (5-13)
z
u v
 xy   yx   (  ) (5-14)
y x
u w
 xz   zx   (  ) (5-15)
z x
u w
 yz   zx   (  ) (5-16)
z y
Where  - Fluid dynamic viscosity coefficient, kg / m.s ;  -Fluid second viscosity coefficient.
The equations from 5-11 to 5-16 are substituted in the equations from 5-8 to 5-10 and are resulted
as follows.
( u ) ( u 2 ) ( uv) ( uw)  u  u  u 
    ( )  ( )  ( )  (5-17)
t x y z x x y y z z x
(  v) ( uv) (  v 2 ) ( uw)  v  v  v 
    ( )  ( )  ( )    g (5-18)
t x y z x x y y z z y
(  w) (  wu ) (  wv) (  w2 )  w  w  w 
    ( )  ( )  ( )  (5-19)
t x y z x x y y z z z
45
5.2.3 Energy Equation (Energy Conservation Law)

The fluid flow containing energy exchange i.e. heat exchange can easily meet the conditions of
law of conservation of energy. The total energy of the fluid micro element is E which consists of
two parts. The first one is the internal energy of the ideal fluid micro-element е. The kinetic energy
of the ideal fluid micro-body K=(1/2)(u 2 +v2 +w 2 ) based on the energy conservation law of the
fluid can be obtained as the following equation.
( T ) k
 div( VT )  div( gradT )  ST (5-20)
t cp
Expanding the above equation 5-20 as follows
( T ) ( uT ) (  vT ) (  wT )  k T  k T  k T
    ( ) ( ) ( ) (5-21)
t x y z x c p x y c p y z c p z
Where c p - Fluid specific heat capacity, J / (kg.K ) ; T -Fluid temperature, K ; k -Fluid heat
transfer coefficient, W / (m.K ) ; ST -Viscous dissipation of the fluid.
5.3 Turbulence Model

When the fluid flow has a random vortex structure, and with the irregular random motion of the
fluid, these vortices will change their physical velocities (velocity v , pressure p and temperature
T etc.). The all flows in the turbulence follow the law of conservation of physics i.e. the flow of
turbulence satisfies the continuity hypothesis, and transient quantity obeys the Navier-Stoke
equation of viscous flow. In order to accurately solve the governing equation, the above three
basics must be based on the equations and here the turbulence model is added. The numerical
simulation methods of turbulence can be divided into following categories.
5.3.1 Direct Numerical Simulation Algorithm (DNS Algorithm)
The most accurate calculation of fluid flow can be provided by using the DNS algorithm of
turbulence. The transient viscous flow Navier-Stokes equations can be solved directly by DNS
algorithm without any assumptions and simplified models. It uses very tight and fine spatial grid
structure and small-time step in the calculation process. Since, no assumptions and simplified
models are added, the accuracy of the DNS algorithm is guaranteed. A large number of
experimental results show that in a small fluid flow region (about 10cm 10cm ), the vortex flow
of the Reynold’s number is 107-108 and the vortex scale of the fluid is very small up to the order
46
THEORY BASICS
of μm . When the vortices are described, the number of grids is high ranging from 109-1012 and
the time step should be small enough ( 10-100μs . Therefore, the direct numerical simulation
algorithm requires high running memory and calculation speed of the working machine. So,
currently, the DNS algorithm is rarely applied to the engineering calculations.
5.3.2 Large Eddy Simulation Algorithm (LES Algorithm)
The turbulent flow contains numerous vortices of various sizes. The large-scale vortex (large eddy)
and small-scale vortex (small eddy) are separately considered in the eddy simulation algorithm
and they will have large scale with obvious anisotropic characteristics. The vortex is directly
solved by the three-dimensional transient Navier-Stokes equations modified by the filter function.
The sub-grid scale approximation model can be used to establish and calculate the large vortex
relationship from the small-scale vortex with the same isotropic. Currently, the turbulent numerical
calculations are mostly calculated using the LES algorithm.
The flow velocity is regarded as the combination of flax grid scale velocity component and large-
scale velocity component i.e. ui  ui ,  ui . After simplifying and modifying this equation, the
filtered N-S equations yields the following equation 5-22.
ui  1 p  u
 (ui ui )    (v i   i , j ) (5-22)
t x j  x j x j x j
Where ui - is the average turbulent speed.
The sub-grid Reynolds stress is given in the equation 5-23.
 i , j  (ui u j  ui u j )  uiu j ,  ui , u j  ui ,u j , (5-23)
Where ui , , u j , are turbulent pulsation velocity in i and j directions respectively.

5.3.3 Reynolds time average algorithm (RANS Algorithm)
The turbulent transport system model of the Reynolds time average algorithm is the most
commonly used computational model in the simulations of turbulent numerical algorithms due to
its stability and high precision. The basic purpose of the Reynolds time-average (RANS) algorithm
is to average the time of the viscous flow N-S equations to obtain the Reynolds time averaged
equations. Actually, the turbulent flow of irregular motion is treated as the laminar flow.
The standard k   model can be categorized into two parts; flow energy k and dissipation rate  .
The turbulent flow energy k is calculated by a precise equation. The dissipation rate  is derived
47
from the physical process and has no corresponding accurate mathematical formulas. The standard
k   model assumes that the fluid flow is completely turbulent and does not take into account the
viscosity of the fluid.
In order to improve the calculation accuracy and the reliability of the calculation, the turbulence
model used in the solar greenhouse model studied in this paper is the RNG k   model which is
derived from the statistical method of renormalization group theory. The k   model is same but
the following four improvements have been made.
1) The RNG k   model adds a dissipation rate equation to improve the accuracy of the
calculation
2) The influence of the turbulent vortex increases the accuracy of the vortex flow in the model of
RNG k  
3) The RNG k   model provides an analytical formula for the Pr number which is defined by
the standard k   as a constant
4) The general RNG k   model is for high Reynold’s number. However, if the near wall area is
properly set than it can also be used effectively to provide a differential formula for effective
analytical viscosity for the low Reynold’s number model.
The transport equation for the turbulent energy flow k and the dissipation rate  of the RNG
k   model is as follows.
The transport equation for flow energy k is given as follows.
(  k ) (  kui )  k
  ( k eff )  Gk  Gb    YM  S K (5-24)
t xi x j x j
The transport equation of dissipation rate  can be given as follows
(  ) (  ui )    2
  ( eff )  C1 (Gk  C3 Gb )  C2   R  S (5-25)
t xi x j x j k k
where Gk - Generation of Turbulent Flow Energy by Mean Velocity Gradient, Gb -Turbulence

Energy Generation caused by buoyancy, YM - The effect of turbulent fluctuating expansion on total
dissipation rate in compressible turbulence ,  k and  - Reciprocal of Plante number of turbulent
kinetic energy k and dissipation rate  , S K and S -Constant.
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THEORY BASICS
5.4 Radiation Model

The main source of energy in the house model studied in this paper is solar radiation. Therefore,
it is necessary to study the heat transfer and radiation in the model. In the position r and direction
s, the Radiation Transfer Equation (RET) is given in the equation 5-26.
4
dI (r , s) T 4  s
ds
 (a   s ) I (r , s)  an 2


4  I (r, s) (s, s)d 
0
(5-26)
Where r – the position vector of the non-gray medium; s - the directional vector of non-gray
medium; s - the scattering direction vector of non-gray medium, s- the length of the journey; a -
the absorption index of the non-grey medium; n – refractive index of non-gray medium;  s -
Scattering coefficient of non-gray medium;  - Stephen Boltzmann Constant,
8
5.672 10 W / (m .K ) ; I - local radiation intensity, W / m ; T -local outdoor ambient
2 4 2
temperature;  - Scattering Function of Condensed Phase; a   s - the extinction coefficient of the

medium;  – the spatial solid angle.
The radiation model in FLUENT includes following five types
5.4.1 Rooseland Radiation Model
The assumption of the Roseeland radiation model includes; the medium has a certain optical
thickness, the radiant energy is emitted from other location and is quickly absorbed by the medium,
and the radiant heat transfer has no influences of heat conduction and heat convection
The Rosseland radiation model is computationally less intensive because it does not increase the
calculated transfer equation and also it has high speed. It has usually higher accuracy for
calculations with an optical thickness (depth) greater than 5, but for calculations with optical
thickness less than 1 it affects the robustness. Therefore, the application range of this model is
more limited.
5.4.2 P1 Radiation Model
The P1 radiation model adds an additional set of transmission equations for the simulation
calculations, which is larger than the Rosseland radiation model. It requires the optical thickness
greater than 1 and it has high precision for calculations with extremely large optical thickness like
combustion. When calculating with the P1 radiation model, it is best to ensure that most of the
surfaces are opaque diffuse surfaces i.e. the dispersion factor is not considered.
5.4.3 Discrete Transfer Radiation Model (DTRM) Radiation Model
The DTRM radiation model also known as simple radiation model assumes that the physical
quantities of the media are uniform. The basic concept of the model is to track the multiple rays
49
leaving the boundary layer surface, discretize them, and calculate the transmission equation. In
order to make accurate calculations, it is necessary to make the radiation field of each fluid unit
sufficiently uniform. It means that the scattering optical thickness of each fluid unit must be smaller
than the fluid unit itself. Each band of the non-gray model is calculated separately (because the
scattering and reflection are considered similar) and it is tracked only once. The total radiative heat
transfer can be calculated by combining the results of these bands.
These rays are tracked in the same way as the photon in the Monte Carlo model. So, the DTRM
model and the Monte Carlo model are the same types of the radiation model.
5.4.4 Surface to Surface (S2S) Radiation Model
The S2S radiation model is suitable for calculating radiation heat transfer problems in an enclosed
space. When the radiation surface is large, the S2S radiation model is computationally intensive
and requires a high CPU for the computer. The memory requirements on the computer can be
reduced by reducing the amount of radiation surface by dividing into different surface clusters.
5.4.5 Discrete Ordinates (DO) Radiation Model
The DO radiation model is also called the discrete ordinate radiation model. The biggest advantage
of this model is that it can model transparent media, and it can also be applied to any optical
thickness problem. It has high calculation accuracy and wide range of application. The model
discretizes the transfer equation of the radiation intensity to the three-dimensional space coordinate
system. The prediction of the incident solar radiation source can be done in the DO radiation model
by ray tracing method and it is also a computational model. It involves the calculation and
modelling of several other necessary factors such as illumination parameters, solar position vector,
face-to-face shadow analysis and then in the end calculation of heat flux on the boundary surface.
This model is suitable for all type of walls and also the porous media with specified boundary areas
of inlet and outlet. However, the radiation model does not include the participation of solar ray
tracing model and also the surface emission is not considered. The major incident load is equally
distributed on all of the surfaces in the form of reflection component rather than being reflected
from the surface.
5.5 CFD Models

5.5.1 Model 1 Establishment
The PV greenhouse model was established using ANSYS and ICEAM. The dimensions of PV
module used in this model are 1640×990×40mm . The model of the soil layer was also established
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THEORY BASICS
1m deep below the ground. The greenhouse model is shown in the figure 5-1 with dimensional
units in meters.
Figure 5-1 Dimensions of PV Greenhouse Exterior View in meters
 Mesh Generation
The interior of the greenhouse and the soil layer are selected as three-dimensional computational
domain. The computational domain is discrete using an unstructured grid. The global grid
parameter with max element=350 is defined and the maximum grid size is allowed to be
1×350=350 . The auto body grid is tetra/mixed and the generation method is selected as robust
(octree) indicating that the unstructured tetrahedral mesh is generated from the bottom using the
octree method. In this model, the PV module grid is encrypted and the maximum allowable grid
unit size is 100. The gridding of PV greenhouse is given in figure 5-2.
Figure 5-2 Meshing Results of PV greenhouse
The quality check of the divided meshes clearly indicates that all the meshes are greater than 0.3.
The mesh with mass between 0.3 and 0.4, and 0.4-0.5 are about 1.1% and 18% respectively. The
39% of the grid quality is above 0.9 and rest is between 0.6-0.8. The grid quality is good with no
condition of negative grid.
5.5.2 Model 2 Establishment
The 3D view of the small house model and soil layer is shown in the figure 5-3. The soil layer
below 1m is also considered to evaluate of temperature distribution of the soil. The model of the
house and soil layer is built using the ICEM software. The intersection point of the west wall and
the ground is used as the origin of the coordinate axis. The x-axis is forward to the east along the
back wall and the z-axis is forward along the west wall. In the software ICEM, the coordinates of
51
the 3D geometric model are first created by connecting points to form the lines, the lines are then
combined to form surface, and finally stretching the surfaces to form a complete three-dimensional
model of the house. The thickness and height of the 3D house model and the soil layer are given
in the figure 5-4.
Figure 5-3 Small House Model and 3D view of the soil layer
Figure 5-4 Multiple Sided View of Small-Scale House Model
Since the small model house of this research is simplified to have no doors and windows. Therefore,
the mass transfer problem between the house and the external environment can be ignored. The
problem of mutual mass transfer and heat transfer between the air fluid inside the house, heat
radiation problem of sunlight, heat convection, and heat conduction of walls and soil are
considered. Therefore, this paper chooses the inner air layer and the soil layer of the house as the
three-dimensional computing domain.
 Mesh Generation
The model of the house can be meshed after the determination of the calculation domain. The grid
generation can be categorized into two types; structured grids and unstructured grids. The
connection between the nodes remains same in the structured grid in order to have the identical
adjacent elements for each discrete point. Some of the key factors of the structured grid are simple
structure, fast generation speed, easy production of relatively vital boundary layer grids, ordered
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THEORY BASICS
grid arrangement and good grid quality. For models which require high computational results, the
structured grids can be used. However, the structured grid needs to establish a topological structure.
The solid geometric knowledge and proper imagination are required to establish good topological
structure. However, it consumes lot of time and laborious to build such complex and irregular
three-dimensional geometric model. Sometimes, it is difficult to achieve efficient mesh generation.
Contrarily, the unstructured mesh also named as automated volume mesh is automatically
calculated by the software after the required mesh type and method of mesh generation is set. The
grid types can be categorized into three types; tetra/mixed grid, Hex-Dominant grid and Cartesian
grid. The unstructured grids can specify the distribution of grid on the boundary of the geometric
model. It can automatically generate the grids of the boundary layer and handle the boundary. The
gird generation process generally has very less manual workload and also saves the human
resources. However, the computer is needed to automatically divide the grid and calculate the
number of grids and so on. So, a computer with high specifications is required. The unstructured
grid quality report of the small-scale housing model is shown in the figures 5-5 and 5-6 in two
different ways.
Figure 5-5 Grid Quality Checking 1
Figure 5-6 Grid Quality Checking 2
53
After considering the advantages and disadvantages of the above two types of grids and in order
to ensure the accuracy of the calculation, the unstructured grid is selected to be used as a grid
simulation technique in the small-scale housing model in this paper.
After the selection of grid type, ANSYS ICEM CFD 16.2 is used to mesh the three-dimensional
geometric model. The overall and global dimension of the grid is defined as scale factor which is
1. According to the overall size of the housing model and considering the quality of the last
unstructured mesh generated, the Max element=0.5, and the maximum mesh size is allowed to be
1 0.15  0.15 . The automatic volume of the mesh is Tetra/Mixed and Robust (Octree) is chosen
as the generation method. The unstructured tetrahedral mesh is generated by Octree method.
The report shows that the quality of all grids is above 0.3, about 6 grids are between 0.3 and 0.4
which accounts for 0.001% of the total number of grids. The quality (size distortion ratio) for about
13% of the grids are between 0.4 and 0.8, and large number of grids are above 0.9 in quality i.e.
79.89%. The FLUENT does not accept the negative network. The quality report of the grid shows
that the quality of grid generation is high and it is acceptable to use for the calculations in the
simulation.
5.6 Boundary Condition Settings

5.6.1 Sky Effective Radiation
According to the meteorological research, the radiation received by buildings on earth’s surface
includes solar radiation and atmospheric radiation (sky effective radiation). According to the
previous research, the effective sky temperature is a function of atmospheric sunshine percentage
(cloudiness), water vapor content, atmospheric temperature and surface temperature. However, the
percentage of atmospheric sunshine is not easy to get, therefore, the empirical formula is as follows.
Tsky  0.552T01.5 (5-27)
Where Tsky – Effective sky temperature, K ; T0 - Air Temperature, K .
5.6.2 Solar Loading Model

The activation of radiation model in FLUENT is very important to be included to study the
influence of solar radiation on the models during the daytime. The applicable conditions,
advantages and disadvantages of each models should be comprehensively analyzed. After the
consideration of various factors, the models are simulated by combining solar ray tracing with DO
radiation model.
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THEORY BASICS
The solar calculator is used to input longitude, latitude, time zone of Xi’an area (relative to hours
of Greenwich time zone, +12-12), direction vectors of North and East of CFD mesh model, actual
time of steady state simulation and start time of transient simulation. In order to get the fair-weather
conditions, the sunshine factor is set to 1 and also the cloud amount of target area on the day is 0.
5.6.3 Interior House Medium
Since, the models in this paper have been simplified into a closed structure. Therefore, the solar
radiation is the sole heating source for the house this will cause the air in the house to be heated
up to different degrees which will result into temperature difference. This temperature difference
is minute but it causes various densities of the air and natural convection will be generated. For
models involving buoyancy terms, assuming a constant fluid density is sufficient when the density
varies relatively small within the expected range of condition. The Boussinesq assumption should
be adopted when the fluid density is not a function of pressure and temperature. The Bossinessq
hypothesis not only reflects the real and effective situation of the air in the house but also simplifies
the calculation process, accelerates the convergences speed of the model and improves the
simulation efficiency.
The Boussinesq hypothesis is an important hypothesis in computational fluid dynamics. It neglects
the viscous dissipation process in gas flow and considers the density of fluid as a function of
temperature. It ignores the changes in other physical properties, the effect of fluid density on the
force of inertia, and viscous force in momentum equation.
  c 1   (T  Tc ) (5-28)
Where  - corresponding fluid density, kg / m3 ; T - Exterior temperature outside greenhouse, K

(K);  - Thermal expansion Coefficient, 1/ K .
The physical properties of the inner layer are given in the table 5-1. From the experience, it can be
assumed that the interior air is optical thin. Therefore, in the process of radiation heat transfer, the
indoor air does not absorb and scatter i.e. it does not participate in the radiation heat transfer. The
absorption coefficient of the air is equal to the scattering coefficient i.e. 0.
Table 5-1 Parameters of the Inner Layer

Parameter Numerical Value
Type of Density Boussinesq

Density 1.225 kg/m3
Specific Heat Capacity 1005 J/(kg.K)
55
Thermal Conductivity 0.0225 W/(m.K)

Dynamic Viscosity 1.83×10-5 kg/(m.s)
Thermal Expansion Coefficient 3.356×10-3 1/K
Scattering Coefficient 0
Absorption Coefficient 0
Diffusion Coefficient 1
Emissivity 1
5.7 Differential Equations

For practical engineering problems, it is difficult to obtain accurate and effective solutions if the
partial differential equations established in the computational domain are solved directly.
Therefore, it is necessary to use numerical discretization method to solve complex practical
problems. The basic idea of discretization includes: firstly, the grid drawing method is used to
divide the continuous computational domain to obtain a finite number of independent
discrete/node sets; secondly, the discrete equations of each node are established and solved by
specific software on the computer, and finally the definite solutions on the discrete nodes are
obtained. Presently, there are three main discrete methods for differential equations in numerical
calculation; finite difference method (FDM), finite element method (FEM) and finite volume
method (FVM).
FLUENT is the software for numerical calculation in this paper. The discrete solution method used
in this software is the FVM.
The differential equation can be solved after it is discretized. The FLUENT software has two
numerical methods which include pressure solver and density solver. Traditionally, the flow
characteristics of fluid based on pressure solver are mainly low speed and incompressible. While,
the density solver is mainly for high-speed and incompressible fluid.
5.7.1 Pressure Based Solver
Projection method is mainly used in pressure solver. Firstly, the velocity field is solved by
momentum equation, then the pressure equation is used to modify it. Finally, the calculation results
of the whole flow field satisfy the conservation of mass, momentum and energy.
Pressure-based solver is FLUENT’s default differential equation solving method. It has some
advantages which include small memory consumption and accurate calculation results. This
research chooses this method to solve the discrete differential equation.
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THEORY BASICS
5.7.2 Density Based Solver

The density-based solver directly solves the transient Navier-Stokes equation. This method is quite
suitable for calculating subsonic and supersonic flow fields.
The solver settings are given in the tables 5-2 and 5-3. The convergence residual standard for the
equations is given in table 5-4.
Table 5-2 Solver Settings 1
Parameter Setup Method
Energy Equation Solver 3D/Pressure Based/ Absolute

Velocity Activation
Turbulence Model k-epsilon / RNG/ Full Buoyancy

Effects
Radiation Model DO/Solar Ray Tracing/ Solar

Calculator
Velocity-Pressure Coupling SIMPLEC
Table 5-3 Solver Settings 2
Pressure Energy Momentum k ε Density Mass Turbulent

Viscosity
Force
Mass Second Second One Second

Force Order Order Order Order
Upwind Upwind Upwind Upwind
Weighting
Discrete Style Style Style Style
Form
Under 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5

Relaxation
Order
Table 5-4 Convergence Residual Standard for Each Equation
Equation Continuity X Momentum Y Moment Z Momentum Energy

Equation Equation Equation Equation Equation
Residual
Convergence 1×10-3 1×10-3 1×10-3 1×10-3 1×10-6
Accuracy
57
58
RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
CHAPTER 06 RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

6.1 Model 1
6.1.1 Site Location
This model is simulated for the location of Datong Hui and Tu Autonomous County, Xining city,
Qinghai province. The site has latitude of 370 1’29” and longitude of 1010 36’51” and the altitude
of 2541m. The site has alpine cold temperate climate. The average annual sunshine hours are
1939.7. The annual maximum, average and minimum temperature is 34.6 o C , 7.6 o C and 18.9 o C
respectively. The amaranth is grown in the greenhouse with annual growth temperature between
15-25 o C and medium light intensity. The height of the amaranth plants and stems does not exceed
50cm from the ground surface. The interior of PV greenhouse is shown in figure 6-1. The PV
greenhouse with 60% laid PV panels from top to bottom is given in figure 6-2.
Figure 6-1 Interior of PV Greenhouse
Figure 6-2 60% laid PV panels on PV greenhouse
6.1.2 PV Greenhouse
The PV greenhouse model has 30m area for plantation and 10m for residential purposes. There are
5 windows of 1.5×0.9m on the north wall of the planting area. The concrete floor of 0.2m is
equipped with the steel framing structure to support the racking of PV panel and there is back slope
59
covering the PV greenhouse. For the simplification of calculation, the influence of steel framing
structure, ground, windows and residential area is neglected. The PV panels are placed on the
greenhouse in three arrangements; 30% of upper section, 30% of the middle section and 60% of
the upper section. The four typical days of year are selected; summer solstice, winter solstice,
spring equinox and autumn equinox. The temperature changes of the air layer 50cm above the
ground, surface layer and soil layer 30 cm deep from the ground are examined.
6.1.3 Temperature Distribution Field of PV Greenhouse
Figure 6-3 Daily Distribution Map of Temperature of PV greenhouse for Spring Equinox
Figure 6-4 Daily Distribution Map of Temperature of PV greenhouse for summer solstice
Figure 6-5 Daily Distribution Map of Temperature of PV greenhouse for autumn equinox
60
Figure 6-6 Daily Distribution Map of Temperature of PV greenhouse for winter solstice
The 60% PV modules were laid down on the PV greenhouse to analyze the changes of temperature
field at noon. From the figures 6-3 to 6-6, it can be easily seen that the temperature distribution of
the internal air layer is unchanged for all cases. However, the temperature field of the roofing and
soil layer has changed. In the spring equinox, summer solstice and autumn equinox, the area of
soil layer covered by the PV panels has less temperature as compared to unshaded area with local
high temperature. The PV panels were laid from top to bottom on the PV greenhouse. Additionally,
in autumn equinox and summer solstice, the area of PV greenhouse beneath the PV panels covered
roof has low temperature due to shielding effect but the other sections of unshaded PV greenhouse
have high local temperature. The effects of warming and preservation of heat are dominant in the
case of winter solstice because of low external temperature. In the case of winter solstice, the
unshaded area of PV greenhouse has low temperature as compared to PV panel shaded area.
6.1.4 Seasonal Temperature Changes
The PV modules were installed on the PV greenhouse in three ways; 30% and 60% from top to
bottom, and 30% in the middle section. The temperature changes were calculated and examined
in these three cases and compared with a normal daily temperature change of PV greenhouse
without PV panels. The days chosen for analysis are summer solstice, autumn equinox, winter
solstice and spring equinox.
61
Figure 6-7 Daily Temperature Distribution of Spring Equinox
The figure 6-7 shows that the internal temperature, surface temperature, soil temperature at 30cm
underground and the air temperature 50 cm above the ground are all less as compared to the
temperature without PV modules. The maximum temperature of the PV greenhouse was delayed
from noon to 3pm in afternoon after the placement of PV modules. In the case of 30% laid PV
modules, the maximum temperature, surface temperature, soil temperature at 30cm underground
and air temperature 50 cm above the ground was decreased by 12 o C (29%), 11o C (24%), 11o C
(32%) and 11o C (25%) respectively. In the case of 60% laid PV modules, the maximum
temperature, ground temperature, soil temperature 30cm below the ground, and air temperature 50
cm above the ground is decreased by 17 o C (41%), 18 o C (40%), 17 o C (50%), 17 o C (40%)
respectively.
62
Figure 6-8 Daily Temperature Distribution of Summer Solstice
From the figure 6-8, it can be summarized that the delay phenomenon of maximum temperature
for summer solstice is not obvious as in the case of spring equinox. The overall temperature change
with and without PV panels is consistent. When the 30% PV modules are laid on the PV
greenhouse, there was a decrease of 9 o C (23%), 14 o C (33%), 12 o C (33%) and 11o C (27%) for
PV greenhouse temperature, surface temperature, soil temperature at 30cm underground, air
temperature at 50 cm above the surface respectively. When the 60% PV modules are laid on the
PV greenhouse, the temperature of greenhouse, surface temperature, soil temperature at 30cm
underground, air temperature at 50cm above the surface is 13 o C (33%), 19 o C (44%), 17 o C (47%)
and 14 o C (34%) respectively. Moreover, in the summer solstice, the trend of entire temperature
change in the case of 30% PV modules with PV modules racked on the middle of PV greenhouse
is same apart from a slight higher temperature.
63
Figure 6-9 Daily Temperature Distribution of Autumn Equinox
The figure 6-9 indicates the daily temperature distribution of autumn equinox is same with and
without PV panels in all the cases and the trend of maximum temperature is also identical. When
30% PV modules are placed on the PV greenhouse, the 13 o C (32%) decrease in temperature of
PV greenhouse, 10 o C (22%) decrease in ground temperature, 11o C (28%) decrease in soil
temperature and 10 o C (28%) decrease in the temperature of air layer is observed. Likewise, in the
case of 60% laid PV modules on PV greenhouse, the temperature of the PV greenhouse, ground
temperature, soil temperature at 30cm below the ground, and air temperature at 50cm above the
ground is decreased by 18 o C (42%), 16 o C (36%), 16 o C (40%) and 15 o C (35%) respectively. In
the case of 30% middle laid PV modules compared to 30% laid PV modules on top, there is a
slight increase in temperature of greenhouse and air layer above the 50cm of ground and decrease
in temperature ground temperature and soil temperature below 30cm of the ground.
The figure 6-10 shows that in winter solstice, the PV greenhouse has same temperature distribution
without PV panels and with 30% laid PV panels. However, in the case of 60% laid PV panels, the
ground temperature is higher as compared to case of without PV panels and the maximum
temperature was also delayed from noon to 3pm in afternoon. The 30% laid PV modules on PV
greenhouse generated a 13 o C (33%), 5 o C (19%), 5 o C (28%) decrease in PV greenhouse
temperature, ground temperature, soil temperature at 30cm below the ground respectively.
Whereas, the 60% laid PV modules on PV greenhouse generated a 19 o C (49%) , 4 o C (15%), 7 o C
(37%)and 10 o C (32%) decrease in temperature of PV greenhouse, ground temperature, soil
temperature at 30cm below the ground and air temperature at 50cm above the ground respectively.
64
In winter solstice, although the maximum temperature is decreased after PV panels are laid but in
night the lowest temperature rises from -9 o C to -4 o C in the case of 60% laid PV panels.
Figure 6-10 Daily Temperature Distribution of Winter Solstice
In comparison, all four cases and the laying of 30% and 60% PV panels on the top of PV
greenhouse, the changing trend of temperature was satisfactory. In the long-term temperature
conditions, the temperature in the night decreased by 1-2 o C and 4-5 o C for 60% and 30% laid PV
modules respectively in comparison to PV greenhouse without PV panels. If the panels are laid on
the top side of PV greenhouse, the temperature drop is not too large, however, injection of sunlight
inside the PV greenhouse has good importance for crop growth. In comparing all the cases
discussed above, the PV greenhouse with 60% laid PV panels is considered as the best way of
installing PV panels on the greenhouse.
In order to further illustrate the usage of laying PV modules on the top of PV greenhouse, the
analysis is also done on the soil layer below the surface and air layer above the ground at noon on
four typical days.
6.1.5 Temperature Distribution of Soil Layer

In the case of spring equinox and 60% laid PV modules, the temperature of the surface of the soil
layer and 30cm below the ground was less as compared to the case of PV greenhouse without PV
panels. The area unshaded by the PV panels had high temperature and front ground of the PV
greenhouse had less temperature because of shade from south wall. The average temperature of
the surface 50cm away from the ground has less thermal conductivity and less fluidity and that is
65
why there is no obvious trend of temperature change. It has average temperature of 26 o C . The
temperature of ground surface and air layer at 50 cm above the ground is shown in figures 6-11
and 6-12 respectively for spring equinox.
Figure 6-11 Temperature distribution of Ground Surface (Spring Equinox)
Figure 6-12 Temperature distribution at 50cm above ground (Spring Equinox)
In the analysis of summer solstice, it can be observed that the low temperature area caused by PV
modules is increased and the temperature gradient in the low temperature area is less. At noon, the
average temperature of ground is 22 o C respectively. The maximum, minimum and average
temperature is 29 o C , 22 o C and 25 o C respectively. The temperature distribution of ground surface
and air layer at 50 cm above the ground is shown in figures 6-13 and 6-14 respectively for summer
solstice.
Figure 6-13 Temperature distribution of Ground Surface (Summer Solstice)
66
Figure 6-14 Temperature distribution at 50cm above ground (Summer Solstice)
The figures from 6-15 to 6-16 for the autumn equinox show temperature distribution for both
ground and 50 cm above the ground respectively. The maximum, minimum and average
temperature of ground is 46 o C , 16 o C and 27 o C respectively. The temperature distribution of air
layer at 50cm above the ground in the case of autumn equinox is identical as that of summer
solstice, but the transverse gradient is increased. The maximum, minimum and average of air layer
is 32 o C , 16 o C and 16 o C respectively.
Figure 6-15 Temperature distribution of Ground Surface (Autumn Equinox )
Figure 6-16 Temperature distribution at 50cm above ground (Autumn Equinox)
In winter solstice, the high temperature area of ground and air layer at 50 cm above the ground is
under the shade of PV modules because of the low external temperature. The area of PV
greenhouse covered by the PV panels has high temperature as compared to unshaded area. The
maximum, minimum and average temperature of ground is 29 o C , 4 o C and 19 o C respectively.
67
The temperature gradient of the air layer at 50 cm above the ground is very less and the average
temperature is 18 o C . The temperature distribution of ground surface and 50 cm above the ground
are shown in figures from 6-17 to 6-18 respectively for winter solstice.
Figure 6-17 Temperature distribution of ground surface (Winter Solstice)
Figure 6-18 Temperature distribution at 50cm above ground (Winter Solstice)
6.2 Model 2
6.2.1 Geographical Location
The PV house model with laid PV panel is shown in figure 6-19. The site location of numerical
simulation for this model is Xi’an, Shaanxi, China (108.76 longitude east and 34.04 latitude north)
and the date is 9 October. The local altitude is 405m. These values are used to calculate the
temperature field of model house with and without PV panel. The temperature field at noon i.e. 12
o’clock is selected for analysis. The temperature measurements were recorded for three times of
the day i.e. morning (9 am), noon (12 am) and afternoon (3pm).
68
6.2.2 Model House Temperature
Figure 6-19 PV Solar House Model with laid PV panel
The PV solar model house is given in figure. The highest, average and lowest temperature of the
house model without putting PV panel is 100 o C , 55 o C and 75 o C respectively. Meanwhile, in the
case of laying of PV panel on the top of model house, the highest, average and lowest temperatures
are 115 o C , 52 o C and 77 o C respectively.
The temperature simulation results of the model are given in figures 6-20 and 6-21. The red strip
on the edge of model with laid PV panel shows that the incident angle of sun is not exactly
perpendicular to the horizontal plane of the model. The sunlight rays are not completely blocked
by the PV panel and the front end of the roof has high temperature compared to other parts of the
model. In the case of horizontal laying of PV panel on the top of model house, the temperature is
quite low as compared to the model without PV panel. The temperature in the without PV case is
stratified. The main reason for less temperature in laid PV case is the blocking effect and reflection
of the hot air. However, the temperature gradient is a little higher in the sandwich part between the
PV panel and the roof of the model house. The temperatures on the edges and lower section of the
solar model can be seen less as compared to top surface and upper section because of the low
incident angle and less interaction of the solar irradiation.
Figure 6-20 Model House Temperature Field without PV Panel
69
Figure 6-21 Temperature Field of Model House after Laying PV Panel
The maximum temperature in case of solar model without and with PV panel was recorded to be
88 o C , 100 o C , 87 o C and 106 o C , 115 o C , 91o C at 9 am, noon and 3 pm respectively. The
minimum temperature in case of solar model without and with PV panel was measured to be 52 o C ,
55 o C , 37 o C and 48 o C , 52 o C , 51o C at 9 am, noon and 3 pm respectively. The average
temperature of model without PV panel is 77 o C , 75 o C and 67 o C at morning, noon and afternoon
respectively. The average temperature of the model with PV panel at morning, noon and afternoon
is 76 o C , 73 o C and 66 o C respectively. The average temperature represents the sole temperature
behavior of the model but the maximum and minimum temperatures are defined at some sections
or points of the model. The temperature measurements were done for three time sections morning
(9 A.M. , noon (12 o’clock and afternoon (3 P.M. and are given in the table 6-1. The maximum,
minimum and average temperatures of soil without and with PV panel at morning is 52 o C , 10 o C ,
28 o C and 53 o C , 10 o C , 25 o C respectively. The minimum temperature of soil layer in both cases
of without and with PV panel is identical at morning, noon and afternoon i.e. 10 o C . The average
temperature of soil layer with and without PV panel at noon is 75 o C and 73 o C respectively.
Table 6-1 Maximum Tmax , Minimum Tmin and Average Temperature Tavg for with and without PV panel at
morning, noon and after noon
Time Th Ts Tph Tps Tpv
( oC ) ( oC ) ( oC ) ( oC ) ( oC )
Tmax 88 52 106 53 82
9 A.M.
Tmin 52 10 48 10 38
Tavg 77 28 76 25 74
Tmax 100 41 115 52 94
70
Noon Tmin 55 10 52 10 52
Tavg 75 23 73 22 81
Tmax 87 52 91 54 75
Afternoon
(3 P.M.) Tmin 37 10 51 10 42
Tavg 67 21 66 22 65
Where Th and Ts are the temperature of the model house without the PV panel, o C ; Tph and Tps
are the temperature of the model house with laid PV panel on the model house, o C ; Tpv is the
temperature of the PV panel, o C .
The figures from 6-22 to 6-24 represents the maximum, minimum and average temperatures of
model house and soil layer with and without PV at morning, noon and afternoon. In this figures,
the TH, TPH, TS and TPS indicate temperature of model without PV panel, temperature of model
with PV panel, temperature of soil without PV panel and temperature of soil with PV panel
respectively.
Figure 6-22 Maximum, Minimum and Average Temperature of Model House and Soil Layer with and
without PV panel at 9 AM
without PV panel at Noon (12o’clock)
71
without PV panel at Afternoon (3 o’clock)
6.2.3 Temperature of Soil Layer

The temperature distribution of soil layer without PV panel is 41o C , 10 o C and 23 o C as highest,
lowest and average temperature respectively. However, after putting the PV panel on top of the
model house, the highest, lowest and average temperatures are 52 o C , 10 o C and 30 o C respectively.
The temperature variation inside the soil layer without and with PV panel is given in figures 6-25
and 6-26 respectively. The upper layers of the soil can be seen having less temperature as indicated
by green color when the PV panel is laid on the solar model.
Figure 6-25 Temperature variation in soil layer without PV panel
Figure 6-26 Temperature Variation of Soil Layer with Laid PV Panel
6.2.4 East-West and North-South Cross section Viewing of the Model

The temperature distribution of east-west section and south-north section of the model house with
and without PV panel is given in figures 6-27, 6-28 and figure 6-29, 6-30 respectively. The model
is cut apart to look on various sections of the model to analyze the temperature of the solar model
72
along with the temperature of the air surrounding the model. It can be easily observed that injection
of PV panel on the solar model has greatly reduced the temperature of the solar model inside and
outside the air boundary layer. The temperature is highest between the intersection of PV panel
and roofing of the solar model. Likewise, with laid PV, the figures 6-29 and 6-30 show that the
temperature is still the highest in the sandwich part of the PV panel with roofing of the model. This
temperature can be decreased by a sufficient air gap to allow the passage of air flow.
Figure 6-27 Temperature Distribution of East-West Section of the Model House without PV Panel
Figure 6-28 Temperature Distribution of East-West Section of the Model House with PV Panel
Figure 6-29 Temperature Distribution of North-South Section of the Model House with PV Panel
73
Figure 6-30 Temperature Distribution of North-South Section of the Model House with PV Panel
6.2.5 Temperature of PV Panel

The PV panel is section of this solar model which will exposed first and directly by incoming solar
radiation. The temperature of PV panel depends on the angle of incidence θ which the solar rays
create with the horizontal surface of the PV module as shown in the figure 6-31 [53]. At noon, θ is
maximum while in the morning and afternoon the value of θ is less as compared to the case of
noon. The main reason for high temperature at noon is the maximum angle of solar rays with the
plane of the PV panel.
Figure 6-31 Incidence Angle of Sun Rays with the PV panel
The temperature distribution of PV panel in circular shape is shown in figure 6-32. At the noon
time, the solar angle between the solar rays and horizontal PV panel is very small. Therefore, the
center of the PV panel has the highest temperature i.e. 94 o C and lowest temperature is at the edges
of solar panel i.e. 52 o C and the average temperature is 81o C .
Figure 6-32 Temperature Distribution of PV Panel
74
The lowest temperature of the PV panel at morning, noon and afternoon is 38 o C , 52 o C and 42 o C
respectively. The maximum temperature of the PV panel at morning, noon and afternoon is 82 o C ,
94 o C and 75 o C respectively. The temperature of PV panel during different time phases of daytime
is shown in figure 6-33.
Figure 6-33 Temperature of PV Panel
6.2.6 Absolute Difference and Efficiency Ratio

The absolute difference is the difference of the temperature of model house with laid PV panel and
without PV panel. If the absolute difference is negative then it indicates that the temperature of
model with PV panel is higher than temperature of the model without PV panel. The formula for
calculating the absolute difference is given as;
  Tp  Twp (6-1)
Where  - absolute difference, oC ; Tp – Temperature of Solar House with Laying PV Panels, oC ;

Twp - Temperature of Solar House without PV Panel, oC .
The efficiency ratio is the measure to calculate the efficiency of the model. It is the ratio of the
absolute difference with the temperature of the model without PV panel. If the efficiency ratio is
negative, it shows that the system efficiency is higher.
Whereas the efficiency ratio can be calculated by the following equation
T T
  p wp 100 (6-2)
Twp
Where  - Efficiency Ratio.
The detailed analysis of the absolute difference and efficiency ratio for the model house is given
in table 6-2.
75
Table 6-2 Absolute Difference and Efficiency Ratio for model house
Time Δh Δs ηh ηs
( oC ) ( oC ) (% ) (% )
18 1 20.45 1.923
9 A.M. -4 0 -7.69 0
-1 -3 -1.29 -10.7
15 11 15 26.82
Noon. -3 0 -5.45 0
-2 -1 -2.667 -4.347
4 2 4.598 3.846
Afternoon 14 0 37.8 0
3 P.M. -1 1 -1.49 4.762
Where Δ h and Δs are the absolute difference for model house and soil layer, o C ; ηh and ηs are the
efficiency ratio for model house and soil layer. The absolute difference and efficiency ratio of
model house and soil layer for average temperature is shown in figure 6-34.
Figure 6-34 Absolute difference and Efficiency Ratio for Model House and Soil Layer at various times
The average temperature is considered as the key judging factor in the absolute difference and
efficiency ratio in the solar model house. The efficiency ratio of solar model is maximum at noon
that is -2.667% and minimum at morning 9 am i.e. -1.29%. The efficiency of solar layer is
maximum at morning 9 am i.e. -10.7% and minimum at 3pm i.e. 4.762%. The maximum efficiency
was achieved for the soil layer at morning, however this trend of efficiency is reversed at afternoon.
The efficiency of the soil layer is double at noon as compared to that of the solar model i.e. -
4.347%. The efficiency of the model at afternoon is -1.49%. The absolute difference for the solar
model is maximum at noon i.e. -2 o C and same at morning and afternoon i.e. -1o C . The absolute
76
difference for the soil layer of the model is highest at 9 am i.e. -3 o C and equal at both 12am and
3pm i.e. -1o C . The refined analysis of absolute difference and efficiency ratio in terms of average
value is given in table 6-3.
Table 6-3 Refined Average Values of Absolute Difference and Efficiency Ratio for model house at various
times
Time Δh Δs ηh ηs
( oC ) ( oC ) (% ) (% )
9 A.M. -1 -3 -1.29 -10.7
Noon. -2 -1 -2.667 -4.347
Afternoon -1 1 -1.49 4.762
3 P.M.
The total average value of absolute difference and efficiency ratio can be calculated by following
formulas.
 avg 
 mor   noon   aft
(6-3)
3
avg 
 mor   noon  aft
(6-4)
3
Where  avg - average efficiency ratio; mor -average efficiency ratio at morning; noon - average
efficiency ratio at noon;  aft - average efficiency ratio at afternoon;  avg - average absolute
difference, oC ; mor - average absolute difference at morning, oC ; noon - average absolute
difference at noon, oC ;  aft - average absolute difference at afternoon, oC .
The absolute difference and efficiency ratio for solar model is 1.33 o C and 1.667% respectively.
While, for the soil layer, the absolute difference and efficiency ratio is 1.815 o C and 3.428%
respectively. The average values of absolute difference and efficiency ratio for solar model and
soil layer are given in table 6-4.
77
Table 6-4 Average Values of Absolute Difference and Efficiency Ratio
Δh Δs ηh ηs
( oC ) ( oC ) (% ) (% )
1.33 1.667 1.815 3.428
78
CONCLUSIONS
Chapter 7 CONCLUSIONS
7.1 Research Conclusion
In the recent years, the solar energy plays an important role in reducing the dependency on the
burning of conventional fuels and to address the environmental concerns. The key technology to
harness the solar energy is building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) which can replace the existing
components of building envelope. Apart from electrical power generating aspect of BIPV, it can
be utilized for other purposes such as shading, aesthetics and thermal comfort. The overall success
of BIPV is related with the techno-socio-economic factors. The most suitable place for injecting
BIPV in a building structure is the rooftop. Since, the rooftop contributes a large part of heating
up of a building, BIPV can also serve as a thermal comfort option. The other challenging aspect
of BIPV is the LCA. The liability of the materials used in the construction need to be assessed
according to the environment.
In this paper, firstly, the process based analysis LCA of few common construction materials was
carried out using system boundary of cradle to gate. The emission factors and data needed for
calculations of embodied energy and embodied CO2 was obtained from Inventory of Carbon and
Energy (ICE) of University of Bath. The two models; PV greenhouse and PV solar house were
designed and simulated in ANSYS Fluent by using RANS algorithm and DO radiation Model. The
derived conclusions of EE and CE, two models are discussed below in detail.
1) The EE for cement and mud brick is 8556 MJ and 5760 MJ respectively. Likewise, the CE for
cement and mud brick is 1543.8 kgCO2 and 422.4 kgCO2 respectively. This clearly indicates
that the mud construction materials are less harmful to the environment and low energy
consuming. The EE for PVC, Aluminum and Glass was estimated to be 106536 MJ , 418500
MJ and 6165 MJ respectively. Similarly, the CE for PVC, Aluminum and Glass was
calculated as 3325.8 kgCO2 , 22248 kgCO2 and 349.35 kgCO2 respectively. These statistics
clearly show that Aluminum and PVC are both harmful and energy consuming materials.
2) The PV greenhouse model 1 was simulated for four typical days of year; spring equinox,
autumn equinox, winter solstice, and summer solstice and with three different placements of
rooftop PV panels. The three orientations of PV panels are 30% and 60% PV panels from top
to bottom and 30% in the middle of the roof. Likewise, the temperatures of ground, surface,
soil layer at 30cm below ground, air layer at 50cm above the ground are calculated for PV
greenhouse. The short analysis of conclusion of this model is given as
79
 The shaded area by PV in the cases of spring equinox, summer solstice and autumn equinox
has low roof and soil temperature as compared to unshaded area. However, the shaded area by
PV has high temperature in comparison to that of unshaded area which is because of high
external ambient temperature. This behavior is examined at noon by 60% PV modules laid on
PV greenhouse from top to bottom
 The 60% PV is evaluated to be the best topology for decreasing the PV greenhouse temperature,
surface temperature, soil temperature 30 cm below the ground, air layer 50 cm above the
ground in all four typical days. The highest temperature drop for soil layer 30cm below the
ground is 17 o C (50%) in spring equinox and minimum in winter solstice i.e. 7 o C (37%).
Likewise, the PV greenhouse has highest drop of 49% in winter solstice and lowest of 33% in
summer solstice. For the cases of ground temperature and air layer 50 cm above the ground,
similar trends have been examined.
3) The PVC solar house model was simulated with and without BIPV for the model with a site
location of Xi’an, China at noon time on 9th October. The conclusions derived are
 In the case of PVC, the laid PV case has more efficient performance compared to without PV
case. The efficiency ratio calculated for average temperature at morning 9AM and at noon is -
1.29% and -2.667% respectively. The negative sign here indicates the system’s better
performance. The system efficiency is also better for soil layer in morning and at noon.
 The best efficiency ratio of the solar model is at noon with 2.667%. The maximum temperature
Tmax of PV panel was 94 o C at noon.
 The maximum efficiency of the soil layer of the model is -10.7% in the morning but minimum
at afternoon with 4.762% efficiency. The daily average efficiency for solar model and soil
layer is 1.667% and 3.428% respectively.
7.2 Future Development and Recommendations
 The databases and inventories used in the calculation of EE and CE still need to be more
precise and improved. The solar house model needs to be simulated and assessed by
implementing other materials such as adobe and cement.
 Since all the factors which determine the interior temperature of the buildings are
interlinked, therefore, wind, shading effect of other buildings, and humidity trends also
need be tracked to achieve the optimum thermal comfort performance of BIPV.
80
ACHIEVEMENTS
ACHIEVEMENTS
1) Muhammad, T. Z., Cheng, K., & Ma, X. Y. (2018, October). Modelling and simulation
for installation feasibility of standalone photovoltaic system for Quetta, Pakistan. In IOP
Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 188, No. 1, p. 012008). IOP
Publishing.（EI index: 20184606070362）
2) Cheng, K., Guo, L. M., Wang, Y. K., & Zafar, M. T. (2017, November). Application of
clustering analysis in the prediction of photovoltaic power generation based on neural
network. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 93, No. 1, p.
012024). IOP Publishing. (EI Index: 20174804462856)
3) Cheng, K., Guo, L. M., Wang, Y. K., & Zafar, M. T. (2017, November). Prediction of
energy balance and utilization for solar electric cars. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and
Environmental Science (Vol. 93, No. 1, p. 012025). IOP Publishing. (EI Index:
20174804462857)
81
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86
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I especially thank to my parents and all my family who supported and will continue on backing
me in every stage of life
I am grateful to my Supervisor Cheng Ke for his support, persistence and guidance through the
journey of my Master’s degree.
I would like to appraise the contributions of my lab mates, without them it would not be able to
achieve such success.
Finally, I would pay my regards to all my friends and people who share a part in my achievements
until now.
88
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Interior Thermal Variation by The Rooftop Application of BIPV or BAPV

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Power Engineering and Engineering

Title: Interior Thermal Variation by the Rooftop Application

作 者： Muhammad Touseef Zafar

Under the Supervision of Associate Professor

In partial fulfillment of the requirement

1.1 Climate Change and CO2 ................................................................................................... 3

1.3 Solar Power .......................................................................................................................... 9

1.4 Thesis Structure................................................................................................................. 13

2.1 Thermal Comfort .............................................................................................................. 15

3.1 Building Applied Photovoltaic and Building Integrated Photovoltaic ......................... 21

3.4 BIPV Advantages .............................................................................................................. 27

4.1 Importance of Embodied Energy and CO2 assessment in buildings ............................ 29

4.2 System Boundary .............................................................................................................. 31

4.3 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Methods ........................................................................... 32

4.4 Data Collection and Inventories....................................................................................... 33

4.6 Case Studies of Embodied Energy and Embodied CO2................................................. 38

5.1 Basic Theory of Heat Transfer ......................................................................................... 43

5.2 Basic Governing Equations in Fluid Calculation ........................................................... 44

5.3 Turbulence Model ............................................................................................................. 46

5.4 Radiation Model ................................................................................................................ 49

5.4.1 Rooseland Radiation Model ............................................................................................. 49

5.5 CFD Models ....................................................................................................................... 50

5.6 Boundary Condition Settings ........................................................................................... 54

5.7 Differential Equations ....................................................................................................... 56

6.1 Model 1 ............................................................................................................................... 59

6.2 Model 2 ............................................................................................................................... 68

BIPV Building Integrated Photovoltaic

Figure 1-1 Instrumental Temperature Data (GISS) 1880-2014

1.2 Energy Technologies to Mitigate the Impact of CO2

 Bio based products

1.2.5 Geothermal Power

1.4 Thesis Structure

CHAPTER 02 LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH

2.2 Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV)

CHAPTER 03 BUILDING INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS

3.1 Building Applied Photovoltaic and Building Integrated Photovoltaic

Figure 3-1 Schematic Diagram of BIPV installation in façade and rooftop

Figure 3-2 Ferdinand-Braun-Institute, Berlin

Figure 3-3 BAPV project in Netherlands

3.2 Installation Variation between BAPV and BIPV

3.3 BIPV Classification

Figure 3-4 BIPV Categories and Classifications

Figure 3-5 BIPV market’s products

Figure 3-6 BIPV elements integration in roofing system

Figure 3-7 BIPV implementation in Building’s Façade

3.3.3 BIPV Installation

Figure 3-8 BIPV modules implemented on sloped roofs

 Installation of BIPV on flat roofs

3.3.4 Existing Projects of BIPV

Figure 3-9 Mont-Cenis Herne Academy (Germany)

 NTT Tower Building

Figure 3-10 NTT Tower Building, Yokohama

3.4 BIPV Advantages

3.5 Future Trend and Market of BIPV

3.6 BIPV Challenges and Future Research Directions

CHAPTER 04 EMBODIED ENERGY AND CO2

Figure 4-2 Life Cycle of a Building

4.2 System Boundary

Figure 4-3 Boundary System of a Life Cycle of Building

4.2.1 First Boundary

4.2.3 Third Boundary

4.3 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Methods

作者： Muhammad Touseef Zafar