Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Sciences SAM
2014
PLE
www.hoddereducation.com/cambridge
We are working with Cambridge International Examinations to gain
endorsement for these new International AS and A Level Sciences textbooks.
Each one covers the content of the latest syllabus for first examination 2016, and ensures
ease of teaching with AS and A Level separated into two sections.
For full details and to order see the back page or visit www.hoddereducation.com/cambridge
vii
1
13
30
31
47
56
61
72
76
91
95
103
114
122
128
142
152
163
165
187
208
211
216
230
239
256
272
277
280
290
293
308
330
346
350
360
366
369
373
378
385
398
402
411
430
451
461
A Level
The variation that exists By the end of this topic you should be able to:
within a species is
categorised as continuous a) describe the differences between continuous and discontinuous variation and explain the genetic
and discontinuous. basis of continuous (many, additive genes control a characteristic) and discontinuous variation
The environment has (one or few genes control a characteristic)
considerable influence on b) explain, with examples, how the environment may affect the phenotype of plants and animals
the expression of features c) use the t-test to compare the variation of two different populations
that show continuous (or d) explain why genetic variation is important in selection
quantitative) variation.
17.1 Variation
Introducing variation
Individuals of a species are strikingly similar, which is how we may identify them, whether humans
buttercups or houseflies, for example. But individuals also show many differences, although we
may have to look carefully in members of species other than our own. Within families there are
remarkable similarities between parents and their offspring, but no two members of a family are
identical, apart from identical twins. About these differences we can say:
● some differences may be controlled by genes – such as human blood groups
● other differences between individuals may be due to the effect of our environment, such as the
fur colour of the Arctic hare or the Siamese cat
● other differences between individuals may be due to both genetics and environment, such as our
body height and weight.
Another important point about variation is that it is of two types (Figure 17.1).
● Discontinuous variation arises when the characteristic concerned is one of two or more
discrete types with no intermediate forms. Examples include the garden pea plant (tall or dwarf)
and human ABO blood grouping (group A, B, AB or O). These are genetically determined.
● Continuous variation results in a continuous distribution of values. Height in humans is a good
example. Continuous variation may be genetically determined, or it may be due to environmental
and genetic factors working together.
between the two data sets. An example will illustrate the method. However, you should note that
you are not expected to calculate values of t.
3 Once a value of t has been calculated (the value of t here is 2.10) we determine the degrees of
freedom (df) for the two samples, using the formula:
df (total number of values in both samples) 2
na nb 2
In this case, df 11 11 22.
on, from generation to generation. Remember, an allele is one of a number of alternative forms of
Allele frequency: the a gene that can occupy a given locus on a chromosome. The frequency with which any particular
commonness of the allele occurs in a given population will vary.
occurrence of any particular When allele frequencies of a particular population are investigated they may turn out to be
allele in a population. static and unchanging. Alternatively, we may find allele frequencies changing. They might do so
quite rapidly with succeeding generations, for example.
When the allele frequencies of a gene pool remain more or less unchanged, then we know that
population is static as regards its inherited characteristics. We can say that the population is not
evolving.
However, if the allele frequencies of gene pool of a population is changing (i.e. the proportions
of particular alleles is altered, we say ‘disturbed’ in some way), then we may assume that evolution
is going on. For example, some alleles may be increasing in frequency because of an advantage
they confer to the individuals carrying them. With possession of those alleles the organism is more
successful. It may produce more offspring, for example. If we can detect change in a gene pool we
may detect evolution happening, possibly even well before a new species is observed.
Let the frequency of the dominant allele (G) be p, and the frequency of the recessive allele (g) be q.
This means in a cross, a proportion (p) of the gametes carries the G allele, and a proportion (q) of the gametes
carries the g allele.
G G
gamete frequency
p p
g GG g
q p2 q So the progeny are respectively:
Gg Gg p2 = frequency of GG homozygote
pq pq 2pq = frequency of Gg heterozygote
gg q2 = frequency of gg homozygote
q2
Hardy–Weinberg formula
If the frequency of one allele (G) is p, and the frequency of the other allele (g) is q then the frequencies of the three
possible genotypes GG, Gg and gg are respectively p2, 2pq and q2.
In this way, Hardy and Weinberg developed the following equation to describe stable gene pools:
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
frequency of frequency of frequency of total
homozygous heterozygous homozygous
dominant individuals recessive
individuals individuals
14
Wild sheep or mouflon (Ovis musimon) occur today Soay sheep of the outer Hebrides Modern selective breeding has produced
on Sardinia and Corsica suggest to us what the earliest shorter animals with a woolly fleece in
domesticated sheep looked like place of coarse hair and with muscle of
higher fat content. Many breeds have lost
their horns
Figure 17.13 From wild to domesticated species and the origins of selective breeding skills
18
rings of DNA
mitochondria (mtDNA)
with mtDNA
mitochondrion (enlarged)
passage of time
A is one mtDNA *
ring of mtDNA gene (of known
with many base sequence)
genes
*
*
*
chance mutations
accumulate at an
approximately
accumulation of genetic differences in mtDNA
constant rate but at
In mtDNA, mutations involve about 1–2 base changes in every * different locations
100 nucleotides per million years.
*
Studying change in the base pairs of mtDNA genes allows us to detect
evolutionary changes occurring over several hundred thousand years.
*
* random mutations
Figure 17.20 The use of mitochondrial DNA in measuring evolutionary divergence
Speciation
Present-day plants and animals have arisen by change from pre-existing forms of life. This process
Species: a group of has been called ‘descent with modification’ and ‘organic evolution’, but perhaps ‘speciation’ is
organisms that are better because it emphasises that species change. So, what is a species?
reproductively isolated, When Linnaeus devised the binomial system of nomenclature in the 18th century there was
interbreeding to produce no problem in defining species. It was believed that each species was derived from the original
fertile offspring. Organisms pair of animals created by God. Since species had been created in this way they were fixed and
belonging to a species have unchanging.
morphological (structural)
In fact the fossil record provides evidence that changes do occur in living things – human fossils
similarities, which are often
alone illustrate this point. Today, as many different characteristics as possible are used in order to
used to identify to which
species they belong. define and identify a species. The three main characteristics used are:
● morphology and anatomy (external and internal structure)
28
Many organisms (e.g. insects and birds) may have flown or been carried on wind currents to the
Galapagos from the mainland. Mammals are most unlikely to have survived drifting there on a natural
raft over this distance, but many large reptiles can survive long periods without food or water.
Equator
Pinta
Genovesa
Galapagos
Marchena
0°
Santiago
Isabela Santa Fé
1°S
Another example of behavioural and ecological separation leading to speciation has been
demonstrated in the fauna of the Galapagos islands. Today there are 14–15 species of finch,
and they have all been derived from a common ancestor, and have evolved, living in the same
environment. These birds were noted by Charles Darwin (but they failed to attract his detailed
attention) whilst on his visits to the islands. At a later date, detailed study of these birds was begun
by the ornithologist, David Lack.
32
Summary (continued)
● Natural selection may work to keep the characteristics of a species constant (stabilising
selection), but if the environment changes then new forms may emerge (directional and
disruptive selection). Balancing selection is a process which actively maintains multiple alleles in
the gene pool of a population.
● Humans have obtained the animals and plants used in today’s agriculture, transport and leisure
pursuits by a process of domestication of wild organisms by means of artificial selection.
Selective breeding is carried out by careful selection of the parents in breeding crosses and
the selection of progeny with the required features.
39
AS Level
Physical Chemistry
Topic 1 Chemical formulae and moles .......................................................................................................................... 1
Inorganic chemistry
Organic chemistry
iii
A Level
Physical Chemistry
Topic 20 Further energy changes....................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Inorganic chemistry
Organic chemistry
iv
Worked example 1
Chlorine consists of two isotopes, with mass numbers 35 and 37, and with relative abundances
76% and 24% respectively. Calculate the average relative atomic mass of chlorine.
Answer
The percentages tell us that if we took 100 chlorine atoms at random, 76 of them would
have a mass of 35 units, and 24 of them would have a mass of 37 units.
total mass of the 100 random atoms = (35 × 76) + (37 × 24)
Now try this = 3548 amu
3548
1 Chromium has four stable isotopes, so average mass of one atom =
100
with mass numbers 50, 52, 53 and 54,
= 35.5 amu
and relative abundances 4.3%, 83.8%,
9.5% and 2.4% respectively. Calculate that is, Ar = 35.5
the average relative atomic mass of
chromium. Worked example 2
2 Use the figures in Table 2.2 (page 22)
to calculate the average relative atomic Calculate the average relative atomic mass of krypton from the table in Figure 2.6.
masses of boron, neon and magnesium
Answer
to 1 decimal place.
We can extend the 100-random-atom idea from Worked example 1 to include fractions of
3 (Harder) Iridium has two isotopes, with
atoms. Thus the average mass of one atom of krypton
mass numbers 191 and 193, and its
average relative atomic mass is 192.23. (78 × 0.3) + (80 × 2.3) + (82 × 11.6) + (83 × 11.5) + (84 × 56.9) + (86 × 17.4)
=
Calculate the relative abundances of 100
the two isotopes. = 83.9
Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy increases as the temperature increases. Chemists use a scale of
temperature called the absolute temperature scale, and on this scale the kinetic
energy is directly proportional to the temperature (see section 4.13).
Kinetic energy can be of three different types. The simplest is energy due to
translation, that is, movement from place to place. For monatomic gases (gases
made up of single atoms, for example helium and the other noble gases), all
the kinetic energy is in the form of translational kinetic energy. For molecules
containing two or more atoms, however, there is the possibility of vibration
and rotation as well (see Figure 2.7). Both these forms of energy involve the
movement of atoms, even though the molecule as a whole may stay still. In
diatomic gases, the principal form of kinetic energy is translation, but in more
complex molecules, such as ethane, vibration and rotation become the more
important factors.
25
E = hf
energy
ΔE = E2 – E1
E1
The spectrum of the simplest atom, hydrogen, shows a series of lines at different
02_13frequencies (see Figure
Cam/Chem AS&A2 2.14). This suggests that the hydrogen atom can lose different
amounts of energy, which in turn suggests that it can exist in a range of energy states.
Barking Dog Art between the various energy states cause photons to be emitted at various
Transitions
frequencies. These energy states can be identified with situations where the single hydrogen
electron is in certain orbitals, at specific distances from the nucleus, as we shall see.
Figure 2.14 Part of the hydrogen n = • (ionisation)
spectrum, showing the corresponding E6 n=7
n=6
energy transitions
E5 n=5
E4 n=4
excited electron
falls to n = 2
E3 n=3
a photon is released
energy, E
E2 n=2
E1 n=1
5 6 7
14
frequency, f/10 Hz
28
Renewable fuels
Most of the alternative energy sources listed above are renewable because they are
powered by the Sun, and so are always available. Some fuels are made out of resources
that can be replaced quickly. For example, tropical countries such as Brazil can grow
103
You will meet this equation often in redox reactions, and it is a good idea to learn it.
The deep purple manganate(VII) ion is used as its own indicator. This solution
is run into the flask from the burette, and in the course of the reaction the colour
changes from purple to colourless as nearly colourless manganese(II) ions are
produced. At the end-point, the first extra drop of manganate(VII) ions makes the
solution turn pink. The following experimental details should be noted.
● Potassium manganate(VII) is not very soluble, and the highest concentration used is
0.02 mol dm−3.
● The reaction is carried out in the presence of sulfuric acid at approximately 1 mol dm−3.
● It is usual to read the top, rather than the bottom, of the meniscus of potassium
manganate(VII) in the burette because the deep purple colour obscures the reading
Figure 7.3 The top of the meniscus is read
when using potassium manganate(VII) in a
at the bottom (see Figure 7.3). Because the volume delivered is the difference
titration. Compare the readings with those in between the readings, it does not matter whether we read the top or bottom of the
Figure 6.5 (page 127). meniscus, as long as we do the same for both readings.
● If the titration is carried out too quickly, the solution may turn brown (see
Figure 7.4). This is due to the formation of manganese(IV) oxide, MnO2. This can
be avoided either by increasing the acidity of the solution or by warming it.
Figure 7.4 To avoid the solution turning
brown, warm the solution or use plenty
of acid.
Worked example 1
In a titration, 25.0 cm3 of a solution of iron( II ) sulfate required 22.4 cm3 of 0.0200 mol dm −3
potassium manganate(VII ) solution at the end-point. What is the concentration of the
solution of iron( II ) sulfate?
Answer
v 22.4
n(KMnO4 ) = c × = 0.0200 × = 4.48 × 10 −4 mol
1000 1000
oxidation: Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e−
reduction: MnO4− + 5e− + 8H+ → Mn2+ + 4H2O
To balance the electrons, 5 mol of Fe2+ react with 1 mol of KMnO4. Therefore:
n(Fe2+) used is = 5 × 4.48 × 10−4 = 2.24 × 10−3 mol
1000
c(Fe2+) = ×n
v
1000
= × 2.24 × 10−3
25.0
= 0.0896 mol dm-3
145
13 Alkanes
Functional group:
Learning outcomes
C¬C¬H By the end of this topic you should be able to:
In this topic the properties and 1.5b) perform calculations, including use of the mole concept, involving volumes of
reactions of the simplest of the gases (part, see also Topic 1)
homologous series, the alkanes, are 14.1a) interpret, and use, the general, structural, displayed and skeletal formulae of the
discussed. Their extraction from crude alkanes (part, see also Topic 12)
oil, and how they are transformed 14.2a) interpret, and use, the following terminology associated with organic reactions:
into fuels and feedstocks for the homolytic fission, free radical, initiation, propagation, termination (part, see also
chemical industry are described, Topic 12)
and their reactions with oxygen, 15.1a) show awareness of the general unreactivity of alkanes, including towards polar
chlorine and bromine are studied. reagents
Their characteristic reaction of radical 15.1b) describe the chemistry of alkanes as exemplified by the following reactions of
substitution is explained in detail. ethane: combustion, and substitution by chlorine and by bromine
15.1c) describe the mechanism of free-radical substitution at methyl groups with
particular reference to the initiation, propagation and termination reactions
15.1d) explain the use of crude oil as a source of both aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons
15.1e) suggest how ‘cracking’ can be used to obtain more useful alkanes and alkenes
of lower Mr from larger hydrocarbon molecules
15.3a) describe and explain how the combustion reactions of alkanes lead to their use
as fuels in industry, in the home and in transport
15.3b) recognise the environmental consequences of:
● carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and unburnt hydrocarbons arising from
the internal combustion engine and of their catalytic removal
● gases that contribute to the enhanced greenhouse effect.
13.1 Introduction
The alkanes are the simplest of the homologous series found in organic chemistry.
They contain only two types of bonds, both of which are strong and fairly non-polar
(see Table 13.1). (See section 3.10 for an explanation of bond polarity.)
Table 13.1 Carbon–carbon and carbon– Bond Bond enthalpy/kJ mol−1 Polarity (difference in
hydrogen bonds are strong and non-polar. electronegativity)
C¬C 346 0
C¬H 413 0.35 (Hδ+¬Cδ−)
Consequently, the alkanes are not particularly reactive. Their old name (the
‘paraffins’) reflected this ‘little (parum) affinity’. What few reactions they have,
however, are of immense importance to us. They constitute the major part of crude
oil, and so are the starting point of virtually every other organic compound made
industrially. Apart from their utility as a feedstock for the chemical industry, their
major use is as fuels in internal combustion engines, jet engines and power stations.
We shall be looking at their role in combustion reactions in detail later in this topic.
234
The straight-chain alkanes form a homologous series with the general formula
CnH2n+2. As the number of carbon atoms in the molecule increases, the van der Waals
attractions between the molecules become stronger (see section 3.17). This has a
clear effect on the boiling points and the viscosities of members of the series (see
Figure 13.1 and Table 14.1, page 440).
200
boiling point
100
boiling point/C
viscosity/poise
150
100
viscosity 50
50
0 0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
number of carbon atoms
c d e f
CH CH3
CH3 CH2
● The longest carbon chain contains four carbon atoms, so the alkane is a derivative
of butane.
● There is just one side branch, containing one carbon atom (and hence called
methyl).
235
● By the oxidation of aryl side chains. When treated with hot alkaline potassium
manganate(VII), aryl hydrocarbons produce benzoic acids by oxidation:
CH3 CO2H
heat with KMnO4 OH¯(aq)
Summary
● The carboxylic acids, RCO2H, are weak acids, ionising to the RCO2H + NaOH → RCO2−Na+ + H2O
extent of 1% or less in water. 2RCO2H + Na2CO3 → 2RCO2−Na+ + CO2 + H2O
● Carboxylic acids react with alcohols to form esters, and with RCO2H + SOCl2 → RCOCl + SO2 + HCl
phosphorus(V) chloride to form acyl chlorides. RCO2H + PCl5 → RCOCl + POCl3 + HCl
● Esters undergo acid- or base-catalysed hydrolysis.
heat with conc. H+
RCO2H + R′OH RCO2R′ + H2O
Key reactions you should know
● Esters:
● Carboxylic acids:
1
RCO2H + Na → RCO2−Na+ + H2 heat with H3O+ or OH−(aq)
2 RCO2R′ RCO2H + R′OH
Examination-style questions
1 Isomerism occurs in many organic compounds. The two neutralisation.
main forms of isomerism are structural isomerism and ei Use these data to deduce the number of carboxylic
stereoisomerism. Many organic compounds that occur acid groups present in one molecule of W.
naturally have molecules that can show stereoisomerism, ii Suggest the displayed formula of W.
that is cis–trans or optical isomerism. [Cambridge International AS & A Level Chemistry 9701,
a i Explain what is meant by structural isomerism. Paper 21 Q5 Summer 2010]
ii State two different features of molecules that can give 2 a Complete the following reaction scheme which starts
rise to stereoisomerism. with ethanal.
Unripe fruit often contains polycarboxylic acids, that is In each empty box, write the structural formula
acids with more than one carboxylic acid group in their of the organic compound that would be formed.
molecule.
One of these acids is commonly known as tartaric acid, Tollens’
HO2CCH(OH)CH(OH)CO2H. HCN reagent
CH3CHO
b Give the structural formula of the organic compound
B E
produced when tartaric acid is reacted with an excess of
NaHCO3. dilute H2SO4 reduction
heat
Another acid present in unripe fruit is citric acid,
OH
HO2CCH2CCH2CO2H
CO2H D
conc. H2SO4
c Does citric acid show optical isomerism? Explain your heat
answer.
A third polycarboxylic acid present in unripe fruit is a CH2
colourless crystalline solid, W, which has the following
composition by mass: C, 35.8%; H, 4.5%; O, 59.7%. CHCO2H
d i Show by calculation that the empirical formula of W is
C4H6O5. cold dilute MnO−4/H+
ii The Mr of W is 134. Use this value to determine the
molecular formula of W. 2−
Cr2O7 /H+
A sample of W of mass 1.97 g was dissolved in water
heat under reflux
and the resulting solution titrated with 1.00 mol dm−3
C
NaOH. 29.4 cm3 were required for complete
AS Level
Topic 1 Physical quantities and units ................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Physical quantities .................. ........................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 SI quantities and base units ................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Scalars and vectors ............................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
iii
A Level
Topic 7 Motion in a circle................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.1 Radian measure and angular displacement.................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.2 Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force. ............................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Topic 8 Gravitational fields. ................. ............................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.1 Gravitational field. .................. ............................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.2 & 8.3 Gravitational field strength...............................................................................................................192
8.4 Gravitational potential and gravitational potential energy............................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Topic 10 Ideal gases. ........................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
10.1 & 10.3 Equation of state of an ideal gas ................................................................................................. 202
10.2 A microscopic model of a gas................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Topic 11 Temperature. ...................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
11.1 Temperature. ...................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
11.2 Temperature scales. ................. ............................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
11.3 Thermometers........................ ............................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Topic 12 Thermal properties of materials... ............................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
12.1 Solids, liquids and gases, and thermal (heat) energy . . .................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
12.2 Internal energy . .................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Topic 13 Oscillations......................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
13.1 Oscillations......................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
13.2 Energy changes in simple harmonic motion................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
13.3 Free and damped oscillations................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Topic 14 Ultrasound............................. ............................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
14.6 The generation and use of ultrasound. . ...................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Topic 16 Communication....................... ............................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
16.1 Communication channels. ...................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
16.2 Modulation............................ ............................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
iv
21
stationary stationary
λ λ λ λ
observer
source
When the source moves towards the observer the effect is to shorten the wavelength of
the waves reaching the observer (see Figure 14.14).
moving stationary
source observer
P
vs
Let v be the speed of sound in air. A source of sound has a frequency fs and
wavelength λ. The source moves towards an observer at a speed vs.
The period of oscillation of the source of sound is T (= 1/fs). In the time of one
oscillation the source moves towards the observer a distance vsT. Hence the
wavelength is shortened by this distance. The wavelength of the sound received by the
observer is λ − vsT.
Hence the frequency observed fo = v/(λ − vsT) = v/(v/fs − vs/fs)
fo = fsv/(v − vs)
The source would move away from a stationary observer at position P on the left-hand
side of Figure 14.14. The observed wavelengths would lengthen.
For a source of sound moving away from an observer the observed frequency can
be shown to be
fo = fsv/(v + vs)
108
The particles in an atom must experience forces in order to maintain its structure.
The forces were the gravitational force that acts between all masses (see Topic 8)
and the electrostatic force that acts between charged objects (see Topic 17). The
electrostatic force of repulsion is approximately 1036 times greater than the gravitational
force of attraction between protons. Another attractive force must keep the protons
together in the nucleus. This force is known as the strong force and acts between
nucleons. The force does not seem to have any effect outside the nucleus and is,
therefore, considered to be very short range (a little more than the diameter of nuclei,
10−14 m). There appears to be a limiting spacing between nucleons which is similar in
different nuclei and this suggests that the force is repulsive as soon as the nucleons
come close together. The strong force does not act on electrons.
The strong force acts on protons and neutrons but not on electrons.
Example
Figure 26.13 illustrates a hydrogen atom with an electron orbiting the nucleus.
(a) State, for the forces acting on the electron and the proton,
(i) their nature,
proton (+e) (ii) their direction.
+
(b) Explain why a strong force does not act on the electron or proton.
(a)
electron (−e) (i) gravitational force (due to the mass of the electron and proton), electrostatic
force (due to the charge on the electron and proton)
Figure 26.13 Hydrogen atom (ii) both forces are attractive and, therefore, directed from the one particle
towards the other particle.
(b) The electron is not a nucleon and, hence, is not affected by the strong force. There
is only one nucleon and the strong force acts between nucleons.
179
Table 26.4 Charge and strangeness values for the three quarks
proton: u u d neutron: u d d
charge +1 +2 +2 −1 charge 0 +2 −1 −1
3 3 3 3 3 3
strangeness 0 0 0 0 strangeness 0 0 0 0
Example
–
State the values of charge and strangeness for the antiquarks u−, and d.
u− charge − 2 strangeness 0
3
–
and d. charge + 1 strangeness 0
3
Now it’s your turn
5 Show whether the following reaction can occur.
p + p → p + p– + n
Leptons
Leptons are particles that are not affected by the strong force. The electron and
neutrino and their antimatter partners, the positron and antineutrino, are examples of
leptons. These types of particle do not appear to be composed of any smaller particles
and are, therefore, considered to be fundamental particles.
The emission of electrons or positrons from nuclei was discussed earlier in this topic
(β-decay page 172). During the decay of a neutron in the nucleus, a proton is formed
and an electron and antineutrino emitted. In terms of the fundamental particles,
quarks, the reaction can be shown as follows:
1
0n → 11p + –10e + 00v–
u u
d u
d d
The quark flavour is not conserved as a down quark has changed to an up quark. The
reaction cannot be due to the strong force. The β-decay must be due to another force.
This force is called the weak force or weak interaction.
180
Biology
Student’s Book C. J. Clegg 9781444175349 October 2014 £35.00
Chemistry
Student’s Book Peter Cann & Peter Hughes 9781444181333 September 2014 £35.00
Teacher’s CD Peter Cann & Peter Hughes 9781444181357 April 2015 £80.00
Physics
Mike Crundell, Geoff Goodwin,
Student’s Book 9781471809217 August 2014 £35.00
& Chris Mee
Teacher’s CD Mike Crundell & Geoff Goodwin 9781471809255 April 2015 £80.00
Student eTextbooks
These time-limited downloadable
eTextbooks give your students the
freedom to study anytime, anywhere.
Assigning eTextbooks to your students
enables them to download and view
titles on any device or browser.
Visit www.hoddereducation.com/igcse
to learn more.