Sand and Sustainability UNEP 2019

2019 Sand and Sustainability:
Finding new solutions for

environmental governance
of global sand resources
Sand and sustainability: Finding new solutions for environmental governance of global sand resources
Published by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), February 2019 Copyright © UNEP 2019
ISBN No: 978-92-807-3751-6

Job No: DEW/2237/GE
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UNEP 2019. Sand and sustainability: Finding new solutions for environmental governance of global sand resources.
GRID-Geneva, United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva, Switzerland.
A digital copy of this report is available at: http://www.unepgrid.ch/
Cover illustration: Audrey Ringler, UNEP
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2019 Sand and Sustainability:
Finding new solutions for
environmental governance
of global sand resources
Table of contents
ii

Table of Contents
About this report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Funding sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Expert roundtable contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Expert reviewers and other contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Project team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
Executive summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
Key messages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 The Challenge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1 State of global sand resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Gaps in the current governance system for
global sand resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3 Available Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1 Avoiding unnecessary consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Using recycled and alternative materials to
replace natural sand in construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3 Reducing extraction impacts through
implementing existing standards and best practices . . . . . . . 15
4 Options for Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.1 Strengthen standards and best practices to curb
irresponsible extraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Invest in sand production and consumption
measurement, monitoring and planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 Establish dialogue based on transparency and
accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
References and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Scientific articles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Technical eports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Books. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Websites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Media articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Documentaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Conference / Committee reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
iii
About this report
iv
About this report
Environmental and social impacts of sand extraction and consumption is a new
issue for the international community. United Nations Environment Programme /
GRID Geneva and the University of Geneva held an expert roundtable event on
11 October 2018 in Geneva, Switzerland to produce an action-oriented starting
point for a global conversation on how sand resources could be consumed and
produced responsibly in future.
This report summarises the problem analysis, case studies and main messages
suggested at this event by twenty primary participants. Expert perspectives were
verified and supplemented with academic and grey literature reviews and an
external review process.
This analysis contained in this report is not intended as prescriptive. Instead, the
goal is to offer constructive overview of the sustainability challenge, governance
gaps, available solutions and options for action for all stakeholders on sand
resources and sustainability.
Funding sources
Funding for this report was provided by the Swiss Federal Office for the
Environment, Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and
Communication, Division of International Affairs. The roundtable event which
provided much of the content for this report – Sand and sustainability: Finding
new solutions for environmental governance of global sand resources, held on
11 October 2018, Geneva, Switzerland – was co-financed by United Nations
Environment Programme/GRID and the University of Geneva (Geneva-Tsinghua
Initiative).
Expert roundtable contributors (in alphabetical order)
Arnaud Vander Velpen, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zurich)
Ashida Makiko, United Nations Environment Programme (Business Resilience Strategist)
Aurore Stephant, Researcher, Responsible Mining Foundation
Bart Geenen, Head, Freshwater Programme (Netherlands), World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
Callie Stinson, Project lead on Global Water Initiative, World Economic Forum (WEF)
Dirk Fincke, Secretary General, European Aggregates Association (UEPG)
Emily Franklin, Researcher, Economic and Fiscal Policy Unit, United Nations Environment Programme
Friso Coppes, Partner, Bureau Brussels
Giulia Carbone, Deputy Director, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
Hannes MacNulty, Sustainable energy expert, MacNulty Consulting
Helen Lee Curtis, University of Geneva
Jan Fordeyn, Project development and Conceptual Design, Jan De Nul Group
Kiran Pereira, Founder and Chief Storyteller at SandStories.org
Malika Virah-Sawmy, Strategy advisor in sustainable production and consumption, InSpire Strategy and Decision GmbH
Martin Weder, Director, Association Suisse de l’industrie des Graviers et du Béton (ASGB)
Nicholas Bonvoisin, Chief of the Operational Activities & Review Section, Environment Division, United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (UNECE)
Pauline Robert, Policy officer, Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN)
Sumaira Abdulali (by video conference), Awaaz Foundation
Vince Beiser, Journalist and author of The World in a Grain
Expert reviewers and other contributors (in alphabetical order)
Geert Cuperus, Fédération Internationale du Recyclage

Jean-Paul Bravard, Université Lumiere Lyon 2
Laura Turley, University of Geneva/International Institute for Sustainable Development
Marc Goichot, Lead, Water, WWF Greater Mekong
Mark Russell, Mineral Products Association
Martine Rohn-Brossard, Federal Office for the Environment, Switzerland
Michael Hilton, Department of Geography, University of Otago, New Zealand
Monique Pool, Green Heritage Fund Suriname
Nadine McCormick, International Union for Conservation of Nature
Oli Brown, United Nations Environment Programme (Disaster risk reduction)
Vera Van Lancker, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences
vi
First year students of the Geneva-Tsinghua Initiative Master in Innovation, Human
Development and Sustainability at the University of Geneva synthesised the
roundtable discussions and contributed insights from innovation project work
undertaken on the theme of sand and sustainability.
Adrian Mandela Grunder

Afroditi Anastasaki
Alessandra Ceriani
Alexandra Mackey
Alice Olga Marine Guilbert
Angelica Marie Zundel
Anna Cinelli
Caleb Segun lean
Damla Demirgoz
Daniela Chavez Mendoza
Davide Fanciulli
Donata Dettwiler
Gerry Xie
Hanaé Taxis
Hussein Khalil Dib
Isabelle Anne Vetterli
Jeonghyun Kim
Juliana Rademaker
Marcelo Gomes Pereira da Silva
Maria Oxamitnaia
Maria Magdalena Mruk
Natacha Reymond
Nina Beatriz Pompeu Quintas
Ravi Ajay Janjwadia
Rebecca Stéphanie Jimenez
Salima Bekhouche
Stephanie Chuah Shin Ju
Stephanie Nicol
Ye Seong Shin
Project team
Pascal Peduzzi, Director, United Nations Environment Programme/GRID-Geneva:
pascal.peduzzi@unepgrid.ch
Zhanyl Moldalieva, Coordinator, Extractives Hub, United Nations Environment

Programme:
zhanyl.moldalieva@un.org
Louise Gallagher, Coordinator, Geneva-Tsinghua Initiative, University of Geneva:

louise.gallagher@unige.ch
Charlotte Poussin, Assistant, Geneva-Tsinghua Initiative, University of Geneva:

charlotte.poussin@unige.ch
Davide Fornacca, Assistant, Geneva-Tsinghua Initiative, University of Geneva:

davide.fornacca@unige.ch
vii
Glossary
Definitions for terms as they
Aggregates A generic term for crushed rock, sand and gravels used in
are used in the following
construction materials, water filtration.
report are based on those
available from: McMichael et Primary Crushed rock, extracted in hard rock quarries by blasting,
al. (2003); Cash et al. (2006); aggregates crushing; and sand and gravel extracted from pits by
International Resource excavation and crushing, from lakes, rivers and from coastal
Panel (2011); Lange et al. beaches or dredged from the sea.
(2013); Bodin (2017); Baird Recycled A term for crushed rock, sand and gravel produced by sorting,
(2018). They are presented in aggregates crushing and screening of construction and demolition
alphabetical order of primary materials.
terms defined. Manufactured A term for substitutes to crushed rock, sand and gravel that are
aggregates produced from wastes from other industries.
Avoidance The avoidance of natural sand resources or its substitutes
through alternative urban design, land use planning,
infrastructure and building design, among other approaches.
Circular The circular economy is one in which waste materials and
economy products are reused and recycled within the production and
consumption system. It is the better use of waste for new
materials.
Consumption The use of products and services for (domestic) final demand,
i.e. for households, government and investments.
Efficiency Efficiency is a broad concept that compares the inputs to a
system with its outputs; it essentially means achieving ―more
with less. Efficiency includes activities to improve productivity
(value added / input) and minimize intensity (input / value
added).
Extraction Extraction is the removal of primary (virgin, natural) sand
resources from the natural environment (terrestrial, riverine,
coastal or marine) for extracting valuable minerals, metals,
crushed stone, sand and gravel for subsequent processing.
Extraction The rate at which sand resources are removed from the natural
rates environment by volume over time.
Governance The on-going interaction between public and/or private entities
with the purpose of realising a collective interest. This process
can vary in its level of institutionalisation, collaboration and
ability to adapt to change. The collective interest ,n the context
of this report is sustainability in the sourcing and use of sand
and its alternatives, so that human wellbeing, environmental
quality and economic performance is maintained or enhanced
equitably.
Green Green infrastructure is a strategically planned network of
infrastructure natural and semi-natural areas with other environmental
features designed and managed to deliver a wide range
of services such as water purification, flood management,
recreation as either a complement or a substitute to built
infrastructure.
viii
Mineral sands Mineral sands are part of a class of ore deposits that contain
heavy minerals such as ilmenite, zircon, leucoxene, and
rutile. Eroded materials from hard rock sources like granite
or basalt accumulates on beaches within river systems and
on coastlines. It is these beaches from which these valuable
materials are extracted for end use in jewelry; as pigments
in paints, plastics, paper, foods; in electronics.
Natural sand A term used in this report to denote all sands extracted from
natural environments.
Sand A term used in this report to denote both mineral sands and
resources aggregates. [Also used as: Global sand resources]
Scale / level “Scale” refers to spatial, temporal, jurisdictional, institutional,
[Multi-scale management, networks, knowledge scales. “Level” refers to the
Cross-level] different units of analysis possible in each of these scales.
Substitution The replacement of natural sand resources by other materials
including manufactured aggregates.
Sustainability Sustainability means transforming our ways of living to
maximise the chances that environmental and social
conditions will indefinitely support human security, well-being
and health.
Sustainable Sustainable development refers to development that meets the
development needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.
Sustainable Infrastructure that is tailored to local social, economic and
infrastructure ecological environment and caters the need for infrastructure
services in the most effective and efficient way. This requires
both assessing and addressing environmental and social risks,
assuring financial resources to maintain infrastructure over
its entire lifespan, considering users’ preferences and needs
in the design, and understanding the institutional and political
dynamics in order to guarantee a long term perspective.
Sustainable Sustainable resource management means both (a) ensuring
resource that consumption does not exceed levels of sustainable
management supply and (b) ensuring that the earth‘s systems are able
to perform their natural functions (i.e. sand and sediment
materials flow processes in globally important river basins
continue) to ensure the long-term material basis of societies in
a way that resource extraction, use, and waste and emissions
management do not surpass key thresholds for long-term
environmental sustainability and human wellbeing.
Sustainable Sustainable supply refers to the amount of resources that
supply can be extracted and used for production and consumption
before the threshold of a safe operating space is surpassed.
At a global scale, (sustainable) levels of production equal
(sustainable) levels of consumption. At a local scale,
sustainable supply is aimed at by safe operating practises.
ix
Foreword
Foreword
We give such little thought to sand, save perhaps when we are on the
beach or our little ones are playing in sandpit. But sand and gravel
from construction to electronics to cosmetics.
As this report shows, demand for sand resources is rising. Shifting

consumption patterns, growing populations, increasing urbanization
and infrastructure development have increased demand three-fold
over the last two decades. We now need 50 billion tonnes per year, an
average of 18 kg per person per day.
The problem is that we have been exceeding easily available sand

resources at a growing rate for decades. We are spending our sand
ourselves in the position where the needs and expectations of our

societies cannot be met without improved governance of global sand
resources.
Even though these materials are the second largest resources

extracted and traded by volume after water, they are one of the least
regulated in many regions. Increasingly, sand is being produced
through environmentally damaging extractive practices in sensitive
terrestrial, riverine and ocean ecosystems. Complex questions on how
to deliver on ecosystem and biodiversity conservation goals alongside
necessary improvements in transport, infrastructure, housing and
living standards are looming.
We need to reconcile relevant global policies and standards with

local sand availability, development imperatives and standards and
enforcement realities. We need to recognize the interdependence
between countries and sectors and learn lessons on how to manage
this critical resource sustainably. We need to rethink the relationship
between infrastructure and the social and environmental outcomes for
which we are striving.
This timely report looks at how we can cut consumption of sand and
gravel and deliver this new reality by, for example, reducing over-
building and over-design, and using recycled and alternative materials.
It also looks at how to reduce impacts on ecosystems through
implementing existing standards and best practices.
Fundamentally, improving governance of global sand resources means

increasing the will to act, at all levels of government and industry. I
encourage everybody involved in the sector to read this report and
seriously consider its recommendations so we can create institutions
that sustainably and equitably manage extraction and use of this vital
resource.
Joyce Msuya
Acting Executive Director
United Nations Environment Programme
xi
Executive Summary
xii
Executive summary

Sand and gravels are the unrecognised foundational material of our economies. They are mined the world over, with
aggregates accounting for the largest volume of solid material extracted globally (Peduzzi, 2014; Beiser, 2018). At the
same time, these materials cannot be produced from our terrestrial, riverine and marine environments in quantities
needed to meet demand from a world of 10 billion people without effective policy, planning, regulation and management.
Such actions remain largely unaddressed by decision makers in public or private sectors. It is time to challenge the
paradigm of infinite sand resources through constructive dialogue and solution-finding. This report aims to be the
starting point from which a productive global conversation on sand extraction can begin.
This synthesis was produced following a United Nations Environment Programme expert roundtable event held on 11
October 2018 in Geneva, Switzerland. The discussions emphasised potential solutions for mitigating mineral sands and
aggregates extraction impacts and generating adequate support for responsible consumption pathways. Expert views
were collated and complemented with additional research and consultation to distil key messages on an agenda for
tackling this issue in 2019 and beyond.
xiii
Key messages
• The needs and expectations of our societies are driving the demand for sand resources but a continued responsible
supply cannot be assumed without improved governance of global sand resources.
The scale of the challenge inherent in sand and gravel extraction makes it one of the major sustainability challenges
of the 21st century. These materials are one of the largest resources extracted and traded by volume, yet it is one of
the least regulated activities in many regions. For one of the most traded commodities on the planet, there is very low
general awareness about widespread extraction impacts. Local and international journalists are currently leading in
uncovering the scale of the impacts while science and policies to support responsible consumption and extraction
are lagging behind. Meanwhile, rivers, river deltas and coastlines are eroding, “sand mafias” are thriving and demand
continues to grow.
• Preventing or reducing damage to river, beach and marine ecosystems and social risks to workers and communities
in sand extraction sites can be achieved through some already existing solutions:
Avoiding consumption through reducing over-building and over-design

Society can make more efficient use of sourced aggregates through alterations to infrastructure and building
designs so that sand and gravel demand and extraction is reduced to responsible levels.
Using recycled and alternative materials to sand in the construction sector

Society can make more efficient use of sourced aggregates through using substitutes to natural sand where feasible
so that extraction is reduced to responsible levels.
Reducing impacts through implementing existing standards and best practices

Society can implement existing legal and voluntary standards and best practices in the extractives, environmental
and other related sectors while analysing of sourced aggregates through use of substitutes to natural sand so that
extraction is reduced to responsible levels.
• International organisations, national governments, private sector companies, civil society groups and local
communities all play critical roles in governance of sand resources. Three main options for joint action are
recommended to these groups for faster and more widespread implementation of existing solutions:
xiv
1. Customise existing standards and best practices to national circumstances and extend where necessary to curb
irresponsible and illegal extraction
Current legal frameworks are not sufficient considering the global outlook on aggregates demand and production.
Existing international treaties, law, standards and best practices provide a foundation, but it is incomplete in
places. Where addressed, sand extraction currently crosses extractives, water management, coastal zone
management, biodiversity conservation legal systems and best practices. Without an integrated view on the
governance, planning and management of these resources, sand extraction risks falling between the cracks into
informal, or even illegal practices. Importantly, sand extraction is not regulated in some countries. Guidelines for
governing, planning and managing sand extraction at the regional and international legal scale are needed. So is
support to countries for customising these guidelines in national policy, law and regulation where these do not
currently exist.
2. Invest in sand production and consumption measurement, monitoring and planning

There is a lack of adequate information on sand extraction. We do not understand sand production and
transport systems well in the context of current day geological and hydrological processes. Sand and gravel are
a challenge to trace to their sources. Strategic monitoring for governance, planning and management of global
sand resources is lacking. Coordination across established economic, social and environmental monitoring
programmes could help quick start a global, regional and national sand resource monitoring programmes.
International community organisations with mandates and access to relevant data need to collaborate on a rapid
information synthesis, design a long-term monitoring programme and produce a rapid assessment tool in the
context of existing processes in EIA, SEA, Responsible Mining and water governance.
3. Establish dialogue between key players and stakeholders in the sand value chain based on transparency and
accountability
The sand industry is fragmented and significantly informal in some parts of the world. Identifying existing sand
extraction and trading companies requires peeling back many layers in a complex value chain– particularly in
emerging economies. While improving legislative frameworks and regulation is critical, all actors from extraction
sites to global levels, will need to be involved in next steps. International community, governments, industries, civil
society including the media, nongovernmental organisations and the research and education sector have a role to
play developing constructive policies and voluntary actions as an enabling conditions for real change.
Steering deep transformation in how we think about, plan for and manage sand resources. It will mean considering
sectoral interdependence and a mix of solutions and actions with a long-term perspective. The impediments to change
are not technical, but stem from poor awareness and governance. Building consensus through public awareness-
raising and improved coordination across global, regional, national and sub-national levels on this critical sustainability
challenge is the starting point. It will be a long road, but the key to a rapid yet smooth transition to more sustainable sand
resource sourcing, while reducing the demand in parallel, lies in cooperation.
xv
1. Background
xvi Riverbank at Cu Chi Tunnel
1. Background
Sand and gravels (hereafter aggregates) are the unrecognised foundational materials of economies. They are mined the
world over, accounting for the largest volume of solid material extracted globally (Peduzzi, 2014). Without them, there
is no concrete, no asphalt, no glass to build the necessary schools, hospitals, roads, solar panels and other necessary
infrastructure under current construction and industrial production systems and methods.
Sand is ubiquitous in construction and industrial production because it is cheap, versatile and easy to acquire. Yet, all
indications are that we are approaching a future where access to this resource is a critical barrier to sustainability, and
the full costs of uncontrolled sand extraction come due.
Extraction rates are exceeding natural sand replenishment rates (John, 2009). The increasing volume of aggregates
extracted, often illegally, from riverine and marine ecosystems results in river and coastal erosion, threats to freshwater
and marine fisheries and biodiversity (World Wide Fund for Nature [WWF], 2018a). The people who work in unregulated
extraction and those living in and around these sites risk their safety; even their lives when they seek to stop uncontrolled
extraction (Awaaz Foundation, 2017).
The environmental and social impacts of sand extraction is an issue of global significance.
Despite our increasing dependence on these materials, the significant impact that their extraction has on the
environment, and increasing media reportage, the issue is largely unaddressed by decision makers at the global level,
in regional and national public agencies, or private firms. Sand exploitation is occurring with inadequate assessment of
the wider environmental consequences of over-exploitation. Sand cannot be produced from our terrestrial, rivers and
marine environments to meet the increasing demand from a world preparing for 10 billion people without effective policy,
planning, regulation, management and functioning governance.
A paradigm of infinite sand resources dominates and this needs to be challenged through constructive dialogue and
solution-finding. This report presents a synthesis of expert discussions at an United Nations Environment Programme
/ GRID-Geneva and University of Geneva co-hosted roundtable event on 11 October 2018 in Geneva, Switzerland. The
discussions emphasised key issues and potential solutions for mitigating sand extraction impacts and supporting
responsible consumption. The structure and main messages were verified and supplemented with academic and grey
literature reviews. The aim is to provide a starting point for next steps on planning for production and consumption of
global sand resources in the future.
Tropical beach, Bintan island (near Singapore), Indonesia Photo credit: Delpixel. Shutterstock.com 1
2. The Challenge
Labourers using cement

2 © Iniabasi Udosen, October 2017
2. The Challenge
Crushed rock, sand and gravels are an essential element of urbanisation and infrastructure, water treatment, land
reclamation, hydrological fracturing techniques (better known as gas fracking) and industrial production of electronics,
cosmetics and glass production the world over. For this reason, sand consumption and production has implications
for social and environmental management in infrastructure projects, sustainable cities planning, energy planning,
biodiversity conservation, as well as both circular and green economy policy and planning. Sand and gravels resources
are the second largest resource extracted and traded by volume after water. Yet it is one of the least regulated activities
in many regions. A growing trend of irresponsible and illegal extraction in marine, coastal and freshwater ecosystems
makes this a sustainability challenge of significant proportions
2.1 State of global sand resources
Sand can be classified by its properties, with each type used in different industries for different purposes (Gavriletea,
2017). Distinguishing between mineral sands and aggregates is a useful beginning since the materials and volumes
involved, extraction impacts and solutions are quite different for these two sand resource types.
Mineral sand1 contains metals and minerals such as Ilmenite, rutile and zircon that are used in industrial production
of ceramics, pigments, plastics and other products. The original source is hard rock which is mined, or following long
erosion processes, is deposited on and mined from river banks and coasts on beaches.
Aggregates is a generic term for crushed rock, sand and gravels, which can be sub-categorised by formation process
(natural or manufactured), composition, and grain size distribution (Gavriletea, 2017). For the purposes of this report,
three aggregates groups are defined:
• Primary Aggregates, Crushed Rock, extracted in hard rock quarries by blasting and crushing; and sand and gravels,
extracted from pits by excavation, crushing, screening and washing (if required), dredged or pumped from lakes and
rivers, removed from coastal beaches, or dredged from the sea bed (also termed Marine Aggregates).
• Recycled Aggregates, Crushed rock, sand and gravels produced by sorting, crushing and screening of construction
and demolition materials.
• Manufactured Aggregates, Crushed rock, sand and gravels substitutes produced from wastes from other industries.
Crushed rock, sand and gravel account for the largest volume of solid material resources extracted from systems
globally (Peduzzi, 2014; Beiser, 2018). An estimated 40-50 billion metric tonnes is extracted from quarries, pits, rivers,
coastlines and the marine environment each year (Peduzzi, 2014; Beiser, 2018, See Box 1). The construction industry
consumes over half of this volume annually (25.9 billion to 29.6 billion tonnes in 2012: UNEP, 2014) and could consume
even more in future (Beiser, 2018).
Though little public data exists about extraction volumes, sources and uses we know that, with some exceptions, most
sand and gravels extracted from natural environments are consumed regionally because of the high costs of transport.
For example, two thirds of global cement production occurs in China (58.5%) and India (6.6%) (United States Geological
Survey [USGS], 2017; Gavriletea, 2017). These two countries also lead in global infrastructure construction (Bagnasco et
al., 2015; Global Construction 2030; World Economic Forum [WEF] 2019) as these nations look to rapidly transition their
populations out of poverty.
The Global Aggregates Information Network [GAIN] suggests that at one end of the scale, least developed regions use
3-4 tonnes/capita per year and developed regions with slow growth, flat terrain use 4-8 tonnes/capita per year (based on
2016 data). Growing economies with rugged terrain and harsh climates can use between 8-16 tonnes/capita per year.
China stands out for aggregates production at 14.3 tonnes/capita per year. In total, China, India and Asia represents 67%
of global aggregates production.
The industry outlook to 2030 is one of strong growth in Asia, particularly India, Africa and Latin America (Gavriletea,
2017). GAIN estimates global aggregates demand will likely rise to 60 billion tonnes per annum by 2030 driven by
increasing population, urbanisation and economic growth. However, mineral resources can only be worked where they
lie – and their distribution is a consequence of the slow geological processes that created them. Often, access to sand
is constrained by competing or conflicting land use (USGS, 2002). Desert sand, though plentiful, is unusable for most
purposes because its wind-smoothed grains render it non-adherent for the purposes of industrial concrete (USGS, 2002;
Gavriletea, 2017). Sand can be manufactured from gravel or crushed rock where not available. However, this does require
___________________________
1
See for example, Sibelco’s websie.Available at:https://www.sibelco.com/materials/mineral-sands/, last accessed 28 January 2019
3
additional investment on extractives processing. It is extraction from rivers and sea shores, though often illegal where
regulated, that is surging to meet growing demand for global sand resources (WWF, 2018a). Such sands are estimated
to be 10-15% of the total global demand for aggregates currently (with the remaining 90% coming from terrestrial
quarries and sand and gravel pits); but this relatively small part of aggregates consumption is causing severe concern
due to negative environmental and social impacts.
Box 1: A note on global sand extraction data
Although more aggregates are extracted from nature than any other material after water, reliable data on their extraction is only avail-
able in certain developed countries. Though sand, gravels and crushed rock are used in other ‘bound’ products, such as asphalt used
to surface roads, and a variety of ‘unbound’ end-uses, such as sub-base for roads and railways, we can use the better data available
on cement production for concrete to estimate global production of these materials.
Sand, aggregates and cement (and water) are mixed in standardised volumetric proportions to produce various concrete grades. The
UK composition of concrete is generally defined as 1.5% air, 10% cement, 18.5% water, 25% fine aggregate (sand) and 45% coarse
aggregate (crushed rock/gravel) by volume. The building industry uses between 6-10 tonnes gravel for each tonne of cement used.
Given that annual cement production is reported by 150 countries as having reached 4.1 billion tonnes in 2017 the use of aggregates
for concrete can be estimated at between 28.7-32.8 billion tonnes for 2017 alone.
China produces the most cement globally at an estimated 2.4 billion tonnes in 2017 (USGS, 2018), followed by India at 270 million
tonnes and the USA at 86.3 million tonnes in the same year. In the USA, for every 1 ton of cement, 10 tons of aggregates are used.
Using this ratio implies that as global annually cement production is expected to increase to 4.83 billion tonnes in 2030, aggregate
use will likely reach close to 50 billion tonnes per year in 2030.
Figure 1: There are no global monitoring on the use of sand. However, cement is well reported. Tracking this data shows that the
production of cement has tripled in the last two decades.
Billion metric tons of cement

There is no global monitoring or reporting for sand.
4.0 World However, countries are reporting their cement
China production.
Rest of the world
3.0 The statistics shows that the quantity of cement
produced has tripled in two decades.
The use of sand and gravels is highly correlated

2.0
with the cement production.
In USA, the amount of sand and gravels is almost

1.0 exactly ten times the amount of cement.
0 If this was extrapolated to the rest of the world, the

1990 2000 2010 2020
total sand and gravels used for construction only,
would be 41 billion tons per year.
Sand and gravels Cement
[millions metric tons] [million metric tons]
1400 140
1200 120
1000 100
800 80
\
600 60
400 40
200 Sand 20
Cement
0 0 Data sources: Minerals commoditties, USGS, 2018.
1990 2000 2010 2020 Graphs: UNEP/GRID-Geneva, 2018
4 Sources: Krausmann et al. (2009); USGS (2013b); Peduzzi (2014); Mineral Products Association. (2018, July); USGS (2018)
2.2 Impacts
People working in sand extraction at the river Dibamba, Cameroon © Minette Lontsie
Many sand extraction operations in emerging and developing economies are not in line with extractives and
environmental management regulations. Resulting social and environmental impacts have been reported in India, China,
and other locations across Asia, Africa and South America (See Gavriletea, 2017:17).
China and India head the list of critical hotspots2 for sand extraction impacts in rivers, lakes and on coastlines (Sreebha
& Padmalal, 2011), most likely because these countries also lead globally on infrastructure and construction. Other
countries touched by regional and national construction booms exhibit similar trends. For example, Cambodia, Vietnam
and Indonesia are the legal and illegal sources of aggregates materials for regional economic corridor development
and land reclamation projects in Southeast Asia (Global Witness, 2010; WWF, 2018a). Sierra Leone, Kenya, Tanzania in
Africa (Isaya, 2014; Shaghude et al., 2012) and Colombia in South America have been identified as places presenting
sustainability challenges for the aggregates sector (Villas-Bôas & Barreto, 2000).
These cases, and others, demonstrate how uncontrolled extraction comes at the expense of other economic sectors,
local livelihoods and biodiversity. Direct safety risks for those working in the sector and living in the communities where
this takes place include drowning (of workers removing sand from river beds), subsidence and landslides in extraction
areas (Awaaz Foundation, 2017).
Legal and illegal operations are increasingly reported adjacent to and inside established biodiversity reserves and
protected areas (WWF, 2018a) – the unique places society has agreed are so ecologically and culturally significant that
they cannot host economic activities that are not compatible with the biophysical integrity of these ecosystems. On site
impacts on habitats for marine and freshwater fisheries and birdlife, and threatened species like turtles and freshwater
dolphins have been reported in some cases (WWF, 2018a).
___________________________
2
For current case studies, please see: http://www.sandstories.org/; http://coastalcare.org/sections/inform/sand-mining/ last accessed 28 January
2019 5
Indirectly, safety, livelihoods and other impacts can result from the widespread environmental change wrought by
removing significant amounts of material from dynamic environments like rivers and coasts (as opposed to static
environments like quarries).
Aggregate extraction in rivers has led to pollution and changes in pH levels (Saviour, 2012), instability of river banks
leading to increased flood frequency and intensity (Sreebha & Padmalal, 2011), lowering of water aquifers (Myers et
al., 2000) exacerbating drought occurrence and severity (John, 2009). Damming and extraction have reduced sediment
delivery from rivers to many coastal areas, leading to reduced deposits in river deltas and accelerated beach erosion
(Kondolf, 1997). This adds to effects of direct extraction in onshore sand extraction in coastal dune systems and near-
shore marine dredging of aggregates, which may locally lead to long-term erosion impacts (US: Thornton et al., 2006; UK:
Pye & Neal, 1994). Nearshore and offshore sand extraction in New Zealand continues despite considerable uncertainty of
the environmental impacts (Hilton & Hesp, 1996) and the cumulative effects of mining, climate change and urbanisation
of the coast.
Tourism is affected by loss of key species and beach erosion (Kondolf, 1997), while both freshwater and marine
fishing — both traditional and commercial — has been shown to be affected through destruction of benthic fauna that
accompanies dredging activities (Cooper, 2013; Desprez et al., 2010; Stelzenmueller et al, 2010). Agriculture land has
been affected by river erosion in some cases (John, 2009) and the lowering of the water table (Kondolf, 1997). The
insurance sector is affected through exacerbation of the impact of extreme events such as floods (Kondolf, 1997),
droughts (John, 2009) and storm surges which can affect houses and infrastructure (Thornton et al., 2006; John,
2009). A decrease in bed load or channel shortening can cause downstream erosion including bank erosion and the
undercutting or undermining of engineering structures such as bridges, side protection walls and structures for water
supply (Padmalal et al., 2008; John, 2009).
Local and indigenous peoples living in communities where sand extraction takes place are rarely heard in the mix of
informal and formal governance, illegal and criminal activities; though when riverine or coastal societies are in crisis, they
participate in sand extraction processes because it is their only possibility to make a living in the short run (Anongos et
al., 2012; Awaaz Foundation, 2017).
2.3 Gaps in the current governance system for global sand resources
Sand extraction and use is defined by its local geography and governance context and does not have the same rules,
practices and ethics worldwide.
Sand extraction and use value chains are predominately governed at national and regional levels given the construction
sector aims to reduce high transport costs by minimising distance between where material inputs are produced and
used. Where sand extraction is regulated, national mining and environmental protection legislation provide the basic
framework. Regulatory regimes may be devolved to often under-resourced sub-national level administrations. This formal
governance structure can result in many small administrative entities having responsibility for policy implementation and
enforcement without adequate human resources and financial capacity.
For example, production of crushed rock tends to be strictly permitted (some in the aggregates industry would argue
over-regulated, depending on the jurisdiction). Illegal operations of any significant size are therefore relatively rare.
However, production of sand and gravel in smaller pits sometimes operate knowingly and unknowingly outside
regulations. Importantly, while many countries have banned sand extraction from lakes, rivers or beaches (de Leeuw et
al., 2010), the legislation is either insufficient or not enforced adequately due to corruption, the absence of monitoring, or
resources to prosecute offenders.
Part of the challenge is that the sand industry is fragmented and significantly informal in some parts of the world. It
can be a complex value chain as artisanal and small-scale operations are legion in the sector – particularly in emerging
economies (Gavriletea, 2017). Globally, there are a few significant commercial supply chains into which the majority
of crushed rock, sand and aggregates flow. The top five companies for marine sand extraction are: Chinese Harbour &
Construction Ltd; Boskalis (Dutch); Van Oord (Dutch); Deme (Belgium); Jan de Nul (Belgium – Luxembourg). In the United
States of America, national legislation3 only allows national company to operate in the marine sand extraction industry
and the (large) domestic sector is dominated by Great Lakes Ltd. In the UK, for example, 80% of production is delivered
by a small number of companies (See Section 3). Construction material businesses can be global multinationals with
___________________________
3
The Jones Act requires that all goods transported by water between U.S. ports be carried on U.S.-flag ships, constructed in the United States, owned by
6 U.S. citizens, and crewed by U.S. citizens and U.S. permanent residents.2019
interests around the world. However crushed rock, sand and gravels are also extracted and traded illegally in large
quantities in some regions of the world, at times by organised crime ‘sand mafias’ (See Box 2).
Box 2: Sand mafias, illegal sand extraction and smuggling in Morocco

In Morocco, half of the sand – 10 million cubic metres a year – comes from illegal coastal sand extraction. Sand
smugglers have transformed a large beach into a rocky landscape between Safi and Essouira. Sand is often removed
from beaches to build hotels, roads and other tourism-related infrastructure. In some locations, continued construc-
tion is likely to lead to an unsustainable situation and destruction of the main natural attraction for visitors — beaches
themselves. Asilah, in Northern Morocco, has suffered severe erosion of its beaches, due to regulatory issues, and
pressures relating to tourism. Many of the structures near the coast are now in danger from the erosion that created
them.
Sources: The Economist (2005); Khardijamal (2011); Au fait (2011); Middle Eastern Eye (2016); Coastalcare (August 2016)
To add to this, sand extraction is fast becoming a transboundary issue due to sand extraction bans, international
sourcing of sand for land reclamation projects and impacts of uncontrolled sand extraction beyond national borders.
International trade in sand and gravel is growing due to high demand in regions without local sand and gravel resources
and is forecast to rise 5.5% a year with urbanisation and infrastructure development trends (Freedonia, 2014). There
is also the question of how reclamation and infrastructure works are completed, resulting in security concerns and
international diplomatic tensions. For example, the use of sand in reclamation practices is thought to have led to
increased turbidity and coral reef decline in the South China Sea (Liu, 2019). In the Mekong basin, the impact of sand
mining in Laos, Thailand, and Cambodia is felt on the Vietnam delta erosion (WWF, 2018a). Singapore demand for sand
and gravel in land reclamation projects have triggered an increase in sand mining in Cambodia and Vietnam (See Box 3).
Degradation for development, Tanzania 7
Box 3: A growing international trade in sand?
Singapore, the Southeast Asian city-state famous for its development miracle, continues to develop rapidly in size.
Given its small area, Singapore needs more space for its growing population. To respond to this demand, the city has
increased its land area by more than 20% in the last 40 years (an addition of 130 square kilometres), mostly by using
aggregates to reclaim land from the sea (See Figure 2). Having imported a reported 517 million tonnes of sand over
the last 20 years, Singapore is by far the largest importer of sand world-wide.
Sand was typically imported mostly from Indonesia, but also from the other neighbouring countries of Malaysia,
Thailand and Cambodia. Export of sand to Singapore was reported to be responsible for the disappearance of some
24 Indonesian sand islands. It is reported that this triggered political tensions regarding maritime borders between the
two countries.
The reported sand exported from Indonesia to Singapore declined sharply since a temporary ban declared in February
2002. Other neighbouring countries are now reporting few exports to Singapore. Overall, the reported total amount of
sand imported by Singapore (517 million tonnes) and the sum of sand exports to Singapore from its four neighbouring
countries (637 million tonnes) does not match, showing an underestimation of 120 million tonnes of sand imports.
Obviously, these statistics do not include illegal imports and highlight the need for better monitoring. There is also an
alleged illegal sand trade. As the price of sand increases, so does the traffic of sand by local mafias. The average price
of sand imported by Singapore was US $3 per tonne from 1995 to 2001, but the price increased to US $190 per tonne
from 2003 to 2005.
Though probably less than 5% of global aggregates production moves across borders, some countries and regions
have less geological availability of these materials and so the need for national and international trading. Singapore is
severely constrained in natural resources, but does that make it an early warning signal of a potential future trend for
other resource-constrained countries? Dubai and Saudi Arabia have previously imported sand from Australia because
of depleted marine sand resources in the region. What other countries might follow suit?
Figure 2. Expansion of Singapore’s territory since 1973 using sand from neighbouring countries, as observed by satellite imagery.
N
Malaysia 2018
2013
2009
1989
1973
Singapore
other countries
Water
Based on images from Landsat 1 MSS (17 Oct.

0 5 10 20 km 1973), Landsat 5 TM (13 Sept. 1989), Landsat 5
TM (8 Feb. 2009) and Landsat 8 OLI (27 June
2013) and Landsat 8 OLI (24 May 2018).
Remote sensing, GIS analysis and cartography,
Indonesia Pascal Peduzzi, UNEP/GRID-Geneva, 2018
Sources: Remote sensing analysis (UNEP/GRID-Geneva); Hilton & Manning (1995); Guerin (2003); New York Times (27 March 2010); Milton (2010); Handron
(2010); Peduzzi (2014); UN Comtrade (2014); Aquaknow (2014); Rayasam (2016); Gavriletea (2017). GAIN (Expert opinion given in writing in December 2018)
Some uncertainties and disagreements between experts on priority gaps are worth noting:
• While there was a general agreement that the market is a good intervention point for improved governance, there
are different perspectives on how to coordinate public and private roles and interventions. What responsibilities
lie where? For example, sand extraction and consumption is linked to regional economies but five major European
companies are thought to be deeply involved in sand resource flows and use the world over, including Cemex,
Heidelberg, Lafarge Holcim, CRH, Sibelco. These and other businesses produce annual reports and corporate
documents which indicate the scope of their global aggregates businesses.
• While certification can be an important awareness raising and behaviour change incentive mechanism, we need to be
aware of the challenges with certification before adopting it for addressing sand extraction and use challenges. For
example, sand trading is not dealing with the public directly so sustainability premiums are not likely to be relevant,
and traceability is going to be an issue. Would it really work for sand?
• Transparency and data go hand in hand. All actor should have access and capacity to use information – but how
8 does this really work with proprietary data?
Five priority gaps were identified through the 11th October expert discussions and subsequent literature reviews and
consultations for action in 2019 and beyond:
Awareness National governments, producers across the sand value-chain, and the general public do
not know why the state of the global sand resource and extraction impacts are relevant to
them. The resource has been freely available, cheap and used widely, and so the general
public has little perception of sand as a limited resource. Reconciling the image of endless
deserts with this notion is a challenge without understanding that desert sand has been
unusable in construction and land reclamation projects to date because it is too finely
polished by desert winds. Continued supply is simply assumed.
Knowledge and science Basic information about sand resource flows and extraction impacts is in short supply.
Yet basic data is essential to effective planning and management. Priority questions to be
answered include:
• How much sand is required for the future under different demand scenarios,
acknowledging different forms of development and the rate of population growth?
• What could future demand imply for future sand extraction and consumption impacts?
These impacts happen over large temporal and spatial scales that need a systems view
to be understood.
• What is the real cost of unsustainable sand resource extraction and consumption,
including externalities associated with its extraction and use? What is the value of sand
in our economies and societies? Can we value the ecosystem value of sand in fluvial
and coastal systems?
• Sand is not equally distributed around the world or within states. Where is it in relation
to projected demand? What does that mean for future sand needs and flows? How will it
affect future trade and price-setting?
• Who is involved? What can they do? How will they be affected? Who owns the rights to
sand resources and the land, rivers or marine areas from which they are extracted? This
is a crucial question for governance and management.
Transparency and There is currently no level playing field across governments, companies, contractors,
accountability subcontractors in the sand value-chain. Accountability is something that needs to cross
boundaries and borders, right down the value chain. While we may know how much sand
is being extracted from a location, we rarely know where it goes. Similarly, we can estimate
how much sand is being consumed but we cannot say where it comes from. Transparency
and information sharing by, and between, companies and governments is extremely
limited along the sand value change. Nor do we know who holds relevant existing data or
mandates for relevant data collection. This is a common issue for the extractives industry.
Stakeholder Relationships between stakeholders are key to building transparency and accountability. Yet
relationships and there is currently no international body with a mandate to mediate differing interests on sand
platforms resources to reach a broad consensus on what is the best interests of all stakeholders, and
where possible, on the standards and best practices, recommended policies and effective
procedures to help realise the collective interest.
Fragmented A focus on the players who need to adjust their practices is needed. That implies working
participation by key within existing or creating new interfaces that include companies, local communities and
actors impacted stakeholders. We need to bring governments, local and indigenous communities,
and industry players of all related sectors together to co-produce constructive governance.
Key messages
The scale of the challenge inherent in sand and gravels extraction makes it one of the major sustainability challenges
of the 21st century. For one of the most traded commodities on the planet, there is very low general awareness about
widespread extraction impacts. Local and international journalists are currently leading in uncovering the scale of the
impacts while science and policies to support responsible consumption and extraction are lagging behind. Meanwhile,
rivers, river deltas and coastlines are eroding, “Sand mafias” are thriving and demand continues to grow.
3. Available solutions
10
3. Available Solutions
Improving sustainable consumption and production of sand resources does not imply waiting for new global laws or
rules to enable international cooperation. Avoidance strategies, alternative materials, standards and best practices
already exist on which to build for action at regional, national and site levels. The 11th October 2018 roundtable
discussion focussed on solutions in the construction sector – the largest consumer of global sand resources.
A hierarchy of three major strategies emerged that could lay new foundations for improved governance of sand
resources in 2019 and thereafter:
1) Avoiding unnecessary natural sand consumption in construction;
2) Using alternative materials to replace natural sand in construction; and
3) Reducing sand extraction impacts with existing standards and best practices.
At current infrastructure production rates, avoidance is a challenge and alternatives cannot yet substitute a significant
share of the 2.7 billion tonnes of aggregates demand in Europe, let alone the 20 billion tonnes in China. The emphasis
must be on reducing natural sand extraction and its impacts in the near term.
Figure 3. Suggested hierarchy of available solutions
Avoiding
unnecessary
consumption of
natural sand
Using recycled and alernative

materials to replace
natural sand
Reducing natural sand extraction

and social impacts
3.1 Avoiding unnecessary consumption
Society can make more efficient use of sourced aggregates through land use planning, and pursuing alternative
infrastructure and building design and construction methods. The goal of this strategy is reducing unnecessary
construction. The second is avoided use of cement and concrete where possible, so that demand for natural sand is
reduced to responsible levels. Available solutions identified for avoiding unnecessary expansion of built environments or
use of concrete in construction include but are not limited to:
• Spatial planning for compact urban growth where total resource requirements are reduced. One example of how this
is achieved is compact city policies and performance indicators (OECD, 2012).
• Avoiding surplus construction projects, such as those for speculation or prestige. The Republic of Ireland is a clear
example. Ireland experienced a period of economic growth from 1992 to 2007 which led to, among other outcomes,
an unprecedented speculative investment in the domestic housing market. Years after the 2007 recession, ‘ghost
estate’ residential developments were left empty and often unfinished (O’Callaghan et al., 2014). These are wide
spread practices. In Dubai, the Burj Khalifa tower dominates at 828 metres, but this is clearly for prestige as 31% of
office space was vacant in the centre of Dubai in 2014 (Peduzzi, 2014).
• Employing green infrastructure in place of built infrastructure where possible. The US EPA (2010) illustrates ten
municipal-level examples of green infrastructure approaches to managing stormwater events across the United
States (also, See Box 4: Case Study – Scaling the use of permeable pavements).
• Substituting traditional concrete where possible in building design with traditional materials like timber, and non-
traditional options emerging from materials sciences innovation (Brownell, 2019).
• Optimising concrete mixes to increase resource efficiency and lifespan of concrete materials (Saha et al., 2018)
(noting CO2 emission concerns with cement production).
• Investing in infrastructure maintenance and retrofitting rather than demolishing old buildings to extend the lifetime
of the current built environment. Some studies suggest adaptive reuse is attractive to investors and urban planners
because it is profitable and effective at reducing abandoned or neglected urban areas (Bullen, 2007; Stas, 2007).
• Reviewing and verifying technical standards for construction projects to ensure appropriate quality of sand is being
used in building projects (known as “over-design” in the engineering sector) (Orr et al., 2019). 11
Avoidance of irresponsible sand consumption must be designed-in to our infrastructure projects, construction projects
and industrial products from the beginning. In some cases, this requires crossing some new frontiers in infrastructure
design and engineering. In others, we already have long experience to draw from, like land use and spatial planning have
which is well established in European countries (Albrechts & Balducci, 2013) and the exciting focus on green building
design and construction emerging in architectural sectors in recent years (Kibert, 2016).
One caveat needs to be considered. As construction design is altered, new environmental and social risks are created.
For example, for example replacing concrete construction with timber construction increases pressure on forested
regions. For this reason, sustainable compact urban planning is the preferred solution. A key priority is to mainstream
sand resource policy, planning and management into on-going sustainable cities and sustainable infrastructure
initiatives, though the time horizon for impact on the ground is a long-term one.
Box 4: Case study - Scaling the use of permeable pavements
Ever-expanding paved surfaces accompany ever-growing cities. When rain falls on impervious paving, that water flows
across the surface of the land. With large volumes of rainfall, urban floods become more likely and more severe. Even
moderate rainfalls can result in significant erosion and water pollution as any fuel, oil or chemical substances are
washed into rivers, lakes, and coastal waters.
Permeable pavement (sometimes called porous pavement) is one example of green infrastructure that replaces tradi-
tional concrete and asphalt to allow for absorption and infiltration of rainwater and snow melt in urban environments.
It is used in cities around the world, particularly in new cities projects in China and India to reduce surface water runoff
volumes and rates by allowing water to infiltrate soil rapidly, helping to reduce flooding while replenishing groundwater
reserves.
In many cases, permeable roadways, pedestrian walkways, playgrounds, parking zones can also act as water retention
structures, reducing or eliminating the need for traditional stormwater management systems. Vegetated surfaces in
cities are also allowing water absorption, store CO2 and have esthetical value. Additional proven benefits include im-
proved water quality, reduced pollutant runoff into local waterbodies, reduced urban heat island effects (great advan-
tage for adaptation to climate change), lower cost of road salting (in cold environments), among others. Less noted
is the indirect contribution to reduced demand for natural sand both in constructing these permeable surfaces, and in
reducing the need for built drainage systems.
Most permeable pavement designs – porous (or pervious) concrete, interlocking pavement slabs, crushed rock and
gravels, or clay, amongst other materials – do not use fine aggregates (sand). For example, pervious concrete is 15-
25% porous space made by mixing coarse aggregate materials, cement or cement-like additives (i.e. bottom ash or fly
ash) and water with little or no sand, depending upon the strength of concrete required. Recent experimentation has
shown that introducing end-of-life tyre aggregates can increase flexibility of rigid permeable pavement systems, and
with that their capacity to cope with ground movement or tree root systems. New compositions are being developed
to improve strength and allow for heavier weight loads. And as each design issue is resolved, the opportunities for
scaling increase
Sources: Scholz & Grabowiecki (2007); Center for Neighborhood Technology (2010); Admute et al. (2017) ; Disfani et al. (2018); Wang et al., (2018); Yuan et
al., (2018).
3.2 Using recycled and alternative materials to replace natural sand in construction
Where construction or traditional cement cannot be avoided, reduction of natural sand use can be achieved through
some tried and tested, as well as new emerging technologies and materials. Experimentation has led to a wide variety of
“green concrete” forms such as bottom ash or fly ash concrete, ultrahigh performance concrete, geopolymer concrete,
lightweight concrete (Liew et al., 2017). Table 1 provides some recent examples of available solutions which can be
summarised as:
• Reusing waste aggregates on construction sites.

• Recycling concrete from waste asphalt.
• Substituting fine aggregates (sand) and coarse aggregates (gravel) in concrete production with materials like:
• Waste by-products of other processes, for example, fly ash left over after waste incineration, waste foundry sand;
• Waste by-products of other processes, for example stainless steel slag, coconut shells, sawdust;
• Desert sand fine sand aggregate in concrete.
• Manufacturing fine and coarse aggregates by recycling construction and demolition waste material.
• Innovating on concrete designs to increase materials efficiency and environmental performance, with:
• Foamed concrete
12 • Geopolymer concrete
Table 1: Some recent examples of studies on substitute materials to traditional concrete
Authors Year Document Title Country
Gökçe et al. 2019 Effect of fly ash and silica fume on hardened properties of foam concrete Turkey
Doğan-Sağlamtimur 2018 Waste Foundry Sand Usage for Building Material Production: A First Geopolymer Record Turkey
in Material Reuse
Mohammadinia et al. 2018 Mechanical behaviour and load bearing mechanism of high porosity permeable Australia
pavements utilizing recycled tire aggregates
Swamynadh & Muthumani 2018 Properties of structural lightweight concrete containing treated oil palm shell as coarse India
aggregate
Yuan et al. 2018 Environmental and economic impacts assessment of concrete pavement brick and China
permeable brick production process - A case study in China
Shi et al. 2018 Sustainability assessment for portland cement concrete pavement containing reclaimed United States
asphalt pavement aggregates
Bhardwaj & Kumar 2017 Waste foundry sand in concrete: A review India
Shi et al. 2017 Mix design formulation and evaluation of portland cement concrete paving mixtures United States
containing reclaimed asphalt pavement
Aslam et al. 2016 Benefits of using blended waste coarse lightweight aggregates in structural lightweight Malaysia
aggregate concrete
Prasad et al. 2016 Partial Replacement of Coarse aggregate by Crushed Tiles and Fine aggregate by Granite India
Powder to improve the Concrete Properties
Shreekant et al. 2016 Utilisation of Mine Waste in the Construction Industry – A Critical Review India
Salman et al. 2015 Construction Materials from Stainless Steel Slags: Technical Aspects, Environmental Belgium
Benefits, and Economic Opportunities
Siddique et al. 2015 Comparative investigation on the influence of spent foundry sand as partial replacement India
of fine aggregates on the properties of two grades of concrete
Aggarwal & Siddique 2014 Microstructure and properties of concrete using bottom ash and waste foundry sand as India
partial replacement of fine aggregates
Meddah et al. 2014 Use of shredded rubber tire aggregates for roller compacted concrete pavement Algeria
Singh and Singla 2014 Utilization Of Waste Ceramic Tiles As Coarse India
Aggregate In Concrete
Shafigh et al. 2014 Structural lightweight aggregate concrete using two types of waste from the palm oil Malaysia
industry as aggregate
Thomas et al. 2014 Strength, abrasion and permeation characteristics of cement concrete containing India
discarded rubber fine aggregates
Note: This table is not a product of a systematic review.
Lightweight foamed concrete is a substitute material for traditional concrete in building construction © Oloo / Shutterstock.com 13
Green concrete innovations are being driven by a variety of factors including the drive to reduce green-house gas
emissions by nation states and private actors, resource costs and, at times, the search for economic uses of waste by-
products (Liew et al., 2017).
Some countries already have high aggregate recycling rates because of virgin aggregates costs (Germany recycles
87% of its waste aggregates4). However, it is the intersection of materials cost minimisation pressures in construction
projects and locally-available waste streams that seems to create some key enabling conditions for substitution away
from primary aggregates. For example, in India there are cases of used non-toxic municipal waste as a replacement for
aggregates in road-building, as well as the use of waste foundry sand used (Siddique et al. 2004, 2015), waste rubber
(Gupta et al., 2014), waste tiles (Singha & Singla, 2014) to produce concrete. Iraqi researchers have experimented with
waste plastic in concrete mixtures (Ismail & Al-Hashmi, 2008). Oil palm kernel and coconut production waste has been
tested as replacement coarse aggregate in Malaysia (Shafigh et al., 2014) and Nigeria (Emiero & Oyedepo, 2006). The
spread of waste-to-energy solutions in response to growing waste production around the world, shrinking landfill space
availability and, in some countries, landfill quotas or taxes, offers opportunities at perhaps an even greater scale (See Box
5, Case study : Manufactured aggregates from municipal Solid Waste Incineration bottom and fly ash by-products).
Where the cost of sand and aggregates is low, extraction taxes have been put in place to incentivise reduction of primary
aggregates and support increased use of recycled aggregates (EEA, 2008). It is worth noting that such economic
instruments can have perverse consequences like creating or supporting illegal aggregates extraction and trade, as has
been seen in waste management in Europe following introduction of landfill levy schemes (Dunne et al., 2008; United
Nations, 2012; Europol, 2018).
Box 5: Case study – Manufactured aggregates from Municipal Solid Waste Incineration bottom and fly ash by-
products
Municipal solid waste is classified in various ways in different jurisdictions but typically refers to the mixed waste
stream produced everyday by households, businesses and schools. It contains paper, plastic, metal, glass, clothing,
furniture, end-of-life electrical appliances and food waste. Best practice is to reduce, reuse, compost and recycle this
waste, ensuring that as much waste as possible is diverted from landfill sites. (When unmanaged, landfill sites are a
source of environmental pollution and human health risks. It is an uneconomic use of land in urban areas, and can
generate strong protests from people living in close proximity because of environmental, human health and social
concerns).
Municipal waste incineration is considered a form of recovery called Waste-to-Energy when it used to generate
energy. Controlled burning of municipal solid waste converts waste into heat, ash and flue gas. The heat is used to
generate steam for electricity production, as a process steam in nearby industrial zones, or in some cases to provide
district heating services. The ash by-product is either collected in the flue (fly ash) or at the bottom of the furnace
(bottom ash). Fly ash is composed of fine particles captured by filtration technologies before flue gas exits incinerator
chimneys. Bottom ash is the coarse residue left on the grate of waste incinerators in a mix of ash, ceramics, slags,
glassy material, ferrous metal – elements that did not burn thoroughly in the combustion process.
There are both economic and environmental incentives to commercialise this waste stream. Depending on
combustion control system design and efficiency, incineration residues can be as high as 15% of the original
municipal solid waste volume treated and still requires disposal. Moreover, bottom and fly ash can contain heavy
metals and dioxins res (again depending on combustion system efficiency) that can cause serious environmental and
human health risks if disposed off improperly. Some options for good disposal include bottom ash as an aggregate for
road base, asphalt and in cement for construction. Fly ash, and hybrid mixtures of bottom and fly ash, can be used in
producing glass, ceramic and as an additive in mortar.
It is the scale of the Waste-to-Energy market that makes these waste by-products interesting as a manufactured
aggregate alternative to primary sand and gravel use. The global Waste-to-Energy market is expected to maintain its
steady growth to 2023, when it is estimated it would be worth US$40 billion. Europe and Japan have long used this
technology, and it is expanding in the United States. However, the fastest market growth has been witnessed in China,
which doubled its Waste-to-Energy capacity in the period 2011-2015. In fact, the world’s largest waste-to-energy plant
is to be built in Shenzen, China to treat up to 5,000 tonnes of waste per day.
___________________________
4
German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety. Retrieved from: https://www.bmu.de/en/topics/water-waste-
14 soil/waste-management/types-of-waste-waste-flows/construction-waste/, last accessed 28 January 2019.
Workers on a road construction site
3.3 Reducing extraction impacts through implementing existing standards and best practices
Many existing standards and best practices already exist that do not include sand extraction and consumption currently,
but could provide the basis of a coherent framework for improved global sand governance if adjusted. The following
available solutions are relevant, to varying degrees, in global sand resources governance and management:
Normative / legal The Sustainable Development Goals: These are not legally binding and do not explicitly ad-
environmental and dress sand sustainability challenges, but the Goals are setting new norms relevant to address-
social standards at ing these issues.
global level International conventions: These are legally binding international law for signatory countries
and spur these national governments to create national legal frameworks and regulation,
economic instruments and voluntary mechanisms. An initial list (non-exhaustive) produced
through expert discussions and further desktop research identified the following international
laws as potentially relevant to a) identifying ‘no-go’ zones for sand resource extraction, b) min-
imum practices for sand extraction or c) legal rights and/or best practices for sand extraction
impact assessment. In order of date of entry into force:
• Convention for the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), 1964
• Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar), 1971
• Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), 1972
• Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo), 1991
• Law of the Sea (UNCLOS),1992
• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992
• Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (International
Watercourses Convention),1992
• Berlin Rules on Water Resources, 2004
• Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD),1994
• Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, 1997
• Protocol on Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA Protocol), 2003 15
Normative / legal Regional conventions: These are legally binding international law for signatory countries
environmental and and provide frameworks for these national governments to create national policies, laws and
social standards at regulations, economic instruments and voluntary mechanisms. An initial list produced through
regional level expert discussions and further desktop research identified the following (non-exhaustive)
list of international agreements relevant for standards and best practices for sand extraction
covering transboundary seas, rivers and some terrestrial landscapes. Transboundary
freshwater and marine zone governance and management mechanisms overlap significantly
with sand extraction geographies and impacts.
Regional cooperation on development, security issues
• Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South
Pacific Region, 1986
• Sanya Declaration (for peace, security, development and cooperation between BRICS
countries), 2011
Marine ecosystems
• Protection and Development of the Marine Environment and Coastal Region of the
Mediterranean Sea Barcelona Convention, Barcelona, 1976
• Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution,
Kuwait, 1978
• Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the South-east Pacific, Lima,
1981
• Cooperation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of
the West and Central African Region, Abidjan, 1981
• Conservation of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden Environment, Jeddah, 1982
• Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region,
Cartagena de Indias, 1983
• Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the
Eastern African Region, Nairobi, 1985
• The Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment in the Wider
Caribbean Region (WCR) (Cartagena Convention), 1986
• Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) in the Wider
Caribbean Region, 2000
• Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-east Atlantic OSPAR Convention, Paris,
1992
• Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area 1992 Helsinki Convention,
Helsinki, 1992
• Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea, 2003
Freshwater Ecosystems
UN-Water states there are over 3,600 treaties related to international water resource governance
and management.5 For sand extraction, some relevant examples include:
• Indus Water Treaty (India and Pakistan), 1960
• Mekong River Agreement (Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam), 1995
• Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems in the Southern African Development Community
(SADC) region, 1995
• Nile Basin Initiative (Burundi, DR Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, The
Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda. Eritrea participates as an observer), 1999
_____________________
16 5
See UN Water (nd), Available at: http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/transboundary_waters.shtml, last accessed 28 January 2019.
In addition to the global and regional instruments listed above, sectoral-based global initiatives, national legislation and
voluntary schemes contribute to a starting point for sand-extraction standards and best practices:
Extractives Existing extractives sector regulations, standards and best practices can be adapted to sand
sector extraction activities. IISD (2018) identifies the Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance as a top
performer encompassing pre-existing global and regional standards covering worker health and
safety, social and environmental domains.6 Lessons can be learned from the extensive experience
already developed on improving environmental and social performance in mining activities
(See Case study 3). UEPG (Europe) members run several projects on responsible aggregates
extraction.7 Going one step further, environmental enhancement after mining activities cease
is currently being explored in Europe. The Belgian project “Life In Quarries”, co-financed by the
European Commission, promotes dynamic biodiversity management in aggregates mines with
some good results: 90% of all eagle owls and 94% of sand martins in Wallonia nest in active sites.8
Engineering & Best practices in the engineering sector may be a part of the problem because at times they
Construction result in over design and waste in construction (Orr et al., 2019). Engineering requirements can
sector be too strict for the final purpose to which sand resources are being used. Or can be applied
in a risk-averse behaviour that is a barrier to alternatives becoming mainstream in engineering
and construction practices. Addressing over-design issues through voluntary standards and
certification schemes can be part of the solution, though success depends on careful design of
such schemes. One example in operation is the Cement Sustainability Initiative (Previously under
the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, transferred to the Global Cement and
Concrete Association in early January 20199). Another is the BES 6001 Responsible Sourcing of
Construction Products certification system in the United Kingdom.10
Water, Domestic regulations for coastal zone management, water management, freshwater and marine
Conservation, fisheries management and land use planning are relevant to informing extraction permits (where
Environmental such system are in place), to controlling illegal sand extraction and to determining sustainable
management sediment removal limits. In addition, nationally-legislated Key Biodiversity Areas, World Heritage
sectors Sites, National Parks, biodiversity reserves, terrestrial and marine Protected Areas identify regions
where extraction should be avoided. Some conservation projects offer opportunities for better
defining if sand extraction can ever be sustainable or just responsible. For example, sediment
dredged to prevent river blockages has been recycled to support new wetland creation in the
Mississippi river (Powers & Duffy, 2018). Wetlands International are pioneering in this field of
sustainable dredging with the Benin Ramsar site also11.
Sea turtle hatchling crawls to the sea © Pavel Tvrdy/Shutterstock.com

___________________________
6
See Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance (n.d.): https://responsiblemining.net/.
7
See Safequarry.com (n.d.): http://www.safequarry.com
8
See Life in Quarries (n.d.): www.lifeinquarries.eu
9
See Global Cement and Concrete Association (n.d.): https://gccassociation.org/,
10
See BSI Group (n.d.): http://www.bsigroup.com/en-GB/bes-6001-responsible-sourcing-of-construction-products/
11
See Ramsar Benin Information Site (n.d.):https://www.ramsar.org/wetland/benin. 17
Box 6: Case study 3 – Learning lessons for mitigating sand extraction impacts in Suriname
Braamspunt is a biodiverse coastal area 15 km from the capital of Suriname, Paramaribo, on the Northeastern Coast
of South America. This sandy beach on the eastern shore at the mouth of the Suriname river is in a Multiple Use
Management Area (MUMA) designated under the 2010 Integrated Coastal Zone Management plan. This plan aims for
balanced economic development while preserving ecological values in this landscape of pristine mangrove forest.
Among fishing, tourism and other uses, Braamspunt is a critical coastal defense against flooding and erosion for
Paramaribo North at a time when natural defenses have been undermined by removal of mangroves. It is also home
to nesting grounds of leatherback sea turtles and green sea turtles, considered vulnerable and endangered by the
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species respectively. Yet, until recently active sand extraction took place on the beach,
accelerating the erosion of this already vulnerable sand spit.
Despite a previous temporary ban in 2015 and protests from environmental groups and citizens, the Ministry of Natural
Resources gave concessions for sand extraction to four Surinamese construction companies in February 2017. This
coincided with the beginning of turtle nesting season. These concessions were given out without the knowledge or
consultation of the line ministry overseeing the MUMA, the Ministry of Ministry of Spatial Planning, Land and Forest
Management. As Environmental and Social Impact . As Environmental and Social Impact Assessments are voluntary
in Suriname, the local companies legally extracting sand were not required to evaluate their impact on the beach.
Moreover, as part of the MUMA, the beach is not a legal protected area designated for conservation of biodiversity
alone. Even though the turtle species themselves are protected, their nesting grounds at Braamspunt are not.
Between 2015 and 2017, environmental groups sought an immediate halt to excavation at Braamspuntso so that
protected species are not just protected on paper. The result would be that turtle nesting sites are automatically
protected irrespective of where they are located (inside or outside a protected area). This will take time. Environmental
and social impact assessments seen as a barrier to development, an additional cost burden on the private sector, and
there are a lack of funds for enforcement.
With that in mind, local NGO Green Heritage Fund Suriname is aiming to learn lessons from what has worked on
other legal and illegal extraction sectors such as forestry and gold and accelerate voluntary action while legislation,
safeguards and enforcement catches up. One successful strategy in other responsible mining efforts outside
of Suriname has been to get illegal extractors organised to request concessions that have already undergone
environmental and social impact assessments financed by government agencies.
Sources: WWF (2016); Fritz (2017); Deltares (n.d.); Green Heritage Fund Suriname (n.d.); Nadine McCormick (IUCN), personal communication in writing
December 2018.
18 Aerial image of a deep blue gravel lake in which sand is mined for the construction industry. © Geogif /Shutterstock
Key messages
A quick start for sand resource governance is possible if we work with the many available solutions and adjust existing
legal frameworks, standards and regulations. However, some new standards and best practices are likely to be required
in the near term to tackle sand extraction impacts.
Current legal frameworks are not sufficient considering the global outlook on aggregates demand and production.
Existing international treaties, law, standards and best practices provide a foundation, but it is an incomplete.
Where addressed, sand extraction currently crosses extractives, water management, coastal zone management,
biodiversity conservation legal systems and best practices. Importantly, sand extraction is not regulated in some
countries. In other countries, sand extraction is regulated but trade-offs are made given other priorities such as the need
for new infrastructure.
For example, in marine ecosystems, existing models predict the outer limit of beach-nearshore sand exchange. An
agreed standard might advise against extraction inside this limit or advise appropriate assessment criteria if extraction
is proposed within these limits. In a similar vein, the existing legal frameworks in freshwater systems focus on water
allocation, water quality and security, cooperation, and development of the basin for energy and other economic
purposes. A major gap related to sand resources and extraction impacts is sediment flow management.
Without an integrated view on the governance, planning and management of these resources, sand extraction risks
falling between the cracks into informal, or even illegal practices.
19
4. Options for Action
20
4. Options for Action
Actions can be taken today by all stakeholders to achieve responsible extraction, reduced consumption and
normalisation of alternatives. International organisations, national and local governments, private sector companies,
civil society groups and local communities all play critical roles in governance of sand resources. Three main actions for
faster implementation of available solutions were identified in the 11th October roundtable discussion and subsequent
consultations:
1. Strengthen standards and best practices to curb irresponsible extraction

2. Invest in sand production and consumption measurement, monitoring and planning
3. Establish dialogue based on transparency and accountability
The options are not prescriptive, nor comprehensive – but they are critical next steps that can be taken.
4.1 Strengthen standards and best practices to curb irresponsible extraction
Ideally, each country should have appropriate legal frameworks and regulations through which either a permit or a license
is required for sand extraction activities, and seek to reduce irresponsible and illegal extraction activities. Every case is
different, however.
Firstly, sand extraction occurs in a range of geological (sand supply) situations. ‘Go’ zones that are appropriate for
extractive practices are context-specific and so-called “produce and use locally” principles can only work where sand is
locally available.
Secondly, the results of preventative and protective measures proposed by responsible extraction depend upon the
significance of the impacts that may arise from extraction in these locations. A developed, indigenous regulatory regime
will be able to determine the acceptability (or otherwise) of extraction – and there are good examples of this working in
both UK and Europe.
Thirdly, local governance differences present a challenge to replicating legal frameworks across in countries. For
example, Europe is very rich in sand and gravel and has developed effective management systems over 40 years of
exploitation that is not comparable to circumstances in other global regions. However, there are opportunities to learn
from these experiences, which may accelerate the transition towards robust policy, planning and regulatory regimes.
National laws are needed, but there are limitations to be dealt with involving enforcement and transboundary regulation.
Providing guidance on good practice to existing industry is a clear starting point, but to implement well localised
economic, political, social and cultural factors must be taken into consideration. These include transfers of legislative
frameworks; voluntary standards; skills; knowledge; established customs and traditions, and best practices. The practical
solution will be to work within international standards, but localise recommended rules, legislation, and voluntary efforts
appropriately.
21
Recommendations:
Prepare guidelines for governing, planning and managing sand extraction at the regional and international legal scale
and support countries to customise these for national policy, law and regulation where these do not currently exist.
The principle aim should be to build enabling conditions for the introduction of responsible sand extraction and use
of alternative options to natural sand as rapidly as possible. A first step may be to build consensus on classification
of global sand resources and impacts. The UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Committee on Sustainable
Energy and its subsidiary bodies on anthropogenic resources classification for sustainable resource management under
the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda may provide some early momentum for such an initiative (United Nations,
2018).
Commission review and analysis of existing law and voluntary initiatives at global, regional and national levels to
identify critical regulatory gaps and ‘low hanging fruit’ opportunities for integrating sand into established frameworks
and programmes. This list provided in Section 3: Available Solutions provides a starting point for this activity.
Raise awareness through commissioning rapid scenario analyses identifying the role of sand and gravels in building
and sustaining particular regional and national ecosystems, societies and economies, including potential futures and
thresholds of natural sand extraction and use beyond risks are increased. Existing methods, data and collaborative
research efforts on systems analysis for aggregates analysis in manufacturing systems (See Tesfamariam & Lindberg
(2005) as one example) and green economy and circular economy analyses are directly applicable to this effort12.
4.2 Invest in sand production and consumption measurement, monitoring and planning.
Countries and rivers for which there are high quality studies of sand extraction impacts are not, in fact, the countries
where extensive illegal sand extraction is increasingly reported by domestic and international media (WWF, 2018a).
While we do not have to wait for perfect data before making choices, improving available knowledge is a fundamental
contribution to sand resource governance, planning and management. We need some basic information flows on sand
extraction, its impacts and consumption that are specifically geared to support decision-making.
We have a poor understanding of sand production and transport processes in particular. The geological context for sand
resources is important – not just knowing the origins of deposits but also understanding the current physical processes
that act upon them. Sediment transport pathways are often largely ignored in research and decision support information.
The result is that downstream and cross-boundary impacts of disrupting sediment flows are not considered where
formal environmental impact assessments are undertaken.
Secondly, traceability of sand in supply chains within the construction sector is extremely weak. How can we have
responsible consumption without tracing and differentiating responsible and irresponsible sand sources? The
Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) example for palm oil tracing might be a source of lessons. In addition, data
sharing between international agencies, national governments and national and multinational companies is critical but
difficult given the lack of accurate reporting.
Thirdly, environmental monitoring programmes often focus on state and input- output monitoring and reporting, but have
more difficulty monitoring outcomes in such a way that creates feedback for organisational leaders in their decision-
making. This is especially true for environmental and social outcomes with time horizons greater than standard project
or programme cycles, or impacts that are experienced far from the source of the problem.
The best measurement, monitoring and data visualisation systems cannot replace good governance and leadership; but
they can be designed to help these behaviours emerge however (See Table 2).
_____________________
12 Some useful entry points on Green Economy and Circular Economy scenario analysis are the Green Growth Knowledge Platform (http://www.
22 greengrowthknowledge.org/about-us); the EU-funded Circular Impacts project (Woltjer, 2018)
Table 2: Why undertake sand resource measurement, monitoring and evaluation?
Purpose Relevance
Benchmarking and Indicators provide a quantitative baseline of the state of the environment and related
monitoring socioeconomic factors that are integral to sand resource production and consumption, or are
impacted by these processes. Baseline and thresholds offer a means of monitoring changes or
progress towards set goals.
Problem Data on sand consumption at project and national levels is needed to set appropriate goals
identification & for replenishment, extraction rates and consumption at appropriate scales and levels. Monitor
goal-setting replenishment rates, extraction rates (and associated morphological evolution of the rivers and
coasts), and materials supply flows and costs can help identify problems and opportunities to
improve governance and management.
Prioritising Choices in priority-setting can include short or long-term interventions, as well as real-time
interventions & decisions on resource allocation and management, responding to emerging or pressing issues.
planning Data and related analysis supports future planning and policy-setting.
Facilitating cross- Measurement and monitoring in sustainability encourages, if not requires, integrating
sectoral & cross- knowledge from different related sectors. In this case, the process is just as important as the
scale dialogue resulting datasets and analysis. Data collection and synthesis is an opportunity for dialogue
among different stakeholders, helping them to jointly establish goals, identify problems, and
negotiate the trade-offs that are implicit in balancing competing uses and priorities within
ecosystems. Eventual monitoring results may help to renegotiate and change institutions to
improve ecosystem management and local communities’ wellbeing.
Increasing public Indicators summarise a substantial amount of data and information into a coherent narrative
awareness are often useful as a public communication tool to raise awareness on progress towards or
threats to overall welfare.
Facilitating To measure the effectiveness of chosen policies, providing transparency and accountability,
Transparency & particularly if the public has been involved in the goal-setting process. Building open knowledge
Accountability bases on sand availability and property rights may also help assess claims to extract sand
resources. In many cases sand extraction locations are politically decided and not necessarily
underpinned by geology or responsible sourcing.
Revenue raising In some contexts, accurate accounting is a precursor to recovering local or regional mining
royalties.
Sources: 11 October 2018, Expert Roundtable discussions; Reviewers’ input
© lampang_naomark/Shutterstock.com 23
Recommendations:
Commission basin-wide and coastal region studies to determine quotas for sand and sediment inflows to river deltas
and coastal beaches so that replenishment is adequate for river forms, deltas and beaches to be maintained. This
implies understanding the geological origins of the resources in question, where these resources occur, and how they
relate to modern geological processes to establish baselines. This requires a) basin-wide and coastal sediment budgets
(identifying natural sources by grains size, and natural and human-made sinks b) a quota for how much each specific
river can produce and where extraction sites should be located c) monitor extraction rates and their impacts.
International community organisations with mandates and access to relevant data could collaborate to create a
rapid information synthesis, design a long-term monitoring programme and produced a rapid assessment tool in the
context of existing processes in EIA, SEA, Responsible Mining and water governance. Coordination across established
economic, social and environmental monitoring programmes could help quick start a global, regional and national sand
resource monitoring programmes. UN agencies, in collaboration with private sector partners and national governments,
are well-placed to design a cost-effective global monitoring programme for sand resources. Global level programmes
with linkages to sand resources include:
• HydroSHEDS (WWF, USGS)13

• Protected Planet (United Nations Environment Programme, WCMC, IUCN)14
• Ramsar Site Information Service (Ramsar)15
• Transboundary Waters Assessment Programme (United Nations Environment Programme, GEF)16
• UN Comtrade (UNTAD)17
• Water Risk Filter (WWF) 18
• World Environment Situation Room (United Nations Environment Programme, GRID Geneva)19
• WRI Resource Watch Database20
• WWF Sight21
• Some national reporting regimes for production and use of sand and gravel already exist. For example:
• An Aggregates Monitoring Survey is undertaken by the British Geological Survey on behalf of British
Government.22
• For marine production, the marine mineral owner (The Crown Estate) publishes annual reports detailing total
tonnage dredged and to where this was supplied. Where marine extraction activities occur, ‘black box’ Electronic
Monitoring Systems are a common requirement.23
Review and evaluate implementation of established social and environmental safeguards and impact assessment
procedures and identify key performance indicators to be included for the treatment of sand sustainability issues. Such
a review could include global, regional and key national Environmental Impact Assessment and Strategic Environmental
Assessment and responsible extractives standards to understand if these are being applied at the right scale, (i.e.
landscape vs. project vs. site-specific scales) and whether they have included sand appropriately.
4.3 Establish dialogue based on transparency and accountability
A focus on constructive dialogue and rapid lesson learning is needed to create awareness and voluntary action today.
We have an opportunity to act early to prevent avoidable environmental damage and biodiversity loss while transitioning
to a new pathway of responsible sand extraction and consumption. We have the experience and existing international
environmental treaties, industry standards and best practices, and international, regional and local civil society
communities to make a start in the right direction. International community, governments, industries, civil society – all
relevant stakeholders (See Table 3: Stakeholders in sand and sustainability issues) – need to participate in developing
constructive policies, regulation and voluntary actions.
_____________________
13
http://www.hydrosheds.org/
14
https://www.protectedplanet.net/
15
https://www.ramsar.org/document/using-the-ramsar-sites-information-service
16
http://twap-rivers.org/
17
https://comtrade.un.org/
18
http://waterriskfilter.panda.org/
19
http://www.uneplive.org/situation
20
https://www.wri.org/resource-watch
21
https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/wwf-sight-conservation-intelligence
22
https://www.thecrownestate.co.uk/media/2484/marine-aggregates-statistics-2017.pdf.
24 23
https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/minerals.
Responsible industry players are committed to phasing out illegal extraction and use of river and beach sand; and they
have significant power to drive good practices on sand resource consumption and production. While the number of small
and informal operations in sand extraction are large, there are thought to be around 10 large multinational players that
are significant “pinch points” for influential action in the sand value chain:
• Sibelco Group, Belgium

• Heidelberg Cement, Germany
• CRH, Ireland
• Holcim, Switzerland
• Chinese Harbour & Construction Ltd., China
• Boskalis, Netherlands
• Van Oord, Netherlands
• Deme, Belgium
• Jan De Nul, Belgium & Luxembourg
• Great Lakes Dredge & Dock Company (GLDD), United States of America
The Mekong Delta and surrounding coastal areas in Viet Nam depend on sand inputs from the Mekong River. Photo credit: NASA satellite image, taken February 1996
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mekong_delta.jpg 25
Box 7: Private sector voluntary action on sand and sustainability standards in the United Kingdom
The United Kingdom has some interesting examples of private sector voluntary action on sand. The UK mineral
industry published a Minerals Strategy in 2018 which sets out the social, environmental and economic issues that will
need to be addressed to ensure sustainable supplies of minerals to 2050. The UK marine industry published a good
practice guidance for marine aggregate extraction in 2017, endorsed by the national government. The industry has
also been reporting on seabed dredging for 20 years as part of its commitment to transparency. The Aggregates Levy,
a tax placed on sales of primary aggregates in the UK (sand, gravels & crushed rock – both land and marine), was used
to fund research to develop understanding and improve practices to minimise environmental effects of extraction.
In terms of terrestrial operations, an awards scheme is in operation to champion and showcase restoration and
biodiversity opportunities following extraction projects.
Sources: Newell & Woodcock (2013); British Marine Aggregate Producers Association (2017; 2018); Mineral Products Association (2018); Mineral Products
Association (n.d.); UEPG Biodiversity (n.d.)
Table 3: Stakeholders in sand and sustainability issues
Stakeholder group Relevance

Local communities Individuals and communities living close to extraction sites live with the impacts of
irresponsible sand extraction; they may also be engaged in the sector as owners or employees.
Local sand extraction Directly engaged in extractive activities in rivers, on beaches, in quarries; where pursued legally,
companies this implies engaging with permitting authorities to identify preferred sites for extraction.
Transporter, Trading Middle men in the sand supply chain.
companies
Engineering & Directly engaged in sourcing crushed rock, sand, gravels and using these materials in
construction firms construction activities.
Municipal / In some cases, local government entities have the authority to issue permits for extraction
activities; also the responsibility to implement regulations and plans for local spatial
sub-national
planning, economic development, water management, fisheries management, environmental
governments
management. Sub-national administration procurement for public infrastructure and buildings
may play a role in driving demand for local sand resources. They may also play a role in local
monitoring and reporting.
National Line ministries with responsibilities for natural resources, mining and extractive industries
governments may be the authority to issue concessions or permits or bans for extraction activities. Other
national line ministries hold the responsibility to determine development pathways, support
equitable development and local livelihoods under which sand extraction livelihoods may fall;
uphold and implement environmental and social protection laws. National governments also
play significant roles in public infrastructure procurement, national monitoring and reporting.
Transboundary These entities facilitate regional transboundary cooperation on economic development, joint
cooperation management of ecological zones like shared water bodies (lakes, river basins, seas). In some
platforms cases, they may hold the authority for management decision-making on resource use, such as
is the case for some river authorities. More generally, they may play a role on data monitoring
Multinational firms Major consumers of crushed rock, sand and gravels in the sand value chain include cement
firms and construction firms; a wide range of producers use industrial grade sand for
manufacturing glass, pigments, engineered stone, etc.
Education & research Engineering and materials sciences experimentation and innovation for alternatives to
institutions concrete, cement. Capacity for socioeconomic, policy, management analysis to support
decision-making on sand extraction legal and voluntary standards and best practices. These
institutions also lead on education for future government policy makers, land use planners,
engineers and architects.
Nongovernmental International NGOs engaged in environmental and social issue-based advocacy globally,
Organisations regionally and nationally; Peer support and capacity development for local and regional civil
society groups; global awareness raising. Local NGOs lead on awareness raising and early-
warning of irresponsible and illegal activities on the ground. They also lead on supporting local
communities to defend their rights.
Inter-Governmental Norm-setting, knowledge transfer, convening, consensus-building, synthesis research, global
Organisations monitoring programmes.
Societies’ demand for construction materials, and the need for this to be met in the most sustainable manner possible,
_____________________
26 24
WWF: Dr. Marc Goichot, personal communication in writing December 2018
is relevant to every nation. However, two nation states are likely to be pivotal for any positive action: India and China.
China increased its concrete use by 540% in the last 20 years, exceeding the use of all the other countries combined
(See Figure 4). Even as domestic consumption rates begin to stabilise, China-overseas investment in infrastructure
development through the Belt and Road Initiative will drive demand for aggregates in approximately 70 countries.
Furthermore, domestic demand in India is expected to drive strong future growth in Asia (Gavriletea, 2017). These
countries are also the source of solutions when it comes to alternative materials (See Table 1 in Section 3. Available
Solutions) and new building strategies. The Mining Engineers Association of India held a major national conference on
urgent replacement of illegally-sourced sands by manufactured sands in August 2018.
Finally, local communities and civil society groups have a critical role to play through awareness raising, empowerment
and organisation of citizens in extraction sites or affected by extraction (Anongos et al., 2012). In Cambodia, villagers
living on the Mekong river started chasing away sand extractors when they saw the direct link between this activity and
loss of agriculture land to river bank erosion.24 As a second example, Awaaz Foundation campaigns against ‘sand mafias’
and their support to local communities seeking justice has resulted in real policy change in India (Awaaz Foundation,
2017).
Recommendations:
One key barrier on which to focus is the transparency of the extractives supply chain for aggregates. A positive step
forward would be to integrate crushed rock, sand and gravels sourcing into the Extractive Industries Transparency
Initiative (EITI) standard for published information on the oil, gas and mining industries25 At a minimum, a lessons
learning analysis could reveal some key guidelines on how to establish transparency initiatives for the aggregates sector
specifically.
The sand value chain needs to be better understood – including all stakeholders – to implement avoidance and
reduction strategies well. What is the structure of sand value chains? How formal, informal and mixed are they? What
are the financing structures underpinning sand demand and supply? These are some priority questions that need to be
answered for assessing the business case, including full cost analyses and risk assessments, for alternative sources.
Cross-sector collective action platforms are needed. One suggested priority is exploration of cooperation mechanisms
for managing water and sediments as a shared resources in a responsible manner for the long term. A second is
collaborative design of processes to encourage financing of bankable sand for sustainable urban planning and
infrastructure projects.
27
5. Conclusions
28
5. Conclusions
Sand production is not rocket science. At its most basic, it needs boats and pumps, shovels and trucks, hammers and
rocks. The main limitation to responsible sand extraction is not technical; it is an awareness and governance issue. A
paradigm of infinite sand resources still dominates. Challenging this is the difficult task ahead as we aim for a rapid yet
smooth transition to more sustainable sourcing, while reducing consumption and demand in parallel.
To do this, we must first acknowledge the scale of the issue as one of the major sustainability challenges of the century.
Most large rivers of the world have lost between half and 95% of their natural sand and gravel delivery to ocean. The
damming of rivers for hydro-electricity production or irrigation is reducing the amount of sediment flowing downstream.
This broken replenishment system exacerbates pressures on beaches already threatened by sea level rise and intensity
of storm-waves induced by climate change, as well as coastal developments. “Sand mafias’ are thriving, with activists
against their activities being threatened and even killed. Sand and gravel is one of the largest extracted resources by
volume, possibly one of the most profitable illegal traded while also being one of the least regulated. Yet awareness is
very low, with media uncovering the scale of the impacts while science and policies are lagging behind
Large-scale multipronged actions are urgently needed to implement technical and institutional innovations designed at
the scale of regional infrastructure projects, large river basins and their downstream connections to deltas and coasts
and global construction materials markets. This will need to involve a wide range of players – public, private and civil
society organisations – from local to global levels. A new frame for collaborative action is needed. Together, we can:
Build consensus through improved coordination and public awareness-raising at the global, regional and national levels
on how much our current development trajectory is dependent on sand supply and the sustainability challenges this
poses. This will involve developing understanding from many perspectives, as well as a vocabulary to define aggregates
characteristics and their extraction impacts. We do not yet know the appropriate language and definitions to use in
discussing this topic across the stakeholder groups. These definitions are needed for transboundary, cross-sectoral and
cross-scale dialogues, institutionalising new technical standards and best practices, and establishing regulation.
Define what success looks like for sand production and consumption in sustainable development. As long as it
is planned, regulated and managed appropriately, sand extraction can be responsible. It is about being aware of its
resource potential and making the right choices from the very beginning in a knowledge-based resource management. It
is about the right resources being worked in the right place and in the right way. This will involve identifying sand sources
that might be harvested at a sustainable level and according to guidelines, and with the support of agreed standards,
best practices and decision support tools, that are developed with inputs from all stakeholders.
Reconcile globally-relevant policies and standards with the local realities of domestic sand resource availability,
local development imperatives and standards and enforcement realities. There are a wide range of experiences in the
management and use of sand globally, reflecting the wide range of maturity in the regulations, controls and awareness of
individual nations to these issues. Consequently, the principles of good practice derived from practical experiences and
hard lessons are available and should be readily shared for customisation to new contexts.
29
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35
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2019 Sand and Sustainability:

Finding new solutions for

ISBN No: 978-92-807-3751-6

This document may be cited as:

A digital copy of this report is available at: http://www.unepgrid.ch/

Cover illustration: Audrey Ringler, UNEP

4 Options for Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

References and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Expert reviewers and other contributors (in alphabetical order)

Geert Cuperus, Fédération Internationale du Recyclage

Adrian Mandela Grunder

Zhanyl Moldalieva, Coordinator, Extractives Hub, United Nations Environment

Louise Gallagher, Coordinator, Geneva-Tsinghua Initiative, University of Geneva:

Charlotte Poussin, Assistant, Geneva-Tsinghua Initiative, University of Geneva:

Davide Fornacca, Assistant, Geneva-Tsinghua Initiative, University of Geneva:

from construction to electronics to cosmetics.

As this report shows, demand for sand resources is rising. Shifting

The problem is that we have been exceeding easily available sand

ourselves in the position where the needs and expectations of our

Even though these materials are the second largest resources

We need to reconcile relevant global policies and standards with

Fundamentally, improving governance of global sand resources means

Avoiding consumption through reducing over-building and over-design

Using recycled and alternative materials to sand in the construction sector

Reducing impacts through implementing existing standards and best practices

2. Invest in sand production and consumption measurement, monitoring and planning

xvi Riverbank at Cu Chi Tunnel

Labourers using cement

2.1 State of global sand resources

Box 1: A note on global sand extraction data

Billion metric tons of cement

The use of sand and gravels is highly correlated

In USA, the amount of sand and gravels is almost

0 If this was extrapolated to the rest of the world, the

Box 2: Sand mafias, illegal sand extraction and smuggling in Morocco

Degradation for development, Tanzania 7

Based on images from Landsat 1 MSS (17 Oct.

Figure 3. Suggested hierarchy of available solutions

Using recycled and alernative

Reducing natural sand extraction

3.1 Avoiding unnecessary consumption

Box 4: Case study - Scaling the use of permeable pavements

• Reusing waste aggregates on construction sites.

Sea turtle hatchling crawls to the sea © Pavel Tvrdy/Shutterstock.com

1. Strengthen standards and best practices to curb irresponsible extraction

4.1 Strengthen standards and best practices to curb irresponsible extraction

• HydroSHEDS (WWF, USGS)13

4.3 Establish dialogue based on transparency and accountability

• Sibelco Group, Belgium

Table 3: Stakeholders in sand and sustainability issues

Stakeholder group Relevance

BSI Group (n.d.): http://www.bsigroup.com/en-GB/bes-6001-responsible-sourcing-of-construction-products/, last accessed 28 January

Ramsar (n.d.) https://www.ramsar.org/document/using-the-ramsar-sites-information-service

Delestrac, D. (2012) Sand Wars. Retrieved from: http://sand-wars.com/.

Conference / Committee reports

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