doi: 10.1111/j.1751-3928.2008.00063.x Resource Geology Vol. 58, No.

3: 301–312

Thematic Article

Myojin Rift, Izu–Bonin Arc as the Modern Analog of

Hokuroku Basin, Northeast Japan: Geotectonic Significance
of the New Hydrothermal Deposit in the Back-Arc Rift

Michio Tanahashi1, Kantaro Fujioka2 and Shiki Machida3

1Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC), Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan, 2Japan Agency for Marine-Earth
Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), Yokohama Institute for Earth Science, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan and 3Ocean Research
Institute, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

Abstract

A huge hydrothermal field, named the “Hakurei Sulfide Deposit” (HSD) was discovered in the North Myojin
Rift (NMR), Izu–Bonin Back-Arc Rift (BAR) during the 2003 survey cruise of R/V Hakurei-maru No.2. This
paper investigates the geotectonic features and the tectonic setting of ore deposits between the NMR and the
Hokuroku Basin, which is representative of kuroko fields in Japan. The topographic features of the NMR and
the Hokuroku Basin are similar. Both have a clear ring structure surrounded by faults and the east–west width
is almost the same. Many kuroko deposits were formed on the extrusion centers of the five pre-mineral acidic
volcanic complexes, located in a loop inside the Hokuroku Basin. In the case of the NMR, seven submarine
volcanoes are also located in a loop, and the HSD formed inside the summit caldera of Bayonnaise Knoll,
which is one of the seven volcanoes. These topographic similarities highlight that the NMR is a modern analog
of the Hokuroku Basin. Identifying such similarities is extremely useful when prospecting kuroko deposits on
land equivalents as well as on the other segments of the Izu–Bonin BAR. The probability of finding kuroko
deposits on land is expected to increase when the following are identified: (i) location of back-arc rift and the
volcanic front; (ii) direction of the arc–trench system and intra-rift faults (and/or fracture zone); (iii) position
of submarine volcanoes surrounding a back-arc rift; and (iv) intersections of a caldera fault and intra-rift fault
(and/or fracture zone) inside the summit caldera of submarine volcanoes. Within these aforementioned points
a ring structure, acidic volcanic complexes that circle the circuit and submarine calderas along the volcanic
front, are an important indication of submarine hydrothermal deposits.
Keywords:
back-arc rift, Bayonnaise Knoll, Hokuroku Basin, Izu–Bonin Arc, kuroko deposit, Myojin Rift,
sulfide chimney, sulfide deposit, volcanic front.

1. Introduction Knoll caldera, Izu–Bonin Back-Arc Rift (BAR). The

In April 2003 Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National
Corporation (JOGMEC) conducted a survey program
for the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI)
on sea-floor hydrothermal deposits in the Bayonnaise
program was a great success and resulted in the first
discovery of a huge sulfide deposit in the BAR (Iizasa
et al., 2004; Tanahashi et al., 2006). The survey was con-
ducted using the R/V Hakurei-maru No.2, which was
subcontracted to Deep Ocean Resources Development

Received 4 April 2007. Accepted for publication 7 January 2008.

Corresponding author: M. TANAHASHI, Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC), 1310 Omiya-Cho, Saiwai-Ku,
Kawasaki, Kanagawa 212-8554, Japan. Email: tanahashi-michio@jogmec.go.jp

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Journal compilation © 2008 The Society of Resource Geology 301
M. Tanahashi et al.
(DORD). The hydrothermal deposit was informally
named “Hakurei Sulfide Deposit” (HSD). The discovery
of the HSD, which is comparable in size to the Sunrise
Deposit in the Myojin Knoll caldera, Izu–Bonin volca-
nic front (Iizasa et al., 1999), indicates the potential for
hydrothermal deposits to exist in the Izu–Bonin BAR.
These hydrothermal deposits are presumed to be of
the kuroko type, but thus far the specific relationship
between the formation of these kuroko-type deposits
in the Izu–Bonin Arc and of kuroko deposits in the
Hokuroku Basin, representative of a kuroko field in
Japan, remains uncertain (Glasby, 2000).
This paper discusses the geotectonic similarities
between the northern Myojin Rift and the Hokuroku
Basin and proposes a new idea about prospecting for
kuroko deposits on land equivalents as well as on the
Izu–Bonin BAR.
2. Geological setting
2.1. Tectonic and volcanic overviews of the
Izu–Bonin Arc and back-arc rift
The Izu–Bonin Arc, situated on the eastern edge of the
Philippine Sea Plate, is a north–south-trending island
arc extending approximately 1200 km from central
Japan to Iwojima (Fig. 1), and has grown due to accre-
tion of volcanic materials by subduction of the Pacific
Plate since 48 Ma (Taylor, 1992; Ishizuka et al., 2006).
The Izu–Bonin Arc consists of three large-scale tectonic
segments (northern, central, and southern) separated
by two tectonic lines, namely Aogashima and Sofugan
Tectonic Lines (Yuasa, 1985; Fujioka & Kido, 2004;
Fig. 1). Fujioka and Kido (2004) showed that water
depth increases from the northern segment through
the central segment to the southern segment, and sug-
gested that such observation corresponds to the thin-
ning of the crust thickness.
According to Honza and Tamaki (1985) and Taylor
(1992), the northern segment of the Izu–Bonin arc–
trench system is divided into six tectonic provinces
including trench; outer arc high; fore-arc basin; frontal
arc high; active arc; and BAR (Fig. 2). Furthermore, to
the west of the BAR there are several en echelon
seamount chains (cross-chains) that trend obliquely
(ENE-WSW) across the arc with a length of approximately
150 km (Hochstaedter et al., 2000; Hochstaedter et al., 2001;
Ishizuka et al., 2003a, b; Machida and Ishii, 2003; Machida
et al., 2008). In the region between the volcanic front and
back-arc cross-chains, a north–south-trending rift zone is
located. This rift zone is divided into the active rift
302
zone (volcanic front side) and the back-arc knolls zone
(rear arc side) (Honza & Tamaki, 1985; Fig. 2). The former
corresponds to the BAR. The BAR consists of six rift ba-
sins (or depressions), namely, Hachijo Rift, Aogashima
Rift, Sumisu Rift, Torishima Rift, Sofu Rift, and Nishi-
noshima Rift, from north to south (Honza & Tamaki,
1985; Taylor, 1992). Murakami (1996) has subsequently
identified the northern part of the Sumisu Rift as the
Myojin Rift, which is located at 31°30 –32°00 N, with a
size of approximately 25 km east–west and approximately
65 km north–south (Fig. 3).
In the Sumisu Rift, several geological investigations,
such as using US submersible ALVIN (Hochstaedter
et al., 1990a, b; Fryer et al., 1990; Taylor et al., 1990) and
ocean drilling (Ocean Drilling Program [ODP] Leg 126)
(e.g. Fujioka et al., 1992; Gill et al., 1992; Taylor, 1992),
have been conducted. Furthermore, geochemical fea-
tures of volcanic rocks from the back-arc knolls zone
and the other back-arc rifts have also been reported
(Ikeda & Yuasa, 1989; Ikeda et al., 1992; Hochstaedter
et al., 2000; Hochstaedter et al., 2001). These studies
mainly defined that (i) rifting volcanism is character-
ized by the bimodal activity of mafic and felsic magma;
and (ii) enriched mid-ocean ridge basalt (E-MORB)
source-like enriched mantle components contribute to
magma genesis.
Volcanism on the volcanic front in the Izu–Bonin Arc
was reactivated in 17 Ma, slightly pre-dating the end
of the Shikoku Basin (back-arc basin) spreading (e.g.
Taylor et al., 1992). Furthermore, recent age determin-
ations of the volcanic rocks from the back-arc knolls
zone and the BAR (Ishizuka et al., 2002) have shown
that back-arc rifting volcanism occurred since 2.5 Ma,
that is, just after the back-arc volcanism along the cross-
chains ended (17–2.5 Ma; Ishizuka et al., 2003b). From
this time the back-arc knolls zone overprinted the east-
ern part of the cross-chains (Honza & Tamaki, 1985).
Thus volcanic activity occurred recently in the BAR.
This means that hydrothermal activities will be
observed both in the volcanic front and the BAR. Thus,
the BAR is characterized by rifting accompanied with
volcanic activity.
2.2. Hakurei Sulfide Deposit
The HSD is located between the inner caldera wall and
the caldera floor of the Bayonnaise Knoll (Figs 3, 4).
Dacitic and andesitic rocks were dredged from the
southeastern caldera walls (Tanahashi et al., 2006).
According to observation done using a deep-towed
TV camera system, the horizontal size of the HSD is
© 2008 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2008 The Society of Resource Geology
 Myojin Rift and Hokuroku Basin

Fig. 1
Tectonic setting of the Izu–Bonin Arc. ATL, Aogashima Tectonic Line proposed by Fujioka and Kido (2004); STL,
Sofugan Tectonic Line proposed by Yuasa (1985). A, Aogashima; C, Chichijima; Ha, Hahajima; Hc, Hachijojima; I, Iwojima;
K, Kozushima; Mk, Mikurajima; My, Miyakejima; Ni, Niijima; Ns, Nishinoshima; O, Oshima; So, Sofugan; Su, Sumisujima;
T, Torishima. Black dots and numbers indicate location of deep sea drilling by DSDP Leg 58, ODP Legs 125, 126, 185, and
190. Bathymetric data are from JTOPO30 (MIRC: Marine Information Research Center, http://www.mirc.jha.jp/).

approximately 700 × 500 m. This is as large as the Sun- ranging from 680–820 m on the south-eastern caldera
rise Deposit in the Myojin Knoll caldera, which is the wall of the Bayonnaise knoll. Thus this deposit is con-
largest one ever found in the Izu–Bonin volcanic front sidered to be the shallowest large-scale hydrothermal
(Iizasa et al., 1999). The HSD is located at water depths deposit in the world (Tanahashi et al., 2006). The HSD

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M. Tanahashi et al.

Quaternary Volcanic Front

(active arc)
Back-arc en echelon
Seamounts Frontal Arc High
(Cross-chain) Outer Arc High
Fig. 2
Schematic topographic
Serpentine cross-section of the Izu–Bonin
Seamount arc showing tectonic and vol-
Back-arc
Knolls Zone
Trench
canic provinces from trench
Forearc
Basin to rear arc. Structural features
Active Rift Zone
(Back-arc Rift) and name of province are
illustrated on the basis of
Honza and Tamaki (1985) and
Taylor (1992).

is composed of a forest of sulfide chimneys (Iizasa
et al., 2004; Tanahashi et al., 2006). The mineral assem-
blage of the chimneys from the HSD is very similar to
that of the kuroko ores from the Hokuroku Basin
(Iizasa et al., 2004; Tanahashi et al., 2006). The south-
eastern part of the inner caldera wall of the Bayonnaise
Knoll, where the HSD is located, is the intersection of
the steep caldera wall and the knoll chain of NNW–SSE
direction (Fig. 5) (Iizasa et al., 2004; Tanahashi et al.,
2006). On the basis of the topographic features, Tanahashi
et al. (2006) proposed that the HSD was formed at the in-
tersection of the inferred caldera fault and the intra-rift

Fig. 3
Bathymetric shaded-relief

map for the survey area. The
northern part of Myojin Rift is
defined as the North Myojin
Rift. The Bayonnaise Knoll
(and its summit caldera) is lo-
cated on the northern bound-
ary of the North Myojin Rift.
ESC, Empo Seamount Chain;
VF, volcanic front.

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304 Journal compilation © 2008 The Society of Resource Geology

Fig. 4
Bathymetry of the North
Myojin Rift (NMR). The NMR is
surrounded by the Bayonnaise
Knoll and six knolls. Line A-A’
and B-B’ are topographic cross-
sections (see Fig. 7).
fault (and/or fracture zone), which was parallel to the
Izu–Bonin Arc.
2.3. Hokuroku Basin and the kuroko deposits
According to Sato et al. (2004), two rift systems recog-
nized in the northern Honshu arc at the late Cenozoic
age include the Yamato basin rift system along the east-
ern part of the Sea of Japan and the northern Honshu
rift system in the western part of northern Honshu arc.
Yamada and Yoshida (2004) summarized the tectonic
evolution of the north-eastern Honshu arc as follows: (i)
back-arc opening of the Sea of Japan starting at ca 25 or
26 Ma; (ii) ocean floor spreading of the Yamato basin
(21–18 Ma); (iii) rifting of the northern Honshu rift (19–
13.5 Ma); and (iv) island-arc uplifting of the western half
of the northern Honshu rift and the forearc range at that
time (after 13.5 Ma). Kuroko deposits were formed
at the last stage of the northern Honshu rift (14.3 Ma)
© 2008 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2008 The Society of Resource Geology
Myojin Rift and Hokuroku Basin
(Terakado, 2001). Numerous investigations have been
conducted to survey and exploit the kuroko deposits in
the Hokuroku Basin (Hashimoto et al., 1962; Sakazaki
et al., 1965; Otagaki, 1966; Toraiwa & Hashiguchi, 1967;
Suzuki et al., 1971; Suga et al., 1972; Ishikawa &
Yanagisawa, 1974; Ito et al., 1974; Ohtagaki et al., 1974;
Oshima et al., 1974; Sato et al., 1974; Takahashi & Suga,
1974; Tanaka et al., 1974; Tanimura et al., 1974; Kanbara
et al., 1983; Yamada et al., 1988). According to these in-
vestigations, kuroko deposits in the Hokuroku Basin
are composite polymetallic sulfide-sulfate deposits of
strata-bound upper half (composed of black ore, yel-
low ore, and gypsum ore) and stockwork lower half
(composed of siliceous ore) (e.g. Sato, 1974). The black
ore consists mainly of sphalerite, galena, and barite ac-
companied by tetrahedrite and tennantite. The yellow
ore consists mainly of pyrite and chalcopyrite. The sili-
ceous ore consists of pyrite and chalcopyrite. It has
been presumed that the Hokuroku Basin is a caldera
305
M. Tanahashi et al.
and/or cauldron (Kouda & Koide, 1978; Ohmoto, 1978;
Horikoshi, 1983; Ohmoto and Takahashi, 1983). Cathles
et al. (1983), however, have proposed that the Hokuroku
Basin was a part of the failed rift. Takahashi (1983)
summarized geological data on the Hokuroku Region
obtained by mining companies and the former MMAJ,
and considered the volcanic stratigraphy and geotec-
tonic characteristics of the Hokuroku Basin. According
to Takahashi (1983), the formation process of the ku-
roko deposits in the Hokuroku Basin are as follows: (i)
ring-shaped faulting occurred just before the activity of
pre-kuroko acidic volcanic complexes; these volcanic
complexes were isolated, nearly ellipsoidal volcanoes
and were distributed in a loop adjacent to the faults; (ii)
as a result, inner subsidence of the fault family caused
the Hokuroku volcano-tectonic depression; (iii) each
306
Fig. 5
Structure controlled model for
the Hakurei Sulfide Deposit
(HSD). A number of N–S-trending
knoll chains are formed on the
eastern boundary of the North
Myojin Rift (NMR). The western
knoll chain crosses the summit
caldera of Bayonnaise Knoll. The
HSD is located at the intersection
of an inferred caldera fault and
N–S-trending knoll chain that is
assumed to be an intra-rift fault
(and/or fracture zone).
kuroko deposit including the Doyashiki, Matsumine-
Shakanai, Ezuri, Fukazawa, Uchinotai, Motoyama,
Ainai, and Furutobe as well as the closely related lava
dome were located on the extrusion center of the pre-
kuroko acidic volcanic complexes (Fig. 6). Subsequently,
Koga and Takahashi (1985) have noted that the kuroko
deposits in the Kosaka Area were located in a small
caldera 3 km wide east–west and 5 km north–south.
Nakajima (1993) took another look at the drill cores in
the Hokuroku Basin collected by the former Metal Min-
ing Agency of Japan (MMAJ) and at the drilling data
released by mining companies. Accordingly, Nakajima
recommended that all the representative kuroko de-
posits were located inside the depressions of the pre-
Neogene basement, in particular most of the large
kuroko deposits were located inside the small calderas
© 2008 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2008 The Society of Resource Geology
 Myojin Rift and Hokuroku Basin

Fig. 6
Distribution of kuroko deposits, pre-mineral acidic volcanic complexes and faults (dot lines) in the Hokuroku Basin
(Takahashi, 1983). Each kuroko deposit formed in the center of the acidic volcanic complex, which circles the Hokuroku
Basin. Major kuroko deposits such as the Doyashiki and Matsumine-Shakanai in Hanaoka area and Motoyama-Uchinotai
in Kosaka area are located along the principal fault structures.

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M. Tanahashi et al.

(a) 0
ENE
is a remarkable characteristic. The height of these knolls
WSW
-500 A
A' from the base is 500–1000 m, and the diameter of each
knoll is 6–8 km. There exist north–south-trending ridge-
North Myojin Rift
-1000 like structures in and around the NMR (Figs 4, 8).
-1500
0 5 km
-2000
139.58 139.63 139.68 139.73 139.78 139.83 º E 4. Discussion
Depth (m)

Longitude
(b) 0
SSW
HSD
-500 B
-1000 North Myojin Rift
Bayonnaise
Knoll
-1500
0 5 km
-2000
31.78 31.83 31.88 31.93
Latitude
Fig. 7
Topographic cross-sections of the North Myojin Rift
Section A-A’ is perpendicular to the island arc. The slope
of the rift boundary is gentle at the back-arc side but is
steep at the fore-arc side. The vertical displacement of the
rift is approximately 500 m at the fore-arc side. Section
B-B’ is along the island arc. The Hakurei Sulfide Deposit
(HSD) is on this cross-section. The vertical displacement
between the HSD and the rift floor is approximately
700 m. See locations of these sections in Figure 4.
or craters 2–3 km in diameter, and were formed on the
summit or flank of the submarine volcanoes.
3. Topographic features of the North
Myojin Rift
On the basis of the topographic features around the
Myojin Rift, Tanahashi et al. (2006) proposed that the
Myojin Rift was divided into northern and southern
parts by the east–west-trending ridge along 31°47 N,
and that the northern part must be a separate BAR
(Figs 3, 4). Therefore, we informally named the north-
ern part of the Myojin Rift the “North Myojin Rift”
(NMR). According to the division, the HSD and Bayon-
naise Knoll belong to the NMR. The NMR is approxi-
mately 20 km across perpendicular to the axis of the
Izu–Bonin Arc, and is approximately 30 km across from
north to south (Tanahashi et al., 2006) (Fig. 4). The floor
of the NMR is smooth and flat, but the eastern and
southern boundaries are steep (Figs 4, 7). The south-
eastern half of the NMR is bordered polygonally by
scarps. The NMR is surrounded by seven knolls, which
include the Bayonnaise Knoll (Tanahashi et al., 2006)
(Fig. 4). This ring-shaped arrangement of seven knolls
4.1. NMR and Hokuroku basin
NNE
B'
The Sunrise Deposit in the Myojin Knoll caldera
belongs to the Izu–Bonin volcanic front, located
approximately 20 km northeast of the Bayonnaise
Knoll. The HSD and the Bayonnaise Knoll belong to
the NMR, Izu–Bonin BAR. Ishihara (1974) noted the
possibility of the existence of kuroko-type deposits in
31.98 ºN
the Izu–Mariana and Ryukyu Arc. Subsequently, Ueda
(1983) noted that the Mariana Trough might be a con-
temporary version of the kuroko field in northeast Japan.
Fujioka (1983) found remarkable similarities between
the east–west morphotectonic configurations and pa-
leoenvironment of north-east Japan, Nishikurosawa
stage, middle Miocene and the present geotectonic fea-
tures of the Izu–Bonin BAR, and proposed a hypothesis
that the Izu–Bonin BAR was a modern analog of the
Inoue (1969) “Kuroko Belt”, which was a north–
south-trending tectonic depression of kuroko field in
north-east Japan. Until now, only barite silica chim-
neys from the Sumisu Rift, Izu–Bonin BAR have been
reported (Taylor et al., 1990; Urabe & Kusakabe, 1990).
Therefore the discovery of the HSD is the first proof
of the aforementioned Fujioka hypothesis (Tanahashi
et al., 2006). This poses the question as to what the
specific similarities are between the formation field
of the HSD and the kuroko deposits in the Hokuroku
Basin.
Considering the geotectonic features of NMR and
Hokuroku Basin mentioned here, we can confirm many
similarities between them (Table 1; Figs 6, 8). First
of all, the plane-view size and shape of NMR and
Hokuroku Basin, and the location of each fault system
is almost the same. The next remarkable similarity is
that the kuroko deposits in the Hokuroku Basin and
HSD in the NMR are formed on the submarine volca-
noes, which are located in a loop. In the case of the
Hokuroku Basin, the kuroko deposits of Furutobe-
Ainai, Motoyama-Uchinotai, Fukazawa, Ezuri, and
Doyashiki-Matsumine-Shakanai were located in the
center of five pre-kuroko acidic volcanic complexes
(Fig. 6) (Takahashi, 1983). These acidic volcanic com-
plexes were distributed in a loop within the Hokuroku
Basin (Takahashi, 1983). In contrast, seven submarine

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308 Journal compilation © 2008 The Society of Resource Geology
 Myojin Rift and Hokuroku Basin

N
B ayonnaise
Knoll

knoll
chain

Hakurei
Sulfide
Deposit

North Myojin Rift

Fig. 8
Schematic geotectonic map

of the North Myojin Rift (NMR).
The Bayonnaise Knoll and six 0 10 km
knolls circle the NMR. A number
of inferred intra-rift faults are fault caldera
recognized along the eastern (inferred)
boundary of NMR. The width of
submarine N-S trending
NMR perpendicular to the island
arc is approximately 20 km. volcano small ridge

volcanoes are also located circularly within the NMR,
and the HSD is formed inside the summit caldera of
Bayonnaise Knoll, which is one of these volcanoes
(Fig. 8). It is possible to regard the striking similarities as
specific evidence that suggests that the NMR is a mod-
ern analog of the Hokuroku Basin. Furthermore, this
means that the Hokuroku Basin must be not a caldera
or cauldron but a BAR (“Paleo Hokuroku Rift”) in the
Nishikurosawa stage, middle Miocene. These similari-
ties suggest a high potential for kuroko-type hydrother-
mal deposits in the NMR.
4.2. Prospecting for kuroko deposits
The discovery of the HSD indicates that a hydrother-
mal deposit was formed within not only the volcanic
front but also the BAR of the Izu–Bonin Arc. The sul-
fide chimneys from the HSD are considered to be
kuroko-type ores because of almost the same mineral
assembly and ore chemistry as those of kuroko depos-
its on land (Iizasa et al., 2004). This means that the
kuroko deposits are distributed in a vast area between
the volcanic front and the BAR of the Izu–Bonin Arc.
We propose the following hypotheses for the kuroko
deposits, considering the different tectonic setting of
the volcanic front and the back-arc rift.
Volcanic front
In the case of the Izu–Bonin volcanic front, there is
the possibility that kuroko deposits form between the
inner caldera wall and caldera floor of submarine
volcanoes. The representative example is the Sunrise
Deposit in the Myojin knoll caldera.
Back-arc rifts
In discovering an ore deposit, it is important to recog-
nize submarine volcanoes that rim the BAR in a circu-
lar fashion, as shown in Figure 8. Particularly promising
targets include the intersections of caldera fault and
knoll chain (inferred fault and/or fracture zone).
Land
Additionally, in order to improve the probability
of finding kuroko deposits on land, it is important
to consider the tectonic setting and structure control
of seafloor kuroko deposits as mentioned here: (i)
the location of back-arc rifts and the volcanic front;

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M. Tanahashi et al.

Table 1
Similarities between the North Myojin Rift and the Hokuroku basin
Characteristics North Myojin Rift Hokuroku Basin (note 1)
Topography

Configuration Ellipse Ellipse

Spatial distribution (km) E–W ± 20, N–S ± 20 E–W 17–20 km, N–S ± 25

Water depth of rift floor (m) 1300–1400 1000–1500

Vertical displacement (m) 300–500 100–300

Distribution of faults Eastern and southern boundary Eastern, western and southern
boundary
Volcanic activity

Distribution of volcanoes Ring-shaped Ring-shaped

No. volcanoes/volcanic complexes Seven Five

Size of each volcano (km) ±5 ±5

Distinctive landform Caldera, lava dome and Caldera and crater
knoll chain (Nakajima, 1993)

Size of caldera (km) ±3 2–3 (Nakajima, 1993)

Volcanic rocks Dacite, andesite Dacite, rhyolite
Hydrothermal activity

Ore type Kuroko-type Kuroko

Water depth (m) 680–820 1000–1500

Ore-forming field Caldera, especially intersection Caldera and/or crater
of caldera fault and intra-rift fault (Nakajima, 1993)
Center of pre-kuroko acidic volcanic
complexes and Kosaka caldera

Tectonic setting Back-arc rift Back-arc depression (Fujioka, 1983)
The characteristics without citation are based on Takahashi (1983).

(ii) direction of the arc–trench system and intra-rift
faults (and/or fracture zones); (iii) position of subma-
rine volcanoes surrounding back-arc rifts in a loop;
and (iv) the intersections of inferred caldera fault and
intra-rift faults (and/or fracture zones).
This is the first attempt to prospect for kuroko depos-
its in the Izu–Bonin Arc. Our information about the
HSD is still extremely limited, so it is necessary to con-
duct synthetic research on the HSD. The next significant
assignment is to study the characteristics of the HSD
precisely and to clarify the differences (and/or similari-
ties) between the HSD and the Sunrise Deposit.
5. Conclusions
This paper has considered the geotectonic similarities
of the ore deposits between the NMR and the Hokuroku
Basin. Many striking features have been described. It
can be inferred that the relationship between the
pre-kuroko acidic volcanic complexes and the kuroko
deposits in the Hokuroku Basin correspond to the rela-
tionship between the Bayonnaise Knoll and the HSD in
the NMR. These similarities suggest that the NMR
must be a modern analog of the Hokuroku Basin, and,
in other words, the Hokuroku Basin must not be a
caldera or cauldron but a BAR (“Paleo Hokuroku Rift”)
in the Nishikurosawa stage, middle Miocene. Almost
all the large-scale kuroko deposits in the Hokuroku
Basin are presumed to be formed at the intersections
of caldera faults and intra-rift faults (and/or fracture
zones). By undertaking the following estimations the
probability of striking kuroko deposits on land can be
improved: (i) location of BAR and the volcanic front;
(ii) direction of the arc–trench system and intra-rift
faults (and/or fracture zones); (iii) position of subma-
rine volcanoes surrounding a BAR in a loop; and (iv)
intersections of caldera faults and intra-rift faults (and/
or fracture zones). It is useful to apply the same sce-
nario to the Izu–Bonin BAR and the volcanic front for
prospecting unknown kuroko-type deposits. The inner
caldera wall and caldera floor of submarine volcanoes
are the most promising targets.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the members of the investiga-
tory commission of DORD, the captain, crew of R/V
Hakurei-maru No.2 and the supporting members for
their cooperation. We also thank METI for allowing us
to refer to the survey data. We thank Mrs S. Shiokawa,
H. Hishida and N. Ishikawa (JOGMEC) for their help-
ful comments. We thank Drs M. Yuasa and O. Ishizuka

© 2008 The Authors

310 Journal compilation © 2008 The Society of Resource Geology

(AIST) for giving us useful suggestions to improve the
contents. Finally, we would like to thank the mining
geologists who engaged in exploration for kuroko de-
posits in the Hokuroku Basin for their brilliant results
and beneficial papers on kuroko deposits.
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