The historical dictionaries present essential information on a broad range of subjects,

including American and world history, art, business, cities, countries, cultures, customs,
film, global conflicts, international relations, literature, music, philosophy, religion,
sports, and theater. Written by experts, all contain highly informative introductory essays
on the topic and detailed chronologies that, in some cases, cover vast historical time
periods but still manage to heavily feature more recent events.
Brief A–Z entries describe the main people, events, politics, social issues, institutions,
and policies that make the topic unique, and entries are cross-referenced for ease of
browsing. Extensive bibliographies are divided into several general subject areas, provid-
ing excellent access points for students, researchers, and anyone wanting to know more.
Additionally, maps, photographs, and appendixes of supplemental information aid high
school and college students doing term papers or introductory research projects. In short,
the historical dictionaries are the perfect starting point for anyone looking to research in
these fields.
 HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES OF
PROFESSIONS AND INDUSTRIES

Jon Woronoff, Series Editor

Petroleum Industry, by M. S. Vassiliou, 2009.

Journalism, by Ross Eaman, 2009.
U.S. Maritime Industry, by Kenneth J. Blume, 2012.
Librarianship, by Mary Ellen Quinn, 2014.
Japanese Business, Second Edition, by Stuart D. B. Picken, 2016.
Fashion Industry, Second Edition, by Francesca Sterlacci and Joanne Arbuckle, 2017.
Petroleum Industry, Second Edition, by Marius S. Vassiliou, 2018.
American Music Industry, by Keith Hatschek and Veronica A. Wells, 2018.
Historical Dictionary of the
American Music Industry

Keith Hatschek and Veronica A. Wells

ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD

Lanham • Boulder • New York • London
Published by Rowman & Littlefield
An imprint of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.
4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706
www.rowman.com

Unit A, Whitacre Mews, 26-34 Stannary Street, London SE11 4AB

Copyright © 2018 by Keith Hatschek and Veronica A. Wells

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any
electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems,
without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote
passages in a review.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Hatschek, Keith, author. | Wells, Veronica A., 1984- author.

Title: Historical dictionary of the American music industry / Keith Hatschek, Veronica A. Wells.
Description: Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield, [2018] | Series: Historical dictionaries of professions
and industries | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018038198 (print) | LCCN 2018038206 (ebook) | ISBN 9781538111444 (elec-
tronic) | ISBN 9781538111437 (hardcover : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Music trade—United States—Dictionaries. | Sound recording industry—United
States—Dictionaries.
Classification: LCC ML102.M85 (ebook) | LCC ML102.M85 H37 2018 (print) | DDC 338.4/
7780973—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018038198

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American
National Standard for Information Sciences Permanence of Paper for Printed Library
Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

Printed in the United States of America.

 Contents

Acknowledgments vii

Reader’s Note ix

Acronyms and Abbreviations xi

Chronology xv

Introduction 1

THE DICTIONARY 33

Appendix A: Music Industry Trade Associations 309

Appendix B: U.S. Music Business Academic Programs 317

Appendix C: Recording and Broadcast Chronology 337

Bibliography 343

About the Authors 361

v
 Acknowledgments

We would like to thank our research assistants, Alyssa Dezell, Christina

Estes-Wynne, Lupita Ramos, and Noelle Tutunjian, for their help with or-
ganization, fact-checking, and helping to compile the supplemental materials
and appendixes. Special thanks to Myrna Vick for creating the helpful and
concise two-page Music Industry Timeline in appendix C. Finally, we would
also like to thank our respective spouses, Laura Hatschek and David Wells,
for their patience and support as we worked to complete this volume.

vii
 Reader’s Note

The focus of this dictionary is on the American music industry. The authors
have chosen to emphasize people, organizations, industry terminology, con-
cepts, and practices to provide the reader with an overview of how the music
industry has evolved. While the introductory essay describes the role of
music in the colonial era, the period immediately before the American Civil
War represents the commencement of what would become the music indus-
try we know today, with music managers taking responsibility for selling
music in various forms. Although an attempt is made to cover the rich diver-
sity of musical styles, the focus of this volume is primarily the popular music
industry, as it has been and remains the greatest portion of the American
music marketplace measured by revenue. We have also included a range of
music-industry-specific terminology relating to contractual relationships and
agreements. Biographical coverage is representative rather than comprehen-
sive since many more individuals in the country have contributed to the
development of the music industry than could be included in these pages.
Decisions as to which entries would be included were made solely by the
authors.
To help orient the reader, it may be useful to consider the three dominant
forms of music dissemination that evolved and which are discussed in this
dictionary. They are the era of printed music, roughly spanning the late 17th
to the early 20th centuries; the era of recording and broadcasting, covering
the 1920s to the 2000s; and the era of the internet between 1990 and the
present day. Each in its time was the most significant pipeline to provide
music to consumers and reward music creators and managers for their ef-
forts.
How the Billboard charts are calculated has evolved in the more than 100
years since they began being published. Numerical ranking originally relied
on reported sales of sheet music, records, and radio airplay. Following the
evolution of music delivery systems in the 21st century, the charts are now
tabulated using the earlier metrics plus track equivalent albums (downloads)
and streaming equivalent albums. Chart positions referenced are based on
whichever measurement methodology was utilized at the relevant time.
Specific data regarding how many records an artist has sold over the course of
his or her career is subject to some debate as varying sources have often utilized
different methods to calculate sales totals (e.g., record company reported sales

ix
x • READER’S NOTE
versus Nielsen SoundScan verified sales). When more than one sales total is
reported for a particular artist, we have erred on the side of caution and
generally reported the lower number.
In order to facilitate the rapid and efficient location of information and to
make this book as useful a reference tool as possible, extensive cross-refer-
ences have been provided in the dictionary section. Within individual entries,
terms that have their own entries are in bold face type the first time they
appear. Related terms that do not appear in the text are indicated by See also
references. See refers to other entries that deal with this topic.
 Acronyms and Abbreviations

A2IM American Association of Independent Music

AAA adult album alternative (radio format)
AARC Alliance of Artists and Recording Companies
AC adult contemporary music
AES Audio Engineering Society
AFM American Federation of Musicians
AFTRA American Federation of Television and Radio Artists
AGMA American Guild of Musical Artists
AHRA Audio Home Recording Act of 1992
AIMP Association of Independent Music Publishers
AMP Association of Music Producers
AMTA American Music Therapy Association
AOR album-oriented rock (radio format)
APAP Association of Performing Arts Presenters
ARSC Association for Recorded Sound Collections
ASCAP American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers
ATH audience tuning hours
BMI Broadcast Music Incorporated
BPD basic price to dealers
C of A certificate of authorship
CABSAT cable or satellite services
CC Creative Commons
CCM Contemporary Christian Music
CD compact disc
CHR contemporary hit radio
CISAC International Confederation of Societies of Authors and
Composers
CMA Country Music Association

xi
xii • ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
CMJ College Music Journal
CMRRA Canadian Mechanical Rights Reproduction Agency
CRB Copyright Royalty Board
CRIA Canadian Recording Industry Association
CWA Communication Workers of America
DART Digital Audio Recording Technology Act (1995)
DAW digital audio workstation
DIY do it yourself
DJ disk jockey, deejay, on-air radio host, or turntablist
DMCA Digital Millennium Copyright Act (1998)
DPD Digital Phonorecord Delivery
DRM digital rights management
DSP digital service provider
EDC Electric Daisy Carnival (festival)
EDM electronic dance music
EFF Electronic Frontier Foundation
ESA Entertainment Software Association
FMC Future of Music Coalition
GMA Gospel Music Association
GUI graphical user interface
HFA Harry Fox Agency
IAWM International Alliance for Women in Music
IATSE International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees, Moving
Picture Technicians, Artists and Allied Crafts
IEBA International Entertainment Buyers Association
IFPI International Federation of the Phonographic Industry
IMA Indie Managers Association
ISME International Society for Music Education
ISP internet service provider
ISPA International Society for the Performing Arts
ISRC International Song Recording Code
LOC Library of Congress
 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS • xiii
MIDEM Marché International du Disque et de l’Edition Musicale
(conference)
MMF Music Managers Forum
MOR middle-of-the-road
MP3 MPEG-1, MPEG-2, Audio Layer III, compressed audio file
format
MPA Music Publishers Association
MPAA Motion Picture Association of America
MPEG Moving Pictures Experts Group
MPTF Music Performance Trust Fund
MTC Meet the Composer
NABET National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians
NACA National Association of Campus Activities
NAfME National Association for Music Education
NAMM National Association of Music Merchants
NAPAMA North American Performing Arts Managers and Agents
NARAS National Association of Recording Arts and Sciences
(Recording Academy)
NARIP National Association of Record Industry Professionals
NATS National Association of Teachers of Singing
NMPA National Music Publishers’ Association
NSAI Nashville Songwriters Association International
P2P peer-to-peer file sharing
P&D pressing and distribution agreement
PPD published priced to dealers/distributors
PRO performing rights organization
PRS performing rights society
RIAA Recording Industry Association of America
ROI return on investment
ROW rest of world
SAG Screen Actors Guild
SCL Society of Composers and Lyricists
SDMI Secure Digital Music Initiative
xiv • ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
SEA streaming equivalent album
SESAC Society of European Stage Authors and Composers
SKU stock keeping unit
SPARS Society of Professional Audio Recording Studios
SXSW South by Southwest (festival)
TEA track equivalent album
UCC Uniform Code Council
UGC user-generated content
UPC Universal Product Code (i.e., barcode)
URL Uniform Resource Locater
UX user experience
VJ video host or veejay
VLA Volunteer Lawyers for the Arts
WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization
 Chronology

1877 Thomas Edison invents cylinder recording, which soon leads to an

emerging mass market for cylinder records and players.
1889 First “coin-in-a-slot” jukebox debuts in San Francisco, proving ex-
tremely popular with patrons in bars.
1895 Emile Berliner manufactures first shellac disc recordings.
1901 Guglielmo Marconi makes first successful transoceanic radio transmis-
sion.
1909 Copyright Act of 1909 is passed.
1910 Tenor Enrico Caruso makes first broadcast from Metropolitan Opera.
1920 First commercial radio broadcast on KDKA, Pittsburgh. Mamie
Smith’s “Crazy Blues” recording on Okeh Records sells one million copies.
1924 George Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue premieres in New York City on
12 February, artfully combining elements of jazz and classical music. By
1927, the concerto’s recording sells more than one million copies.
1927 Philo Farnsworth invents television, a medium that will prove integral
to the marketing and dissemination of popular music. The Jazz Singer is the
first commercial talking picture featuring dialogue with music on a synchron-
ized soundtrack.
1930 First commercial radio is installed in an automobile by a new firm,
Motorola.
1935 Your Hit Parade weekly radio countdown show debuts, the precursor to
top 40 radio.
1942 American Federation of Musicians institutes recording ban. Bing Cros-
by records “White Christmas,” which goes on to sell 50 million copies.
1954 Regency Electronics debuts the TR-1 on 18 October, the world’s first
battery-powered pocket transistor radio, allowing consumers to listen to mu-
sic anywhere. Sony Electronics develops its own pocket transistor radio
prototype, the TR-55, which is introduced to the Japanese market early the
following year.

xv
xvi • CHRONOLOGY
1956 Elvis Presley performs on a number of national TV broadcasts, some of
which generate hundreds of thousands of letters from citizens concerned that
his suggestive dance moves are harmful to teens.
1960 RCA Records begins the practice of releasing all singles in both mono
and stereo (two-channel) formats, heralding the move toward better and bet-
ter sound quality in the coming decades.
1961 Motown Records earns its initial number one hit, “Please, Mr. Post-
man” by the Marvelettes, the first of 20 number ones it achieves during the
1960s by artists such as the Supremes, the Temptations, the Four Tops,
Stevie Wonder, Mary Wells, and Marvin Gaye.
1962 Conductor Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic give the
debut performance on 23 September in Philharmonic Hall at New York
City’s Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts. The concert is broadcast live
across the nation.
1963 Bob Dylan releases the recording “Blowin’ in the Wind,” a song that
becomes closely associated with the civil rights movement. Dylan’s songs
epitomize the socially conscious role many musicians would take in the
1960s to challenge the status quo and question authority with respect to
perceived societal ills.
1964 The Beatles’ 9 February appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show is
beamed into homes all across America and becomes a defining moment in
American popular culture. It signifies the start of the so-called British Inva-
sion, which is characterized by dozens of British bands finding chart success
in the United States. By 4 April 1964, the Beatles have achieved the unprece-
dented feat of holding the top five positions on the Billboard “Hot 100”
chart.
1965 The British Invasion continues to crest, with four of the year’s top five
hit singles in the United States performed by the Beatles or the Rolling
Stones, who also attain similar success around the world. The Beatles’ album
Rubber Soul pushes the boundaries of pop music, incorporating the sitar and
including concept songs that move beyond the standard pop fare that the
group rode to global fame.
1966 The Beach Boys, a California surf rock group, release the album Pet
Sounds to critical acclaim but only modest commercial success. Using a
variety of studio musicians and instruments, the group’s Brian Wilson pro-
duces an imaginative, unique album that will greatly influence future musi-
cians.
 CHRONOLOGY • xvii
1967 The Monterey Pop Festival, held on 16–18 June, is the first major
international music festival and provides a blueprint for artists and promoters
to emulate in the ensuing growth of the live music industry over the coming
decades. The festival’s music and overall experience is ably documented in
the motion picture Monterey Pop. The Doors’ single “Light My Fire” sells
more than one million copies and launches the group into superstar status,
even though their mercurial lead singer, Jim Morrison, publicly uses profan-
ity, leading to indecency charges.
1968 The rock musical Hair opens on Broadway, and songs from the musical
cross over onto the mainstream pop music charts. In response to the tragic
death of Martin Luther King Jr., the cast performs at the ensuing march on
Washington, DC, along with many other notable artists. Legendary impresa-
rio Bill Graham opens the Fillmore East concert venue in New York City,
based on the original Fillmore in San Francisco, a music and cultural mecca
for artists and fans of the era.
1969 Woodstock is a music and art festival held on 15–18 August in Upstate
New York that would come broadly to symbolize the positive aspects of the
era’s counterculture, painting it as a unifying, socially conscious youth
movement. With more than 400,000 people in attendance, the festival is
documented through a film and album of the same name. The Who release
the rock opera Tommy to popular and critical acclaim, demonstrating the
validity of the concept album on a grand scale, a model that will be followed
by other groups in the ensuing decade. The Altamont Music Festival is
staged by the Rolling Stones and billed as a free concert near San Francisco.
However, it tragically ends in the death of four attendees, one at the hands of
the Hells Angels motorcycle club, who were hired by the Stones to provide
security.
1970 Simon & Garfunkel release their final album as a duo, Bridge Over
Troubled Waters, which goes on to win six Grammy Awards and top the
charts for six weeks in United States. In the UK, the Isle of Wight Festival,
26–30 August, is attended by an estimated audience of 600,000 fans, making
it one of the largest music festival audiences ever.
1971 Ex-Beatle George Harrison puts together the first large-scale all-star
charity rock concert on 1 August, titled the Concert for Bangladesh, to pro-
vide relief for the horrific conditions present in that region. The sellout event
held at New York City’s Madison Square Garden, along with the subsequent
hit album and motion picture, eventually raises $12 million for charitable
causes in Bangladesh and provides a model for future cause-based mega-
events.
xviii • CHRONOLOGY
1972 U.S. Congress creates the sound recording copyright to provide consis-
tency at the federal level for all original sound recordings. Opryland Theme
Park opens in Nashville and celebrates country music, one of the first U.S.
tourist attractions based on a specific music genre or region.
1973 The British group Pink Floyd releases their album Dark Side of the
Moon, which goes on to become one of the best-selling albums of all time. It
remains on the Billboard chart for 741 consecutive weeks. As a result of the
oil shortage, vinyl to make albums is scarce and some record labels have to
delay album releases during the fourth quarter as a result. The Summer Jam
Music Festival, held on 28 July at Watkins Glen, New York, draws more
than 600,000 ticketed attendees.
1974 Demonstrating the earning power of a classic song, the 1954 recording
of “Rock Around the Clock” by Bill Haley & the Comets reenters the Bill-
board charts due to its use in the motion picture American Graffiti and the
television series Happy Days. ABBA wins the Eurovision song contest with
the song “Waterloo,” launching their global career.
1976 U.S. district court finds that George Harrison most likely subconscious-
ly copied the musical elements of the Chiffons 1963 hit “He’s So Fine” in the
creation of his worldwide hit “My Sweet Lord.”
1977 The movie Saturday Night Fever is released. It effectively pairs a
youth-oriented plotline with a pop music soundtrack album to great acclaim.
This multiple-media (film and soundtrack) release helps further develop the
industry practice of cross-media marketing. The album spends 24 weeks atop
the Billboard charts and a total of 210 weeks on the charts, eventually regis-
tering more than 15 million units in sales while helping to establish disco as
the dominant pop music genre of the time.
1979 The song “Rapper’s Delight” by the Sugarhill Gang is released and
becomes a hit outside of the major label system, selling two million copies.
More importantly, it is the harbinger of a new musical and cultural phenome-
non—hip hop.
1980 The Sony Walkman, a portable personal cassette player, goes on sale in
the United States in June. It weighs only 14 ounces and comes with head-
phones and a leather case. The Walkman has no external speaker and is the
first music player designed exclusively for private, portable listening. Its
runaway success confirms substantial consumer interest in personal listening
devices. The Walkman is the first in what becomes a succession of similarly
functioning personal portable music players, including the Discman, MP3
players, the iPod, and smart phones.
 CHRONOLOGY • xix
1981 On 1 August, MTV broadcasts for the first time on cable television in
the United States, playing music videos 24 hours a day. The videos are
introduced by VJs (video jockeys) and used as promotional material for
artists’ albums. Videos soon become a necessity to market mainstream music
acts, while MTV expands its reach to include dozens of nations around the
world. By the early 1990s, MTV begins to transition to airing original reality
shows not related to music videos. MTV continues to regularly air videos on
the show Total Request Live, which ends in 2008.
1982 Michael Jackson’s Thriller is released in the United States on 30 No-
vember. This album will go on to become the world’s most successful album,
with sales estimated at more than 65 million units. Notably, it is lauded
equally as an artistic success, earning a record eight Grammy Awards. The
first 50 commercial compact disc titles are released in Japan on 1 October.
1983 On 2 March, compact discs go on sale in the United States. Although at
their introduction the discs and players carry premium pricing compared to
vinyl albums or cassettes, the new format quickly grows in popularity and
supplants other record formats by the late 1980s.
1985 Live Aid is held on 13 July, which brings together dozens of acts
performing first at Wembley Stadium in London and afterward at JFK Sta-
dium in Philadelphia to raise awareness and funds for famine relief in Africa.
An audience of 1.5 billion watches the performances in 150 countries using
newly developed satellite broadcast technology.
1986 The first-ever Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction ceremony occurs
on 30 January. Buddy Holly, Elvis Presley, and Ray Charles were among the
performers inducted.
1987 The first joint rock concert to promote peace between the United States
and Russia takes place on 4 July, the American Independence Day, in Mos-
cow. Performers include James Taylor, Bonnie Raitt, Santana, and the Soviet
rock group Autograph.
1988 Michael Jackson’s fifth single from his album Bad, “Dirty Diana,”
enters the charts. This makes him the first and only male solo act in history to
have five consecutive charting singles from one album on the Billboard “Hot
100” to date.
1990 On 16 April, a large-scale charity concert is held at London’s Wembley
Stadium, with over 72,000 attendees. The event celebrates the end of South
Africa’s policy of apartheid and the release of South African leader Nelson
Mandela, a human rights activist who was jailed for 27 years by the white
majority leaders in that country. It is broadcast to more than 60 countries.
Performers include Lou Reed, Anita Baker, Chrissie Hynde, Tracy Chapman,
xx • CHRONOLOGY
Bonnie Raitt, Natalie Cole, Neil Young, and Peter Gabriel. However, the
headliner is Mandela himself, with a videotaped 45-minute prerecorded
speech airing during the concert.
1991 The Billboard “Top 200” album chart now includes actual sales data
monitored electronically by Nielsen SoundScan. The first edition of enter-
tainment attorney Donald S. Passman’s All You Need to Know about the
Music Business is published, revealing for the first time to musicians and the
general public the inner workings of the music and recording industry, in-
cluding royalty and contract provisions for recording artists.
1992 Nirvana’s Nevermind album hits number one on the Billboard chart.
The group’s runaway success solidifies grunge, a previously underground
musical genre of the counterculture. This music will go on throughout the
1990s to become mainstream music around the world.
1993 UK band Depeche Mode attempts one of the first online open forums
with fans via a question-and-answer session hosted by leading internet ser-
vice provider America Online (AOL). Technical difficulties plague the event,
the worst of which being people not able to log into the session, including the
host band members.
1994 Pearl Jam files a complaint with the U.S. Justice Department against
Ticketmaster, claiming they have a virtual monopoly on the concert ticket
business resulting in unreasonably high fees for the band’s fans. After a year-
long federal antitrust probe, the investigation is dropped.
1995 The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum opens in Cleveland, Ohio.
The physical museum’s opening is commemorated with a benefit concert that
features unique collaborations, such as Chuck Berry with Bruce Springsteen
and the E Street Band, and a diverse lineup of performers, including Bob
Dylan, Aretha Franklin, and Johnny Cash.
1996 The Broadway rock musical Rent has its first public performance off
Broadway at the New York Theater Workshop. It is based on Puccini’s opera
La Boehme and addresses controversial topics such as the ongoing AIDS
crisis. Rent goes on to become a smash hit, running for 12 years on Broad-
way and grossing an estimated $610 million, including U.S. and overseas
tours. It becomes one of the few musicals to win the Pulitzer Prize for
Drama.
1997 The Verve release their album Urban Hymns and end up in a legal
dispute with the Rolling Stones over hit single “Bittersweet Symphony.”
While the group initially pays for the rights to sample the Stones’ 1965 song
“The Last Time,” the Rolling Stones subsequently sue the group for copy-
 CHRONOLOGY • xxi
right infringement, arguing the Verve’s usage is much more significant than
that which had been approved. The Verve end up settling out of court, giving
Jagger and Richards full songwriting credit and royalties.
1998 The U.S. Copyright Term Extension Act is signed into law, which
provides rights holders and the entertainment industry 20 additional years of
exclusive rights to any work created after 1923 that was still under copyright
protection on 27 October. It also aligns American copyright term with that of
the European Union.
1999 The Recording Industry Association of America introduces new Di-
amond album certification, in addition to the preexisting Gold and Platinum
certifications. Diamond indicates 10 million copies sold, or the streaming
equivalent. U.S. College student Shawn Fanning creates the Napster peer-to-
peer file sharing software that allows music fans worldwide to find and
download music without authorization by the rights holders.
2000 NSYNC’s No Strings Attached album sells 2.4 million copies in its first
week. Pandora Radio is launched, using the first detailed analysis of each
song’s musical attributes to create individualized personal radio stations for
each subscriber.
2001 Napster shuts down its peer-to-peer file sharing service under court
order after losing its appeal. The first iPod is released. The music industry
responds to the 11 September attacks with a series of benefit events in the
United States.
2002 Music talent show American Idol premieres on prime-time television,
going on to become a significant television ratings success while creating a
direct pipeline for talented performers to the music industry.
2003 Apple’s iTunes music store debuts, selling one million songs its first
week. Celine Dion begins a 700-performance, five-year residency in Las
Vegas, establishing a new live entertainment paradigm for top-tier artists.
MySpace debuts as one of the first music-sharing sites to be widely adopted
by artists and music fans.
2004 Madonna kicks off her Re-Invention Tour, hitting 56 cities and gross-
ing $125 million in receipts.
2005 Guitar Hero video game debuts, leading to a surge in interactive music-
based games. This results in a new category of music licensing for interactive
music games. Sony/BMG recalls 15 million compact discs that carry a hid-
den program that installs anticopying software onto consumers’ personal
computers without their permission.
xxii • CHRONOLOGY
2006 The iTunes music store sells its one billionth download. Rock band OK
Go debuts “Here It Goes Again,” a quirky video featuring the members of the
band lip-synching while dancing on treadmills. It becomes one of the first
viral music videos to demonstrate new video sharing platform YouTube’s
reach. The video accumulates more than 50 million views, landing the song
on the Billboard “Hot 100” chart. Sixteen-year-old Taylor Swift’s epony-
mous debut album is released, earning favorable reviews and resonating with
teens and parents as it goes on to sell more than five million copies.
2007 Radiohead release their album In Rainbows via the internet using a
“pay what you want” model. This challenges the century-old model of record
labels controlling record releases. Disney debuts the music-centric cable mo-
vie High School Musical 2, attracting 17.2 million viewers, making it the
most watched basic cable broadcast up to that time. Disney uses synergy to
market soundtrack albums, merch, clothing, sheet music, and other related
products to further enhance the project’s earnings.
2008 Hip hop star Lil’ Wayne releases Tha Carter III, selling more than one
million copies the first week. Eventually earning triple-platinum sales, the
album is the best seller for the year, demonstrating the sustained audience for
hip hop.
2009 Michael Jackson announces his final concert performances, the This Is
It series of 50 concerts to be held at London’s O2 Arena. All 50 shows sell
out in less than four hours. Tragically, Jackson dies of an overdose of pain
medication during the rehearsals.
2010 Women take center stage at the 52nd Grammy Awards, with Beyoncé
taking home six Grammys, Taylor Swift four, and Rihanna, Colbie Caillat,
and Lady Gaga two apiece. Lady Gaga becomes the first woman to chart six
consecutive number one singles on the Billboard chart.
2011 Spotify launches in the United States. The guerilla marketing strategy
of offering full-length albums for free via the internet to build a critical mass
among fans before releasing a commercial album continues, as Frank
Ocean’s Nostalgia Ultra earns rave reviews and leads to a record deal with
Def Jam Records. Adele’s album 21 is released, going on to attain Diamond
status overall and notably selling six million album downloads in the process.
2012 Major record labels continue to consolidate as Universal Music’s deal
to acquire EMI Records is finalized, leaving only three major labels. Inde-
pendent artist Amanda Palmer demonstrates the power of crowdfunding
when she uses Kickstarter to raise more than one million dollars directly
from fans for her next project.
 CHRONOLOGY • xxiii
2013 Jay-Z and Samsung partner in a reported $30 million deal to deliver
exclusive first-week access to his new album, Magna Carta . . . Holy Grail,
to consumers owning a Samsung smart phone, eliminating the middleman for
one of the most anticipated releases of the year.
2014 Taylor Swift’s album 1989 is the best-selling release of the year, going
triple platinum. Music fans continue to boost the live music sector, with an
estimated 35 percent of all consumer music expenditures in 2014 going to
attend concerts, while music festival attendance expands by 34 percent, with
a reported 30 million Americans attending one or more music festivals. Bill-
board announces it will include data from both music streaming and down-
load services in its chart calculations, a nod to the multiple streams consu-
mers now use to discover and enjoy music.
2015 Adele breaks sales records with the release of her album 25, selling
more than 3.38 million copies in its first week of release. The Recording
Industry Association of America reports that for the first time record industry
revenues from music streaming surpass the sale of recorded music, a trend
likely to grow exponentially as more consumers adopt media streaming over
ownership. In a landmark copyright case, the estate of Marvin Gaye is
awarded a $7.4 million judgment citing infringement by Pharrell Williams
and Robin Thicke for their song “Blurred Lines.”
2016 According to Nielsen Research, the most popular album of the year
relies primarily on streaming platforms to reach its listeners. Drake’s Views
(in its first week) charts more than one million combined units via a blend of
album sales, track equivalent albums, and streaming equivalent albums. It
accumulates a total of 245 million streams its first week, while notching eight
additional weeks during which the album has more than 100 million streams.
2017 Crowdfunding gains broader acceptance and specifically in the music
industry, as numerous artists develop and launch campaigns using platforms
such as Patreon, Pledge Music, and IndieGoGo to create a viable means to
gain financial support. In many cases, this revenue replaces revenue formerly
earned through record sales. When successful, this strategy allows crowd-
funded artists to avoid signing away creative and business control of their
careers to third parties. The current global marketplace for money raised by
crowdfunding ventures totals the equivalent of seven billion dollars.
 Introduction

BEGINNINGS OF THE AMERICAN MUSIC INDUSTRY

Immigrants coming to America brought many of their own musical traditions

to their new home. In the 17th century, this included music from England,
Ireland, Scotland, Germany, France, Italy, and other mainly European coun-
tries whose citizens helped to settle the continent. Religious music, especially
hymns, played an important role in the early musical traditions of the first
American colonists. In 1640, The Bay Psalm Book, a collection of words to
be sung during religious services, was published in Cambridge, Massachu-
setts, one of the first published works of any sort in the colonies. In 1698, the
ninth edition of The Bay Psalm Book was published and included music
written in two parts for 13 of the included songs.
The musical traditions found in America during the colonial era included
those influenced by what one would term Western classical music today,
predominantly piano, string, woodwind, and vocal music, most often per-
formed by amateur or professional musicians reading a notated music score;
as well as common or folk music that was passed on from generation to
generation as an aural tradition. Such folk music relied mostly on string
instruments such as the banjo, guitar, harmonica, fiddle, and zither. African
Americans, introduced to the colonies as slaves in the early 17th century,
brought their own musical traditions, which would have a profound impact
on the evolution of American music as well as on the music industry that
would evolve. African Americans brought the banjo, various types of drums,
rattles and percussion instruments, panpipes, flutes, and the kalimba (thumb
piano), often crafting their instruments out of natural materials found nearby.
Benjamin Franklin published a collection of Pennsylvania German
American hymns in 1730, while the first organ was built in the colonies at
Philadelphia in 1737 and installed at New York City’s Trinity Church. Josiah
Flagg was one of America’s most active musicians in the pre–Revolutionary
War period. He was a conductor, bandmaster, engraver, and tune-book com-
piler, perhaps best known for publishing his 1764 edition of A Collection of
Best Psalm Tunes. One of the earliest songs was composed in 1759 by
American-born colonist Francis Hopkinson and titled “My Days Have Been
So Wondrous Free.” Hopkinson also published one of the first collections of
music by an American-born composer in 1788, Seven Songs for the Harpsi-
chord or Forte Piano, dedicated to George Washington. Two years prior, in

1
2 • INTRODUCTION
1786, the Stoughton (Massachusetts) Musical Society was formed and began
a long tradition of community musical societies and associations to support
the musical arts across America. It was during the last two decades of the
18th century that music began to be published and sold in America. At that
time, a number of immigrant composer-publishers, most notably Benjamin
Carr, George Gilfert, and James Hewitt, opened music publishing houses in
Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, and New York.
By 1790, the first formal legislation was created in America to protect
original works such as books, maps, and charts. While music was not specifi-
cally taken into account in the Copyright Act of 1790, evidence shows music
was routinely submitted for copyright protection and was classified as a
“book.” Other forms of artistic expression, such as paintings or drawings,
were not protected. The newly independent American leaders based the
Copyright Act of 1790 extensively on England’s 1709 Statute of Anne. The
Copyright Act of 1790 required authors to register their original works with
the Library of Congress and to provide copies, which would be deposited in
designated repositories such as the Library of Congress. The original term
under the Copyright Act of 1790 was 14 years, with a provision for an author
still alive at the end of the copyright term to renew it for 14 additional years.
Throughout the first half of the 1800s, music continued to represent an
important place in American society, both through its presence in religious
services as well as in secular music performances. The Copyright Act of
1831 allowed for the statutory protection of printed musical works for the
first time. Additionally, the law extended the term of the original copyright to
28 years with an option to renew it for an additional 14 years.
Popular songs grew increasingly important to the social fabric of
American life in the mid-19th century. One songwriter, Stephen Foster, pro-
vides an example of how popular songs traveled across America with every-
day persons. His best-known songs, such as “Oh, Susanna,” were sung in
classrooms, dance halls, and parlors across the growing nation.
One of the most popular types of entertainment in the 19th century was the
minstrel show, which mimicked what were believed to be signature aspects
of African American culture through songs, dance routines, and skits. Min-
strelsy, as the practice is now referred to, was at first performed exclusively
by whites, who would use burnt cork to blacken their faces before each
performance, hence the phrase “performing in blackface.” White minstrelsy
performers studied African Americans making music, dancing, and pro-
claiming and then adapted this black culture for audiences across America.
Dozens of minstrelsy troupes crisscrossed the young nation, giving perfor-
mances wherever an audience could be found. One group, the Virginia Min-
strels, became the model for many other groups with an instrumentation of
fiddle, banjo, bones (hand percussion), and tambourine. Their 1843 perfor-
 INTRODUCTION • 3
mance in New York City was a resounding success and led to a tour that
same year to England. Dan Emmett, the group’s fiddler, is credited with
writing the song “Dixie,” which became another iconic popular song.
After the Civil War, black performers began to take part in minstrelsy
shows in greater numbers, and by 1900 African American musicians, singers,
dancers, and comedians were well-known contributors to the popular music
industry of the time. Minstrelsy is important to note in the history of the
music industry, as it is one of the first examples of members of one racial or
ethnic group appropriating the cultural traditions and musical idioms of an-
other and profiting from that use. Another term that is often applied to such
practice is “borrowing,” and it is a consistent thread throughout the history of
American popular music and culture, indeed through nearly all of music
history. By the late 1800s, minstrelsy shows had largely evolved into vaude-
ville performances, which offered a greater variety of entertainment, includ-
ing comedy, trained animal acts, juggling, ventriloquists, song and dance,
acrobats, musical numbers, and even the occasional pugilist or criminal.
Vaudeville performers toured the country to the thousands of well-estab-
lished theaters, which were owned by a few large impresarios. Through the
use of railroads for travel and telegraph and telephone for booking, the
vaudeville circuit became a tightly run movement that employed more than
12,000 performers. At its height, vaudeville was the most popular American
entertainment, with theaters hosting performances two or three times each
day. Importantly, music publishers in New York City competed with each
other to form relationships with vaudeville promoters in order to provide
publishers’ latest songs a national platform and effectively boost sheet music
sales. Often, inducements ranging from free beer to monetary incentives
were used to sweeten the deal, a practice that has continued in various forms
throughout the history of the music industry.
Classical music provided an alternative to popular music, with the New
York Philharmonic Society’s founding in 1842 marking the nation’s first
standing orchestra dedicated to performing concert hall repertoire of the era.
In 1891, a grand new concert hall opened in New York City, funded by
philanthropist Andrew Carnegie. The New York Philharmonic would go on
to present concerts at Carnegie Hall for nearly six decades. A number of
other cities across America championed the arts, and in particular symphonic
music, establishing permanent professional orchestras in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries. These included Cincinnati (1872), Boston (1882), Chi-
cago (1891), San Francisco (1911), Los Angeles (1919), and Seattle (1926),
to name a few. With the increase in professional orchestras, the need for
well-trained musicians grew, which led to the founding of a number of music
schools, often referred to as conservatories, with specialized curriculum de-
signed to prepare musicians for full-time work in the concert hall.
4 • INTRODUCTION
Opera became an important component of America’s musical landscape in
the mid-18th century, with New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco each
proving that audiences would support this more visual performance medium,
even when it was sung in Italian, French, or German. The founding of New
York City’s Metropolitan Opera in 1883 inaugurated a new era of support
and success for this largely European form. Importantly, the most popular
arias from operas were extremely successful in selling sheet music, which
then broadened the general public’s interest in operatic performance.

SHEET MUSIC: THE FIRST MASS MUSIC MEDIUM

Although America’s earliest composer–publishers had offered printed musi-

cal scores for both amateur and professional musicians as early as the late
18th century, the cost to produce and purchase scores, sheet music, or collec-
tions of printed music, often referred to as folios, was out of reach for all but
the affluent. This was due to the fact that most music was printed using costly
rag paper with metal engraving plates, a time-consuming and laborious pro-
cess. By the mid-19th century, printing processes had evolved significantly
with the advent of lithography and the manufacture of paper evolved to use
wood pulp on a much larger scale, both of which allowed the budding music
publisher of the day to produce sheet music in a more cost-effective manner
and offer it at a reduced cost to the public.
To understand how sheet music sales grew to become the dominant form
of music dissemination in the nation, consider that in the early 1800s, a
publisher would feel fortunate to sell one hundred copies of a song as sheet
music, whereas by the time of the Civil War, a number of important factors
helped fuel the nation’s demand for sheet music. These included availability
of more affordable keyboard instruments and the expansion of the postal
service, concurrent with the growth of railroads. So it was that many differ-
ent types of stores, including new department stores, as well as music stores
and general stores, began to offer sheet music for sale, as did mail order
catalogs, which listed popular songs that could be ordered and delivered
through the postal service. Music publishers offered a mix of sacred and
secular songs, as individual pieces of sheet music or collections, as well as a
variety of affordable musical instruments and instructional books. Civil
War–era publishers could now aim to sell a few thousand copies of a popular
song, a tremendous increase from what was the norm 40 years earlier. By the
1880s, the music publishing industry had largely concentrated in New York
City, where Witmark and Harms were two of the most successful firms.
Concentrated in a small geographic area bounded by a few city blocks
around 28th Street and Sixth Avenue, the neighborhood was soon nicknamed
 INTRODUCTION • 5
Tin Pan Alley, reportedly due to the cacophonous sounds that could be heard
as dozens of musicians and composers simultaneously pounded out songs for
various publishers located in each building. Tin Pan Alley songs were a
direct reflection of public opinion, current events, and new expressions and
catchphrases. They encompassed a wide range of styles, including Victorian
parlor songs, songs in foreign languages, so-called coon songs, spirituals, and
minstrel songs. With the rise of minstrelsy, African American traditions
brought a different perspective and energy to the Tin Pan Alley repertoire.
Irving Berlin was one of the most gifted and prolific composers in the heyday
of Tin Pan Alley, a self-taught musician who rose to fame in 1911 as the
nation sang “Alexander’s Ragtime Band.” He would go on to compose doz-
ens of other memorable songs, movie soundtracks, and Broadway musicals
over his 54-year career as a composer. Brothers George and Ira Gershwin
also emerged from Tin Pan Alley to become tremendously successful song-
writers for Broadway and motion pictures, while many of their songs, such as
“Fascinating Rhythm,” “Summertime,” and “I Got Rhythm,” formed the
basis of what would come to be known as the Great American Songbook.
Music publishers now understood the power of marketing their newly
published songs and, as mentioned earlier, hired or induced popular perform-
ers of the day to showcase their latest offerings in the performers’ concerts
and tours. This process, known as “plugging,” had a dramatic impact on sales
of single-song sheet music, so that by the late 1880s, a best-selling song
might sell hundreds of thousands of copies through the various channels of
distribution that had been developed in the preceding years. At the same
time, printing and distribution costs continued to come down so that a depart-
ment store such as F. W. Woolworth’s might offer a single song of sheet
music for 10 cents.
In the latter part of the 19th century, John Phillip Sousa stands out as a
composer, musician, and band leader. He rose to prominence by leading the
U.S. Marine Band from 1880 to 1892, then went on to form his own concert
band and began touring the nation and the world for nearly 40 years, influ-
encing an entire generation of young musicians and audiences with his inno-
vative programming.

PROTECTING MUSIC: MILESTONE COPYRIGHT ACT OF 1909

The year 1909 was pivotal in the history of the American music industry.
This was the year that the United States Congress passed the Copyright Act
of 1909, a watershed moment in the modern era for composers, musicians,
songwriters, and music managers of all types. Prior to the 1909 Copyright
Act, composers would create new works and offer them to publishers, who
6 • INTRODUCTION
would then create a printed edition of the new work and sell it through
various means. While the composers and songwriters most often received a
share of earnings from the sale of the printed editions, referred to as sheet
music, new music reproduction technologies, including recording cylinders
and piano rolls, were rapidly becoming popular with the public and were not
covered under prior copyright law. With the passage of the Copyright Act of
1909, Congress provided clear direction that music creators should be fairly
compensated for uses that relied on mechanical reproduction of music. In
1914, five years after the act was put into law, the American Society of
Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP) was created, in large part to
represent the interests of music creators and advocate for the best possible
compensation whenever ASCAP members’ music was publicly performed or
sold.

MUSIC REPRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES:

SPARKING ENTREPRENEURS

While the many inventions of the 19th century, such as the steam engine, the
telegraph, and the boom in railroad and highway transportation, were instru-
mental in America’s westward expansion, a number of other inventions
would have significant repercussions for the music industry. Starting with the
development of the telephone by Alexander G. Bell in 1876, followed in
1877 by Thomas A. Edison’s cylinder phonograph recording system, and
then by the invention of the player piano, which could reproduce the latest
popular songs using a specially modified piano that relied on a perforated roll
of paper “read” by the instrument, which then played the song automatically,
new technologies were poised to expand the market for music in America. In
1887, a German immigrant named Emile Berliner filed a patent for his gram-
ophone, a great improvement over Edison’s fragile wax cylinder, as Berlin-
er’s new system allowed for the mass production of music discs, rather than
cylinders, which had to be produced one at a time. Berliner’s vision of how
recordings could be mass-produced and distributed became the basis for the
modern-day record industry, which thrived for nearly a century selling discs
of one format or another as the primary distribution medium for popular
music.
A host of new record companies sprouted up to meet the growing demand
of consumers for sound recordings—no musical ability in the family was
required to now enjoy music in the home, either via a record or by playing
the latest popular song on the player piano. Music consumption was now
occurring on a grand scale without a musician present. Edison, Victor, and
Columbia were the dominant labels in this time period, largely focusing on
 INTRODUCTION • 7
concert hall repertoire that included arias, solos, and some popular songs. By
the 1920s, new music, which began to exhibit a racial and cultural diversity
not normally found in a concert hall setting, began to appear on records from
small record labels such as Okeh, Black Swan, and Black Patti. These inno-
vative labels sought out new talent that didn’t hew to Tin Pan Alley conven-
tions for release to the growing audience of record buyers wishing to hear
new music that might be more aligned with their own cultural identity.
Among the music finding its way onto early sound recordings was the
fresh new sound that would come to be known as jazz. It was based on a
mixture of folk sources, brass band repertoire, ragtime, and the blues and was
perfectly suited to dancing in social halls and bars. Between 1895 and 1920,
a number of major cities such as Memphis, St. Louis, and Atlanta developed
audiences for the new music. However, it was in New Orleans where jazz
really blossomed, and its musicians soon migrated northward via riverboats
plying the Mississippi River. By 1923, Chicago had become the epicenter of
jazz in the Midwest, with King Oliver’s Creole Jazz Band, featuring a young
Louis Armstrong, one of the most popular groups of the time. By the late
1930s, America’s love of jazz was so great that it largely supplanted the
ballads, movie or show tunes, and novelty numbers that had made up a great
deal of typical musical repertoire heard on the airwaves and at dance halls.
At the same time, broadcasting became a key component of American
daily life, replacing the vaudeville circuit as a mass-market medium to pro-
mote popular music to the masses. Although radio transmission and recep-
tion had been proven an effective means of communication as early as 1906,
security concerns during the First World War stymied radio broadcasting’s
commercial growth. Starting in the early 1920s, radio broadcasters began
popping up across America, providing news, entertainment, and live musical
performances for the rapidly growing number of radio owners. Within a few
years, radio had joined newspapers, magazines, and motion pictures as the
most tangible manifestation of exactly what popular culture in America was
like on any given day. Advertisers soon came to understand the power and
immediacy afforded by radio’s national and local programming options.
Radio stations employed musicians on a daily basis, as there was only so
much news that could be read and at that time the quality of many sound
recordings was so poor that they would not translate well to the new medium.
Radio would continue to grow and entered its so-called Golden Era,
1930–1955, when it was the dominant form of public media in the nation.
During that time, programming ranged from daily or weekly episodes of
comedy, drama, and melodrama (the so-called soap opera, named for the
common commercial sponsors) to dance music, concert repertoire, sporting
events, news, information, and of course a growing number of advertise-
ments or advertiser-supported shows. One such example was the Lucky
Strike (cigarettes) Your Hit Parade, which ran weekly from 1935 to 1953 and
8 • INTRODUCTION
played America’s top popular songs each week. Demonstrating the realism,
immediacy, and impact that radio offered listeners, people could become a
part of a World Series baseball game, hear President Franklin Roosevelt’s
“fireside chats” giving Americans a sense of hope during the depths of the
Great Depression, or be frightened out of their wits by the Mercury Players’
chilling 1938 dramatic radio performance of the science fiction story War of
the Worlds.
Concurrently, talking pictures captured the imagination of the public, and
after the runaway success of the 1927 film The Jazz Singer, which featured
singing and talking performances, the music publishers of New York City’s
Tin Pan Alley began churning out songs to be featured in Hollywood’s latest
feature films. The alliances between Hollywood and Tin Pan Alley grew to
the point that the film studios acquired or invested in a number of music
publishing firms, an astute move as the synergy that could be generated by a
hit film drove demand for the recordings and sheet music of the songs fea-
tured in that film. This spawned nearly a decade of musicals, such as Top Hat
and Gold Diggers of 1933, two examples of the film fare that not only proved
to be wildly popular escapist entertainment for moviegoers but also created
jobs for composers, singers, musicians, dancers, as well as the host of crafts
and technical support staff necessary to produce a motion picture. By 1932,
the vaudeville palaces of the early 20th century were all converted to show
motion pictures at a fraction of the cost that had sustained so many perform-
ers during vaudeville’s peak.
Unfortunately, the success experienced by early record companies came to
a dramatic halt with the onset of the Great Depression in 1929. Soon, Thom-
as Edison’s label disappeared, while the Columbia and RCA radio networks
each snapped up one of the two largest remaining American labels, Columbia
and Victor, for pennies on the dollar. One invention that helped to sustain the
record industry was the new and improved jukeboxes that began to appear
just as the Great Depression set in. While an early version of the jukebox had
been patented in 1890, it could only play the same song. The newly reima-
gined jukeboxes of the 1930s allowed listeners to choose from a variety of
records that were stored inside. Thousands of copies of a popular records
were needed to fill America’s growing rank of jukeboxes from coast to coast.
At the same time, jukebox operators used a device called a “song counter” to
learn which were the most popular records played the previous week and
replace those that had not been played. This trend aligned with radio’s deci-
sion to also feature only the most popular songs, which eventually led to the
concept of top 40 radio.
Another effect that created waves in the music industry was the reduction
in the number and frequency that actual musicians were hired to perform for
radio broadcasts. Performers had been hired increasingly throughout the mid-
1920s, but as companies struggled during the Depression to control costs,
 INTRODUCTION • 9
radio stations balked at the expense. Concurrently, improvements in micro-
phone and recording technology resulted in greatly improved fidelity for the
latest records. Due to these factors, the role of the dulcet-toned radio an-
nouncer became central, with the emergence of the disk jockey or deejay, a
new type of radio talent that combined personality and colloquial chatter
with a steady stream of the most popular recorded music for listeners. By the
mid-1930s, listeners were tuning in as much for the engaging personalities of
top deejays as for the latest popular songs. By 1940, the union representing
instrumental performers, the American Federation of Musicians, started what
came to be referred to as the “war on radio,” seeking legal restriction to
prevent radio stations from playing recorded music instead of live music
performed by its members. While a lower court found in favor of the union, a
subsequent appeal found that the control of any record’s use ceased at the
point at which it was sold or given away. James C. Petrillo, then head of the
AFM, initiated a recording ban, which lasted from 1942 to 1944 and ulti-
mately led to the record labels agreeing to only use union musicians on future
records and to set aside a special compensation fund from record sales re-
ceipts to provide for out-of-work musicians.

AMERICA AT WAR: CHALLENGES AND CHANGES

By the end of the 1930s, Americans were enjoying more music each day than
ever before through radio, records, jukeboxes, and motion pictures. Popular
singing stars such as Kate Smith and Bing Crosby enjoyed a status of celeb-
rity comparable to the biggest Hollywood names. America’s economy had
largely rebounded due to the ramping up of various industries related to
military defense, as well as the ambitious public works programs funded by
the New Deal. To the average American, while there was growing concern
about the political powder keg represented by the Axis nations’ global ag-
gressions, jobs were plentiful and life on the home front gave reason for
optimism. However, within the music industry itself, the tremendous growth
of broadcasting had led to heightened tensions between the broadcasters and
the music community. Songwriters, publishers, and ASCAP, the rights or-
ganization that represented many of America’s best-known songwriters, had
reached an impasse as to just how much money the creative community
should be paid for the use of their music over the airwaves. Record labels
were a party to the conversation, but not to the same extent as the songwriters
and their allies. Things came to a head in late 1940, when ASCAP submitted
a new royalty structure that would have doubled the licensing cost to major
broadcasters for use of its repertoire. Broadcasters were not intimidated and
quickly rallied to raise more than one million dollars to found an alternative
10 • INTRODUCTION
performing rights organization, Broadcast Music Inc. (BMI), which not only
would offer more affordable music but opened its membership to many song-
writers and publishers who had not been invited to join ASCAP, largely due
to racial or cultural differences and its focus on a concert hall or Tin Pan
Alley repertoire.
As a result, BMI quickly became the home for some of the most successful
blues, country, and roots composers of the era. By 1941, the U.S. govern-
ment had intervened and negotiated a settlement between broadcasters and
rights holders, largely to try to eliminate the effect that ASCAP’s virtual
musical monopoly had held for the first 20 years of America’s radio boom.
Still, the popular music industry provided an emotional touchstone for
Americans at home and overseas in the far-flung conflicts that spanned the
decade, from the undeclared but no less deadly actions at sea as early as 1940
to the gradual repatriation of GIs that extended throughout the immediate
postwar years. Songs such as Irving Berlin’s “White Christmas,” “Boogie
Woogie Bugle Boy,” “In the Mood,” and “GI Jive” became inextricably
linked to the nation’s emotional center as iconic sounds of the turbulent
times. The Armed Forces Radio Network employed many musicians and
entertainers who performed, recorded, and toured to help keep morale strong.
So-called Victory discs were made and distributed for playback around the
world wherever American troops were found. In the aftermath of the global
war, these V-discs were often left behind in many countries as an artifact of
American popular music.
The Second World War altered millions of American’s lives irrevocably.
In addition to the 16 million who served in the Armed Forces, 1.5 million
African Americans migrated from southern states to the north to find better
employment and living circumstances, bringing their music with them. Im-
proved train, bus, and auto transportation made mobility possible for more
and more Americans, many of whom also headed westward for war work.
America’s popular music during the war years was dominated by the big
band sound, which featured talented vocalists such as Frank Sinatra, Peggy
Lee, and Jo Stafford. After the war, solo singers would eclipse the big bands
that had given them their start, becoming the new face of pop music. At the
same time, the explosive growth of new technologies, many of which were
by-products of wartime innovations, set the stage for a postwar music indus-
try boom.
The first of these was the introduction of magnetic tape recording, which
allowed straightforward editing of recorded performances as well as the abil-
ity to overdub additional instruments and voices, a process that soon came to
be known as multitrack recording. Inventor and guitarist Les Paul pioneered
this technique in the 1940s and 1950s, amazing listeners with the seemingly
impossible sounds he created in his combination studio/recording lab. At the
same time, the invention of the transistor led to the first miniature radio
 INTRODUCTION • 11
receivers, which could allow listeners to take music with them wherever they
traveled. Lastly, a new level of musical fidelity became possible through the
invention of 33- and 45-RPM records, which dramatically eclipsed the sound
quality of the 78-RPM records that had been the industry standard for nearly
three decades.
Simultaneously, the sounds of both country and western and rhythm and
blues took flight over the airwaves and in many jukeboxes in the postwar
period. Both genres accumulated sizable listening audiences and helped sow
the seeds that would become rock ’n’ roll in the early 1950s. As radio had
gradually built up its central position as the public’s most cost-effective
conduit to music discovery and enjoyment in the first part of the 20th centu-
ry, television, which started broadcasting in the late 1940s, soon captured the
imagination of the American public. By 1951, a reported 16 million televi-
sions were installed across America, replacing the radio as the evening’s
source of entertainment for the typical middle-class family.

POSTWAR YEARS: A TIME OF CHANGE

Americans were largely focused on restoring the social and familial ties that
had been disrupted during the six years of the war. The postwar economy
was one that largely shifted the boom in military production that resulted in
near-zero unemployment to a consumer-oriented economy, one marked by a
move to suburban living and mass marketing on a heretofore unprecedented
scale. Additionally, a spike in births to 38 million babies born between 1946
and 1956 resulted in the leading edge of the so-called baby boom. Combined
with babies born during the war, this group would become the first recog-
nized teen market that media, advertising, and entertainment executives tar-
geted for distinct products and services. The federal government fostered
expansion by increasing the number of radio licenses granted in the postwar
years, resulting in greatly increased opportunities for new types of music to
find an audience. African American music became more widely available to
the listening public, through radio and jukeboxes, and labels, such as Cincin-
nati’s King Records, blurred established conventions by having their black
artists record and release their own versions of country songs, while the
white country artists would often record country versions of popular R&B
hits of the day. Perhaps the most important black performer to help transcend
racial boundaries in this era, Louis Jordan, perfected his own version of
small-group jump blues music, perfect for dancing as well as planting the
seeds for the impending rock ’n’ roll explosion. Jordan was one of the first
12 • INTRODUCTION
real crossover artists, appealing to both black and white audiences, with his
most popular songs topping the charts for 113 weeks, a singular accomplish-
ment.
Hollywood and Madison Avenue’s advertising agencies were aware of the
teen market segment, as well as the fact that a by-product of postwar prosper-
ity was more leisure time and discretionary income in the hands of these
same teens. Music, cosmetics, fashion, automobiles, soft drink companies, as
well as after-school television shows such as American Bandstand and The
Mickey Mouse Club targeted America’s growing teen market as the sweet
spot for all types of products and media. In fact, televisions had become
ubiquitous, part of nearly 90 percent of American households by 1960. At the
same time, a growing number of entrepreneurial independent record labels
began releasing music that differed from the safe, formulaic pop crooners
and novelty songs that teens’ parents favored. The new music, soon to be
dubbed rock ’n’ roll by deejay Alan Freed, was loud, fast, energetic, and
often used double entendre to convey sexually suggestive messages to its
listeners. Teens loved it, and parents either ignored it or condemned it. By the
mid-1950s, teen culture moved from avant-garde to mainstream as Elvis
Presley’s records gained a massive audience, early pocket transistor radios
made music truly portable for the first time, and Hollywood’s depiction of
troubled youth in an inner-city setting via the film Blackboard Jungle created
a sensation coast to coast. The movie’s theme song, “Rock Around the
Clock” by Bill Haley and His Comets, would go on to sell an impressive
million copies during the month of March 1955. By January 1956, Elvis
Presley’s first single for RCA, “Heartbreak Hotel,” simultaneously made the
top five on the pop, country, and R&B charts, also selling more than one
million copies within a few months of its release.
The saga of the rock ’n’ roll explosion must also include the emergence of
the electric guitar as the defining instrument of what was rapidly becoming a
cultural movement, spawned by the new music. Epitomized by Chuck Berry
and his distinctive duck-walk stage moves, the electric guitar became rock’s
most recognizable symbol and an icon of rock’s rebellion—it was loud,
percussive, and gave every teen the chance to learn to play an instrument like
their idols, since mass merchants and mail order catalogers offered dozens of
affordable models. Berry’s three-minute pop masterpieces, such as “Maybel-
lene” and “Johnny Be Goode,” became integral to the 1950s teenage experi-
ence, and more importantly provided a musical model that a whole genera-
tion of young rock musicians around the world would study to learn the
fundamentals of the genre.
Two independent record labels of the era, Sun and Atlantic Records, epito-
mize the impact that rock ’n’ roll music was having on the music industry.
Sun was a Memphis-based label that at one point in the early 1950s had on its
roster Elvis Presley, Johnny Cash, Carl Perkins, and Jerry Lee Lewis. Presley
 INTRODUCTION • 13
and Cash would go on to become iconic figures in American popular music
after their tenure at Sun. Atlantic Records, after initially focusing on jazz,
helped a multitude of black artists achieve mainstream chart success. Ray
Charles, the Coasters, and the Drifters were the most successful Atlantic
artists to have multiple crossover hits. Atlantic was also one of the first
independent labels of the time to offer more equitable treatment and terms to
African American artists. The outsider status of early rock ’n’ roll combined
with its early adoption by independent record labels that championed the
music meant that by 1959 two-thirds of the market for pop music in America
was firmly in the control of the dozens of entrepreneurial independent labels.
The major labels, whose leaders were reluctant to embrace the rebellious teen
music, came late to the party, but in time they would regroup and regain their
control as the arbiters of American top 40 radio and record sales.
The music industry establishment sought to defuse rock’s power through a
variety of strategies. First, rock’s direct challenge to societal norms relating
to sexuality was decried as harmful to America’s moral fabric by a range of
civic, religious, and industry leaders. Informally viewed today as the “war on
rock,” these efforts gained traction with a large segment of the public, as well
as the mainstream media, through well-organized letter-writing campaigns
and calls of protest to local radio stations that played songs such as the
Dominoes’ “Sixty Minute Man,” Etta James’s “Work with Me, Annie,” and
even the Everly Brothers’ comparatively tame “Wake Up, Little Susie,”
which were all targeted for censorship and removal from radio, jukeboxes,
and record stores. ASCAP teamed up with industry trade magazines such as
Variety to take to task musicians, songwriters, and labels that were profiting
by the loose morals being sung about to impressionable teens, coining the
term “leer-ics” to make plain to the public the prurient nature of many rock
’n’ roll songs. Additionally, the practice of “pay for play,” providing finan-
cial or other inducements to help promote a particular record or artist, came
under congressional scrutiny during what became known as the payola hear-
ings of 1959. The hearings targeted high-profile deejays, in particular Alan
Freed and Dick Clark, as having been influenced by payments from labels or
radio promoters. Clark, who was integrally involved in the ownership of
various record labels and publishing companies, quickly divested himself of
any interest in them and came out of the hearings unscathed. Freed, on the
other hand, had already become a lightning rod for the backlash to rock ’n’
roll’s perceived licentiousness and corruption of white teenagers embracing
largely black-originated music and musicians and the libidinous messages
contained in the rebellious music. Not long after a 1958 concert that Freed
had promoted erupted in violence, he was fired from his radio and television
jobs, and by 1959 his career was in free fall. His arrest in 1960 capped the
payola hearings, which also resulted in a bill being passed outlawing the
14 • INTRODUCTION
practice of pay for play. Broadcasters became more cautious about program-
ming any potentially offensive music in the wake of the very public censure
to America’s most popular new music.

POPULAR MUSIC IN THE 1960S:

FROM THE MAINSTREAM TO THE ALTERNATIVE

The year 1960 was a milestone in the evolution of the music industry in
America as it marked the rise of America’s most successful black-owned
record label, Detroit’s Motown Records. Founded by Berry Gordy Jr., Mo-
town developed a formula that resulted in high-quality, upbeat, radio-friendly
hits that avoided any direct reference to sexual, racial, or political messages.
Additionally, the company started its own charm school to prepare its per-
formers for the glare of the media, teaching them to remain poised, profes-
sional, and focused on delivering a polished, apolitical pop music gem each
time they stepped to the microphone. The formula worked to perfection, and
over the next decade the homegrown label would become a juggernaut,
notching more than 100 number one records and enjoying nearly total accep-
tance by mainstream white media, including television, radio, print, and film.
The label’s in-house talent development and management scheme resulted in
a veritable who’s who of American pop royalty of the era, including Stevie
Wonder, Michael Jackson, the Supremes, Marvin Gaye, the Temptations,
and dozens of other chart-topping artists. Gordy developed the slogan “The
Sound of Young America” to describe the label’s music, which sold a re-
ported 70 percent of its hits to its predominantly white audience.
Motown’s formula of focusing on music that was largely apolitical was
contrary to America’s highly public struggles of the 1950s and 1960s that
centered on the nation’s practice of systematic discrimination against people
of color. The largely nonviolent civil rights movement, led by Dr. Martin
Luther King Jr., was slowly building public and political will for a change in
America’s treatment of blacks and other nonwhites. Interestingly, in addition
to the civil rights movement’s liberal use of gospel and spiritual songs drawn
from the repertoire of black churches, other songs often tied to the civil rights
movement such as “We Shall Overcome” became popular during the early
20th-century labor struggles. Folk music also came to play a prominent role
in providing protesters with simple, powerful melodies to help frame their
debate. Songs such as Bob Dylan’s “Blowin’ in the Wind” were taken up and
sung by protest marchers at rallies around the nation. Dylan, Joan Baez,
Peter, Paul and Mary, and Pete Seeger performed regularly at marches and
rallies in the early 1960s to help promote a change to the treatment of black
 INTRODUCTION • 15
Americans. Reflecting the growing national conversation about civil rights,
Peter, Paul and Mary’s version of “Blowin’ in the Wind” rose to number two
on the Billboard pop chart in 1963.
As the civil rights movement drew on mostly folk and gospel music tradi-
tions and performers, mainstream popular music in the early 1960s still
largely reflected the idealism and promise of the postwar American dream.
While independent labels had brought rock ’n’ roll and rhythm and blues
music to the masses, the major labels finally embraced these styles in the
1960s in order to remain relevant and profitable. At the same time, a genera-
tion of young British musicians had been studying American popular music
intensely and using it as the raw materials to shape a lively new sound that
would come to dominate the American music industry by 1964. These
groups, including the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, the Animals, the Kinks,
and dozens of others, captured the hearts and wallets of American record
buyers in what was dubbed the British Invasion. Its high-water mark was
likely 4 April 1964, when the Beatles held the top five positions on the
influential Billboard chart, a feat that has never been replicated before or
after. While Frank Sinatra may have caused riots with his performances in
the 1940s, and Elvis caused millions of teen girls to feel their first sexual
longings, the Beatles were a musical and cultural phenomenon like no other
in history. Every word the band uttered was subjected to intense scrutiny by
fans, as well as the media, and as their worldwide fame grew, the Beatles’
adventurous artistic nature helped to define an entire generation. The group
led millions of young adults into the counterculture era, a time marked by
personal and spiritual exploration and a willingness to openly challenge au-
thority.
Counterculture figures such as Harvard professor Timothy Leary chal-
lenged America’s youth in 1966 to “turn on, tune in, and drop out.” This was
a reference to experimenting with mind-altering drugs and fully embracing
the counterculture by abandoning the values of one’s parents. By the mid-
1960s, musicians began to decry America’s growing involvement in the un-
official Vietnam conflict. This included artists such as the Byrds, who used
biblical verse as the basis for their 1965 antiwar song “Turn, Turn, Turn”;
Dion, whose poignant 1968 release “Abraham, Martin and John” mourned
the senseless loss of John F. Kennedy, Abraham Lincoln, and Dr. Martin
Luther King Jr.; and Creedence Clearwater Revival’s scathing 1969 critique
of war and privilege, “Fortunate Son.” Many of these songs, as well as
commentary about the counterculture movement, were broadcast over FM
radio stations that afforded much greater programming freedom than main-
stream AM pop radio of the day. San Francisco, a hotbed for the countercul-
ture, was one of the first cities where the new music, free outdoor concerts,
and so-called free-form FM radio created a web of support and promotion for
the new lifestyle embraced by youth largely disaffected from their parents’
16 • INTRODUCTION
cultural values. Simultaneously, music influenced by the counterculture
came to the fore with greater musical experimentation, epic hours-long con-
certs with light shows, free drugs being passed around, and a sense of com-
munity that spawned the modern music festival movement all coming to the
fore in the 1960s. To report on this music-driven movement, a new breed of
consumer-focused music magazines developed, dubbed the rock press, led by
writers such as Jann Wenner and Ralph J. Gleason (Rolling Stone), Dave
Marsh and Lester Bangs (Creem), and Jon Landau, Ed Ward, and Peter
Guralnick (Crawdaddy!).

A GATHERING OF THE TRIBES: POP MUSIC FESTIVAL ORIGINS

Three great musical and cultural events helped to define the historical place
occupied by the 1960s in the history of the music industry. Each was unique
in its own way, but taken as a grouping, they illuminated the way forward for
the music industry. The Monterey Pop, Woodstock, and Altamont music
festivals broke new ground and demonstrated palpably the tremendous ap-
peal that the counterculture and popular music held for the masses. Both
Monterey and Woodstock spawned hit movies and albums that created long-
er-term profits than one weekend of ticket sales. The three festivals also
provided an intense look at the risks of such large-scale events for fans,
promoters, and society in general, leading to the development of the modern
concert promoter and today’s multibillion-dollar live entertainment industry,
which has risen to become central to the success of nearly all modern-day
artists.
In the late 1960s, new technology to make music more portable led to the
commercial adoption of first the 8-track, then the compact cassette audio
formats allowing portable and auto music players to provide on the go music
choice to consumers. Fans could purchase the LP version for home and the 8-
track for their car, with a resultant bump in sales for the record labels and
artists, who could collect revenue on each new format introduced. This trend
of the record industry developing new music delivery formats would contin-
ue for four decades, leading to record-breaking profits for major labels by the
end of the century.
With the broader acceptance of the counterculture and the growing up of
its main stakeholders, record labels and corporate America took the opportu-
nity to cash in on marketing the counterculture via music, films, books, and
media of every type. At the same time, radio stations began to further seg-
ment the types and styles of music in order to appeal to a more defined and
narrower slice of the listening public. Major labels that once turned up their
noses at an artist’s more far-fetched dreams now dove headlong into the
 INTRODUCTION • 17
business of supporting such artist’s most creative fantasies. Artists who
wanted to start their own record labels were encouraged to do so, with fund-
ing from the majors, who provided all-important distribution. Artists also
became talent scouts, with Frank Zappa bringing platinum-selling Alice
Cooper to Warner Music and David Crosby discovering Joni Mitchell and
bringing her to Reprise.

THE 1970S AND BEYOND: ROCK GETS CORPORATE

Meanwhile, Wall Street investors took notice of the success of record labels
and their top artists and began to invest or acquire holdings in the music
industry. The early 1970s were a period of consolidation and investment,
with RCA, CBS, Capitol-EMI, Warner Communication, and Phillips domi-
nating the majority of the U.S. record business. As part of this consolidation,
the major labels became vertically integrated, now owning recording studios,
pressing plants, music publishing companies, distribution arms, and more.
By controlling every step in the path from music creation to its eventual
consumption, the labels achieved ever greater levels of profitability. Part of
the recipe for these growing profits was the diversification of the musical
offerings to go beyond the 1960s model of progressive rock music. The
1970s featured a vast array of musical genres, each of which found its own
listening audience. These included the singer–songwriter epitomized by Ca-
role King and Paul Simon; art rock groups such as Yes, Emerson, Lake &
Palmer, and Pink Floyd; soul music from Stevie Wonder, the O’Jays, and
Wilson Pickett; women’s music featuring artists such as Joy of Cooking, Cris
Williamson, and Holly Near; hard rock from Led Zeppelin, Black Sabbath,
and Grand Funk Railroad; southern boogie from the Allman Brothers, Mar-
shall Tucker Band, and Lynyrd Skynyrd; and country rock from Jackson
Browne, Linda Ronstadt, and one of the best-selling acts of all time, the
Eagles.
While the majority of these artists helped to define the era with their
musical contributions, glam rockers made a visual statement that attracted
legions of young fans, while often repelling or at best confusing older listen-
ers and parents. Kiss, Alice Cooper, and David Bowie used highly stylized
makeup, wardrobe, and concert production techniques to create a completely
different image than the aforementioned stars. The more sensational glam
rockers’ personas became, the more media attention, and fans, they garnered.
Videos began to play a role in the marketing of such highly visual artists, a
precursor to the music video boom to come a few years later. As a clear
indication that major record label executives had effectively learned the pain-
ful lessons of the 1950s–1960s when their forbearers dismissed rock ’n’ roll
18 • INTRODUCTION
as worthless, 1970s executives latched onto these highly visual artists and
propelled each of them to platinum-level sales. This fragmentation of what
had been one diverse stream of pop music into various narrower genres
coincided with an incredible five-year doubling of record industry revenues
from two billion dollars in 1973 to more than four billion in 1978. In fact, the
art and science of marketing popular music had been refined to the point that
numerous groups were eclipsing the historic sales levels reached by the Beat-
les a decade earlier. Fleetwood Mac sold 10 million (U.S.) copies of their
album Rumors, a feat matched by Peter Frampton with Frampton Comes
Alive! and bested by the Eagles’ Hotel California, which sold 11 million
copies. One thing characterized the music itself for these top artists. Their
sound was slick, polished, and primed to be put in heavy rotation on main-
stream radio stations globally. These artists’ concert appearances were for-
mulaic, predictable, and tightly choreographed, without the initial impetuous
spontaneity that was a hallmark of earlier rock music, and were soon being
held in football stadiums. Taking their cue from these mega-hits and large-
scale concerts, major labels would go on in the 1980s to develop what be-
came known as the superstar model, which will be discussed later, where a
handful of the most promising artists on their roster would receive massive
amounts of promotion, while less successful but still talented artists would be
dropped from the labels.
Still, not all music fans were satisfied with the smooth, polished sounds
and slickly marketed image of popular music that the major labels presented
in the 1970s. Pockets of musical rebellion formed in the late 1970s, leading
to two very different new streams of popular music: disco and punk. Each
was born out of necessity as the originators of these musical genres felt that
mainstream popular music did not represent them or their values. Punk was
angry, loud, and confrontational; disco was smooth, sensuous, and steeped in
multicultural and pansexual reverie. At first, the major labels ignored these
upstart genres as passing fads that had little chance at making any headway
in the commercial marketplace. However, once again, fans proved the indus-
try pundits wrong as disco literally took over the popular music scene be-
tween 1975 and 1979. At one point there were more than 200 radio stations
broadcasting disco around the clock, while an estimated 20,000 disco clubs
opened and as much as 40 percent of the Billboard charts were disco hits.
Entertainment companies jumped on the disco bandwagon, and the film Sat-
urday Night Fever, released in 1977, would become a box office sensation,
while its soundtrack album would sell 15 million copies in the United States
alone. Promotion for the movie lifted album sales, while radio airplay of the
soundtrack cuts led to an extremely long run for the film, a technique now
known as cross-media marketing and practiced annually by numerous film
distribution companies for products from Star Wars to Shrek.
 INTRODUCTION • 19
However, the nation’s fascination with disco seemed to come to a skidding
halt by 1980, and the record industry entered a downward arc, with sales
declining from a high of $4.1 billion in 1978 to $3.6 billion in 1982. Record
labels became cautious and let go thousands of employees worldwide, re-
duced the number of new albums being released, and slashed their rosters of
artists that had not had a hit in recent memory.
No discussion of the 1970s would be complete without a brief mention of
Congress’s creation of the sound recording copyright in 1972, or the Copy-
right Act of 1976, which attempted a major overhaul of the Copyright Act of
1909. The two most substantial changes were to enhance the term or duration
of copyright ownership in musical works from a 28-year term, renewable for
an additional 28 years, to the life of the author plus 50 years, which in
practical terms meant doubling or even tripling the time before any work
might possibly enter the public domain. The second dramatic change came
when new works would be protected by the 1976 copyright law the instant
that they were fixed in any tangible medium versus a requirement under the
1909 law that a work must be published to have copyright protection. The
1976 law also attempted to clarify the role of fair use in contemporary soci-
ety, establishing four guidelines or points of reference by which use could be
judged by the copyright owner or the courts as justifiable or an infringement.

THE 1980S: VISUAL MUSIC AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES

RESHAPE MUSIC INDUSTRY

On 1 August 1981, a new era in the music industry was launched when
MTV, short for Music Television, began broadcasting music videos 24 hours
a day as a cable network. While music industry executives were either large-
ly skeptical or ambivalent about the market for such an offering, within a
year, the network proved to be hugely popular with the teen and young adult
demographic. MTV’s founders applied much of the same research methodol-
ogy they had used in top 40 radio, and in the process irrevocably changed the
way pop music would be marketed. Soon, labels were rushing to get out
music videos by their most promising acts, and the look and fashions asso-
ciated with a particular artist would become equal in importance to their
music. Since there was a shortage of music videos from U.S. artists at MTV’s
launch, scores of British artists who had video content at hand became stars
in the United States, largely based on their heavy rotation on MTV, heralding
a second British Invasion.
Technology would continue to evolve with the introduction of the compact
disc (CD) in 1982, a joint invention of Philips and Sony. Rather than the
analog recording and reproduction used in tape and vinyl playback, CDs
20 • INTRODUCTION
encoded the audio signal into a binary series of zeroes and ones, which would
then be decoded upon playback into the artist’s music. The shiny 4-and-3/4-
inch discs promised consumers a nearly indestructible disc, purportedly high-
er fidelity than LPs, and up to 74 minutes of music on a single disc. While
initially CDs cost more to manufacture than LPs, these costs soon became
comparable to, and eventually less than, that of an LP; however, labels still
charged a premium price for the new format, while simultaneously lowering
artist royalties on compact discs. Such practices contributed to a 20-year rise
in recording industry sales and profits as consumers replaced their worn LPs
with the new CD format in record numbers. Piracy and concerns regarding
home taping by consumers emerged in this era, and the record industry
successfully lobbied Congress to place a levy on the sales of blank tape to
help offset the perceived industry losses. New recording technologies were
also developed that provided musicians with the means to start doing home
recordings on affordable reel-to-reel or cassette recording systems that al-
lowed basic overdubbing for multitrack recording and mixing. Professional
digital recording systems costing many hundreds of times more than the
small home recording systems also were introduced, expanding the range and
capabilities that engineers, producers, and artists could now utilize in the
creation of pop music.
The record industry pulled itself out of the slump of the early 1980s by
developing and marketing a small group of top artists that deservedly earned
the moniker superstar. These included Michael Jackson, Whitney Houston,
Madonna, Prince, and Bruce Springsteen. Each would become international-
ly acclaimed recording and touring artists who sold millions of copies of
their albums. All but Springsteen also parlayed their superstar status into film
roles that furthered their celebrity and fueled record sales. Michael Jackson’s
sixth studio album, Thriller, released in 1982 and produced by Quincy Jones,
stands as the defining work of the superstar era. It would eventually sell more
than 65 million copies globally while earning an unprecedented 12 Grammy
Awards and seven top 10 singles and own the top spot on the Billboard chart
for 37 weeks. The album was also an artistic triumph and spawned some of
the most-watched music videos of the era, especially the 14-minute-long,
zombie-infested “Thriller” video.
An alternative hit-making strategy to the superstar formula was to pair up
popular music with youth-oriented movies, such as Footloose, Flashdance,
Top Gun, and Back to the Future, a practice that the record labels used in the
mid-1980s to enhance their recovery. Echoing the close relationship between
Hollywood and Tin Pan Alley from the 1930s, the music industry leveraged
movies to propel a number of artists to chart-topping positions.
One by-product of the superstar system was that in order to provide maxi-
mum marketing muscle for the superstar releases, record labels further cut
the number of new artists being signed and developed. The tremendous prof-
 INTRODUCTION • 21
its generated by an album such as Thriller caused labels to narrowly concen-
trate their resources on a handful of artists rather than invest modestly in a
broad range of new talent. The effect was that fewer artists got their chance
to make the big time. In part, due to the narrowing “hits only” focus of major
labels, a totally new form of artist expression bubbled up in New York City,
right under the noses of the major record labels. Eventually, this new music
was dubbed hip hop. It embodied music, street art, and dancing, along with
spoken word performance by emcees or rappers that were often a gritty
reality check from America’s inner cities. It soon struck a chord with disaf-
fected youth across the nation and would in a few years become the fastest-
growing musical genre since rock ’n’ roll.
New technologies, including satellite communications and the ubiquitous
Walkman portable music player, along with MTV’s growth to become a
global arbiter of youth style, set the stage for a flurry of celebrity-driven
global charity concerts or tours at this time. Live Aid, held simultaneously in
London and Philadelphia on 13 July 1985, brought together 60 acts and was
viewed by more than 1.5 billion people worldwide. When all was said and
done, Live Aid raised $67 million to fight famine in Africa, and musicians
became aware that their stardom could help address social problems. Soon
artists banded together to address domestic and global issues, including Farm
Aid, to address struggling family farmers; Sun City, to confront the reality of
South African apartheid; and Amnesty International’s Conspiracy of Hope
tour, to draw attention to the plight of political prisoners in regimes where
basic human rights were not granted. While these so-called mega-events
certainly drew worldwide attention to worthy causes, such events attracted
some criticism as record companies used them as a springboard to market
their featured artists on an unprecedented global scale. At the same time, by
1988, six vertically integrated international multimedia companies had
emerged to control more than 70 percent of the global market for recorded
music: Warner Music Group, EMI, Columbia (owned by Sony), BMG (Ber-
telsmann), PolyGram, and Universal Music Group.
The road to consolidation occurred between 1986 and 1990, as three pow-
erful international players had taken over one of America’s major labels,
seeing such an investment as a sound play since the annual sales for recorded
music continued to grow year to year. Bertelsmann’s acquisition of the sto-
ried RCA label family, Sony’s purchase of Columbia’s label groups, and
Matsushita’s purchase of MCA signaled a new era in the music industry,
with these parent companies installing leaders intent on maximizing profits
to the greatest extent possible. Warner Music was also merged in 1989 with
the print giant Time Inc. to form Time-Warner, a diversified media company
that became the blueprint for future music industry mergers to come in the
1990s. The last mega-label, Universal Music, would be formed in the mid-
1990s when Edgar Bronfman Jr., an heir of the Seagram’s beverage empire,
22 • INTRODUCTION
acquired first MCA and then PolyGram Records, christening the new compa-
ny Universal Music Group, which was soon the largest music company in the
world. As the music business increasingly focused on huge vertically inte-
grated multinational media companies fighting for market share, independent
labels continued to play an important role in the overall music ecosystem by
helping to uncover and nurture new music genres and artists deemed too
risky by the major labels. However, the indies’ financial clout was slight in
comparison to that of the majors in this era.
Ten years after its introduction, the compact disc had completely replaced
the vinyl album as the most popular purchase and delivery format among
music consumers. Costs to produce them came down dramatically, packag-
ing was simplified into a small rectangular box or cardboard sleeve, while in
the mid-1990s mass merchandisers such as Walmart and Target would be-
come the nation’s top record retail outlets by offering discounts greater than
the local record store could afford to offer.

THE 1990S: MUSIC FOR THE MASSES—POP AND COUNTRY

DOMINATE THE CHARTS

As was discussed earlier, the potential profits from a blockbuster album by a

superstar artist became the prime objective each of these mega-majors now
sought. In order to entice the most talented artists to sign with their label, the
majors were soon involved in a bidding war for the services of reliable hit
makers such as Mariah Carey, the Rolling Stones, Madonna, Prince, Michael
Jackson, and R.E.M., who reportedly landed an $80 million five-album deal
from Warner Music. The cash to fund these lavish deals, many of which
provided advances of $30 to $60 million, was the boom occurring in the sales
of compact discs worldwide. The format had caught the fancy of the record-
buying public and easily allowed fans to take music to the gym or beach via
portable CD players as well as sophisticated CD multidisc automotive
players. Between 1991 and 1995, worldwide sales of CDs doubled from 997
million to almost two billion units, in large part because all genres of music,
from pop to rock, hip hop, jazz, and classical, were reissuing the most popu-
lar albums from the prior 40 years on the still new format. As much as 40
percent of all album sales in the mid-1990s were of catalog titles, that is,
records that had first been released at least 18 months earlier. Additionally,
record labels began to mine their vaults to add additional takes, demos, and
live cuts to the earlier versions of LP releases, since the compact disc virtual-
ly doubled the running time of the LP. For loyal fans of an artist, these new,
expanded, and improved versions of familiar albums became must-have
items for their record collections. Another important technological innova-
 INTRODUCTION • 23
tion for the industry was the introduction of SoundScan in 1991, which now
gave record labels and artist managers nearly real-time accurate data of actu-
al record sales, on a store-by-store as well as a regional basis, across the
nation.
As had been the practice throughout the 20th century, record labels contin-
ued their efforts to tap the teen market, so they developed a specific type of
artist image to appeal to the 12- to 18-year-old consumer. Throughout the
1990s, Backstreet Boys, NSYNC, Britney Spears, and Christina Aguilera
took center stage and would go on to collectively sell tens of millions of
albums by blending paeans to teenage love with sexually charged longing
that was more direct than the Beatle’s “I Want to Hold Your Hand.” Music
videos, often debuting on MTV’s popular Total Request Live after-school
music segment, were effective at driving teens to purchase CDs and concert
tickets for the new teen idols.
However, teen pop was not all that was topping the charts in the 1990s.
Country music evolved into a more modern, streamlined sound that rivaled
pop music for chart supremacy. Among the dozen country artists that had
tremendous chart success in the 1990s, Shania Twain and Garth Brooks were
the most dominant. Garth Brooks was the top-selling artist of the first half of
the 1990s, with two of his albums attaining Diamond status (selling 10 mil-
lion units or more). Brooks churned out a series of hit albums in short order,
so that at one point in 1993 he had six of the top 100 albums in the nation.
Twain’s two late-1990s albums, The Woman in Me and Come on Over,
would together sell an estimated 46 million copies, with Come on Over’s 34
million albums representing the most ever by any woman artist up until that
time. Country artists were now headlining arenas worldwide and utilizing the
same level of sophisticated production techniques as the biggest rock acts.
With the polished sounds of country and teen pop competing for chart
dominance, as had happened in the 1970s with the birth of hip hop, a new
music developed on the streets of Seattle in the late 1980s that would gain
international prominence in the 1990s: grunge. Personified by acts such as
Nirvana, Soundgarden, and Pearl Jam, a local label, SubPop Records, ful-
filled the role of identifying and bringing the new music to what was at first a
niche audience. This was the same classic pathway to profits that major
labels had profited from following throughout the latter half of the 20th
century, with rock ’n’ roll, metal, hip hop, and now grunge being developed
by small, risk-taking regional independent labels. Soon the major labels de-
scended en masse on Seattle and signed as many scruffy looking bands as
they could in the hopes of hitting the sales jackpot.
As grunge took off, hip hop matured to the point that many of the genre’s
first generation of artists, including Sean “Puffy” Combs and Dr. Dre, would
take unique paths to become influential moguls in the music industry. Combs
used his celebrity as a springboard to start his own diversified entertainment
24 • INTRODUCTION
company, Bad Boy Entertainment, which not only produced and released
albums by a range of popular artists but also developed a range of nonmusic
product offerings that led Combs to become one of the highest-earning enter-
tainment entrepreneurs of this era, with more than $200 million annual reve-
nues by 1997. Dr. Dre, on the other hand, whose highly original 1992 release
The Chronic placed him firmly as one of the most innovative and talented hip
hop artists, mostly stuck to the craft of producing music for other artists and
developing their careers. Dre’s protégé Eminem would become the best-
selling hip hop artist by the end of the 1990s. Film soundtracks also played a
role in the music industry’s peak years in the late 1990s, epitomized by the
massive success of the music from two hit motion pictures, The Bodyguard
(1992) and Titanic (1997). The former film featured superstar Whitney
Houston in the starring role and would go on to sell more than 17 million
units upon its release. Five years later, Titanic’s theme song, “My Heart Will
Go On,” sung by Celine Dion, went to number one around the world, result-
ing in the film’s soundtrack album selling more than 30 million copies.
By the mid-1990s, Latin culture had grown in importance throughout the
United States with the emergence of both Spanish-language radio and televi-
sion broadcasters operating from coast to coast. While Carlos Santana’s Lat-
in-inspired rock sound had been a presence ever since Woodstock in
American popular music, the growing population of immigrants combined
with Spanish media so that Latin music and broadcast media now made up a
significant part of the overall U.S. marketplace. Artists such as Ricky Martin,
Selena, and Maná all had substantial followings in America. In recognition
of this important growing market, the Recording Academy established a
separate Latin Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences, which by 2000
would host its own Latin Grammy Awards, beamed into homes all around
the world via Spanish-language television networks.
The U.S. Congress enacted a number of laws affecting copyright in the
1990s, the most important of which was the Digital Millennium Copyright
Act of 1998. Dubbed the DMCA, it created a compulsory license structure
for webcasting music, as well as a new performing rights organization, Soun-
dExchange, to handle payments for digital transmissions of master record-
ings, including satellite radio, digital cable, and noninteractive streaming
services. The DMCA also provided the safe harbor provision, which allows
internet service providers protection from litigation when unauthorized users
transmitted copyright-protected musical works over their networks without
permission. In 1998, Congress also extended the duration of copyright to the
life of the author plus 70 years through the Copyright Term Extension Act.
Throughout the 1990s, personal computers continued to advance in power
and speed while becoming progressively more affordable. With the advent of
the CD burner and computer software allowing anyone to rip a commercial
album into much smaller MP3 files, the stage was set for consumers to begin
 INTRODUCTION • 25
sharing music at an unprecedented level. Additionally, telecommunication
companies began to roll out broadband internet access, providing much faster
internet connectivity than earlier dial-up modems, which when combined
with the reduced music file sizes afforded by MP3s led to the world’s first
peer-to-peer music sharing site, Napster, launched in 1999. The music indus-
try would reverberate from this momentous event for years. Significantly,
1999 also marked the pinnacle of recorded music sales in the United States,
exceeding $14 billion in retail sales.

THE NEW MILLENNIUM:

THE SEARCH FOR A FRESH INDUSTRY MODEL

As the new millennium dawned, it was clear that a major change in the music
industry was underway, due to the impact that new technologies and internet
access were having throughout the entertainment world. First and foremost,
music fans rebelled against the standard delivery format for new music, the
$18 compact disc. As MP3 files of singles began to be distributed at a
grassroots level among music consumers, the value of the CD was put in
jeopardy. Napster built up a loyal user base seemingly overnight that ex-
ceeded 60 million music fans, but the record industry seemed frozen in the
headlights of rapidly advancing technological change. The majors held meet-
ings, launched an unproductive effort to bring the tech and music industries
together dubbed the Secure Digital Music Initiative, lobbied Congress, and
tried to devise ways to lock the content on the disc so consumers would be
unable to rip CDs.
Simultaneously, they banded together to launch two internet music distri-
bution portals, Pressplay and MusicNet, neither of which excited music con-
sumers. The industry’s most effective countermeasure against unauthorized
peer-to-peer file sharing proved to be a lawsuit to shut down Napster for
inducing copyright infringement on a massive global scale. The case went on
for more than a year, at the end of which the court found that Napster was
guilty of promoting copyright infringement and ordered it to stop facilitating
its peer-to-peer users access to “free” music. Unfortunately, even though
Napster was in its death throes, dozens of other similar internet services
popped up, many of which, unlike Napster, which was based in Silicon
Valley, were housed outside the borders and reach of U.S. copyright law.
The proverbial genie had been let out of the bottle. Between foreign file
sharing sites and a new file exchange technology known as a torrent, it soon
became nearly impossible to track down unauthorized users. Still, under the
leadership of the RIAA, the record industry went to court against thousands
of music consumers seeking punitive damages of up to hundreds of thou-
26 • INTRODUCTION
sands of dollars. The lengthy series of hundreds of highly publicized lawsuits
turned out to be a public relations nightmare for the industry. Although the
campaign did raise public awareness that music was not truly free, in hind-
sight it appeared to be a hollow victory as media and the music press took the
industry to task mercilessly for suing grandmothers and teenagers for sharing
music (illegally) via their computers.
At the same time that the record industry was struggling to adapt to the
new reality of free music access, Apple Computer saw the opportunity to
remake the relationship between artists and music fans by creating an iconic,
revolutionary portable music player that could hold 1,000 songs in a palm-
sized digital device, dubbed the iPod. Launched on 23 October 2001, it
quickly became the most exciting new “must have” music player for music
fans and helped to spread Apple’s now ubiquitous iTunes music player soft-
ware as the global standard for digital music library and playback functions.
Eighteen months after the iPod’s debut, on 28 April 2003, Apple opened the
iTunes music store. This proved to be another home run for the computer
company as it provided the first legal alternative for consumers to simply and
legally acquire music from five major labels. In its first five days of opera-
tion, Apple sold one million tracks. More importantly, Apple’s ability to
develop a convenient, user-friendly, legal alternative to illegal downloading
gave it a market leadership position in the retailing of music online, a posi-
tion it still holds today as the world’s dominant retailer of downloadable
music.

LIVE MUSIC THRIVES AS RECORD SALES SLUMP

While record industry revenues began a steady decline in the new millen-
nium as more and more consumers switched from purchasing $18 CDs to 99
cent downloads, the live music industry reached new heights of success, as
marquee artists such as Madonna, Jay-Z, and U2 entered into long-term,
multitour contracts with Live Nation Entertainment to handle their future
tours, in return receiving up to $120 million in guarantees against future
touring income. Concerts became big business as the overall live music
industry grew from $950 million in ticket sales in 1995 to more than $1.7
billion by 2000, according to Pollstar. As artist record royalties declined in
the early 2000s, on a parallel track with diminishing CD sales, artists, manag-
ers, and concert promoters saw the opportunity to replace lost revenue with
more ambitious, longer lasting tours. While artists typically earned up to one-
third of their revenue from record sales in the 1980s and 1990s, by 2010
arena headliners were making two-thirds or more of their revenue from live
performances and ancillary tour sponsorships. The strategy of bundling addi-
 INTRODUCTION • 27
tional goods and services, such as combining a VIP backstage meet and greet
with the concert ticket or providing a secure code to download the touring
artist’s latest album, came to be seen as a solid strategy to enhance the live
music experience through value-added options.
Another trend in live music was the reemergence of the music festival as a
cornerstone of the popular music industry. Some festivals became annual
touring events, such as the Warped Tour and Ozzfest, which visit 20 to 30
cities each summer, while others are destination festivals such as Bonaroo,
Coachella, or Outside Lands. As ticket prices for arena shows featuring one
or two headliners have continued to escalate, many fans feel music festivals
offer greater value, with the opportunity to see and hear dozens of artists in
an immersive weekend of music and revelry. Festivals also afford baby
bands a platform to be discovered by a much larger audience. The overall
trend in live music entertainment is that well-known artists are still able to
command premium ticket prices for their own tours while lesser-known acts
must work hard in an effort to simply break even touring. Still, the practice of
touring is a necessity to widen an artist’s fan base and eventually becomes a
key revenue source after an artist’s fan base has grown sufficiently.
Another recent variable in the live music marketplace is the advent of
online ticket resellers, who use sophisticated programmable computer tech-
nology to secure dozens of preferred seats to concerts the instant tickets go
on sale. As demand grows, these resellers, once largely derided as scalpers,
then offer the tickets for resale, often at a premium price. As a result, some
fans may end up spending many times the face value printed on the ticket in
order to see a favorite artist. Interestingly, the artist and their team rarely
receive any of the increased revenue that resellers earn for their risk in
purchasing tickets. Similar to the advent of digital downloading of music, the
ticketing portion of the live music industry, estimated to be worth in excess
of two billion dollars, seems ripe for a reorganization and consolidation to
offer a more transparent way for artists and fans to consummate the ticket
purchase process. With North American live music revenues at $6.9 billion
in 2015 and projected to grow to $9.1 billion by 2020 (these numbers do not
reflect secondary ticket reseller revenues), it appears that the live music
sector will remain the most essential part of many major artists’ revenue
strategies for the foreseeable future. Less well-known artists must rely on a
wider range of less profitable activities until such time as they can sell out
larger venues.
The tragic attacks on 11 September 2001 caused shock waves across the
music industry. In the immediate aftermath, concerts and tours were canceled
or rescheduled due to travel restrictions, while hundreds of artists pitched in
to perform at benefit events to help the people affected by the attacks. Within
a few weeks after the attacks, it became clear that the music industry was of
two minds in its response to the events. Some artists, notably a number of
28 • INTRODUCTION
country music stars, believed that retribution was called for and penned a
number of songs similar to the popular music of earlier eras that took Ameri-
ca’s perceived enemies to task and demanded retribution. However, other
artists had a different response and wrote songs of sadness and sorrow, while
some called on society to look for peaceful resolutions to the underlying
causes for the attacks. This dichotomy came to a very public head in 2003,
when a feud erupted between two of country music’s biggest stars, Toby
Keith, who advocated for war against America’s enemies, and the Dixie
Chicks, who didn’t. As it would turn out, the backlash against the Dixie
Chicks’ antiwar statements would cause them to transition out of being a
purely country act into the pop music marketplace, a move they made suc-
cessfully with the release of their 2006 Grammy-winning album Taking the
Long Way Home. Sadly, the attacks of 9/11 ushered in an era when on some
occasions entertainment venues and even entertainers themselves have been
targeted for violent political acts, such as the infamous November 2015 Paris
nightclub attack and the May 2017 terrorist attack outside a concert in Man-
chester, England. Although such examples are exceedingly rare today, artists
and promoters have become more aware of possible threats and are vigilant
regarding security for audience members, crew, and artists.

ARTISTS CHALLENGING THE STATUS QUO

Not surprisingly, copyright conventions continued to be tested by new ap-

proaches to creating art. In 2004, an artist named Danger Mouse created what
was referred to as a mashup, that is, the combination of two or more pieces of
existing music to form an entirely new work. The Grey Album, as it was
called, combined Jay-Z’s 2003 release The Black Album with the Beatles
1968 so-called White Album, creating a sensation among fans of both artists.
This was a perfect example of how the latest sampling and recording technol-
ogies opened new paths to creativity, but also resulted in a new creative work
that flew in the face of copyright law and demonstrated rights holders’ ag-
gressive efforts to put a damper on creativity. This example threw a harsh
light on the fact that the changes in technology were rapidly outstripping
decades of standard copyright convention, similar to the way that Napster
challenged the authority of the exclusive major label distribution model five
years earlier.
In 2007, another challenge to the status quo arose when arguably one of
the most critically acclaimed rock bands in the world, Radiohead, decided to
release its album In Rainbows direct to consumers as a download using a
“name your own price” model. The band had completed its contractual obli-
gations to EMI Records and decided that it would test the marketplace for
 INTRODUCTION • 29
their music, bypassing the industry’s traditional wholesalers and retailers.
While many fans downloaded the album for free, 40 percent chose to pay an
average of six dollars to support the band. When they released the album as a
physical CD in early 2008, it immediately shot to the top of the Billboard
chart, proving that many dedicated fans would gladly still pay for a physical
copy of an album that they could download for free.
By 2015, the latest debate to roil the music industry centered on the impact
that music streaming, also referred to as music access, was having on the
long-term earnings prospects of record labels and recording artists. Data
reported by the RIAA showed that music streaming had grown to become the
largest source of income for labels via payouts from streaming sites such as
Apple Music, Spotify, and YouTube. In rough terms, it takes 166 streams of
a song to equal the same revenue an artist sees from the sale of one down-
load. Downloading still represents a form of music ownership, no different in
the eyes of copyright from the wax cylinder one’s ancestors bought in 1890.
But music fans are rapidly converting their occasional download purchasing
habits to subscription-based services that for a monthly fee of currently
around $10 allow access to more than 30 million songs and hundreds of
thousands of playlists. Playlists have in large part started to replace the
primacy of the mid-20th-century radio deejay as the arbiter of what’s cool
and new in popular music.
Another simmering flashpoint between rights holders and broadcasters has
been the refusal of terrestrial radio broadcasters to align with the rest of the
modern world and pay a performance royalty for the use of master sound
recordings over the airwaves. With the diminishing revenues for record sales,
labels and recording artists have banded together and have been aggressively
lobbying legislators to require such a payment, in part to allow American
artists to collect performance royalties from other nations where such pay-
ments are normally made. Since the United States doesn’t pay foreign artists
a radio performance royalty, their home nations withhold such payments
from U.S. artists, until such time as the laws in the United States should
change.
If anything, the rate of music industry consolidation has accelerated in
recent years, in large part to reduce costs in a declining market for recorded
music purchases. By 2013, there were only three major record labels remain-
ing, down from the six of the 1990s. In 2004, Sony and BMG merged,
eliminating thousands of jobs worldwide, and since 2009 the newly merged
company has been referred to simply as Sony Music. In 2011, Access Indus-
tries, headed up by Len Blavatnik, purchased Warner Music Group and its
affiliated companies. In 2012, Universal Music Group completed the acquisi-
tion of the recorded music business of EMI and its U.S. subsidiary, Capitol
Records. Thus, three major record labels today dominate the U.S. record
business: Universal Music Group, Sony Music, and Warner Music Group.
30 • INTRODUCTION
With respect to music publishers, the trend toward consolidation has
marked much of the previous two decades. Three mega-publishing giants
have emerged in the wake of the 2012 disbanding of EMI Music as a stand-
alone major media company. As part of that breakup, Sony/ATV Publishing
purchased the EMI Publishing catalog and now controls the largest catalog of
popular music song copyrights. Warner/Chappell Music is a division of War-
ner Music Group and is another of the big three publishers. They have ac-
quired various smaller publishers and affiliated with top songwriters to boost
their control of hit songs. The third mega-publisher is Universal Music Pub-
lishing Group, a subsidiary of Universal Music Group, which in 2006 pur-
chased Bertelsmann Music Publishing and the rights to their extensive song
catalog. A relative newcomer, Kobalt Music Publishing, founded in 2000,
has begun to challenge the three giants, offering songwriters a more transpar-
ent data collection and analysis model than had been common in music
publishing. Kobalt’s appeal has led many veterans, as well as current chart-
topping artists, to affiliate their songs with the relative newcomer, resulting
in its revenue now rivaling that of the three majors in any quarter where
songs controlled by Kobalt perform exceptionally well. As the industry con-
tinues to move to access-oriented music delivery, music publishers and their
rights administration effectiveness will serve as a vital link to maintaining a
healthy creative community.

CONSUMERS STILL WANT MUSIC

Interestingly, while the payouts for record labels and recording artists have
declined dramatically in the new millennium, music can be found on more
platforms and in more places than ever before. A small number of A-list
artists with global reach such as Adele, Drake, Beyoncé, Ed Sheeran, and
Metallica still sell significant amounts of downloads and, when their music is
made available via streaming, millions of streams. But income from record
sales, downloads, and streaming is now a fraction of what it was two decades
earlier. Most young music lovers take their music with them via mobile
devices, including cellular phones using either Android or iPhone operating
systems. Video games rely on music in the same way as films to convey the
emotions and themes found in each scenario, which has led to new artists
partnering with video game studios to engage with new audiences from the
gaming community.
Streaming services such as Pandora, Spotify, Apple Music, and Tidal all
offer “on the go” access to subscribers, who may access music playlists
through either Wi-Fi or cellular data when necessary. One area of concern is
free music access via portals such as YouTube, as well as the freemium
 INTRODUCTION • 31
unpaid versions of Pandora or Spotify, which monetize music use by includ-
ing ads with the music. YouTube became the dominant music discovery and
listening platform used by American teens. The tension between the music
industry and technology companies over music usage and royalties appears
likely to continue as music ownership rapidly becomes an anachronism for
most consumers under the age of 40.
Meanwhile, the trend of steadily rising overall revenues for the live music
industry has masked a troubling trend that has emerged in that market seg-
ment. The number of tickets being sold is nearly flat, meaning that the rise in
overall ticket sales revenues is due to the nonstop increase in ticket prices,
not a wholesale increase in the overall number of concertgoers. For some
fans, higher prices have led to harder scrutiny of just how to spend disposable
income on entertainment. Long term, the value offered by high-level artists’
tours is likely to continue to be challenged by the healthy music festival
market, which offers more bands per dollar spent, as well as enhanced tech-
nologies such as high-definition broadcasts of concerts on premium channels
or networks.

WHAT’S NEXT?

It seems certain that the pace of technological innovation will continue and,
if anything, is likely to accelerate more rapidly in the future. With the new
paradigm of music streaming becoming dominant, record labels and artists,
traditional adversaries in the 20th-century music industry, began to see the
benefits of closer ties. This was in large part to ensure that whatever new
technologies emerge and shape the paths for music distribution and access
will fairly compensate the artists and businesspersons responsible for making
and promoting new music. Copyright laws will need to be revised and updat-
ed more frequently than in the past to reflect the realities of the changing
digital media marketplace and to better balance the needs of creators and tech
innovators. Strides being made in both artificial intelligence and virtual real-
ity hold the promise to once again reinvent the music making and music
listening experience within the next generation.
Today is an exciting time to be involved in every segment of the music
industry. However, the fundamental engine of the business—the creation,
marketing, and monetization of new music—hasn’t intrinsically changed as
much as the pathways to get music to consumers. At the same time, the
multinational major record labels have proven wily competitors as they have
invested in a number of the new music delivery systems, including Spotify
and Vevo, a leading online music video service. While the slogan coined by
the Nashville Songwriters Association International—“It all begins with a
32 • INTRODUCTION
song”—is still true today, what happens to that song on its way to the music
consumer is more complex and varied than ever before in the history of the
music industry. Still, music continues to play a defining role in shaping
America’s cultural, artistic, and political future, just as it has since the na-
tion’s founding.
 #
100% RETURN PRIVILEGE. See RETURN PRIVILEGE.

33-RPM RECORD. The 33 1/3-RPM record, alternately known as the long-

playing record, LP, or album, was developed by Columbia Records in
order to provide better sound quality (dubbed “high fidelity”) than the then-
dominant 78-RPM records. Debuting in 1948, the new approach to music
reproduction used 300 grooves per inch rather than the 85 grooves per inch
that 78-RPM records had previously relied on. The results were an increase
in playing time from the roughly three to five minutes per side afforded by
78s to more than 20 minutes on a 33-RPM album. This led to the rise of an
artist recording a collection of songs available on a single two-sided album,
which nominally featured five to six songs and approximately 18–20 minutes
of music per side.
As the market for albums grew, the album’s package became another form
of artistic expression, leading to record labels and artists expanding the range
of what types of creativity could be applied to the real estate available on the
LP jacket. Artists went to great lengths to outdo one another with complicat-
ed and ingenious album artwork throughout the 1960s–1990s. Since the early
2000s, there has been a revival of interest, especially among younger record
buyers, in acquiring 33-RPM albums pressed on vinyl. According to the
Recording Industry Association of America’s 2015 end-of-year report,
vinyl records continued their resurgence as sales grew by 32 percent over the
previous year to an estimated $416 million in retail value. At the time of this
writing, entrepreneurs were rapidly searching for once-obsolete vinyl presses
to restore and bring online in order to respond to the increased demand for a
format once declared dead.

360 DEAL. A multiple-rights agreement between an artist and a record

label, concert promoter, or other music business entity. The general terms of
360 deals allow the record label to share in a full range of artist income
streams such as record sales, touring, publishing, merchandise, and endorse-
ment deals. In exchange for this participation in the artist’s varied income

33
34 • 45-RPM RECORD
streams, the record label or other entity provides a much larger pool of funds
for the artist to draw on to support their creative work than would be offered
in a traditional (non-360) record deal. The first such deal was made in the
1990s between EMI Records and Robby Williams in the UK. Soon after,
U.S. record and concert promotion companies began to structure similar
deals with U.S. artists such as Korn, Madonna, and Jay-Z. In the current
climate, with the hegemony of the major record labels being challenged by
a more decentralized music distribution system, some music managers now
question whether the 360 deal’s upfront investment still justifies the sponsor-
ing firm’s shares in so many of the artists’ income streams.

45-RPM RECORD. The seven-inch-diameter record format was developed

and announced in 1949 by RCA Victor as a smaller, lighter replacement for
the then dominant 78-RPM record. Forty-fives, as the seven-inch records
came to be known, offered record buyers improved audio fidelity and dur-
ability. It was also a response to Columbia’s breakthrough 33-RPM long-
playing disc, which debuted in 1948, soon to be known as an “album.” The
45-RPM record, with one song on each side and its distinctive larger center
hole, became the staple of jukebox operators and an affordable music me-
dium for teens growing up in the 1950s. The 45 further expanded the market
for singles, that is, the particular song or songs that would be the focus of a
label’s promotional efforts during a specified time frame for one of its artists.
Singles dominated radio and sales charts throughout the 1950s and into the
early 1970s, when albums challenged the dominance of the single, as artists
began to conceive and release collections of songs. At that point, albums
became the dominant form of recorded music distribution, until the reemer-
gence of a singles market in the age of iTunes.

78-RPM RECORD. While the term itself did not become used widely until
after World War II, most disc-type records (as opposed to cylinder record-
ings) produced in the first half of the 20th century did in fact play back at 78
revolutions per minute. The discs themselves were most often made out of
shellac, a breakable material commonly available. Ten-inch records would
hold three minutes of music, while 12-inch records could reproduce up to
five minutes of music. The 78 was replaced by the 45-RPM record in the
early 1950s, and 78 albums were overtaken by 33-RPM albums that became
popular at that same time. Many collectors still prize 78-RPM recordings,
although the audio quality is poor when compared to newer music playback
technologies.
 A
ACOUSTICAL CONSULTANT. A person with training and experience in
the art and science of acoustics, called upon to help design or modify a
structure to be used for a music performance or as a recording facility. Not
only must acoustical consultants be well versed in physics and the properties
of sound, they must also understand construction practices, building codes
and requirements, and ergonomics for the extended operations of such facil-
ities over time.

ACTORS’ EQUITY ASSOCIATION. More commonly referred to simply

as Equity, this union represents actors that perform live on stage in produc-
tions such as dramas, comedies, and musicals. The trade association formed
in 1913, in part as a response to the often exploitative working conditions
actors faced at that time. Over its history, it has led strikes to address per-
ceived injustices faced by its members in their careers. It was also an impor-
tant early proponent of equal opportunity for actors of color in the theater.
Today, the organization fosters an appreciation for the theater and works to
ensure that its members have fair wages and working conditions and access
to benefits such as health care and pensions.
See also AMERICAN FEDERATION OF MUSICIANS (AFM);
SCREEN ACTORS GUILD–AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TELEVI-
SION AND RADIO ARTISTS (SAG-AFTRA).

ADELE. Adele Laurie Adkins was born in London on 5 May 1988. She is a
performer and songwriter who has proven able to buck industry trends with
regard to the declining sales of physical albums and downloads. She began
singing at the age of four, eventually graduating from the BRIT School for
Performing Arts and Technology in 2006. Soon after graduation, some of her
original songs were posted on MySpace and drew the attention of an execu-
tive at XL Recordings. Adele soon met a number of music industry managers
and by 2006 had acquired management.

35
36 • ADVANCE
She continued to write and perform, honing her skills and voice, leading
up to the release of the album 19 in 2008. Part of her strategy included
coming to America, where she toured and made television appearances to
build her audience. By mid-2009, 19 had sold a notable 2.2 million albums
globally. Early in 2011, she released 21, and it eclipsed the success of her
previous album, going on to sell 30 million copies worldwide as of 2014.
Near the end of her sold-out world tour in support of 21, she developed voice
problems and was advised to have surgery and stop singing during her recov-
ery period, which lasted three months. Adele’s third album, 25, was released
in November 2015 after the much anticipated October release of the lead
single, “Hello,” for which the accompanying music video was viewed 27
million times on YouTube in the 24 hours following its release, reaching one
billion views in 88 days. 25 achieved the most successful first week of sales
for an album, notching 3.38 million albums sold, the most for any album
since SoundScan began tracking record sales in 1991. Overall, Adele is
estimated to have sold more than 104 million records so far in her career.
Adele has been an outspoken advocate for women’s rights and the LGBTQ
community. She has largely withheld her most recent releases for a period of
time from free music streaming services in order to maximize earnings from
record sales and digital downloads.

ADVANCE. Any monies that are provided to an artist under contract by

their record label prior to putting out a record. Advances are generally used
to support the artist’s creative work, such as recording an album or preparing
for a tour. The money is viewed as a recoverable loan that will be paid back
through the earned artist royalties from the sale of recordings made under
the terms of the record contract. It is important to note that advances are
secured solely by the rights granted to the record label to make and sell the
artist’s records and that in the event that the record’s earnings do not equal
the amount of the advance, the artist, if they remain under contract to the
label, will be required to make future albums and have all future royalties be
used to pay back the earlier advances. Today, many record contracts refer to
advances with the synonymous term “funds.”
See also CROSS-COLLATERALIZATION; RECOUPMENT.

ADVANCE PERSON. An advance person is hired to arrive at the next

destination where a tour is scheduled to perform, making sure that all neces-
sary details, including rooms, security, publicity, access, local transportation,
interviews, or media access and venue arrangements, are all complete and
ready to support the arriving artist and their tour entourage. Some large-scale
tours may invest in a second complete touring package, including equipment,
staging, lights, sound, and special effects, in order to maximize the number
 ALL-IN • 37
of performances that can be booked, in which case the advance team may
include drivers and key technicians that are capable of preparing the concert
environment with the help of local on-site labor. Colloquially, “advancing” a
show refers to any activities that relate to preparing for an upcoming concert
performance.

AGENT. The role of the talent agent is to procure live performance opportu-
nities for musicians and bands. Known colloquially as “gigs,” these perfor-
mance opportunities may range from playing at a wedding or retirement
party to performing at half time at the Super Bowl. Agents are the quintes-
sential middlemen in that they must carefully determine the needs of the
talent buyer, be it a night club, college, or music festival, and help ensure that
the artists booked for each performance opportunity are an appropriate fit for
that talent buyer’s venue, audience, and budget. In many states, there are
statutes that govern the actions of agents, in an effort to reduce unscrupulous
behavior. Nearly all agents are also obligated to work under the rules pro-
vided by the performing artists unions, including American Federation of
Musicians, Screen Actors Guild–American Federation of Television and
Radio Artists, and American Guild of Musical Artists, a process referred
to as franchising. Agents are generally compensated 10 percent of the gross
revenue for each performance they have arranged for artists that belong to
one or more of the various unions.

ALBUM CYCLE. An album cycle refers to the total time period that sur-
rounds the creation and marketing of an artist’s album. Generally, this will
include writing, rehearsing, recording, releasing, and then touring in support
of a new album release. Throughout the 20th century, artists and labels were
unified in their efforts to make and promote the album as it was the primary
revenue source for both entities. As digital distribution of music has largely
eclipsed physical record sales and streaming surpasses downloading as con-
sumers’ preferred way to access music, the concept of an album cycle has
become less central to an artist’s career arc. Today, maintaining the ear and
eye of the listening public through the release of singles has become an
alternative to the traditional album cycle, although the industry has not aban-
doned the concept completely.

ALL-IN. An industry term that normally refers to more than one type of
royalty, payment, or obligation being combined with another type of royalty,
payment, or obligation. For example, record producers normally receive a
distinct royalty on the sales of records that they produced; however, the
actual producer royalties are included in the artist’s “all-in” royalty pay-
ment from the record label. In the case of an artist earning a royalty of 14
38 • ALPERT, HERB
percent of suggested retail list price (SLRP), their producer may be entitled
to receive 3 percent of SRLP. That 3 percent royalty is deducted from the
artist’s 14 percent, leaving the artist a net royalty rate of only 11 percent of
SRLP. In industry parlance, the artist is said to have a “14 percent all-in
royalty rate” and also assumes responsibility for paying the producer’s royal-
ty from the artist’s royalty revenues.
See also ARTIST ROYALTY.

ALPERT, HERB. Herb Alpert was born on 31 March 1935 in Los Angeles.
He is a musician and entrepreneur best known as the leader of his own group,
Herb Alpert and the Tijuana Brass, which sold more than 70 million records,
mostly during the act’s heyday in the 1960s.
He was born in Los Angeles and studied trumpet growing up, simultane-
ously becoming interested in sound recording when he acquired an old wire
recorder. After graduating from high school, he served in the U.S. Army,
playing regularly at ceremonies and events. In the late 1950s, he tried his
hand at songwriting, cowriting a number of hit songs for other artists such as
Sam Cooke and Jan and Dean. His own recording career began as a vocalist,
but his passion for sound recording led him to build a recording studio in his
garage, where he experimented with overdubbing techniques that would lead
to his first hit, 1962’s “Lonely Bull,” which cracked the top 10. That same
year, Alpert and partner Jerry Moss started A&M Records, one of the most
artist-friendly independent record labels of the era. Alpert proved very adept
at both building up his label and continuing to develop his recording career.
Ironically, his first hit song featured him playing all the parts, and in time he
recruited top-notch session players to tour with him as his band.
Typical of many record labels of the era, in 1966 A&M built a state-of-the-
art recording and mastering complex in Hollywood that has been the location
for hundreds of seminal recordings. Over the next three decades, Alpert
would sign and develop new artists to the label, helping to launch the careers
of Janet Jackson, Sergio Mendes, the Carpenters, Sheryl Crow, Bryan Ad-
ams, Amy Grant, Soundgarden, and the Police, among many others. The
label eventually grew to become the largest independent record label in the
world. Although Herb Alpert and the Tijuana Brass officially disbanded in
1969, in the ensuing years Alpert would revive the group for the occasional
record releases in the ’70s and ’80s. In 1989, Alpert and Moss sold A&M to
PolyGram Records for a reported sum of $500 million.
In addition to his achievements as a recording artist and entrepreneur,
Alpert and his wife, Lani Hall, are dedicated philanthropists, donating mil-
lions of dollars on behalf of the arts and music education nonprofits. Alpert
holds the unique position of being the only artist to attain number one hits as
both an instrumentalist and a vocalist, as his 1969 rendition of “This Guy’s in
 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF MUSICIANS (AFM) • 39
Love with You” topped the chart, as did his 1979 instrumental “Rise.” Still
performing into his 80s, he has received nine Grammy Awards, the most
recent for his 2014 release Steppin’ Out.

AMERICAN BANDSTAND. American Bandstand was a television program

that aired Monday through Friday from 1952 to 1989. The show featured
contemporary teenagers dancing to top 40 records, along with regular ap-
pearances by performers who would lip-synch to their latest releases. From
1956 on, the show was hosted by Dick Clark, a radio disk jockey who
seamlessly made the transition to a television personality and eventually to
becoming one of the most powerful men in the music industry.
A number of elements made American Bandstand one of the most influen-
tial arbiters of what songs and artists would be likely to find commercial
success. First, from 1957 to 1963, the show was broadcast into American’s
homes every day right after school let out, in the late afternoon, aggregating a
reported daily viewing audience of 20 million by 1959. Second, Bandstand’s
teen dancers became highly visible trendsetters for teen culture and celeb-
rities in their own right, with many regulars receiving hundreds of pieces of
fan mail each week from viewers. They influenced fashion, hairstyles, and
other aspects of culture that teens viewing the show would emulate. The
teens also served to rate the new records that Clark would introduce each
week, giving a sense of authenticity lacking in top 40 radio programming. In
1963, the show was moved from a daily broadcast to a one-hour Saturday
broadcast and remained on that day until it concluded in 1989 after broad-
casting an estimated 3,000 shows. Bandstand served to introduce a wide
range of artists to American record buyers, including many African
Americans who otherwise would have been unlikely to perform on broadcast
television due to racial barriers.

AMERICAN FEDERATION OF MUSICIANS (AFM). The AFM repre-

sents instrumental musicians in the United States and Canada who perform
live on stage, on radio, or on television broadcasts or as part of a motion
picture or television soundtrack. There is a national office in New York City
and hundreds of regional offices, referred to as “locals,” across North Ameri-
ca. Founded in 1896, the AFM advocates for the best possible wages and
working conditions for its members. The AFM currently claims approxi-
mately 90,000 members throughout North America.
See also AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TELEVISION AND RADIO
ARTISTS (AFTRA); SCREEN ACTORS GUILD–AMERICAN FEDERA-
TION OF TELEVISION AND RADIO ARTISTS (SAG-AFTRA).
40 • AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TELEVISION AND RADIO ARTISTS
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TELEVISION AND RADIO ART-
ISTS (AFTRA). The American Federation of Television and Radio Artists is
a guild for radio and television performers dedicated to improving contract
negotiations, working conditions, pay rates, and member benefits, including
health and retirement plans. Founded in 1937, primarily to represent the
interests of radio announcers and actors, the fledgling guild soon had more
than 2,000 members from all walks of broadcasting. Banded together, the
actors and announcers soon won substantial salary increases. With the advent
of television in the 1950s, the organization embraced television performers,
actors, announcers, and other talent. It should be noted that musicians who
performed on radio or television were required to join the guild, entitling
them to membership privileges once they had paid initiation fees. By 1960,
AFTRA and the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) entered into joint negotiations
with the advertising industry regarding payment for performers in television
commercials. As the landscape of American media evolved with cable televi-
sion, and then the rise of the internet as a media platform, AFTRA advocated
to help ensure its members received equitable compensation. In 2012, the
members of AFTRA and SAG voted to merge the two guilds, which going
forward is referred to as the Screen Actors Guild–American Federation of
Television and Radio Artists.

AMERICAN GUILD OF MUSICAL ARTISTS (AGMA). The American

Guild of Musical Artists is a trade association representing opera, dance, and
concert musicians and directors, backstage personnel, and figure skaters. It
was founded in 1936 to protect opera performers from what were then
viewed as exploitive contracts with little regard for the performer’s health
and well-being. Virtually every significant opera and dance company’s on-
stage and off-stage personnel are affiliated with AGMA.

AMERICAN IDOL (TV SHOW). American Idol was a television series

produced by Fremantle Media and 19 Entertainment that ran for 18 seasons
in the United States from 2002 to 2016. During its run, it became the most
highly watched show in the nation and demanded a premium from advertis-
ers wishing to appeal to its peak audience of 38 million viewers. Based on the
British television series Pop Idol, which was also produced by Fremantle, the
show combined a national musical talent competition, backstage drama, and
sometimes feuding celebrity judges with audience voting. Together, these
proved a winning combination to stimulate viewer engagement for such a
long and successful run. Winners of each season would be signed to a major
label recording contract and a number of winners and top 10 finalists have
 APPLE COMPUTER • 41
gone on to establish themselves as viable headliners in the music industry,
including Carrie Underwood, Kelly Clarkson, Chris Daughtry, and Jennifer
Hudson.

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF COMPOSERS, AUTHORS, AND PUB-

LISHERS (ASCAP). The American Society of Composers, Authors, and
Publishers is the oldest performing rights organization in the United
States. It was founded in 1914 and is a nonprofit membership organization
that included composers, songwriters, lyricists, and publishers. ASCAP re-
portedly administers the largest catalog of songs in the United States. AS-
CAP issues two types of licenses: blanket licenses provide access to its
entire catalogue; and per-program licenses also allow access to the entire
ASCAP catalogue for specific radio or television programs and require the
user to keep track of and report the specific music used during broadcasts.
Music users were not all willing to pay license fees at first, and so ASCAP
had to establish this legal precedent through court actions.
ASCAP calculates its royalties on a quarterly basis. Its board of directors
contains 12 writers and 12 publishers. ASCAP’s board of directors deter-
mines the distribution of royalties.

ANTHONY, MICHELE. Michelle Anthony is an entertainment attorney

and music industry executive born in New York City in 1956. Her father,
Dee Anthony, was a successful music manager throughout the latter half of
the 20th century. Anthony’s introduction to the music business began at the
age of 12, when her father would bring her along to concerts, where she
learned firsthand how to collaborate with and manage top-tier talent. After
completing law school, she began law practice and built an all-star roster of
music clients, including Guns N’ Roses, Alice in Chains, Ozzy Osbourne,
Soundgarden, Rick Rubin, and SubPop Records. She left law practice in
1990 to join Sony Music as a vice president and would go on during her 17-
year career at Sony to become president and chief operating office at the
label. In 2006, she founded 7H Entertainment, a consulting and management
firm with clients such as Pearl Jam, Prince, Björk, Soundgarden, Ozzy Os-
bourne, and Black Sabbath. In 2013, she was appointed executive vice presi-
dent of Universal Music Group and currently serves as the second-in-com-
mand to UMG chairman Lucian Grainge.

APPLE COMPUTER. Apple Computer was founded in 1976 by Steve

Jobs, Ronald Wayne, and Steve Wozniak to build personal computers. It was
renamed Apple Inc. in 2007 to reflect its diversification into electronics and
noncomputer products. The company was one of the first to view the com-
42 • ARMSTRONG, LOUIS (1901–1971)
puter as a revolutionary advancement for consumers’ everyday lives and
soon began to focus on the user experience that would differentiate its prod-
ucts from its competitors.
With the launch of the Macintosh line in 1984, the company became the
preferred computer for artists, musicians, designers, and publishers due to its
graphical user interface. Apple’s 1991 launch of the PowerBook augured the
rise of the laptop computer with speed and tremendous processing power.
Third-party developers began to develop powerful music creation programs
geared to run best on Apple’s operating systems, further solidifying its lead-
ing role in the music industry.
When the music industry stumbled in 1999 with the rise of peer-to-peer
file sharing and music piracy, Apple developed the iTunes music store and
its companion software program, which was an immediate hit and grew to
become the world’s largest retailer for recorded music. The development of
2001’s iPod music player, which became another runaway consumer suc-
cess, and the debut of Apple’s iPhone in 2007 moved the company beyond
simply selling computers to becoming the world’s leading integrated media
and electronics company. The company sells its product direct to consumers
through the internet as well as through its own Apple retail stores, the first of
which opened in 2001. Apple’s retail stores today are reportedly the most
profitable stores in the world on a sales-per-square-foot measure. Its App
Store is one of the most visited sites on the internet with 140 billion down-
loads reported for September 2016.

ARMSTRONG, LOUIS (1901–1971). Louis “Satchmo” Armstrong was a

trumpeter, vocalist, bandleader, composer, actor, and comedian who argu-
ably became the world’s most recognized and best loved 20th-century musi-
cian in large part due to the combination of his outsized talent, ebullient
personality, and down-to-earth manner.
Born on 4 August 1901 into extreme poverty in New Orleans, Armstrong
grew up surrounded by music but had to scramble to help support his mother
and sister from a very early age. He worked various jobs, including singing
with a street corner quartet, before he got into trouble with the law for
discharging a pistol on New Year’s Eve in 1912. As a result, he was sent to
the Colored Waif’s Home, where over an 18-month period he learned to play
the cornet, eventually becoming the leader of the school band. After his
release, he resumed odd jobs such as delivering coal but soon was able to
earn a portion of his income from performing in the red-light district of his
hometown as well as in second-line bands and other groups. By 1919, he was
invited to join Kid Ory’s Jazz Band when its then-current lead trumpeter and
Armstrong’s mentor, Joe “King” Oliver, left to lead a band in Chicago.
Armstrong was now able to earn a living full-time through music. After
further musical development playing on the Mississippi riverboats in the
 ARMSTRONG, LOUIS (1901–1971) • 43
summer seasons from 1919 to 1921, in 1922 he was invited to join Oliver in
Chicago and soon became a sensation, drawing standing-room audiences to
the clubs where he appeared as a featured soloist with various orchestras.
From 1925 to 1928, as a member of the Hot Five and Hot Seven, Arm-
strong would redefine jazz and popular music through a series of break-
through recordings that served the world notice that a totally singular talent
had emerged on recordings such as “Struttin’ with Some Barbeque” (1927)
and “West End Blues” (1928). His trumpet playing was immediately recog-
nizable and extended the limits of the instrument to new, previously unheard
of levels. His appearance in the 1929 Broadway musical Hot Chocolates
helped him cross over to appeal to white audiences, a rarity at that time. The
featured song, Fats Waller’s “Ain’t Misbehavin’,” became his first main-
stream hit record.
As a vocalist, Armstrong had a loose, rhythmic style, full of nuanced
interjections and colloquialisms, which coupled with his gravelly voice and
ability to effortlessly scat propelled him to stardom on Broadway and on
records. By the 1930s, Armstrong was either performing with the most popu-
lar big bands or leading his own ensemble. He toured Europe and the United
States to great acclaim while selling out the largest theaters. This continued
until 1947, when he shifted to a small ensemble, billed as Louis Armstrong
and His All-Stars, the format he would perform with for the remainder of his
career, with a varying cast of talented support musicians.
Armstrong frequently challenged the limitations placed on musicians of
color in the times, such as when he became the first African American
musician to pen an autobiography, Swing That Music (1936), and in the same
year was the first black musician to receive star billing in a major motion
picture, Pennies from Heaven, and to host a prime-time nationally broadcast
radio show, The Fleischmann’s Yeast Hour, for 12 weeks in 1937.
Although perhaps best known among jazz aficionados for his late 1920s
recordings referenced earlier, the broader public came to know Armstrong
best through his string of popular records such as “Mack the Knife” (1955),
“Hello Dolly” (1964), and “What a Wonderful World” (1967), as well as his
33 motion picture appearances, most notably in New Orleans (1947) and
High Society (1956). He was a fixture on television shows, where his wit,
earthiness, and candor made him a coveted performer or interviewee from
the 1950s until his death on 6 July 1971.
Louis Armstrong suffered a great deal of racial discrimination over the
course of his career yet was still a willing participant in the U.S. State
Department’s cold war jazz ambassador program, playing around the world
to help spread American culture and the positive messages he conveyed from
the stage as a counterweight to Soviet cultural advances. During the 1957
Little Rock, Arkansas, conflict over school segregation, he famously chal-
lenged President Eisenhower to end the discrimination against African
44 • ARRANGER
Americans and intervene directly, a stance that shocked many of his most
ardent fans at that time, who only knew him as a happy-go-lucky entertainer.
Rather, he was a strong believer in civil rights and made frequent donations
to support the cause throughout his career and frequently wrote of his dis-
satisfaction with the status quo. Armstrong himself was a prolific writer and
essayist and left a large body of writings and letters that continue to be mined
by scholars and the general public alike to understand the life and times of
one of America’s greatest musicians and entertainers.

ARRANGER. An arranger begins with the original musical ideas provided

by a composer, often in the form of a melody and basic harmonic pattern, and
then fleshes out those ideas with the appropriate musical parts that will be
played by various instruments and voices in the recording or performance of
a musical work. Arrangers often work in the film industry to craft the indi-
vidual parts that will be played, for instance, by an orchestra, as part of the
film’s musical score. During the mid-20th century, arrangers such as Nelson
Riddle, Don Costa, and Billy Strayhorn were recognized by music aficiona-
dos for their work on the recordings by some of the most popular artists of
their times. More recently, popular music arrangers often are working with
keyboards, synthesizers, and samplers to create the sounds heard on popular
recordings. Today’s popular music producer may also serve in the capacity
of an arranger, guiding the musical efforts of an artist or group by making
suggestions as to how to improve or enhance the music that is being created.
See also COPYIST; ORCHESTRATOR.

ARTIST. The term generally used to describe a professional performer or

musician, most often in the context of a recording or performance agreement.
In situations where the performer is a band or other ensemble, the term
“artist” is still used to refer to that collective of musicians or performers
using a group name (e.g., Radiohead, Kronos Quartet).

ARTIST AND REPERTOIRE (A&R). This phrase refers to the process of

identifying and working with new artists to sign them to a record contract
or production agreement and then assisting in the creation of new musical
recordings. Persons employed in this work are often referred to as A&R reps.

ARTIST MANAGER. See PERSONAL MANAGER.

ARTIST ROYALTY. The portion of monies received by the record label

that is calculated as the artist’s royalty on record sales. Over the years, the
negotiation, calculation, documentation, and payment of artist royalties has
become a complex and sometimes disputed area of the record business. Each
 A-SIDE • 45
artist’s royalty is most often referred to as a percentage of the retail or
wholesale selling price of an album, for example, 15 percent of the pub-
lished price to dealers. It’s important to note that artist royalties are retained
by the record label to pay back all monies advanced and spent on behalf of
the artist in the record-making and promotion process. As a result, until such
time as the artist has earned back enough royalties to cover these upfront
costs incurred by the record label, the artist will not receive any royalty
payments.
See also ADVANCE; RECOUPMENT.

ARTISTDIRECT. ARTISTdirect was one of the first online digital media

distribution companies to leverage the power of the internet to directly con-
nect musicians and fans. Cofounded in 1996 by Marc Geiger and Don
Muller, the company saw the future value in direct-to-fan music sales as well
as the collection, aggregation, and dissemination of music information, lead-
ing them to acquire the Ultimate Band List from a college student and launch
it as a worldwide music directory. In 1997, they partnered with the band
Blink-182 to start up LoserKids.com, a site that featured a community for
fans of punk and alternative rock as well as merchandise from clothing and
specialty companies that catered to that market segment. ARTISTdirect
signed a number of artists to their ecommerce distribution agreements, and
by the early 2000s it was one of the most popular music-centric destinations
on the internet. Geiger left the company in 2003, and subsequently it diver-
sified into digital media security software services, acquiring Media Defend-
er in 2005 and Media Sentry in 2009. Both firms are leaders in the efforts to
reduce unauthorized downloading of music and media.

ARTIST’S ADVANCE. The sum of money provided to the artist prior to

making or releasing a new album, which will then be deducted from that
artist’s future royalty earnings. In essence, it is a loan against royalties.
Currently, the artist’s advance amount may be determined by how much of
the total funds available have been used up with an album’s recording costs
and producer’s advance. The remainder, if any, constitutes the artist’s ad-
vance.

A-SIDE. A term developed in the 45-RPM era of the record industry used to
denote the track put out as the single by the record label. Most often, it is the
song that the record label believes will most likely become a hit.
See also B-SIDE.
46 • ATLANTIC RECORDS
ATLANTIC RECORDS. Atlantic Records was founded in 1947 in New
York City by Ahmet Ertegun and Herb Abramson. Over the first 20 years of
their existence, Atlantic became one of the premiere U.S. independent
record labels, primarily known for rhythm and blues, soul, and jazz record-
ings by African American artists that topped the charts. Atlantic became
known for treating black artists better than many other labels of that era
while still profiting greatly from the hit records they released. In addition to
Ertegun, Atlantic became home to talented artist and repertoire representa-
tive Jerry Wexler, sound engineer Tom Dowd, and Miriam Abramson, who
managed the label’s music publishing division. Artists who rose to promi-
nence under the guidance of Atlantic Records included Ray Charles, Ruth
Brown, the Drifters, Bobby Darin, the Platters, LaVern Baker, Aretha
Franklin, John Coltrane, Chick Corea, and Keith Jarrett. Atlantic also profit-
ed greatly from an eight-year association with Memphis-based Stax Records,
whose raw, soulful recordings were marketed and distributed by Atlantic,
adding Otis Redding, Wilson Pickett, Carla Thomas, Booker T. and the MGs,
and Sam and Dave to the Atlantic family. In 1967, Atlantic founder Ahmet
Ertegun, along with the rest of the label’s stockholders, sold Atlantic to
Warner Brothers. Ertegun would remain in an executive role at Atlantic
until his death. Soon after the label’s sale, they diversified their roster to
include rock and other progressive styles of music and would go on to release
many of the most successful groups of the 1970s and 1980s, including Cros-
by, Stills, Nash & Young, Led Zeppelin, the Bee Gees, Cream, Yes, Foreign-
er, the Rolling Stones, Genesis, Phil Collins, Peter Gabriel, AC/DC, and
many others. The label continues to operate today as a part of the Warner
Music Group.

ATTORNEY. See ENTERTAINMENT ATTORNEY

AUDIT. An audit is a procedure to review business or financial records to

determine if the proper amount of royalties were paid to an artist or songwrit-
er. Audit rights are generally included in most music industry contracts to
provide a recourse for creatives who may believe their royalties were not
correctly reported or paid. They often include limitations on the time that
may elapse between the end of a specific royalty reporting period and the
initiation of an audit. Most music industry audits are undertaken by accoun-
tants with specialized knowledge of music industry royalty and accounting
practices.
 AVAKIAN, GEORGE (1919–2017) • 47
AUTRY, GENE (1907–1998). Orvon Grover “Gene” Autry was a singer,
songwriter, and actor who had a prolific career that spanned radio, televi-
sion, and cinema. His cowboy persona became larger than life and was very
influential on the entire American entertainment industry.
He began his career singing on a radio station in Tulsa, Oklahoma, in
1928. His nickname was “Oklahoma’s Yodeling Cowboy.” The next year he
moved to New York and signed a record deal with Columbia Records, and
he achieved mainstream success in the early 1930s. Throughout the years,
Autry made more than 600 recordings, many of which were hillbilly songs
that helped bring country music to a wider American audience, such as
“Back in the Saddle Again.” He also recorded and wrote several Christmas
holiday tunes that continue to be popular, including “Here Comes Santa
Claus,” “Frosty the Snowman,” and “Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer.” All
told, his records sold more than 100 million copies, which includes several
Gold and Platinum records.
Autry acted in more than 90 films between 1934 and 1953, usually playing
the role of the heroic cowboy. He often sang in his films, and as a result he
became known as “The Singing Cowboy.” Between 1940 and 1956, Autry
hosted a weekly radio show called Gene Autry’s Melody Ranch on CBS
Radio. He made appearances on the 1950s television show Jubilee USA,
which featured country music’s top stars. Through sound recordings, radio
shows, movies, and television appearances, Autry developed a wide fan base
that brought him success over the course of several decades.
By the mid-1950s, music fans had moved on to new country music stars,
such as Johnny Cash, as well as new music genres, such as rock ’n’ roll, so
Autry focused on various business interests. By that time, he owned several
television stations, radio stations, a recording studio, and a production com-
pany. From 1961 to 1997, he was the owner of the Los Angeles Angels
baseball team.
Autry was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1969.

AVAKIAN, GEORGE (1919–2017). George Avakian was a record pro-

ducer and music manager born to Armenian parents on 15 March 1919 in
Armavir, Russia. After immigrating to the United States, Avakian attended
Yale University and became an avid collector and aficionado of jazz music.
While still a student in 1940, Columbia Records hired him to help with the
reissue of early recordings by Louis Armstrong, for which he created the
first liner notes to accompany a collection of sound recordings. This was the
precursor to the modern album.
From 1940 to 1959, Avakian was employed by Columbia and was respon-
sible for producing the first 100 long-playing 33-RPM albums ever released,
which included a mix of popular and jazz repertoire. As with his earlier
records, Avakian’s album notes were widely appreciated for their approach-
48 • AZOFF, IRVING
able analysis and musical insights. During his tenure with Columbia, Avak-
ian signed and produced best-selling artists such as Dave Brubeck, Miles
Davis, Louis Armstrong, Johnny Mathis, and Errol Garner. He was also one
of the founding executives of the National Academy of Recording Arts
and Sciences.
In 1959, the newly formed Warner Brothers Records hired Avakian as
one of its first artist and repertoire executives, and he helped to establish
the label in the popular music field. In the 1960s and 1970s, he applied his
industry knowledge to manage the careers of saxophonist Charles Lloyd and
pianist Keith Jarrett. George Avakian largely retired from the music industry
in 1974; however, he donated his papers to the New York City Public Library
for future research. He passed away in New York City on 22 November
2017.

AZOFF, IRVING. Irving Azoff is a music executive and artist manager

born on 12 December 1947 in Danville, Illinois. He began promoting live
music while he was a student at Danville High School. After attending the
University of Illinois, he moved to Los Angeles with his first client, Dan
Fogelberg. Soon after, he began working as an artist manager at Geffen-
Roberts Management, landing the Eagles as one of his first clients, a band he
still manages today.
He is regarded as a talented deal maker who is fiercely loyal to his artists
and unafraid of confronting any person or entity that may affect his artist’s
well-being. Azoff’s career has encompassed nearly every area of music man-
agement, as he has been an artist manager, agent, concert promoter, film
producer, music publisher, record label CEO, and record label founder. Art-
ists he has managed include Christina Aguilera, Bon Jovi, Journey, Maroon
5, Van Halen, No Doubt, Thirty Seconds from Mars, and comedian Chelsea
Handler.
He served as president of MCA Records from 1983 to 1989, founded and
ran Giant Records in the 1990s, and started producing a string of hit motion
pictures in the late 1990s. His name is linked closely with the management
firm he founded in 1974, Front Line Management, which he still leads today.
In 2008, Ticketmaster acquired Front Line and installed Azoff as their CEO.
Subsequently, in 2011, Ticketmaster and Live Nation merged, with Azoff
assuming a senior leadership role. In 2013, he formed an alliance with the
Madison Square Garden Company, Azoff MSG Entertainment, which he
currently leads as chairman and CEO.
 B
BABY BAND. An idiomatic industry term most often applied to a new or
emerging artist or band that has not yet developed a substantial following.
The term has no reference to the age or ages of the artists or performers,
instead referring to the artist’s relative newcomer status within the industry.

BACKLINE. A term used most commonly in the live music industry, back-
line refers to musical equipment, such as drums, keyboards, amplifiers, and
other such gear, that is supplied by the concert promoter as part of their
contract with the artist performing at a concert. By requiring the promoter to
provide certain standard backline equipment, touring artists are able to re-
duce their costs.

BARNUM, P. T. (PHINEAS TAYLOR) (1810–1891). P. T. Barnum was a

legendary music industry impresario and promoter known for his effective
marketing tactics and for changing the way Americans regarded mass enter-
tainment. After several failed attempts, Barnum broke into show business in
1841 when he bought a museum and renamed it Barnum’s American Mu-
seum. It included a variety of novel items and acts, including ventriloquists,
educated dogs, music and dancing performances, jugglers, giants, dwarves,
and more. The museum was a great success due to a highly effective adver-
tising campaign.
Barnum also managed performers, including the Swedish singing star Jen-
ny Lind and the midget entertainer General Tom Thumb. Under Barnum’s
management, Lind performed over 96 concerts in 19 cities from 1850 to
1851. The success of the tour influenced the rise of music industry promot-
ers and managers.
In 1870, he launched a traveling circus, called P. T. Barnum’s Grand
Traveling Museum, Menagerie, Caravan, and Hippodrome. It went through
several name changes throughout the years. In 1881, Barnum merged his
circus with Bailey’s Circus, his competitor. Barnum and Bailey’s Circus

49
50 • BASE PRICE TO DEALERS
combined Barnum’s successful marketing tactics with Bailey’s organization-
al prowess. Barnum was able to expand the geographical range of his circus
touring by being one of the first to travel by train.
As a result of Barnum’s ability to promote himself through mass media,
his autobiography, Life of P.T. Barnum (1854), was second to the Bible in
number of copies printed by the end of the 19th century.

BASE PRICE TO DEALERS. See PUBLISHED PRICE TO DEALERS

(PPD).

BEACH BOYS, THE. The Beach Boys were a prominent pop group in the
1960s and 1970s known for their harmonies and catchy melodies. The group
originated in Southern California, near the Pacific Coast, and consisted of the
three brothers Brian Wilson (b. 1942), Dennis Wilson (1944–1983), and Carl
Wilson (1946–1988); their cousin Mike Love (b. 1941); and additional mem-
bers Al Jardine (b. 1942) and Bruce Johnson (b. 1944) from 1965.
The group released its first single, “Surfin’,” in 1961, which landed them
national attention and a contract with Capitol Records. The Wilsons’ father,
Murray Wilson, became the manager of the band. The group released its first
full-length album, Surfin’ Safari (1962), and brought attention to the surf
rock phenomenon then dominant in Southern California. The group’s second
album, Surfin’ U.S.A., hit the top 10 in 1963, largely on the strength of the
title track.
Brian Wilson is considered the creative force behind the group through
songwriting, recording, and producing. He was influenced by Phil Spector’s
“wall of sound” style, the Southern California surf music style, and 1950s
vocal acts, such as the Four Freshman. Brian stopped touring with the Beach
Boys in 1964 so that he could spend more time in the studio.
Songs such as “Help me Rhonda,” “Barbara Ann,” and “California Girls”
became top-five hits throughout 1965. In 1966, the Beach Boys released Pet
Sounds, which is viewed today as a groundbreaking album in the nearly
orchestral approach Brian Wilson took in creating the band’s denser sound.
However, the change from the sunny, straightforward surf paeans of their
earlier releases led to a lukewarm reception from the group’s U.S. fans when
compared to their previous releases. Later that year, they released a single
that was withheld from the Pet Sounds LP, “Good Vibrations,” which soared
to number one after Brian spent up to six months working on it in the studio.
Wilson called it his “pocket symphony,” and it eventually achieved Plati-
num sales.
Due to Brian’s mental health issues and the impact of the Beatles and
other British Invasion groups, the Beach Boys had a difficult time sustain-
ing a dedicated record-buying audience as music tastes changed. As a result,
 BEATLES, THE • 51
the band put a pause on recording and focused on honing their live perfor-
mance act, which proved very successful. The one exception was the nostal-
gic track “Kokomo,” which topped the charts in 1988. The band has contin-
ued touring and releasing occasional recordings to this day led by Mike Love
and Bruce Johnson, without Brian Wilson. Wilson’s health has recovered
sufficiently so that he has released a number of well-received solo projects
and occasionally performs on his own.

BEAT BOXER. A term used to describe a musician simulating the sound of

a drum machine with vocal percussion. Beat boxing is commonly integrated
into live or recorded hip hop music performances. One of the first widely
viewed performances by a beat boxer was the actor and musician Michael
Winslow in the 1984 motion picture Police Academy. The practice likely
goes back much further in history to early African American performers in
the 19th and early 20th century.

BEAT MAKER. A vernacular term used most commonly to refer to a musi-

cian or producer who creates instrumental tracks over which vocals and a
melody may be added to form a completed popular song.
See TOP LINE.

BEATLES, THE. The Beatles were a four-man popular music ensemble

originating in Liverpool, England, that had a tremendous impact globally on
the style and content of both popular music and culture throughout the 1960s.
The group comprised Richard “Ringo” Starr (b. Richard Starkey, 1940), Paul
McCartney (b. 1942), John Lennon (1940–1980), and George Harrison
(1943–2001). Between 1964 and 1970, the group, alternately referred to as
the “Fab Four,” were the most popular music group in the world. The Beat-
les’ every move was covered by the media, spawning what became known as
Beatlemania, a type of adulation and fan frenzy highlighted by teens relig-
iously following reports about the group on a daily basis. Although a similar
frenzy had occurred previously for Frank Sinatra and Elvis Presley, the
scope and magnitude of Beatlemania dwarfed all previous fan movements.
Lennon and McCartney first became acquainted in 1957, when McCartney
was invited to join a local band, the Quarrymen, of which Lennon was the
leader. The two began cowriting songs as teenagers and agreed to share
writing credits even when one or the other had written most or all of a
particular song. By 1960, George Harrison had joined the band, and they
began to grow their following by playing frequently around the Liverpool
region, notably at the Cavern Club. During this time, they also spent signifi-
cant time in Hamburg, Germany, playing marathon sets and refining both
their musicianship and tight ensemble sound. A recording made by the band
52 • BEATLES, THE
in Hamburg attracted the attention of Brian Epstein (1934–1967), who signed
on as the group’s manager and believed in their potential to be pop stars.
Epstein helped refine the look of the group, dressing them in matching ward-
robe, and widened their touring radius. Although the group had been rejected
by all the major UK labels, Epstein persisted and finally secured a recording
contract with Parlophone Records, working with producer George Martin. At
this time, drummer Ringo Starr joined the band, and the lineup was solidified
for the rest of the band’s career. The band had great commercial success in
England and by 1962 was performing to sold-out audiences at increasingly
larger venues. However, they were still relatively unknown in the United
States.
In November 1963, Epstein signed a distribution agreement with Capitol
Records in the United States to distribute the Beatles’ music, which quickly
came to dominate the U.S. radio airwaves when the single “I Want to Hold
Your Hand,” released on 26 December 1963, proceeded to sell one million
copies and top the charts in January 1964. The group soon came to America
and on 9 February 1964 performed a total of five songs on The Ed Sullivan
Show to an audience of 73 million Americans. The Beatles would release 12
studio albums, and the enthusiasm for the group and their music was unprec-
edented in pop music history. During the summers of 1964–1966, the group
toured the United States, playing arenas, theaters, and even sports stadiums,
including the historic New York City Shea Stadium concert attended by
55,000 screaming fans. The group played their final public concert in 1966 in
San Francisco and henceforth concentrated exclusively on their recordings.
While it is difficult to single out one particular album, 1967’s Sgt. Pep-
per’s Lonely Hearts Club Band proved to be a watershed moment in the
history of the music industry. It was on this album that the Beatles, with the
help of music producer George Martin, fully developed the concept of using
the recording studio as a vehicle to craft music that was never intended to be
performed by the band before an audience. As an artistic statement, Sgt.
Pepper’s nicely encapsulated the feelings of the 1960s as a new generation
questioned their own values and the status quo of the postwar culture of their
parents. Each copy included the lyrics to all the songs as well as singular
cover artwork that was an assemblage of popular culture historical figures,
including American movie stars, authors, and philosophers. The group would
continue to experiment publicly with drugs, Eastern religion, and outspoken
antiwar views while continuing to stretch their music over successive albums
by incorporating synthesizers and Indian instruments including the sitar, tam-
boura, and harp, along with pioneering new recording techniques to distin-
guish their sound.
Two months after the release of Sgt. Pepper’s, the group was stunned to
learn that manager Brian Epstein had died. This left a gap in the band’s
business operations, which was exacerbated as the individual members began
 BEATLES, THE • 53
to spend time apart. Even though the group retired from touring in 1966, the
intensity of their lives together led to fissures between the individual mem-
bers so that by 1968, when the group began recording their next album, The
Beatles, alternately known as the White Album, the Beatles were in open
dispute and in later years acknowledged that this album was the beginning of
the end of the group. Despite the internal struggles, the double album sold
four million copies upon its release and dominated U.S. radio playlists
throughout the winter of 1968–1969.
Earlier in 1968, the Beatles had formed their own company, Apple Corps
Ltd., as an umbrella organization to manage their business interests, which
had grown to include their own record label, an electronics arm, a film
company, publishing, and a fashion boutique with a retail store in London.
Developed as a way to invest income that would have otherwise gone to pay
taxes, the group quickly found out that most of these initiatives aside from
their recordings and publishing quickly proved to be financial drains on the
band, as they tried to make business decisions themselves and found that
none of them had the interest or focus to manage their sprawling enterprise.
In 1969, American manager Allen Klein was brought in to improve the
company’s situation, and he proceeded to streamline operations and bring
relative order to the company’s affairs. Still, the tensions between band
members were only furthered by the financial blunders they suffered while
trying to manage Apple Corps Ltd. Two more albums followed: 1969’s
Abbey Road was produced by George Martin and completed with all four
group members’ involvement, while Let It Be (1970) was completed without
the group’s final approval under the direction of American producer Phil
Spector. Both albums were commercially successful; however, by 1970, the
individual Beatles had moved on to the next phases of their lives. Each would
go on to have a solo career with varying levels of success, though none
approached the levels of fame the group had achieved.
Lennon was killed by a mentally ill stranger outside his New York City
apartment in 1980, and Harrison died from illness in Los Angeles in 2001.
McCartney and Starr continue to record and tour, and the group’s music
continues to be among the most popular among listeners more than six
decades after its release, with new compilations and interpretations continu-
ing to be released. The group’s impact is substantial, with an estimated 212
million records sold in the United States, more than any other modern-era
artist, and six Diamond (10 million sales) albums. Their global sales total is
estimated at more than 271 million records. However, their cultural and
sociopolitical legacy is even larger, as it was their music that changed the
way people listened to popular music, as listeners began to dissect lyrics for
substance and debate the meaning of their songs. The group’s outspoken
54 • BEATS MUSIC
positions, frequently voiced by John Lennon on religion, politics, drugs, and
war, became a catalyst for an entire generation of teens to think and take
actions to improve their world.
See also BRITISH INVASION.

BEATS MUSIC. See DR. DRE.

BERLIN, IRVING (1888–1989). Irving Berlin is considered one of Ameri-

ca’s most successful and representative songwriters. A self-taught musician,
throughout his career Berlin was able to adapt his songwriting to the popular
trends and styles of the day. Berlin was born in Russia in 1888. His family
immigrated to America to escape Russia’s persecution of Jews. Berlin grew
up in the Lower East Side of New York, and in 1900 he ran away from home
and made money by singing on the streets and later on got a job as a singing
waiter. He taught himself to play the piano in one key—F# major.
Berlin worked a variety of odd jobs in the Tin Pan Alley neighborhood
and eventually began writing songs, including his famous “Alexander’s Rag-
time Band” (1911), which earned him the nickname “King of Tin Pan Al-
ley.”
Along with Joseph Schenck and Sam Harris, Berlin opened the Music Box
Theatre in 1921, where Berlin staged his own musical acts. Berlin struggled
during the Great Depression because fewer musicals were being performed.
So he moved to California in the mid-1930s and worked for various movie
studios scoring film musicals. Some of his most famous musicals include
Top Hat (1935), Holiday Inn (1942), and Blue Skies (1946). His most suc-
cessful musical, Annie Get Your Gun (1946), starred Ethel Merman and
included the popular tune “There’s No Business Like Show Business.”
“God Bless America” and “White Christmas” are two other notable Berlin
songs. “White Christmas” is the world’s best-selling single. Despite little
training, Berlin’s profound ability to tap into the American psyche brought
him success throughout his long career.

BERLINER, EMILE (1851–1929). Emile Berliner was a German-born

American inventor and music technologist who conceived of using a record-
ing disc rather than the cylinders that were first used by Thomas Edison.
Berliner’s concept of recording onto spirally cut grooves on a flat disc gave
rise to the modern recording industry since discs could be readily mass-
produced using stampers, whereas early cylinders were manufactured one at
a time. Berliner was born on 20 May 1851 in Hanover, Germany, and immi-
grated to the United States at the age of 18, where he proceeded to work with
the Bell Telephone Company designing an improved microphone for use in
early telephones. In 1887, a decade after Edison pioneered the early phono-
 BERRY, CHUCK (1926–2017) • 55
graph, Berliner debuted his gramophone recording and playback system, and
he went on to introduce the first gramophone discs in 1892. He also estab-
lished gramophone companies in the last decade of the 19th century in Cana-
da and Germany. In 1901, he helped establish the Victor Talking Machine
Company in the United States. He sold the rights to his invention to Victor
and by 1907 had moved his focus away from music in an effort to build a
working helicopter. He died on 3 August 1929 in Washington, DC.

BERNE CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF LITERARY

AND ARTISTIC WORKS. The Berne Convention provides authors, in-
cluding musicians, the ability to control how their works are used. Adopted
in 1886, the Berne Convention requires that the members treat copyrighted
works of authors from fellow members the same as those of its own nation-
als. In addition, members must also provide the minimum standards for
copyright law. The Berne Convention has 171 member countries.

BERNSTEIN, LEONARD (1918–1990). Leonard Bernstein was an iconic

and charismatic American composer and conductor. Bernstein studied at
Harvard University with Walter Piston and Edward Burlingame Hill. From
1940 to 1943, he studied with Serge Koussevitzky at the Tanglewood sum-
mer school. His debut as conductor came in 1942 when he conducted the
New York Philharmonic as a substitute for Bruno Walter. This launched his
international conducting career, and from 1944 to 1957 he was a highly
sought after guest conductor in the United States, Europe, and Israel.
In 1958, he became the musical director of the New York Philharmonic.
Under his leadership, he conducted more concerts than any previous conduc-
tor, increased the audience size, developed a television presence with broad-
casts of the Young People’s Concerts, and toured various countries. He pro-
duced more than 400 recordings with the Philharmonic, many of which are
currently available for sale.
As a composer, Bernstein is most known for his theatrical and symphonic
works. His composition style was an eclectic mix of jazz elements, unusual
combinations of notes, and changing meters and time signatures. The musical
West Side Story is Bernstein’s most popular work. It includes exciting music
and dance scenes and addressed then-current societal and cultural issues.

BERRY, CHUCK (1926–2017). Charles Edward Anderson “Chuck” Berry

was a singer, songwriter, and guitarist best known for his innovative 1950s
hit singles, which helped define early rock ’n’ roll as a youth phenomenon.
He was born on 18 October 1926 to a working-class family in St. Louis,
Missouri, and grew up surrounded by gospel, blues, rhythm and blues, and
country music. While he was growing up, he got in trouble with the law and
56 • BETAMAX CASE
spent three years in a reform school as a result of robberies. After spending a
few years in the early 1950s playing guitar and singing for a number of local
groups, he got his break when he went to Chicago and looked up one of his
idols, Muddy Waters, who introduced him to Leonard Chess of Chess
Records. Chess saw the potential and in 1955 with Chess Records’ in-house
producer, Willie Dixon, recorded the song that would become Berry’s first
hit, “Maybellenne,” a story song that combined fast cars, speeding, and an
elusive girl, all emblems of the rock ’n’ roll ideals of the time. Berry’s
precise enunciation, witty lyrical wordplay, and singular two-note jangling
guitar phrases over a steady backbeat made his music an instant hit among
teens the world over.
Chess enlisted the help of influential disc jockey Alan Freed to promote
the single, and it rose to number one on the R&B charts and number five on
the pop chart, launching Berry’s career. From 1955 to 1958, Berry recorded a
string of blues-based hit songs that were memorized by teens everywhere as
accurate representations of the joys, trials, and emotions felt during their
coming of age. Songs such as “Rock and Roll Music,” “Roll Over Beetho-
ven,” “School Day,” and “Johnny B. Goode” not only became teen anthems,
they also provided a blueprint to the next generation of musicians in the
United States and overseas, including notably the Beatles, the Rolling
Stones, and many of the British Invasion groups that would dominate
American popular music a decade after Berry’s “Maybellene” hit the charts.
Berry was also an entrepreneur and over the years opened his own restau-
rant, a night club, and even a failed theme park. His life was interrupted again
as run-ins with law enforcement continued when he was arrested for alleged-
ly transporting a female minor to work at his club across state lines in 1959,
and the prosecution soon argued that he had done so for immoral purposes.
After two separate trials, he was convicted and required to serve a jail sen-
tence of nearly two years, even though the judge and court were clearly
biased due to Berry’s status as an African American. After his release, he
recorded a new batch of hit songs and continued performing and touring
regularly. Well into his late 80s, Berry continued performing once a month
up until the time of his death on 18 March 2017. Berry is recognized as the
musician most responsible for the rise of the electric guitar as the dominant
instrument of rock music.

BETAMAX CASE. See SONY BETAMAX CASE.

BEYONCÉ. See KNOWLES, BEYONCÉ.

 BILLBOARD CHARTS • 57
BIDDING WAR. A bidding war occurs when one or more record companies
compete to sign a new or established artist, as they perceive a significant
revenue opportunity through such a deal. In many ways, this is the ideal
scenario for an artist and artist manager, since it provides leverage to secure
potentially much more favorable terms than if only one record label was
interested in signing that artist.
Today, savvy artists and their managers may decide to focus on building
the artist’s fan base and social media presence to a point where record
companies take notice and start the courting process to sign the artist. In such
cases, a bidding war will often ensue, leading to more favorable terms for the
artist, which in effect pays a dividend to them for having invested the time
and sweat equity to build a substantial following before signing a record deal.

BIGCHAMPAGNE. Founded in 2000, BigChampagne is a music analytics

company that provides information to entertainment industry professionals,
including radio programmers, concert promoters, and marketers. BigCham-
pagne offers a subscription to what it calls the BC Dashboard, which tracks
business measurements in real time.
The company was founded in 2000, when one of its first services was to
track the popularity of songs on Napster, and has since branched out to
measure and analyze other online music services. In 2011, BigChampagne
was acquired by Live Nation Entertainment, and its services are now part
of Live Nation’s OnTour with Ticketmaster service.

BILLBOARD CHARTS. Billboard charts inform industry professionals and

the public about the popularity of singles or albums through weekly tabula-
tions. Billboard charts are available in Billboard magazine and on Bill-
board’s website. In addition to the popular “Hot 100” song chart and the
“Billboard 200” album chart, some charts are dedicated to specific genres.
Additionally, the Billboard BoxScore tracks revenue and ticket prices from
the best-selling concerts.
Billboard created a variety of charts starting in 1936 with its first music hit
parade. Several iterations of song charts followed, but it was not until the
magazine introduced the “Hot 100” in 1958 that the magazine became known
for its charts. The “Hot 100” was based on radio plays and sales of singles,
quickly becoming the de facto industry standard for measuring a song’s
overall success.
The charts have changed throughout the years to include new genres and
the changing ways that music is consumed. In 1991, Billboard started using
SoundScan data rather than relying on self-reported sales information pro-
vided by labels. In 2005, digital downloads were added as a metric, which
58 • BILLBOARD MAGAZINE
allowed viral hits to make big chart leaps. Streaming music plays and You-
Tube video streaming data were added to the formula in 2012 and 2013,
respectively.
See also BILLBOARD MAGAZINE.

BILLBOARD MAGAZINE. Billboard is a news website and weekly print

magazine that covers the music and entertainment industry and is owned by
Prometheus Global Media. Coverage includes news, artist features, editori-
als, music reviews, as well as the often-cited Billboard charts.
Billboard magazine was originally published as the Billboard Advertiser.
William H. Donaldson and James H. Hennegan founded the periodical in
1894 and covered advertising with billboards, posters, and paper advertise-
ments. The name was shortened to the Billboard in 1897. In 1900, Donaldson
took over Hennegan’s stake in the business and changed from a monthly
paper to a weekly one. The focus became more about outdoor entertainment,
including carnivals, circuses, fairs, and vaudeville shows. The paper also
published articles against censorship and lack of professionalism and exces-
sive regulations within the entertainment industry.
As transportation for entertainers became easier due to the expansion of
the railroad system, Billboard offered “Routes Ahead” and “Letter-Box,”
two innovative features that established the magazine as an important infor-
mation source for entertainers. “Routes Ahead” provided entertainers’ itiner-
aries, and “Letter-Box” was a mail-forwarding service for traveling enter-
tainers.
In the early 20th century, Billboard reported on new recording technology
and made various attempts at making charts for popular songs and records.
These charts were called the hit parade. In 1955, the magazine created the
“Top 100,” which demonstrated the changing popularity of singles based on
record sales, disc jockey playlists, and jukebox plays. After three years of
tinkering, they launched the “Hot 100” in 1958. The simplicity of the “Top
100” made it an appealing bellwether for those following the music business.
In 1961, the magazine began to call itself Billboard Music Week and began
focusing exclusively on music.
From the 1980s and onward, the magazine had several changes in owner-
ship. Billboard launched its website in 1995. Due to the economic decline in
the music industry in the 2000s, the magazine experienced a dramatic reduc-
tion in readership and advertising. In response, Billboard broadened its cov-
erage into mobile and digital entertainment. It also developed an online-only
edition, BillboardBiz, aimed at industry insiders. The print and online edi-
tions of the flagship Billboard magazine gradually started to include celebrity
gossip and, while still focusing on music, devotes equal coverage to fashion
and lifestyle coverage in an effort to become more of a general-interest
publication.
 BLANKET LICENSE • 59
BITTORRENT. The BitTorrent protocol is a computer file exchange format
that relies on multiple servers or computers to each share a portion of a
complete file that will be reconstituted on the recipient’s computer to repre-
sent the complete music track, movie, or other types of shared or purchased
file. Since each computer only has to share a small part of the overall file,
transfer times are often faster than a file downloaded from a single server.
Similarly, if a file is transmitted via BitTorrent technology, the server or
service used will distribute portions of the file to various computers, where it
will reside until called for by another user wishing to download the entire
file. Metadata associated with each file is used to track the location of the
various pieces of the file.

BLACK BOX MONIES. Revenue that has been produced by songs that are
not registered in that territory to a specific publisher. This revenue then
resides in a theoretical “black box.” Black box monies are usually held for a
specified period of time (often three years) and then divided up among the
publishers in that country on a pro rata basis based on each firm’s overall
percentage of that country’s performing rights gross revenue.

BLACKWELL, CHRIS. Christopher Percy “Chris” Blackwell was born on

22 June 1937 in London and is best known as the founder of Island Records,
one of the most innovative independent record labels of the 20th century.
He grew up in Jamaica and became enamored with Jamaican music, includ-
ing what would come to be known as ska and reggae styles. He founded
Island in 1959 with a loan from his parents and focused on Jamaican artists,
releasing a number of songs that became hits on the island. He returned to
England in 1962 and soon after had a worldwide hit single with Jamaican
singer Millie Small’s cover of “My Boy Lollypop,” which reportedly sold six
million copies. Blackwell directed the company from its founding in 1959
until he sold it to PolyGram in 1989. During his tenure, he signed a tremen-
dous range of artists, including U2, Nirvana, Bob Marley and the Wailers,
Robert Palmer, and Melissa Etheridge. He also continued to promote world
music through his Mango Records subsidiary, which introduced King Sunny
Ade, Burning Spear, and Angelique Kidjo to American audiences.

BLANKET LICENSE. Performing rights organizations (PROs) offer

blanket licenses to their licensees so that they may use any song in the
catalog of that PRO for public performances. For instance, a retail store
playing background music is publicly performing that music and must have a
blanket license from a PRO to do so legally. Each of the three U.S. PROs
have their own form of blanket license available to music users.
60 • BLAVATNIK, LEN
BLAVATNIK, LEN. Leonard “Len” Blavatnik was born on 14 June 1957 in
Odessa, Ukraine (then USSR). His family immigrated to the United States in
1978, and Blavatnik would go on to earn a degree from Columbia University
and an MBA from Harvard Business School. In 1986, he founded Access
Holdings, a diversified holding company with investments in a wide range of
industries including oil, media and entertainment, plastics, petrochemicals,
and real estate. His media holdings include film production company AI
Entertainment, and in 2011 Access purchased Warner Music Group for
$3.3 billion. In 2013, he purchased the UK label Parlophone Records. He
also is an active investor in a wide range of music-related companies, includ-
ing Spotify, Deezer, and others.

BLUE NOTE RECORDS. Blue Note Records, an iconic American jazz

record label, was founded in 1939 by Alfred Lion and investor Max Margulis
to record and release so-called traditional jazz and swing music, both of
which were popular at the time. Lion, who immigrated to the United States
from Germany in 1937, added boyhood friend and professional photographer
Francis Wolff to the Blue Note management team in 1939. Blue Note was
one of the most progressive record labels of its era, being one of the first to
record the emerging bebop jazz inventions of the late 1940s.
The company was revered by artists due to the fact that Lion believed it
was essential to invite the input of the musicians themselves into what would
be on the final release. Such artistic input was extremely rare at the time.
Blue Note also paid the musicians for two rehearsals, as well as the recording
sessions, which no other jazz label did. Another defining element of the Blue
Note sound was recording engineer Rudy Van Gelder, who recorded and
supervised all technical details from 1953 to 1967, resulting in what many
feel represent some of the best-sounding small jazz ensemble recordings in
the history of jazz. Blue Note was responsible for helping promote the ca-
reers of some of the most celebrated artists in the genre, including Charlie
Parker, Thelonious Monk, Art Blakey, Clifford Brown, Horace Silver, J. J.
Johnson, and the Modern Jazz Quartet.
Lion and Wolff developed a visual identity for Blue Note releases in the
form of original album artwork, often created by graphic artist Reid Miles,
sometimes emphasizing one primary color with dramatic tinted black-and-
white photos of the artists taken by Wolff during the recording sessions. Lion
retired in 1967 after selling the label earlier to Liberty Records. Wolff was
involved with Blue Note until his death in 1971. The value of the catalog has
always been notable, and hundreds of sides have been reissued over the years
to cater to multiple generations of jazz aficionados globally. The company is
currently a division of Universal Music.
 BOY BANDS • 61
BONNAROO MUSIC AND ARTS FESTIVAL. The Bonnaroo Music and
Arts Festival is a four-day festival held on a farm in Manchester, Tennessee.
The annual festival is produced by Superfly Presents and AC Entertainment.
It first began in 2002 with a focus on folk rock. The festival now includes
music from a variety of musical genres, but it strives to continue honoring its
folk roots. In addition to music, artisans and craftsman sell their unique
goods during the festival.
Bonnaroo typically draws about 75,000 people and generates about $25
million per year. In 2016, Live Nation purchased AC Entertainment. That
same year, the festival had a 38 percent drop in attendance. In 2017, atten-
dance rebounded as the result of several big-name performers.

BOOKING AGENT. See AGENT.

BORCHETTA, SCOTT. Scott Borchetta was born on 3 July 1962 in Bur-

bank, California. The son of a record promoter employed by several major
labels, he is best known as an artist manager and entrepreneur, having
founded Big Machine Records, the home of superstar Taylor Swift, in 2005.
Borchetta started out as an aspiring musician and followed his father from
Los Angeles to Nashville, where he played bass in a band and had a day gig
in the mail room of his father’s music company. In time, he focused solely on
his music business career and worked for a number of Nashville record
labels. His impetus was the belief that he could run his fledgling label more
efficiently than the major labels. The first artist he signed, 14-year-old Swift,
would go on to become one of the biggest crossover music stars of the new
millennium. Borchetta has a reputation of forging his own path with respect
to deal making, notably forging a direct licensing compact with broadcast
juggernaut iHeartRadio for the many stations under their umbrella to pay
direct performance royalties to Big Machine artists. He has also spoken out
as a critic of the freemium streaming music model and reportedly convinced
Swift to remove all her music from any free music streaming sites, such as
Spotify’s ad-supported tier. The Big Machine family of companies he now
manages incorporates a number of other imprints, including Valory Records,
BMLG, and Dot Records, as well as ventures that encompass music publish-
ing, artist management, and merchandise.

BOY BANDS. Boy bands originated in the 1960s, most notably when the
Beatles performed on The Ed Sullivan Show for the first time in 1964. They
were a group of four attractive young men who became very popular with
young girls, selling millions of albums during their career. In the Beatles’
case, their popularity long outlived their celebrity with teen girls, but the
formulaic boy bands of the past two decades capitalize on the same demo-
62 • BOY BANDS
graphic group and the frenzy of young girls. An important component to any
boy band’s success is a strong and well-connected artist manager who paves
the way for the band’s breakout and success.
After the Beatles, the Monkees gained popularity by not only releasing
music but reaching wider audiences and gaining exposure through a popular
television show in 1966. The Jackson Five was an African American group
of brothers who debuted in 1969 with Motown Records and eventually gave
rise to the youngest and most popular brother, Michael Jackson. In 1977,
Menudo, a Latin pop group with a rotating group of members, gained popu-
larity and in 1984 welcomed breakout star Ricky Martin. In 1988, New Kids
on the Block released their second album, Hangin’ Tough, which went
straight to number one, confirming the type of boy band that has become the
model for all similar groups to follow. In 1991, Boyz II Men released their
debut album, Cooleyhighharmony, introducing a more soulful R&B style
into the pop-dominated boy band genre. Throughout the late 1990s and early
2000s, Backstreet Boys and NSYNC were both incredibly popular and
sparked rivalry between die-hard fans of the bands. By the mid-2000s, Boyz
II Men, Backstreet Boys, and NSYNC had all broken up; in 2006, Disney
created the Jonas Brothers, bringing back a Monkees-style band with a sup-
porting TV show aimed at young girls. In 2011, the UK boy band One
Direction released its debut album after being featured on a television talent
show, The X Factor, and soon achieved worldwide stardom by relying on the
tried-and-true formula.
The notable characteristic of boy bands is their formulaic and predictable
approaches to the music industry. They are composed of young, usually
teenage boys and target even younger preteen girls. The band’s manager and
record label hold artistic control and manipulate the image of the band to
maximize success among its target audience. The boys maintain innocent,
young looks (long hair has been a tradition since the Beatles) and often have
sweet, romantic, but not overtly sexual songs. It is inevitable that both the
band members and fans will quickly outgrow these constraints. It’s not sur-
prising that fan bases dwindle, as very rarely do 16- or 17-year-old girls
want to keep allegiance to their 11-year-old interests. More recently, the
brand equity that remains for these aging boy bands allows them to carry
substantial nostalgic market value years down the line as women begin to
recall and romanticize their first celebrity crushes. This has led to a number
of reunions and reunion tours. In 2011, Backstreet Boys and New Kids on the
Block both reconciled and united for a joint album, NKOTBSB, and success-
ful tour. What they both once referred to as splits they now call hiatuses. This
has caused bands such as One Direction to publicly refer to their going
separate ways as merely a break, as the band and their manager realize that
some time down the road their boy band image will become nostalgic and
therefore ripe for another cycle of exploitation through tours and recordings.
 BRILL BUILDING • 63
BRAUN, SCOOTER. Scott “Scooter” Braun was born on 18 June 1981 in
New York City and is best known as an artist manager and music entrepren-
eur responsible for helping a number of pop artists, including Justin Bieber
and Ariana Grande. He attended college in Atlanta and soon became notable
for planning and hosting large-scale parties, including those affiliated with
2002 music tours by artists Eminem and Ludacris. His work came to the
attention of music producer Jermaine Dupri, who invited Braun to join So So
Def Records while Braun was still attending college. Eventually, Braun left
the label to start his own firm, launching with a $12 million endorsement deal
between Ludacris and Pontiac. A 12-year-old, Justin Bieber, came to the
attention of Braun via YouTube, and Braun invited Bieber and his mother to
enter into a trial working agreement. With Braun’s direction, the teen star
soon had built a substantial YouTube following, which led to Braun broker-
ing a record deal with Island Def Jam Records. Based in Atlanta, Georgia,
Braun developed close ties to Usher Raymond, and the two operate a joint
venture today, Raymond Braun Media Group, that handles the career of
Bieber and a number of other artists. Braun also established SB Projects, a
full-service marketing and entertainment company that covers label services,
publishing, and marketing.

BREAKAGE CLAUSE. An anachronistic feature that persisted in some

recording contracts through the late 20th century. It came into effect in the
early to mid-20th century when records were made out of shellac and were
fragile when shipped out to distributors and retailers. Record companies
estimated that 10 percent of all records would be damaged in shipping and
returned and instituted an across-the-board reduction by 10 percent on all
artist royalties to allow for this breakage. With the advent of the polyvinyl
long-playing album in the 1950s, record albums became virtually unbreak-
able, yet the clause remained in many contracts for decades as part of what is
often referred to as contract “boilerplate.”

BRILL BUILDING. The Brill Building was the nexus of popular music
songwriting in the 1950s and 1960s and was located at 1619 Broadway in
New York City. It became the direct successor to the Tin Pan Alley area in
the city and was the hub favored by music publishers keen to tap into the
growing success of popular music as postwar teens claimed pop music for
their own. The Brill Building was literally a warren comprising dozens of
tiny offices and cubicles where collaboration occurred constantly between a
wide range of musicians and other creatives. It became home to the most
successful songwriters, producers, and music publishers of the day, who,
64 • BRITISH INVASION
like their Tin Pan Alley predecessors, would come into the office, sit down at
the piano and note pad, and craft popular songs to suit the times and mood of
America.
Brill Building output would go on to top the charts with angst-ridden teen
pop, Latin pop, girl group anthems, doo-wop, soul, and rock music. Among
the most successful writers to work there were Leiber & Stoller, Pomus &
Shuman, King & Goffin, Bacharach & David, Sedaka & Greenfield, Weil &
Mann, and Greenwich & Barry. Notably, the great majority were in their
early 20s, just a few years older than the artists who were making their songs
famous. Music publishers also had offices nearby and usually would secure
the most promising songwriters under contract to create new music exclu-
sively for their publishing firm. Producers regularly stopped in, or took of-
fices in the building, in order to get first crack at the latest songs being
created. The concept of an integrated creative music environment gained
further significance when some of the participants started their own record
labels, such as Leiber & Stoller’s Red Bird Records, to further exploit their
songs for financial gain.

BRITISH INVASION. A colloquial expression that developed to recognize

the dominance that British-based pop music groups experienced in the U.S.
market during the period 1963–1966. Led by the Beatles, it manifested itself
via the takeover of the U.S. airwaves and sales charts by various British
groups such as the Rolling Stones, the Kinks, the Animals, the Who, the
Dave Clark Five, the Yardbirds, the Zombies, the Hollies, and Herman’s
Hermits. A variety of British solo singers complemented the bands, including
Tom Jones, Petula Clark, Dusty Springfield, Lulu, Donovan, and Cilla Black,
each of whom had chart success in America.
The term itself, was an ironic twist on Great Britain’s invasion of the
colonies during the War for Independence. At the height of the phenomenon,
on 4 April 1964, the Beatles became the only group in chart history to hold
the top five spots on the influential Billboard chart. In addition to the music,
which fascinated American teens, the mod fashions, coupled with the cheeky
varieties of British slang used by the invading artists, captured the imagina-
tion of American teens in a way unseen since Elvis exploded in the mid-
1950s. Films such as the Beatles’ A Hard Day’s Night and Help fueled the
desire for all types of pop culture stamped with the label “Made in Britain.”
The impact was felt dramatically in the United States, and certain domestic
genres that had been very popular such as surf music, girl groups, the folk
revival that the majors had championed, and the teen idols singing Brill
Building pop hits all fell into decline.
It was not lost on American music business professionals and songwriters
that the basis for the music being marketed in the United States was, in fact,
American rhythm and blues and pop music, which all of the British musi-
 BROADWAY • 65
cians had grown up on. The Beatles’ first two U.S. albums featured a total of
six cover versions of U.S. hits by artists such as Chuck Berry and Motown
stars Smokey Robinson and the Miracles and the Marvelettes. Interestingly,
American artists didn’t find a similar opportunity in Britain, in large part
because that nation did not have a for-profit radio industry, and British artists
were quickly recording cover version of U.S. artists’ current hits. Berry
Gordy’s Motown was one of the first U.S. labels to sign a distribution
agreement with an English distributor, which soon became the norm in the
wake of the British Invasion, thereby allowing U.S. artists to offer their
music for sale in Great Britain.

BROADCAST MUSIC INC. (BMI). Established as a direct competitor to

American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP),
Broadcast Music Inc. was established in 1939 by broadcasters to provide an
alternative to composers and music publishers not represented by ASCAP.
Like ASCAP, BMI typically offers blanket licenses to broadcasters.
Unlike ASCAP, BMI is a for-profit organization, but all revenues (with
the exception of administrative expenses) are distributed to its affiliates. BMI
pays out its royalties on a quarterly basis.
BMI forged its early reputation by championing songwriters and compos-
ers of musical styles that had not been previously represented by performing
rights organizations (PROs), including jazz, rhythm and blues, folk, gospel,
country, and the music of indigenous Americans. Many of these artists were
people of color who had not been welcomed into ASCAP. Today, BMI
reportedly boasts the largest number of members among the three U.S.
PROs.

BROADWAY. The term “Broadway” is used to describe musical theater

offerings that comprise an important segment of the overall entertainment
industry. Although the term is derived from an actual geographical location
in New York City, also referred to as the Theater District, the term “Broad-
way” is universally used in the English-speaking world to signify the craft
and staging of professional musical theater productions.
The earliest plays were presented in the mid-18th century in New York
City, featuring mostly existing repertoire such as the plays of William Shake-
speare and popular ballad operas of the day. Immediately after the Civil War,
The Black Crook, the first performance that resembled what we refer to today
as musical theater, was staged in an impressive 474 performances, setting a
record for that time. By the 1870s, performances of works such as Gilbert
and Sullivan’s comic operas were commonly seen, along with comparable
works by American composers such as John Philip Sousa and Reginald
Dekoven.
66 • BROOKS, GARTH
During the early part of the twentieth century, Tin Pan Alley composers
such as George M. Cohan wrote musicals that featured many of their most
popular songs. Many musical theater productions of this era focused primari-
ly on delivering a sequence of the most popular songs, dazzling dancing, and
glitzy production elements, with somewhat limited plotlines or little charac-
ter development. One notable exception was the 1927 premiere of Showboat,
one of the first musicals to effectively integrate a detailed and complicated
plotline with all of the other elements of a hit Broadway show. Audiences
loved it, and it ran for 572 performances. In 1943, another musical, Oklaho-
ma!, signaled the start of a golden age of Broadway musicals by its telling a
uniquely American story set on the prairie and beloved by audiences over its
record-breaking run of 2,212 performances. This golden era continued
throughout the 1960s, creating a library of musical theater repertoire that is
still relevant today, as numerous long-running successful revivals of works
remain popular, such as South Pacific, Fiddler on the Roof, Porgy and Bess,
Gypsy, and West Side Story.
Broadway musical theater continues today as a vital part of the American
musical marketplace, including a prosperous touring model that takes suc-
cessful Broadway shows to key urban markets for extended runs of two or
more weeks, opening up more space in New York City’s Theater District for
additional premieres. According to the Broadway League, the New York
City 2016–2017 theater season reported overall attendance of 13.2 million
patrons generating $1.5 billion in ticket sales, demonstrating the medium’s
continued popularity.

BROOKS, GARTH. Garth Brooks, an American country singer and song-

writer, was born on 7 February 1962 in Tulsa, Oklahoma. He is the only
artist to date to earn seven Diamond-certified albums. His mother was a
country singer signed to Capitol Records. After graduating from Oklahoma
State University, he began performing regularly at local clubs. In 1985,
Brooks went to Nashville, hoping to be discovered. He left disappointed, but
he returned there in 1987 after getting married. Brooks slowly made connec-
tions with songwriters and producers. A year later, he signed with Capitol
Records after one of the label’s executives saw him performing at a local
club.
Brooks released his eponymous debut album at the end of 1988, which
was a great success, rising to number two on the country chart. In 1990, he
released his second album, No Fences, which featured one of his best-known
songs, “Friends in Low Places,” firmly establishing Brooks as a superstar of
the first order. The album reach number one and would go on to sell more
than 17 million units in the United States.
 BROOKS, GARTH • 67
What made Brooks so unique is that he was able to bridge the gap between
traditional country music star and pop musician. He made country music
accessible to mainstream audiences and paved the way for many more coun-
try musicians to follow in his path to a wider listening audience.
Aside from his album sales, his concert performances were also very suc-
cessful. His performances, inspired by 1970s rock concerts, were highly
energetic and featured elaborate lighting, pyrotechnics, and Brooks wearing a
wireless microphone mounted on a headpiece so that he could run around the
stage. He was the first country music star to incorporate these kinds of
production elements into stage performances, in the process redefining the
expectations of fans at a top-level concert.
Brooks’s third album, Ropin’ the Wind, was released in 1991 and achieved
a similar success to No Fences, going on to sell 14 million units on the
strength of singles “Shameless” and “The River.”
The following year, Brooks released his fourth album, The Chase, featur-
ing the lead single “We Shall Be Free,” in which Brooks argued for equality
for all no matter one’s race or sexual preference. Radio programmers were
lukewarm, and it became the first single from Brooks not be break into the
top 10. Nevertheless, the song’s music video won Video of the Year from
the Academy of Country Music in 1993 and Brooks went on the record
confirming his commitment to equality for all, a first for any country music
artist of his stature. Regardless of the controversy around that song, the
album would go on to sell nine million units.
Brooks came back in 1993 with the album In Pieces. While the album was
successful, it did not reach the same level of success as his first three albums.
Subsequent albums continued to be well received, with 1997’s Sevens hitting
another peak, going on to garner Diamond status once again.
However, as part of his desire to expand his repertoire and artistic palette,
Brooks tried something new by assuming the persona of Chris Gaines, a
fictional character that Brooks was planning to play in a proposed movie
called The Lamb. In order to get into character, Brooks recorded 13 songs
and released a 1999 album under the Gaines pseudonym, titled In the Life of
Chris Gaines, considering it a pre-release for the forthcoming motion picture
about the singer’s life. The Gaines character was a thinner, rougher version
of Brooks, but the music was decidedly pop in flavor. The album bewildered
his core country audience, and as a result the movie project was scrapped,
although the album did sell two million units and result in Brooks only top-
five pop single, “Lost in You.”
Throughout his career, Brooks had spoken of the conflicts he felt between
family life and his career, hinting that he might at some point retire to focus
on family. It finally happened in 2000 as he divorced his wife and committed
to not taking on any new tours or major recording projects until his daughter
went to college in 2014. He married country singer Trisha Yearwood in
68 • BROWN, JAMES (1933–2006)
2006. However, he was not idle, negotiating the return of the rights of his
master recordings from Capitol Records and inaugurating a series of exclu-
sive box sets and other releases direct to consumers through Walmart on his
own Pearl Records imprint. Dubbed The Limited Series, it combined some of
his best-selling albums with unreleased material for his first such release in
November 2005, selling 500,000 physical copies of the five-CD, one-DVD
set the first day it was available and generating a notable $12.5 million in
sales. Importantly, the seemingly low retail price of $25 likely was more
profitable for Brooks than his earlier releases on Capitol due to the fact that
the long string of intermediaries including distributors and label were no
longer taking a cut of the revenues, leaving him with a higher net margin.
Brooks topped his 2005 feat with 2007’s Ultimate Hits Collection, once
again available only through Walmart. The two-CD, one-DVD set would go
on to sell more than three million box sets.
True to his word, in 2013, Brooks began planning for his comeback album
and tour, signing a deal with Sony Music Nashville and announcing plans
were underway to make his body of work available on his own music stream-
ing service, Ghost Tunes, which debuted in 2014. After the successful release
of his comeback album Man Against Machine and its supporting tour, he
went right back to work on his next album, Gunslinger (2016). In 2017,
Brooks inked an exclusive deal with Amazon to make his catalog available
via Amazon’s music streaming services, finally joining the new streaming
economy.
In retrospect, Garth Brooks effectively created a much larger presence for
country music and artists in the global music marketplace. His dynamic stage
shows with the latest production methods borrowed from the rock and pop
milieu turned country music concerts into one of the most profitable stadium-
size business opportunities, directly benefiting many other talented artists
who followed his model. His outspoken views on human rights and frequent
appearances to help with disaster relief have reinforced his image as the
people’s country superstar. He is one of best-selling solo artists of all time,
charting sales of more than 181 million albums and counting.

BROWN, JAMES (1933–2006). James Joseph Brown, often referred to as

the “Godfather of Soul,” was an American soul singer, entrepreneur, song-
writer, dancer, bandleader, and activist born on 3 May 1933. He became
renowned for his emotionally charged live performances and outspoken cri-
tiques of mainstream society.
Born into poverty, Brown was left to grow up largely unsupervised after
his mother left home. As a result, Brown had to fend for himself, earning
money by dancing and singing on the street. From age 16 to 19, he spent
three years in a juvenile correction facility for theft and would have numer-
ous run-ins with the law throughout his life. Upon his release from jail in
 BRUBECK, DAVID WARREN (1920–2012) • 69
1952, he began singing with a string of successful gospel acts, one of which
would become the group that first brought him to prominence, the Flames. In
1956, the group had a million-selling hit, “Please, Please, Please” for King
Records’ Federal subsidiary. Brown is credited with helping to develop a
new style of dance music known as funk, which incorporates greater synco-
pation than traditional R&B or pop music. He had a string of hit records
stretching from his first million-seller noted above through the mid-1980s,
when he last reached the top 40 pop and R&B charts. Brown managed or
comanaged his business affairs for much of his life and was a demanding
bandleader and exhilarating performer in concert, which featured choreogra-
phy, tight musical arrangements, and Brown’s impassioned and athletic per-
formance center stage.
He wrote nearly all of his own songs and supported efforts to help children
stay in school, donated to various charities, and became an informal spokes-
person for black self-determination during the civil rights era. Upon his 25
December 2006 death, he left most of his assets to a foundation to help
disadvantaged youth receive an education.

BRUBECK, DAVID WARREN (1920–2012). David Warren “Dave” Bru-

beck, born on 6 December 1920 in Concord, California, was an American
jazz pianist, composer, bandleader, and activist best known for leading one
of the most popular small jazz ensembles in the mid-20th century. Born into
a musically inclined family, Brubeck was forced to study music along with
his two brothers, but he preferred to work on the ranch that his father man-
aged, learning quite early to ride, rope, and handle all the chores of a cow-
boy. By the time he was a teenager, his musical abilities were evident as he
began to play piano in various dance bands around Northern California.
He graduated from the College of the Pacific in 1942, where he studied
music, working regularly as a professional jazz musician in the evenings.
Upon graduation, Brubeck enlisted in the U.S. Army, where he eventually
led one of the only integrated dance bands in the service during the Second
World War. After the war, Brubeck studied with Darius Milhaud and led an
experimental group named the Jazz Workshop Ensemble, which eventually
recorded an album under the name the Dave Brubeck Octet (1949). This
group pioneered new performance and compositional approaches to jazz.
Since paying eight musicians was cost prohibitive at the time, Brubeck
formed a trio in 1949 and eventually found just enough work to support his
family. The group grew into a quartet in 1951 with the addition of alto
saxophonist Paul Desmond. Brubeck and Desmond would remain together
from 1951 to 1968 as the mainstays of the Dave Brubeck Quartet. The two
were noted for their innovative improvisations and interplay, which often
took the form of a jazz conversation, with one musician answering the other
with musical quotations during their respective solos.
70 • B-SIDE
In the early 1950s, the group became the first to recognize that jazz music
could attract sizable support for concert, rather than dance, performances on
college campuses, largely due to the promotional efforts of Brubeck’s wife,
Iola, who served as manager for his groups throughout much of his early
career. This led to a series of highly successful commercial albums such as
Jazz at Oberlin, Jazz at Pacific, and Jazz Goes to College, which cumulative-
ly helped build broader interest in jazz around the world. In 1959, the quartet
released the album Time Out, featuring the iconic Desmond title “Take
Five,” which became the first jazz single to sell more than one million cop-
ies, while the album soon became the first jazz album to also cross the
million-selling threshold. Time Out would continue to be an evergreen best
seller, leading to its double Platinum recognition in 2011, a rarity in the jazz
genre. Many of the group’s other recordings from this period also sold well,
helping the group to be consistently ranked as the most popular small jazz
ensemble in numerous listener polls in America and Europe.
After the group disbanded in 1968, Brubeck went on to compose and
perform various large-scale works, including oratorios, a Catholic Mass, a
jazz musical, cantatas, ballets, and pieces for jazz ensemble and orchestra. In
addition to his work as a performer and composer, Brubeck was an outspok-
en advocate for human rights, notably leading an integrated group in the
1950s and 1960s and facing hostility and censure due to Jim Crow laws of
the time that prohibited mixed-race groups performing in the American
South and overseas. Brubeck was also a strong proponent of cultural ex-
change and peace initiatives, having gone on a number of U.S. State Depart-
ment–sponsored jazz ambassador tours around the world. He remained active
musically throughout his entire life, performing and recording regularly with
various versions of his quartet. At the time of writing, there were more than
270 albums released attributed to him. Dave Brubeck died on 5 December
2012 in Norwalk, Connecticut.

B-SIDE. Because 45-RPM records have two sides, a second song would be
included on each side, with the B-side cut most often being considered
worthy of being an album cut, that is, not up to the standards of being an A-
side or single. The Beatles notably released “We Can Work It Out”/“Day
Tripper” in 1965 as a double A-sided single, leaving it up to radio deejays to
determine which song to play. Both became hits.

BUDGET-PRICE RECORD. Record labels may choose to further reduce

the price of a record in the hope that there will be a modest long-term
customer base for a record that is priced lower than new releases and catalog
titles. Often, these will be records that are from artists no longer on the
current charts but that had a significant audience in prior years. Budget-price
 BUZZANGLE MUSIC • 71
records are offered to distributors at less than 65 percent of the label’s new
release published price to dealers. Similar to midpriced records, artist
royalties for any records sold at budget price will be 50 percent of that
earned for a new release.

BUNDLING. Bundling is the music industry practice of including one prod-

uct with the purchase of another, such as a compact disc with a concert
ticket, band merchandise with a CD, CDs and concert videos sold together,
and so on. This is a marketing tool intended to boost interest in a certain item
because consumers often perceive the bundled item as free. However, the
extra item is not actually free, since its true cost will have been factored into
the bundled price by the artist. Regardless, it is a very popular marketing
technique.
Historically, when CDs have been the bundled item, the result has some-
times led to confusion and conflict as to album sales numbers and chart
positions. Nielsen SoundScan, the firm responsible for album sales report-
ing, has strict rules regarding bundling. For instance, when Prince CDs were
given to concert attendees at his 2004 shows, the news of the bundled incen-
tive likely boosted ticket sales but had no effect on reported album sales, as
SoundScan did not consider the CDs sales. In 2012, however, Madonna
bundled downloadable or physical copies of her most recent album, MDNA,
with concert tickets, which could be redeemed at other retailers, rather than
given out at the concert venue. This resulted in MDNA topping the chart for
sales that week, which some people contested, saying she did not actually
sell that many albums; people were simply purchasing concert tickets that
happened to come with a CD that could be redeemed later.

BUSINESS MANAGER. In the context of the music industry, a business

manager most often is charged with handling monies on behalf of the artist.
Such transactions would include various forms of revenue, expenses, tax
preparation and planning, investment strategies, international financial deal-
ings, and long-term financial planning to help ensure future liquidity for a
successful artist beyond their prime earning years. Generally, a business
manager would be added to the artist’s team of advisors when the artist is
signed to a recording contract and will be launching a tour to build their fan
base. Business managers generally change a fee of 5 percent of monies
received by the artist for their services.

BUZZANGLE MUSIC. A music analytics service that launched in 2015 as

a division of Border City Media, BuzzAngle Music provides one of the first
direct-to-fan (D2F) data analytics services to the music industry, drawing
data from thousands of artists’ own websites and ecommerce platforms. It
72 • BUZZANGLE MUSIC
thus provides an aggregated look at how revenue is being generated outside
of the traditional record label model that dominated the first century of the
recording industry. As BuzzAngle Music’s service has grown, it now reports
all forms of online music activities, including downloads as well as music
and video streaming, with separate numbers for ad-supported streaming ver-
sus subscription-based streaming.
Based on the BuzzAngle U.S. Music Report for 2016, on-demand audio
streams experienced dramatic 82.6 percent growth over the previous year,
while overall album consumption, a statistic derived by adding album sales,
single song sales divided by 10, and on-demand streams divided by 1,500,
shows a healthy 4.2 percent growth over 2015’s statistics. Further demon-
strating the acceptance of music streaming, the report says U.S. streaming
music subscriptions grew by more than double over the previous year, with
the average number of songs being streamed on demand in the United States
at 1.2 billion per day. Clearly, more music is being listened to today by more
consumers than ever before in music history.
See also PANDORA RADIO; SPOTIFY.
 C
CANADIAN MUSICAL REPRODUCTION RIGHTS AGENCY
(CMRRA). This is the Canadian equivalent to the Harry Fox Agency and
acts as an agent on behalf of publishers to grant licenses and collect and
distribute royalties. CMRRA collects 6 percent of the fees received for its
services and, like HFA, provides a cost-effective equivalent to a publisher
maintaining their own in-house staff to negotiate, issue, and collect licensing
fees.

CAPITOL RECORDS. Founded in 1942 by songwriter Johnny Mercer,

Paramount Pictures’ Buddy De Sylva, and record retailer Glenn Wallichs,
Capitol has proven itself to be a flexible popular music label that has stood
the test of time. It distinguished itself from other record labels by providing
free copies of its latest releases to key deejays (DJs) in exchange for playing
and talking about those records during their broadcasts. The label was also
the first to record on magnetic tape. Capitol was highly profitable in the
1950s with artists such as Les Paul, Nat King Cole, Frank Sinatra, Judy
Garland, and the Andrews Sisters. British-based music company EMI ac-
quired a majority of Capitol’s stock in 1955 to replace the long-standing
distribution agreements that ended that year with Columbia and RCA
Records.
In the 1960s, Capitol found great success with the Beach Boys and soon
after the Beatles. The 1970s included new artists such as John Lennon,
Blondie, David Bowie, and Diana Ross. In the 1980s, Capitol added artists
across genres, including Tina Turner, Duran Duran, Brian Setzer, Red Hot
Chili Peppers, Beastie Boys, and Billy Idol. Musicians from the 1990s in-
cluded Garth Brooks, Foo Fighters, Ice Cube, Faith Evans, Relient K, and
Kylie Minogue.
In 2007, EMI merged Virgin Records and Capitol into the Capitol Music
Group and underwent a major restructuring. In 2012, Universal Music
Group acquired the recorded music operations of EMI, and Capitol Music
Group underwent further reorganization.

73
74 • CAPSHAW, CORAN
CAPSHAW, CORAN. Robert Coran Capshaw was born on 28 May 1958
and attended school at the University of Virginia. He is best known as an
artist manager, entrepreneur, and real estate developer. In the early 1990s, he
owned a bar in Charlottesville, Virginia, where he gave a young Dave Mat-
thews Band their first regular employment. He recognized the band’s poten-
tial and in 1991 began managing them, a position he holds to this day. He
would go on to found artist management firm Red Light Management and
Starr Hill Presents, cofound ATO Records, and formerly served as CEO of
Music Today, one of the leader merchandising and fulfillment companies in
the music business. His reputation as a creative deal maker extends beyond
the normal range of artist manager activities, for example, his work to help
Matthews establish the Dreaming Tree wine brand, which boasts an impres-
sive $85 million in annual sales. Capshaw also manages Alicia Keys, Lady
Antebellum, Phish, Luke Bryan, and Trey Anastasio, in addition to oversee-
ing a wide range of real estate investments and properties in the Charlottes-
ville region.

CAREY, MARIAH. Mariah Angela Carey is a singer, songwriter, produc-

er, and actress best known for her dynamic and melismatic five-octave vocal
range and 35-year success as a pop singer and songwriter. She is one of the
best-selling solo artists in the history of the music industry. Born on 27
March 1970 in Huntington, New York, she showed an early interest in music,
in part due to the influence of her mother, who was an opera singer and voice
teacher. By the time Carey was in high school, she was routinely writing her
own poems and accompanying melodies. She started cowriting with high
school classmates, and after graduation she moved to New York, where she
struggled financially, working as a waitress while she continued to write and
record demos. She did some backup vocal work for other artists and eventu-
ally was able to pass on one of her demo tapes to Tommy Mottola, then head
of Columbia Records, who signed her to the label, leading to her self-titled
1990 debut album, which would become a smash hit. With four singles that
reached the number one position on the Billboard charts, Mariah Carey
heralded the arrival of a bright new talent and would go on to sell more than
15 million copies.
Carey recorded a string of eight albums for Columbia between 1990 and
1999 and achieved global superstar status, selling nearly 100 million
records worldwide during that time period. After leaving Columbia, she
signed a $100 million contract with Virgin Records, at that time reportedly
the largest record contract ever. However, her one project released by Vir-
gin was the soundtrack to a poorly received film in which she also starred,
Glitter. Along with the commercial and critical failure of the motion picture
and accompanying soundtrack album, Carey suffered a physical and emo-
tional breakdown, leading to a lull in her career and another poorly received
 CARUSO, ENRICO (1873–1921) • 75
album on the heels of Glitter, 2002’s Charmbracelet. Carey’s contract with
Virgin was bought out after the failure of Glitter, and she signed a more
modest $24 million contract with Island Records.
After regaining her health and focus, Carey roared back to the top of the
charts with her 2005 release The Emancipation of Mimi, which would even-
tually sell more than 12 million copies worldwide and firmly reestablish
Carey as one of the most successful artists in the world. Since that album,
Carey has released five more studio albums; however, none has matched the
massive success of Mimi or her earlier records for Columbia. Through her
career ups and downs, Carey has maintained a large and devoted fan base.
Carey continues to perform and record and has developed into a successful
actress, appearing in a total of 15 films, sometimes playing herself or an
aspiring singer, but also receiving critical praise for roles in more serious
movies such as Precious (2009) and The Butler (2010). Overall, Carey has
had more number one singles top the Billboard chart than any other solo
artist (18), her songs have spent more time at the top of the Billboard pop
charts (79 weeks) than any other artist, and she has sold more than 136
million records worldwide. Notably, unlike most other contemporary high-
profile solo artists, Carey has cowritten and coproduced nearly all of her
music, a rarity for pop stars in the modern music industry.

CARNEGIE HALL. Carnegie Hall is a well-known concert venue in New

York City that has served audiences for all types of music and lectures from
its opening in 1891 until today. Named for philanthropist Andrew Carnegie,
who funded its construction, the 2,800-seat main hall features outstanding
acoustics and excellent sight lines, resulting in its recognition as one of North
America’s preeminent concert venues. There are two smaller halls located
within the complex, one which seats 599 patrons and the smallest one 268
patrons. The original facility was updated, first in 1986 and again in 2003, to
accommodate a wider range of activities while providing more modern
amenities for artists, managers, and concertgoers.

CARUSO, ENRICO (1873–1921). Enrico Caruso was an Italian-born oper-

atic tenor who is best known for his extensive catalog of early recordings,
which helped to popularize the early phonograph as well as draw the public
to develop a keen interest in opera in the early years of the 20th century.
Born of humble means, he displayed early vocal talent and started his profes-
sional singing career in 1894 in Teatro Nuovo in Naples, Italy. In the ensuing
years, his fame grew as he was invited to perform internationally in numer-
ous roles in England, Argentina, Spain, France, Germany, and Austria. At the
same time, he was recognized as a uniquely gifted artist with warm, supple
76 • CASH, JOHNNY (1932–2003)
tone, tremendous breath control, and the ability to soar between lower-range,
expressive passages and the upper reaches of the tenor voice, leading to his
becoming a perennial audience favorite.
Beginning in 1902, with the first early series of recordings made in his
hotel room in Milan, Italy, to dozens of recording sessions around the world,
Caruso recorded an estimated 489 recordings, nearly all of them for the
Victor label (later RCA Victor). This extensive and impressive catalog of
recordings was then distributed worldwide, fostering additional interest in
the new medium of records. Many of his recordings are still available to
music lovers today.
In 1903, Caruso made his debut at New York’s Metropolitan Opera, where
he continued to perform intermittently from 1903 to 1911. Then, in 1912, he
joined the Metropolitan company on a full-time basis, showing his great
versatility and durability by giving an estimated 850 total performances in 38
different roles at the Met. His final Metropolitan Opera performance was on
24 December 1920. He died in 1921 back in his native Italy due to complica-
tions from pneumonia and peritonitis.

CASH, JOHNNY (1932–2003). Johnny Cash was an American country

singer and songwriter born on 26 February 1932. His prolific career includes
over 1,500 recorded songs, 13 Grammy Awards, and more than 90 million
records sold worldwide. Cash had a distinctive bass-baritone voice, and his
songs were often about working-class life and rural America. His sound was
embraced by rock ’n’ roll, blues, folk, and gospel audiences. Cash has been
inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, the Country Music Hall of
Fame, and the Songwriters Hall of Fame.
Cash was born in 1932 in Arkansas into a large family of sharecroppers.
He enlisted in the Air Force at the start of the Korean War, during which he
bought a guitar, taught himself to play, and began writing songs. In 1954, he
left the Air Force, married his first wife, and moved to Memphis. He signed
with Sun Records in 1955, and his first single that year, “Cry! Cry! Cry!,”
became an instant success, hitting the top 20 on the country charts. “Folsom
Prison Blues” was his second single, released soon after, peaking at number
five, which was followed up the next year with the famous song “I Walk the
Line,” which became Cash’s first number one country hit, selling more than
two million units. Cash continued to perform as a solo artist and with the
group the Tennessee Two. He earned the nickname “The Man in Black” for
appearing in all black clothing.
In the early to mid-1960s, Cash struggled with drug addiction. His career
and marriage suffered, and in 1966 his wife filed for divorce. June Carter
helped him gain control of his addictions and make his comeback. The two
married in 1968—the same year he recorded and released his most popular
album, Johnny Cash at Folsom Prison. He released Johnny Cash at San
 CENSORSHIP • 77
Quentin the following year. From 1969 to 1971, Cash had his own television
variety program, The Johnny Cash Show, which featured a wide range of
artists.
In the 1980s and 1990s, Cash joined a group called the Highwaymen,
which included Willie Nelson, Waylon Jennings, and Kris Kristofferson. His
solo career was revived after he was signed to Rick Rubin’s American
Recordings in 1993, being discovered once again by a new younger genera-
tion of fans.
Cash died on 12 September 2003 due to complications with diabetes—four
months after the death of his wife, singer June Carter Cash. He sold an
estimated 30 million records over the course of his career.

CASSETTE. See COMPACT CASSETTE.

CASUAL FAN. A casual fan is one who knows of a particular artist and has
often heard their music. They have generally not intentionally sought out the
artist or their music, instead being exposed to it through terrestrial radio, a
playlist, or hearing it while doing some other activity.
See also FAN ENGAGEMENT.

CATALOG-PRICE RECORD. See MIDPRICE RECORD.

CATALOG SALES. Sales of records that have been released approximately

two years or more in the past and that in most cases are not the artist’s most
recent release. Catalog sales form a substantial part of the income of the
major record labels. Throughout the 20th century, as music delivery for-
mats evolved, music consumers would buy their favorite albums in the next
new and improved format. The most significant income in the 20th century
for the major record labels was the result of the compact disc boom of the
1980s–1990s, during which consumers replaced their aging vinyl and cas-
sette music libraries with CDs. Iconic artist catalogs such as the recordings of
the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, Michael Jackson, the Eagles, and others
still retain remarkable value as they can be repackaged and remarketed to
multiple generations of music consumers in whatever new delivery formats
evolve in the future.

CENSORSHIP. Censorship of musical works results when any limitations

are placed on the public’s access to music, or the music itself is altered to
omit any potentially offensive element. Music, lyrics, and poetry are general-
ly accepted as protected expression under the terms of the First Amendment
of the U.S. Constitution. While popular music has often incurred the wrath of
older generations, broadcasters in the United States must abide by regula-
78 • CERTIFICATE OF AUTHORSHIP
tions that generally prohibit profanity on the public airwaves. This has led to
frequent removal of offensive words from particular songs, resulting in so-
called clean versions of the track. Enforced word substitution, such as the
Rolling Stones’ forced change of the song title “Let’s Spend the Night
Together” to “Let’s Spend Some Time Together” in order to perform it on
The Ed Sullivan Show in 1965 is another form of censorship.
In the mid-1980s, the record industry voluntarily began to mark records
with a Parental Advisory sticker, which warned of so-called explicit material
found on the record. Such identification of various songs was driven by
congressional hearings into whether or not popular music that expressed or
implied sexually suggestive, violent, or drug-related themes was damaging
the nation’s moral fiber.
In the wake of the September 11 terrorist attacks on the United States,
many radio stations censored their playlists to remove any songs that pro-
grammers thought might be inappropriate in the wake of the attacks. Ironical-
ly, John Lennon’s plea for world peace, “Imagine,” was among those that
were censored.
See also PARENTS MUSIC RESOURCE CENTER (PMRC)

CERTIFICATE OF AUTHORSHIP. When composers are working with a

motion picture studio, the studio will often require the composer to legally
declare their sole authorship of the music for the motion picture and, in many
cases, then turn over authorship of the music being created for that film in
exchange for a composer’s fees.

CHARLES, RAY (1930–2004). Ray Charles Robinson was a performer,

songwriter, and bandleader best known for being one of the first African
American artists to find substantial crossover success from the largely black-
supported R&B market to the mainstream pop marketplace in mid-20th-
century America. In addition to his success in R&B and mainstream popular
music, Charles was a gifted jazz musician and released a number of well-
received jazz albums throughout his career, which demonstrated the breadth
of his talent.
Born on 23 September 1930 in Albany, Georgia, Charles grew up in
Greenville, Florida, the son of poor sharecroppers. From the age of three, he
was exposed to boogie-woogie music at a local roadhouse, whose owner
started to teach the young boy how to play the piano. Unfortunately, due to
glaucoma, Charles became totally blind by the age of seven. His mother
secured enrollment in the Florida School for the Deaf and Blind, where
Charles lived and studied from 1937 to 1945. His early life is portrayed in the
2004 biographical film Ray, which chronicled approximately 30 years of his
career.
 CHARLES, RAY (1930–2004) • 79
While at school, he learned classical piano and how to read music notated
using the braille method. He left the school in 1945 at the age of 15 and
proceeded to move around Florida as he built his reputation as a strong R&B
pianist and vocal performer. At first, he played in a number of different
established bands, but he wished eventually to lead his own group. He also
worked as an arranger for various groups to supplement his uneven income.
From 1948 to 1952, Charles would migrate from Florida to Seattle, then Los
Angeles, before moving back to Florida to perform in Miami. His 1949
recording “Confession Blues” became his first national hit, reaching number
two on the R&B charts. A succession of top 10 R&B hits followed, which
drew the attention of Atlantic Records founder Ahmet Ertegun, who
signed Charles to the label in 1952.
Benefiting from Atlantic’s strong presence in the R&B market, Charles
proceeded to release a string of hits, culminating in the 1959’s “What’d I
Say,” which reached number one on the R&B chart and number six on the
Billboard “Top 100,” establishing Charles as a bonafide crossover success.
In 1959, Charles’s contract with Atlantic expired, and he accepted a more
lucrative deal from ABC-Paramount, which included a substantial guaran-
teed annual advance against royalties, a higher royalty rate, and in what was
an unprecedented move for that era, ownership of his master recordings.
While with ABC-Paramount, Charles reached even greater levels of success,
largely recording compositions of other songwriters such as “Georgia on My
Mind” and “Hit the Road, Jack,” both of which reached the top spot on the
Billboard chart. Charles now had the financial muscle to put together a large
touring ensemble, including a background vocal group dubbed the Raelettes.
He won a number of Grammy Awards during this time and would go on to
release two albums in 1962 of his interpretations of country music, Modern
Sounds in Country and Western Music, Vol. 1 and Vol. 2. No less than four
singles from these albums would reach the top 10, greatly expanding the
public’s interest in country music.
Although Charles continued to record hit records, his use of drugs resulted
in a series of arrests that led to a stay in a rehabilitation clinic in 1965. After
his parole ended, he had a number of other hits in 1966–1967, including
“Crying Time” and “Here We Go Again.” During the 1970s, Charles did not
achieve the same level of success he had earlier in his career, largely due to
shifts in the public’s popular music preferences. In the 1980s, Charles came
up with a new formula for chart success: duets with country stars of that era
such as Willie Nelson and George Jones. A 1990 duet with vocalist Chaka
Khan, “I’ll Be Good to You,” produced by Quincy Jones, returned Charles
to the number one spot on the R&B charts and earned the duo a Grammy
Award.
80 • CHART
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Charles was frequently seen on televi-
sion and film, including a famous cameo in the motion picture The Blues
Brothers, as well as appearing in television commercials for Pepsi and vari-
ous roles on prime-time comedy shows. This introduced him to a new gener-
ation of music consumers, many of whom had never heard his earlier
records. Charles remained active as a performer and recording artist through-
out his later life, working out of his Los Angeles studio and business offices.
His last public appearance was at the dedication of his recording studio as a
historic landmark in Los Angeles on 30 April 2004. Late in 2003, he had
begun to suffer health problems that forced him to cancel engagements, and
his condition worsened until he passed away on 10 June 2004 in Los An-
geles.
Posthumously, three albums were released, the first of which, 2004’s Gen-
ius Loves Company, achieved both critical and commercial acclaim. Re-
leased just two months after his death and produced with Charles’s full
participation, the album featured duets with an eclectic range of artists, in-
cluding Norah Jones, Willie Nelson, Elton John, Diana Krall, and Van Mor-
rison, as well as other artists who had been influenced by Charles’s nearly
six-decade career in music. As a fitting capstone to an extraordinary career,
Genius Loves Company, Charles’s 250th album release, earned triple Plati-
num status and received eight Grammy Awards.

CHART. Any form of musical notation that can be shared with one or more
musicians or sidemen in order to perform a work. Alternately, popular songs
and albums are listed on various charts to measure their sales or popularity,
such as those compiled weekly by Billboard magazine.

CHESS RECORDS. Leonard Chess founded Chess Records in 1950 in

Chicago. With his brother, Phil, and another partner, Evelyn Aron, they soon
became well known for releasing blues and rhythm and blues records by
artists including Howlin’ Wolf, Muddy Waters, Willie Dixon, Etta James,
Little Walter, and Bo Diddley. By the mid-1950s, they began to release
music aimed at a crossover audience, including doo-wop artists the Moon-
glows and the Flamingos, and more famously Chuck Berry, an artist who
helped to define the early sound of rock ’n’ roll with his singular guitar
playing and rapid-fire lyrics that appealed greatly to the teenage audience. In
part due to their lack of understanding of how royalties worked, many of the
artists who recorded for Chess earned little to no royalties even though their
records were selling very well.
Young musicians around the world emulated Chess artists, but the music
proved instrumental in the development of many of the British Invasion
bands, most notably the Beatles and Rolling Stones, who would cover vari-
 CLARK, DICK (1929–2012) • 81
ous Chess recordings on their own releases. The Chess brothers sold the label
in 1969, by which time it had declined in popularity. The label’s Chicago
studio and office from the 1950s has been preserved and is now the home of
the Willie Dixon Blues Heaven Foundation.

CHRISTY, EDWIN PEARCE (1815–1862). Edwin Pearce Christy was a

composer, minstrel-troupe performer, and stage producer. In 1836, he joined
a small minstrel troupe in Buffalo, New York. They added more performers
to the troupe and toured Upstate New York from 1843 to 1845. In addition to
being a performer, Christy took on the role of manager and the group became
known as Christy’s Minstrels. From 1847 to 1854, Christy’s Minstrels played
at Mechanics’ Hall in New York City where they continued refining and
perfecting their performances.
After performing for Stephen Foster in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1847, the
troupe worked with Foster to premiere his works. In 1851, Foster gave Chris-
ty the exclusive rights to his song “Old Folks at Home.”
Christy’s Minstrels played at the Music Hall in San Francisco from 1854
to 1855. Christy then retired from the group and returned to New York,
where he managed and purchased circus properties and theaters. The troupe
continued using his name while on tour in London. The tour was so success-
ful that “Christy’s Minstrels” became the common term for blackface min-
strels throughout Britain.
In 1862, Christy attempted suicide by jumping out of a window over fear
that his business would be ruined as a result of the American Civil War. He
died of his injuries 12 days later.

CLARK, DICK (1929–2012). Richard Augustus “Dick” Clark was born on

30 November 1929 in Mount Vernon, New York. He is best known as an
entertainment entrepreneur and television host for the longest-running varie-
ty show in the history of American television, American Bandstand. By the
age of 10, Clark had decided to pursue a career in radio, and at 16 he was
working part-time announcing at a local station managed by his father. Clark
would go on to attend Syracuse University, where he studied advertising and
radio, graduating in 1951. In 1952, he moved to Philadelphia and landed a
job at WFIL Radio, which had spun off a new daytime television show called
Bandstand, based on the hit successful radio show of the same name. As a
WFIL disk jockey, Clark would fill in when necessary for Bandstand’s tele-
vision host, Bob Horn, when needed.
In 1956, Horn was fired and Clark took over hosting the television show, a
role he maintained for the next 33 years, becoming one of the most recog-
nized and influential media and cultural figures of that time. Clark was a
canny businessman and would go on to invest in a variety of entertainment-
82 • CLINICIAN
related enterprises, including record companies and music publishing firms,
eventually leading to his founding of Dick Clark Productions in 1957, which
is now a Hollywood-based company that became one of the most successful
independent television production companies of the late 20th century. Inter-
estingly, during the payola hearings of 1960, Clark was brought before Con-
gress to testify and concurrently divested himself of his music publishing and
record label interests to avoid the perceptions of a conflict of interest. In
addition to the success of American Bandstand, Clark launched two other
long-running television shows, the American Music Awards (1973–) to com-
pete with the Grammy Awards and Dick Clark’s Rockin’ New Year’s Eve
(1974–), both produced by Dick Clark Productions.

CLINICIAN. A highly trained specialist that is contracted by a particular

music products company to travel and demonstrate their instruments or prod-
ucts to educators, potential clients, or other channel partners. They also may
make appearances at trade shows and conferences on a local, regional, na-
tional, and international level. While some may be well-known artists, in
which chase they may also be referred to as “endorsees,” most are only
known within the circle of musicians and educators with an interest in that
particular instrument or area of music making.

COACHELLA VALLEY MUSIC AND ARTS FESTIVAL. The Coachel-

la Valley Music and Arts Festival is an annual festival held at the Empire
Polo Club in Indio, California. It is one of the most famous and profitable
festivals in the United States. The event features a variety of genres, such as
rock ’n’ roll, electronic dance music, hip hop, and indie, including new
and emerging musicians and music groups.
The idea for the location for Coachella came when Pearl Jam performed a
concert at the Empire Polo Club in 1993 while boycotting Ticketmaster’s
control over concert venues. In 1999, Paul Tollett and Rick Van Santen of
concert promoter Goldenvoice organized the inaugural festival. For its first
few years, Coachella was not a financially successful festival. The tickets
were inexpensive and the attendance was not as high as planned. The orga-
nizers skipped putting on Coachella in 2000 but resumed in April 2001. The
first year that the festival made a profit was 2003, and in subsequent years
attendance has soared. The 2016 festival, which was held over two consecu-
tive weekends, grossed $94.2 million. In 2007, the founders branched out,
adding a second music festival, Stagecoach, a country music event that now
mirrors the success of its sibling, Coachella.
In addition to music, Coachella is a fashion trendsetter for the clothing and
apparel worn by attendees. Fashion designers and retailers that cater to young
adults have responded by producing and selling attire to wear at festivals.
 COMBO STORE • 83
COLUMBIA RECORDS. Columbia Records began in 1887 as the
American Graphophone Company in Washington, DC. While the sale of
graphophones was not successful, its profitable subsidiary, Columbia Phono-
graph, survived and sold entertainment cylinders, including recordings of the
U.S. Marine Band and the Sousa Band. Columbia Phonograph relocated to
New York in 1896 and also opened branches in a number of American and
foreign cities, including Paris and London.
Columbia began making 10-inch discs in 1903 of recordings from select
Metropolitan Opera singers but found popular music to be more lucrative.
In the 1920s, the American parent company of Columbia Records was sold
and reorganized as Columbia International under the direction of its British
company. Through the 1920s and 1930s, Columbia focused on jazz music. It
acquired pioneering label Okeh in 1926 only to sell it in 1933.
The Columbia Broadcasting Company (CBS) bought Columbia in 1938
and recorded many American orchestras, which included contemporary
American music, musicals, and recordings of works by composer Igor Stra-
vinsky under his own direction.
In the 1950s, jazz artists recording for Columbia included Duke Ellington,
Winton Marsalis, and Dave Brubeck, and pop artists included Johnny Cash
and Rosemary Clooney. Mitch Miller, Columbia’s musical director, did not
favor rock ’n’ roll, and so the company potentially lost out on a lucrative
opportunity and became the most successful nonrock record company of the
decade.
In the 1960s, Columbia signed Bob Dylan. Following the departure of
Miller, Columbia focused more on rock music, including Janis Joplin. Barbra
Streisand was another key artist with the company during this time period.
CBS sold Columbia to Sony in 1988. Columbia partnered with Epic
Records from 2009 to 2011 until the two split when Epic took on multiple
artists from Jive Records. Columbia continues to be one of the largest labels,
now a division of Sony.

COMBO STORE. A particular type of music products retail store that gen-
erally stocks, sells, and services all of the necessary musical instruments and
accessories needed by a rock band. This normally encompasses guitars,
basses, amplifiers, drums, sound systems, recording equipment, keyboards,
and lighting equipment. While there are thousands of independent combo
stores across the nation, two large big box chains, Guitar Center and Sam
Ash Music, are dominant players in the combo store segment, boasting many
urban locations, large stores, and discounted pricing. For most combo stores,
fretted instruments make up a significant portion of their gross sales. The
National Association of Music Merchandisers’ 2015 Global Music Report
cites annual U.S. fretted instrument sales at an estimated retail value of $1.86
billion.
84 • COMBS, SEAN “PUFFY”
COMBS, SEAN “PUFFY”. Sean “Puffy” Combs (a.k.a. Puff Daddy, P.
Diddy, Diddy, Brother Love, and Love) was born in Harlem, New York, on 4
November 1969. He is an entrepreneur, producer, and recording artist. In
1993, he launched his music production company, Bad Boy Entertainment.
The label has worked with artists such as Mariah Carey, Mary J. Blige,
TLC, Boyz II Men, Lil’ Kim, Aretha Franklin, and the Notorious B.I.G.
He was named the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Pub-
lishers’ Songwriter of the Year in 1996. By 1997, Bad Boy Entertainment
had sold $100 million in recordings, and Combs had handed over manage-
ment of the label to Arista Records in a well-publicized multimillion-dollar
deal.
Combs rose to prominence in the mid-1990s. In 1997, his album No Way
Out achieved Platinum status thanks in large part to his moving tribute to
Biggie Smalls, “I’ll be Missing You.” In 1999, Combs released his second
album, Forever, and launched a highly successful clothing line called Sean
John, signaling his business savvy as one of the first artists to skillfully
develop a range of ancillary product lines that leveraged his mass-market
popularity into major earnings. These have included forays into the fra-
grance, hospitality, and beverage sectors. In addition to his music endeavors,
Combs has appeared frequently in film and television acting roles and has
produced a number of television series, most notably MTV’s Making the
Band.

COMMERCIALLY SATISFACTORY. A term found in many recording

contracts that refers to the record label’s ability to review master record-
ings submitted by the artist or producer and for the label to reach a decision
as to whether or not the submission is comparable to other commercial mas-
ter recordings that have been successful. The purpose of this clause is to help
protect the record label from receiving a master recording that is unlikely to
be appealing to the target audience, which would lead to poor sales and a
financial loss for the label.

COMMITTED FAN. A committed fan is one that has made some type of
discretionary purchase of an artist’s music, concert ticket, or merchandise or
even offered support to a fan-funding initiative launched by the artist. They
feel some level of connection to the artist and their music and most often will
spend some time researching or keeping up with the artist via whatever forms
of media and information retrieval the committed fan is most familiar with
using.
See also FAN ENGAGEMENT.
 COMPOSER • 85
COMPACT CASSETTE. A sound recording and reproduction technology
developed by Phillips and intended to be used as a convenient way to take
care of office dictation, similar to Edison’s original recording cylinder. Com-
monly referred to simply as a cassette, the format used eighth-inch wide
magnetic recording tape and utilized four discrete tracks to provide a bidirec-
tional playback equating to the A-side and B-side of a vinyl album. Cassettes
equaled vinyl in record sales during the 1980s, and eclipsed the earlier 8-
track tape format, which had become popular in car stereo systems in the
1970s. Cassettes were supplanted by compact discs by the late 1980s as the
preferred record delivery format, although in many territories, especially in
Asia, the cassette is still a significant record release medium.

COMPACT DISC (CD). Developed through a collaboration of Sony and

Philips, the compact disc was another music distribution playback break-
through on a par with Edison’s phonograph cylinder and Columbia’s
long-playing record. Debuting in 1982, the compact disc relied on the use of
a laser to read an optical track from the five-inch discs, which could hold up
to seventy-four minutes of music. Consumers now had a nearly indestruct-
ible, improved sound to enjoy music. While there were some artists and
music aficionados who decried the so-called brittle and sterile sound of the
CD’s digital reproduction, in time digital recording and distribution of music
all but eliminated the vinyl LP, in part with the help of record labels, which
used the new CD technology to boost the retail prices of albums nearly 50
percent while reducing artists’ royalties due to the initially greater expenses
of manufacturing the new format. With the advent of online distribution of
music in the early 21st century, CD sales began to decline, although the
format continues in use today and is especially important to independent
artists that use the CD medium to sell records to fans while on tour.

COMPILATION. A collection of existing recordings of musical works that

are put together and sold to the public as a new product. Examples of compi-
lations include greatest hits albums, box sets, and soundtrack albums com-
prising various existing recordings by different artists.

COMPOSER. A person who writes a new musical work. Composers are

active in a wide array of endeavors ranging from film to advertising, contem-
porary classical and opera music, video games, musical theater, religious
works, and more. While many composers may study composition formally, a
great many more are self-taught as more music creation tools continue to be
developed.
86 • COMPOSER AGREEMENT
COMPOSER AGREEMENT. A formal agreement detailing the type and
scope of music to be composed for a particular project entered into between
the composer and another party such as a film company, advertising agency,
or other entity. Composer agreements will usually stipulate the type and
length of music required, the expected delivery date, the fees to be paid upon
completion, as well as any progress payments and their matching milestones
and what if any outside costs may be paid for by either party. Other important
details, including types of allowable uses, publishing and ownership, credits,
term of usage, and exclusivity, should also be addressed in such an agree-
ment.

COMPOSER SHARE. A term used to describe the portion of licensing

revenues that will be remitted to the composer upon payment by a licensee
for use of that composer’s music. In many cases, music publishers and
composers split the revenues equally, although this is not always the case. If
there is more than one composer involved in a particular work, they may split
the composer share equally unless a previous agreement exists stipulating
that composer’s shares are not equal.
See also SONGWRITER’S SHARE.

COMPULSORY MECHANICAL LICENSE. Copyright law requires that

for any song that has been recorded and publicly distributed that a compulso-
ry mechanical license be granted to any person or entity that wishes to use it
in the creation of a phonorecord (audio-only recording). Such a license is
only required if the original song is a nondramatic work (meaning it is not
part of a musical or opera), it has been previously recorded, it has been
previously released as a phonorecord, the new recording does not alter the
basic melody or lyrics of the song, and the new recording is used solely for
phonorecord release. Compulsory mechanical licenses may be acquired by
application through the Copyright Office of the Library of Congress; how-
ever, most record labels prefer to secure what is referred to as a voluntary or
direct license to use a song in a new phonorecord because they may be able
to negotiate a better rate than the compulsory rate. Additionally, the compul-
sory mechanical license requires monthly accounting and payments by the
licensee rather than quarterly accounting and payments, as are standard
protocol with direct licenses.

CONCERT PROMOTER. See PROMOTER.

CONDUCTOR. A conductor is the musical or artistic director of a music

ensemble, charged with not only leading or conducting live and recorded
musical performances by that ensemble, but often they also help envision,
 CONTROLLED COMPOSITION CLAUSE • 87
plan, and rehearse the ensemble to present a cohesive artistic product to the
audience. The term is most commonly used in the classical music field,
notably with orchestras.
See also MUSIC DIRECTOR.

CONFEDERATION INTERNATIONALE OF SOCIETIES OF AU-

THORS AND COMPOSERS (CISAC). Founded in 1926, the International
Confederation of Societies of Authors and Composers is an international
nonprofit organization that advocates for strong copyright protection for
authors and composers in the areas of music, audiovisual, drama, literature,
and visual arts. CISAC is a large network of 230 authors’ societies represent-
ing 120 countries.
In 1994, CISAC began working on the Common Information System
(CIS) project in order to develop ways to standardize the identification of
copyright holders and their creative works. The International Standard Musi-
cal Work Code (ISWC) is one such numbering standard to identify musical
works, similar to the book trade’s ISBN system.

CONTRACTS. See RECORD CONTRACT.

CONTAINER CHARGE. See PACKAGING DEDUCTION.

CONTROLLED COMPOSITION. A song or other musical composition

that is controlled, all or in part, by one or more of its creators. Similarly, if
someone other than the original composer has a financial interest in a partic-
ular composition, for instance a producer who receives a partial ownership
stake in a song, then they, too, may be considered to have a controlled
composition right in that work. The U.S. Copyright Code provides exclusive
rights to the author or composer of any original work. The term is frequently
used in recording and music licensing agreements to refer to the work or
works that are the subject of the agreement.
See also COPYRIGHT.

CONTROLLED COMPOSITION CLAUSE. In an effort to limit me-

chanical royalties due when sound recordings are sold or otherwise mone-
tized, record labels will normally include a controlled composition clause in
the recording contract in order to limit the label’s royalty obligations. Typi-
cally, such clauses limit the total amount of mechanical royalties payable to
10 songs at the then-current statutory rate. They may also further reduce the
mechanical royalties payable by offering less than statutory rate, for instance,
75 percent of the then-current statutory rate on no more than 10 songs. New
artists may be asked to accept as little as 50 percent of statutory rate for their
88 • COON SONGS
mechanical royalties. Record labels, understanding that mechanical royalty
obligations represent a significant sum, have evolved numerous variations on
the controlled composition clauses they insert into recording contracts. As a
result, an experienced music attorney should always be employed on behalf
of the songwriter or recording artist to negotiate the most favorable terms
possible considering how much clout the artist has at that point in their
respective career.

COON SONGS. A genre of songs popular from 1880 to 1920 that purported
to mimic and satirize typical African American speech and conventions of
the period. When considered today, the songs would be viewed as over-
whelmingly pejorative as they frequently played on then common stereo-
types about blacks, such as their being lazy, oversexed, dishonest, or danger-
ous. Coons songs were very popular and were written by both white and
black songwriters. At their peak of popularity in the 1890s, coon songs were
performed all across America and even incorporated into legitimate theatrical
productions. Musically, the songs often drew on the foundations of ragtime,
a precursor to jazz.

CO-OP ADVERTISING. Record labels often rely on collaborative market-

ing campaigns with retailers and distributors, referred to as co-op advertising.
In many cases, the retailer or distributor will commit a specific amount of
resources, which may be in the form of advertisements, preferential product
placement, online marketing, and so on, in exchange for receiving a reduced
cost for that record or other tangible benefit. This reduces the hard costs to
the record label for marketing a new release and fosters additional commit-
ment on behalf of the label’s co-op partner to help sell the record.

COPYIST. Music copyists fulfilled an important function from the earliest

days of the music industry through the 20th century. They worked closely
with composers and realized their musical scores by copying out the notes
that each instrument would be playing when a concert or recording perfor-
mance was to be given. Copyists had to understand the rules of harmoniza-
tion, voice leading, and various stylistic conventions, as well as notational
practice for every potential instrument that might be called for, from accor-
dion to zither. The work of music copyists has been largely diminished
recently by the use of software programs that allow composers to create
accurate parts without the need for a copyist.
See also ARRANGER; ORCHESTRATOR.
 COPYRIGHT ACT OF 1909 • 89
COPYRIGHT. Copyright in the United States provides a form of legal
protection for creative works, such as music, art, and literature. Any work
that is fixed in a tangible form automatically receives the protection of U.S.
copyright law. Copyright law was part of the original U.S. Constitution be-
cause the framers believed that it would support a knowledgeable citizenry.
The original goal of U.S. copyright law was to promote free speech, democ-
racy, and sharing of information while allowing the copyright holder to have
the right to reproduce their work for the length of the copyright term.
Section 106 of the U.S. Copyright Code allows the copyright holder the
exclusive right to reproduce the work, prepare derivative works of the copy-
right work, distribute copies of the work, perform the work publicly, display
the work publicly, and publicly perform by digital transmission (music
streaming). Ideas, methods, processes, concepts, or discoveries cannot be
copyrighted.
Once an expression is fixed in a tangible medium, it immediately is pro-
tected by copyright. Nevertheless, some copyright holders choose to official-
ly register their copyrighted works through the U.S. Copyright Office in
order to have information about the copyright work and the copyright holder
on public record. This can assist the copyright holder’s case in instances of
litigation.
Copyright terms have shifted over time to gradually favor the copyright
holder. In the Copyright Act of 1790, the copyright terms were 14 years, with
the possibility to renew the term for another 14 years. The Revision of the
Copyright Act in 1831 extended the term to 28 years with the possibility to
renew for another 14 years. In 1909, the term for renewal was extended to 28
years. The 1976 Revision of the U.S. Copyright Act substantially changed
the terms by extending it to the life of the author plus 50 years. The 1998
Copyright Term Extension Act further increased the term to the life of the
author plus 70 years.
The public domain pertains to works that never have or no longer have
copyright protection. Any works that are in the public domain can be repub-
lished with all of the profits going to the publisher—not the original copy-
right holder. Examples include “Amazing Grace,” “Danny Boy,” and most
songs written and published before 1923.
Copyright issues can have an enormous effect on the music business,
which is why some music industry groups, such as the Recording Industry
Association of America, Songwriters Guild of America, American Soci-
ety of Composers, Artists, and Publishers, lobby elected leaders on behalf
of the interests of their respective members.

COPYRIGHT ACT OF 1909. See COPYRIGHT.

90 • COPYRIGHT ROYALTY BOARD
COPYRIGHT ROYALTY BOARD. A body made up of three copyright
royalty judges appointed by the Librarian of Congress, who oversee copy-
right law’s statutory licenses. The judges are responsible for determining and
adjusting the rates and terms of the statutory licenses and determining the
distribution of royalties from the statutory license royalty pools that the Li-
brary of Congress administers. As the music industry moves further into the
digital streaming and delivery of music, the decisions made by the Copyright
Royalty Board will have a proportionally greater impact on future recorded
music industry revenues.

COPYRIGHT TERM EXTENSION ACT. This 1998 act passed by the

U.S. Congress extended the duration of copyright by 20 years from its
previous life of the author plus 50 years, thereby creating an alignment with
the then current term of copyright supported throughout the European Union
as part of the Berne Convention that addresses intellectual property rights,
which had been extended in 1993 to the author’s life plus 70 years. American
copyright owners faced the very real risk of not being able to monetize and
protect their copyrighted works for the additional 20 years in Berne Conven-
tion nations if U.S. copyrights expired 20 years earlier. This anomaly is
referred to as the rule of the shorter term. Critics saw the bill as a direct
assault on the health of the nation’s public domain, with some decrying it as
the Mickey Mouse Protection Act, since Disney lobbied strongly for such a
law, in part due to the fact that its passage delayed the entry of the earliest
Mickey Mouse movies into the public domain.

COUNTRY MUSIC. Country music is a genre that originated in the 1920s

from a variety of musical traditions, including folk music, traditional ballads,
and African American blues. Country music has evolved into a commercially
successful genre; however, its primary themes continue to be rural culture,
working-class people, American patriotism, Christianity, and white social
conservativism, which have all remained constants through the genre’s first
century.
Country music songs often involve storytelling, and traditional country
recordings from the mid-20th century were often accompanied by simple
instrumentation such as a string band of fiddle, acoustic guitar, and banjo.
Another prominent instrument often heard on country records is the pedal
steel guitar. Nashville is considered the nation’s hub for country music and
has built an industry around the genre, which includes performance venues,
songwriters, performers, publishers, museums, theme parks, and record la-
bels. Various artists have experimented with crossing country with other
genres, such as blues, swing, rock ’n’ roll, mainstream pop, and even hip
hop. This has helped the genre maintain a large, international fan base.
 CREATIVE CONTROL • 91
COVER SONG. A new recording of a song that has already been recorded
and released by another artist. Recording and releasing a cover song requires
the company releasing the cover version to secure a mechanical license.
Cover songs play an important role in the music industry, as well-estab-
lished artists will often reinterpret a well-known song for their audience.
Alternately, an emerging artist may perform a cover version of a well-known
song to help attract new listeners who are already familiar with the original
version of the song being covered. The period between the 1940s and 1960s
was the peak of cover songs as many record labels scanned the rhythm and
blues charts for songs that could be covered by a pop artist, benefiting from
the song’s initial notoriety, albeit to a different audience. Some songs were
covered multiple times by a variety of artists, with competing record labels
rushing to record and release a cover version of the same song, often by a
more prominent artist, in an effort to capitalize on the song’s growing popu-
larity.

CREATIVE COMMONS. Creative Commons (CC) is an organization that

assists copyright owners with generating licenses that allow for more free-
dom than traditional copyright statutes. Creative Commons licenses allow
the copyright owner to predetermine whether or not they want to allow
adaptations, remixes, or derivatives of their work, whether or not they will
allow others to use their work for commercial purposes, and whether or not
use of the work will require attribution of the original author or composer.
Some websites that offer music published under Creative Commons li-
censes include SoundCloud, ccMixter, and Jamendo. While many musicians
have explored CC licenses, it is rare for a music publisher to allow them
because the publisher would likely be losing potential income.

CREATIVE CONTROL. The ability or contractual right to make artistic

decisions pertaining to any aspect of an artist’s records, live performance, or
other creative pursuits. In the case of new or relatively unknown artists, the
record label may insist on retaining creative control of some or all of the
artist’s recording, visual images, videos, and so on. As an artist gains more
clout, along with building a following, they are often able to gain various
levels of input into the recording and visual aspects of their music and mar-
keting. Superstar artists generally will have complete creative control, while
midlevel artists may have varying levels of creative control over different
parts of their portfolio. For instance, they may have full creative control of
the record-making process, but the record label may still approve their pro-
ducer and exert total control over album artwork, website, and other visual
media elements.
92 • CROSBY, BING (1903–1977)
CROSBY, BING (1903–1977). Harry Lillis “Bing” Crosby Jr. was a singer,
actor, and entrepreneur who became one of the most popular and beloved
media personalities of the 20th century, selling an estimated one billion
recordings worldwide. Born in Tacoma, Washington, he dropped out of col-
lege to pursue music full-time, moving to Los Angeles in 1926 to join a vocal
trio dubbed the Rhythm Boys under the tutelage of bandleader Paul White-
man.
Crosby was one of the first vocalists to exploit the improved quality of the
electronic microphones of the 1930s, developing his signature crooning style
by performing in close proximity to the microphone, using a smooth, easy-
to-emulate style of singing, as opposed to the more operatic or vaudeville
theatrical styles then in vogue. He adapted a number of jazz vocal and instru-
mental rhythmic stylings and techniques, such as scatting, to further define
his unique appeal.
Importantly, Crosby was the first performer to excel at radio, records, and
motion pictures—the three dominant mass media of that time. During the
1930s and 1940s, he was the best-selling recording artist in the United States.
He also appeared weekly on radio continuously from 1936 to 1954, guaran-
teeing his voice and persona were a trusted and familiar brand to two genera-
tions of consumers. His 1941 recording of Irving Berlin’s “White Christ-
mas” would become one of the most popular records of all time.
Hollywood further developed Crosby the actor in the image of an all-
American hero through a wide range of starring motion picture roles, includ-
ing his 1944 role in Going My Way, for which he won a Best Actor Oscar. As
television emerged in the late 1940s as another important mass medium,
Bing Crosby was ever present, appearing regularly from 1954 to 1970 as a
host, singer, and comedian.
Crosby was also an early and avid supporter of new music technologies,
partnering with returning GI Jack Mullin to help fund the development of
the first tape-based audio and video recording systems with the fledgling
Ampex Corporation. Crosby’s far-sighted investments helped to create the
modern entertainment industry that exists today. He invested in a number of
entertainment companies that were very successful, including Bing Crosby
Productions, which produced some of the top-rated television series of the
1960s; Bing Crosby Entertainment, which helped develop the first video tape
recorders; Crosby Research Foundation, which holds numerous entertain-
ment technology patents; and a host of other investments in sports and media.

CROSS-COLLATERALIZATION. The process found in most record

contracts that tie together both the advances and recoupment progress of
multiple records made by an artist is referred to as cross-collateralization.
 CROWDFUNDING (FAN FUNDING) • 93
For example, if the first album made under a multialbum contract does not
fully recoup all of the costs associated with making and marketing that par-
ticular recording, the unrecouped sum will be rolled over to the costs asso-
ciated with the next album and must be recouped, along with the new costs
associated with the second album, before the artist will receive any royalty
payments from either album.
While most often the term refers to projects made under a single contract,
record labels or other music industry firms may attempt to tie different
agreements together via cross-collateralization. An example might be a suc-
cessful songwriter who wishes to transition to being a recording artist. In
such a case, to reduce their risks, if they were signed to a publishing deal
with the same parent company as their new record label, that label may try to
negotiate that funds from the artist’s publishing deal may be drawn upon to
help recoup expenses related to their recording contract.

CROSS-MEDIA MARKETING. See SYNERGY.

CROSSOVER. A term used to describe an artist or other entertainment

property that is able to go beyond a primary audience as measured demo-
graphically, to engage and appeal to one or more additional demographic
market segments—for example, Taylor Swift, Foo Fighters, or Adele.

CROWDFUNDING (FAN FUNDING). Crowdfunding refers to the prac-

tice of musicians, bands, or other artists making an appeal to their fans for
financial support, most often to complete a specific project such as a record
album, video, or tour. A number of popular crowdfunding platforms such as
GoFundMe, KickStarter, Pledge Music, Patreon, and IndieGoGo have
evolved to concentrate largely on the music industry.
Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, patronage was the primary form
of artistic support, with famous musicians such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mo-
zart, George Frideric Handel, and Richard Wagner, each of whom benefited
from the financial patronage of nobles and businessmen, who supported them
while they created their most famous musical works. In the 20th century, the
rise of the record industry and labels largely replaced the patronage system
with the current system of artists receiving financial support from labels in
order to create and market their recordings.
Unlike traditional record contracts, which provide funding for artist pro-
jects but leave the record label in control of some or all of the artist’s work
output, crowdfunding offers a means for artists to secure incrementally
smaller amounts of financial support from individual members of their fan
base to help achieve the artist’s goals while retaining artistic control and
94 • CUE, EDDY
ownership of their music. Musician Amanda Palmer has been one of the most
notable independent artists to succeed with the crowdfunding model, raising
a total of $1.2 million from 25,000 of her fans for support of a 2012 project.

CUE, EDDY. Eduardo H. “Eddy” Cue (b. 1964) is best known as Apple
Computer’s senior vice president of internet software and services. He stud-
ied economics and computer science at Duke University. Cue joined Apple
in 1989 and worked as a manager in both customer support and software
engineering. He worked his way up at the firm and was a key player in the
development of Apple’s online store (1998), the iTunes music store (2003),
Apple’s App Store (2008), and Apple Pay (2014). He is viewed as one of the
key architects of Apple’s move to an integrated media and electronics com-
pany from its original role as a computer manufacturer.

CUE SHEET. Television broadcasters are required by law to keep cue

sheets that list every piece of music used throughout the broadcast day (24
hours) as well as how long it was played and precisely how it was used. The
cue sheets are submitted to the performing rights organizations, which
then determine the rates that apply using a formula that also takes into ac-
count whether the broadcast was local, regional, national, and so forth.

CUT. See TRACK.

CUT-IN. A cut-in refers to the practice of awarding some portion of copy-

right ownership or authorship to a person not directly involved in the crea-
tion of a new musical work. This would most often be done as an accommo-
dation for some type of promotional support or airplay for an artist. One of
the most notable examples of a cut-in was disk jockey Alan Freed being
added to the songwriter credits on Chuck Berry’s first hit song, “Maybel-
lene,” in 1955.

CUTOUT. At such time that a record label determines that there is no

longer a market for physical copies of a particular album or recording, it may
elect to liquidate the unsold records to a wholesaler for a few pennies on the
dollar. Such records may be found in the $1.99 bins in record stores, usually
with the bar code crossed out to prevent returns. Artists receive no royalties
on cutouts/deletes, and the record is no longer carried as a physical product in
the label’s catalog. As for digital copies of albums available from online
retailers, since there is nearly zero cost to maintaining inventory, the concept
of a cutout does not apply.

CYLINDER. See PHONOGRAPH CYLINDER.

 D
DADDY, PUFF. See COMBS, SEAN “PUFFY”.

DAVIS, CLIVE. Clive Davis was born on 4 April 1932 in Brooklyn, New
York. He is best known as a music executive and talent development special-
ist. From 1966 to today, he has served as president of a number of major
record labels. After graduating from Harvard Law School in 1956, he
worked as an attorney in New York City and joined Columbia Records as a
staff attorney in 1960. Rising through the ranks, he was made president of
CBS Records in 1966 at the age of 34. Over the course of his career, he has
signed some of the most commercially successful artists in popular music,
including Janis Joplin, Santana, Bruce Springsteen, Whitney Houston,
Aretha Franklin, Aerosmith, Billy Joel, Earth, Wind & Fire, Jennifer Hud-
son, Kelly Clarkson, and Brad Paisley. He has also fostered other music
executives by cofounding LaFace Records with Antonio “LA” Reid and
Babyface, as well as Bad Boy Entertainment with Sean “Puffy” Combs. In
addition to his business acumen, Davis is renowned for being able to decide
which songs have the potential to become hit singles for his key artists,
deciding which tracks will be chosen to market in this regard. Davis held
tenure as chief executive officer from 1966 to 1973 at CBS Records, 1974 to
2000 at Arista Records, 2000 to 2004 at J Records, 2002 to 2008 at RCA
Music Group, and 2008 to now at Sony Music Entertainment.

DEALER AGREEMENT. An agreement detailing the specific terms that a

manufacturer requires its dealers to adhere to as a dealer. It stipulates the
rights, responsibilities, restrictions, and terms of the two companies’ business
relationship. Dealer agreement will usually specify minimum sales volume
requirements, geographic trading areas, company policies, discount and
shipping terms, restrictions, and policies to resolve disputes that may arise.

DEEJAY. See DJ (DEEJAY).

95
96 • DEF JAM RECORDS
DEF JAM RECORDS. Def Jam was founded in 1984 by Rick Rubin, then
a student at New York University. He teamed up with Russell Simmons,
who was already a promoter and was able to connect several artists with the
record label.
Def Jam altered the music industry by making rap music by artists such as
LL Cool J, the Beastie Boys, and Run-DMC accessible to wider audiences—
especially white audiences.
Rubin parted ways with Def Jam records in 1988. In 1992, Def Jam almost
faced financial ruin but was saved by PolyGram when the company pur-
chased 50 percent of Sony’s share in Def Jam. In 1998, Def Jam was ac-
quired by Universal Music Group by purchasing the remaining shares from
Simmons. During this time, DMX was a very successful artist under Def Jam
and brought in a revival of hardcore hip hop.
In 2004, Jay-Z became the president of Def Jam. During his three-year
tenure, Jay-Z helped to usher the successful careers of Rihanna and Ne-Yo.
Today, Def Jam contracts with an impressive list of artists, including Kanye
West, Justin Bieber, Leona Lewis, and Iggy Izalea.

DELETE. See CUTOUT.

DEMO DEAL. A written agreement whereby a record label or production

company will provide money or other resources for an artist to record a
professional demonstration recording in exchange for that company receiv-
ing the exclusive right to sign that artist to a contract for a limited period of
time, such as 90 days after completion of the demo recording. If the label
wishes to sign the artist, contract negotiations will then commence. Demo
recordings are not intended for commercial release.
See also DEVELOPMENT DEAL; FIRST REFUSAL; SPEC DEAL.

DEMONSTRATION RECORDING. A recording made by any musician

such as a performer, songwriter, or composer of a new or existing work for
the purpose of advancing their career. Typical demonstration (demo) record-
ings might be used to introduce a songwriter’s latest songs to a potential
recording artist or a new band’s original material to a manager or agent.
Demo recordings are usually distinguished from master recordings by the
time and cost that is invested in the recording and mixing of the song or
songs. Since demo recordings are not meant to be released to the public, they
are usually not as fully realized musically or as highly polished technically as
master recordings, which are meant to be released to the public.
See also DEMO DEAL.
 DIGITAL MILLENNIUM COPYRIGHT ACT OF 1998 (DMCA) • 97
DEVELOPMENT DEAL. Similar to a demo deal, a development deal is an
agreement that provides for a trial recording of one to two masters as a
prelude to the completion of an already negotiated record contract with that
particular artist. The advantage to the label is that prior to committing to
record an entire album’s worth of music, they can learn firsthand how well
the artist’s music translates to the recorded medium.

DIAMOND CERTIFICATION. In 1999, the Recording Industry Associ-

ation of America created an additional awards category for record albums
that had sold 10 million or more units in the United States to recognize
albums that far exceeded the Platinum level of sales.
See also GOLD CERTIFICATION.

DIGITAL DOWNLOAD. A digital download is a music song file acquired

via the internet. In the music industry, a digital download is sometimes
referred to as a music download. Music download sales peaked in 2012 and
have slowly declined as music streaming becomes more popular. Stores that
sell digital downloads of music include iTunes, Amazon, eMusic, and Goo-
gle Play. Downloads have generally been encoded with digital rights man-
agement (DRM) software that may restrict the user’s ability to copy the file
or play it on certain audio players. Digital downloads are often compressed,
which reduces the file size and the quality of the audio.
See also MP3; NAPSTER; SECURE DIGITAL MUSIC INITIATIVE
(SDMI).

DIGITAL MILLENNIUM COPYRIGHT ACT OF 1998 (DMCA). The

Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 attempted to update copyright
law for the digital environment of websites, downloads, and streaming con-
tent.
The DMCA requires that record companies receive licensing fees from
internet radio stations and streaming services (“webcasters”) and makes it
illegal to produce technology, devices, or services with the explicit intention
of providing or fostering unauthorized access to copyright-protected works
(with the exception of nonprofit libraries, archives, and educational institu-
tions).
The DMCA continues to be controversial, and dissatisfaction with the law
is evident by the bills that have been introduced in Congress to adjust it.
Some artist advocates currently view the DMCA as outdated because it fa-
vors technology and music corporations over songwriters and artists.
98 • DIGITAL PERFORMANCE RIGHT IN SOUND RECORDING ACT OF 1995
With the signing of the DMCA, the United States entered into compliance
with the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Copyright
Treaty and the WIPO Phonograms and Performances Treaty, both of which
went into effect in 2002 after a minimum of 30 countries signed them.

DIGITAL PERFORMANCE RIGHT IN SOUND RECORDING ACT

OF 1995. The Digital Performance Right in Sound Recording Act (DPRA)
allowed digital transmissions to be considered public performances, which
allowed the performers and record producers to collect royalties on a work
that is broadcast in a digital environment.
The DPRA created SoundExchange, the only performing rights organ-
ization designated to collect royalty payments from digital broadcasters.

DIGITAL PHONORECORD DELIVERY (DPD). This is the term used in

the Copyright Act Revision of 1995 to stipulate that “delivery of a phono-
record by digital transmission of a sound recording” shall require that the
record label pay the full statutory rate for such downloads. So when some-
one purchases a single from the iTunes music store, that download is re-
ferred to as a DPD.

DIGITAL RIGHTS MANAGEMENT (DRM). Digital rights management

refers to any process that helps identify, control, or limit access to digital
music that may be distributed electronically. DRM schemes have historically
been used on both hardware and software with varying degrees of success.
From its launch, Apple’s iTunes music store only sold music tracks with
embedded DRM control, allowing the purchaser a limited number of devices
or copies of the song.
In 2009, Apple abandoned DRM schemes for all songs sold via its iTunes
store. Other digital online music retailers eventually followed suit. Another
example of DRM is a product key needed to activate or update a software
program. Various forms of DRM are used in the ebook marketplace, and
many current video games rely on DRM-style authentication where the game
content is stored on a remote server. While the advantages are clear to con-
tent providers for implementing DRM schemes in an effort to curb illegal
distribution of copyrighted materials, many consumers feel that DRM is an
unnecessary burden for those that pay for legal access to software, music,
video games, or other forms of media.

DIRECT LICENSE. When a record company or other entity wishes to

license a song, they most often will secure a direct rather than a compulsory
mechanical license. The parties may negotiate a rate that is lower than the
existing statutory rate, and in many cases the licensee will pay an advance
 DIXIE CHICKS • 99
royalty to the song’s rights holder on the anticipated sales of the phonorec-
ord that includes the song. Third-party firms such as the Harry Fox Agency,
Loudr, and YouTube’s RightsFlow provide direct licensing services for a
fee.

DISC JOCKEY. See DJ (DEEJAY).

DIXIE CHICKS. The Dixie Chicks are a country music group that has
been recognized as one of the best-selling female music groups in American
popular music. In addition to their outstanding sales, they are noted for their
dynamic live performances. The group was originally formed in 1989 as a
quartet. In 1995, Laura Lynch (bass) and Robin Macy (guitar) left the group
and Natalie Maines (vocals) was invited to join sisters Marti Maguire (violin)
and Emily Robison (banjo). Maguire’s and Robison’s virtuosity on their
instruments coupled with Maines’s modern country vocal style and more
contemporary songwriting approach propelled the group to a more modern
and commercial country sound.
The group released the debut album Wide Open Spaces in 1998, which
featured three number one country hits: “There’s Your Trouble,” “Wide
Open Spaces,” and “You Were Mine.” The album went quadruple Platinum
in its first year and won several Grammy and Country Music Association
(CMA) awards. It eventually became country music’s best-selling group al-
bum of all time. The Dixie Chicks released Fly in 1999. The album showed
the group’s evolving style, with songs addressing somewhat controversial
topics in mainstream country on tunes, such as “Goodbye Earl” (spousal
abuse) and “Sin Wagon” (infidelity).
The combined success of their first two albums made them the best-selling
female group in country music with more than 20 million albums sold,
prompting the group’s management to review their royalty payment history
with their label. Upon review, the group believed they had been underpaid by
as much as $4 million in royalties due to flawed accounting practices. The
label, Sony Music, denied the claim, and a lawsuit and resultant countersuit
between the two parties went ahead. The press covered the dispute, which
served to shine a light on the less-than-transparent accounting practices that
were standard throughout much of the recording industry, while also alerting
other artists to pay special attention to their royalty statements and audit
reports. After months of dispute, a settlement was finally reached although
no financial terms were disclosed with respect to any unpaid royalties due.
The Dixie Chicks had won a new, higher royalty rate, artistic control of their
music, and the establishment of their own label imprint, Wide Open Records,
which would be marketed and distributed by Sony. On the heels of the
100 • DJ (DEEJAY)
settlement, the group’s next album was Home in 2002, which included three
more hit singles: “Travelin’ Soldier,” “Long Time Gone,” and “Landslide.”
The album would sell six million copies in the United States.
In 2003, at the opening concert in London of their Top of the World Tour,
Maines spoke against the impending Iraq War and expressed disappointment
with fellow Texan and then-president George W. Bush. The public backlash
to this statement from American fans was virulent and highly publicized as
an example of not supporting the nation’s fight against terrorism. Country
radio boycotted their music, and as their tour progressed the group was on the
receiving end of death threats and protests, which included numerous public
meetings at which fans threw away their Dixie Chicks CDs. The experience
was documented in a 2006 film titled Shut Up and Sing that showed the price
the group would pay for holding firm to their opinion that war was not the
best option.
Concluding the tour, the Dixie Chicks realized that their core country
audience was unlikely to return to its earlier level, and as artists they also felt
obliged to reflect the struggles they had encountered for exercising their right
of free speech in whatever new music would come next. This resulted in the
group’s 2006 album Taking the Long Way, which was a critical and commer-
cial success but paled in any sales comparison to their three previous albums.
Taking the Long Way would eventually sell two million copies and win five
Grammy Awards, three of which are largely viewed as the most important:
Song of the Year, Record of the Year, and Album of the Year. Country radio
programmers largely ignored the record, likely due to corporate radio’s per-
ception that they had veered outside the limits of what had traditionally been
accepted country music values.
The group decided to go on a hiatus to spend time with their families,
which resulted in the Dixie Chicks making only a few sporadic public ap-
pearances during the period 2008–2013. However, sisters Robison and Ma-
guire formed a new band, the Court Yard Hounds. The new group was
preparing for an album release and tour, but plans changed, with the Dixie
Chicks announcing a limited series of 2010 summer stadium concert appear-
ances in support of the Eagles and Keith Urban. The Court Yard Hounds
released two albums (2010 and 2013) while lead singer Natalie Maines re-
leased her own album in 2013. The group announced its first official headlin-
ing tour in 2013 through Canada and in 2016 fully returned to the stage with
U.S., Canadian, and European tour dates. The U.S. stadium shows were the
first headlining concerts in 10 years for the record-setting group.

DJ (DEEJAY). The DJ, also sometimes referred to as “deejay,” is on-air

talent who acts as a host for a radio broadcast period, usually from two to six
hours, depending on the station, format, and day of the week. During the
mid-20th century, radio professionals and listeners used the term “disc jock-
 DOMINO, FATS (1928–2017) • 101
ey” before being shortened to “deejay” and eventually “DJ” over time. Dee-
jays generally have a well-modulated, experienced voice and confident man-
ner on the microphone. Their personality must project well and be congruent
with the image and brand that the station wishes to promote. They should be
well versed in the types and styles of music, such as pop, hip hop, or
classical, that the station is currently broadcasting.

DJ (TURNTABLIST). A different use of the term “DJ” from that of on-air

radio talent, the live performance DJ is a performer who utilizes recorded
music to play in a live event or concert setting. On a local level, a DJ may be
hired to “spin wax” at a birthday, retirement, wedding, or community cele-
bration.
DJs became an integral performer in popular music during the rise of
American hip hop music in the 1980s. At that time, they researched and used
often obscure instrumental tracks playing continuously using two turntables
for parties and concerts. Soon after, MCs who would spit out rhymes began
incorporating DJs as part of the live performances. With the rise of the
electronic music genre in the 1990s, DJs began to perform on their own, and
in the new millennium, some have gone on to become arena-level performers
who have a worldwide following and are able to earn significant touring
income.
See also ELECTRONIC DANCE MUSIC (EDM).

DOMINO, FATS (1928–2017). Antoine Dominique “Fats” Domino was a

singer, pianist, and songwriter who helped to usher in early rock ’n’ roll
music in the 1950s. He was born on 26 February 1928 in New Orleans to a
French Creole family and started to play the piano at the age of nine. As a
teenager growing up in the fertile musical environs of New Orleans, he
developed a distinctive rhythmic boogie-woogie piano style. At the age of
21, he was introduced to producer Dave Bartholomew, who recognized
Domino’s potential and produced his first record, “The Fat Man,” which was
a number two R&B hit in 1950. Some music historians have argued that this
song was the first rock ’n’ roll record, and by 1953 it would go on to sell
more than one million copies.
One thing that made his music stand out was Domino’s easygoing, soft
vocal delivery, which incorporated some of the vocal inflection of his native
French Creole language and contrasted with the earthy, driving instrumental
backing tracks that featured a heavy backbeat and honking saxophone, which
were hallmarks of the 1950s New Orleans sound. Working in tandem, Domi-
no and producer Bartholomew would go on to put out an unprecedented
string of hits for Imperial Records that crossed over to the top 100 charts,
starting with his 1955 release “Ain’t That a Shame” and then “I’m in Love
102 • DOWD, TOM (1925–2002)
Again,” “My Blue Heaven,” “Blueberry Hill,” and “Blue Monday,” all in
1956. “Blueberry Hill” was Domino’s best-selling single, notching more
than five million units sold in 1956–1957. All told, between 1950 and 1962,
Domino registered 11 top 10 pop hits and 40 songs that charted in the top 10
on the R&B charts. Many of Domino’s songs were covered by white singers,
such as Pat Boone and Elvis Presley, and these covers would sometimes go
on to outsell Domino’s original version. This practice was common in the
early rock ’n’ roll era due to the fact that the music of black performers was
regularly denied airplay on many of the largest mainstream radio stations due
to segregation of the airwaves.
While Domino’s later popularity never reached the same level of success
as in the late 1950s, his song catalog became a valuable asset, generating
steady income for the notoriously shy musician over the rest of his life. He
continued recording through the late 1960s and 1970s but with little commer-
cial success. Still, he remained a fixture in his hometown of New Orleans,
making a well-received annual appearance at the city’s Jazz and Heritage
Festival and operating his publishing company from the city’s Lower Ninth
Ward. In August 2005, Hurricane Katrina devastated New Orleans and
flooded Domino’s home and office. Domino was erroneously reported to
have died in the storm, but a few days later it was learned he and his family
had been rescued by helicopter. He played a number of benefit concerts to
help rebuild the city in the aftermath of Katrina and made his last public
performance on 19 May 2007 at Tipitina’s in New Orleans. Fats Domino
died on 24 October 2017 of natural causes in Harvey, Louisiana, a suburb of
New Orleans.

DOWD, TOM (1925–2002). Thomas John Dowd was a recording engineer

and record producer best known for helping to develop multitrack record-
ing and mixing techniques in the 1950s and 1960s. Both his parents were
musicians, and the New York City–born Dowd was soon playing the piano,
tuba, violin, and string bass. After graduating from high school in 1942 at the
age of 16, he studied at City College of New York while being hired to work
in the physics laboratory at Columbia University. At the age of 18, he was
drafted into the U.S. Army due to his knowledge of physics and assigned to
work on the Manhattan Project, the development of the first atomic bomb.
After the war, he had planned to resume his training as a physicist, but since
his accomplishments working for the army were classified, he was told he
would have to start over in his studies, even though the work he had done in
the military was more advanced than any then-current undergraduate college
coursework. Instead, he combined his love for music and physics, becoming
a recording engineer and producer, most notably for Atlantic Records.
 DR. DRE • 103
Dowd is widely recognized as having been one of the first proponents of
multitrack recording, encouraging Atlantic to invest in a then revolutionary
eight-track system, developing the first linear fader to more precisely control
audio levels, and of being one of the first sound mixers to explore the crea-
tive possibilities afforded by stereophonic sound. His discography spans
nearly every genre of popular music from the 1950s to the early 21st century
and features hit recordings by artists such as Ray Charles, the Drifters, the
Coasters, Ruth Brown, Eric Clapton, the Allman Brothers, Aretha Franklin,
Lynyrd Skynrd, Otis Redding, Rod Stewart, the Four Seasons, Cream, as
well as jazz luminaries including Charlie Parker, Charles Mingus, Theloni-
ous Monk, and John Coltrane. He was respected by artists for the insights
and suggestions he would offer during the record-making process and for his
ability to bring out their very best performances, many of which became
landmark recordings in popular music.

DOWNBEAT. DownBeat is a monthly magazine dedicated to jazz and blues.

The magazine is well known for its reviews of recordings and books, as well
as its annual DownBeat Jazz Poll, which highlights winners from readers’
and critics’ surveys.
As one of the oldest jazz and blues magazines, it was established in 1934
in Chicago, Illinois, by Albert Lipschultz and named after the first beat of a
measure of music. Lipschultz was an insurance man and amateur musician.
He launched the magazine as a way to sell traveling musicians insurance. It
focused on jazz just as it was breaking into mainstream American culture.
As the swing era was coming to an end in the 1950s, DownBeat was in
financial crisis. To survive, it changed its focus on new forms of popular
music, including R&B, pop, country, and rock ’n’ roll. Also in the 1950s,
DownBeat aligned itself in support of the growing jazz education movement,
which was attractive to advertisers and readers and continues to be part of the
magazine’s mission. Today, it is part of Maher Publications, a music-focused
magazine publishing firm.

DR. DRE. Andre Romelle “Dr. Dre” Young was born in 1965 in Los An-
geles. He is a producer, rapper, and entrepreneur. Growing up in and around
Compton, California, an area with high unemployment and crime, he strug-
gled in school. After high school, he was enrolled in an adult school while
starting to freelance as a club DJ, meet other rappers, and produce his first
recordings. Partnered with DJ Yella, he soon developed his stage name, Dr.
Dre, after meeting the rapper Ice Cube, who introduced him to Ruthless
Records, a rap imprint run by rapper Eazy-E. It was here that Dre rose to
104 • DR. DRE
prominence as the in-house music producer for the label’s artists and as a
member of the seminal West Coast rap group N.W.A, a progenitor of what
came to be called “gangsta rap.”
Dre developed a style and sound that relied on heavy use of samples, quick
edits, and a thunderous drum machine and low-frequency sounds that was
well suited to LA’s car culture. N.W.A’s debut album, Straight Outta Comp-
ton (1988), was a smash hit, even though it received virtually no airplay due
to the gritty and obscenity-laden lyrics that depicted in a truthful way the
struggles of black men growing up surrounded by poverty and violence. Dre
decided to leave Ruthless Records over a financial dispute and moved to
Death Row Records, where he continued as in-house music producer but also
released his own debut as a solo artist in 1992, titled The Chronic. This
album’s triple Platinum and Grammy-winning success topped his previous
accomplishments with N.W.A and established Dr. Dre as one of the most
successful rap producers in the world. It also launched the career of rapper
Snoop Dogg, who was featured on the album’s most successful tracks. Im-
portantly, commercial radio embraced Dre’s music, and songs such as “Let
Me Ride” and “Nuthin’ But a ‘G’ Thang” were programmed in heavy rota-
tion at many urban radio stations, resulting in the album spending eight
months in the Billboard Top 10. Snoop Dogg’s raps floated over music
tracks that included numerous samples, live performance on guitar and bass
and 10-year-old keyboard and synthesizers, use of vocoder to enhance the
vocal track, and various high-pitched synthesizer riffs, all blended into what
Dre dubbed his own “G-Funk” sound. Following on the heels of The Chron-
ic, he produced and released Snoop Dogg’s own debut, 1993’s Doggystyle,
which became the first rap album to debut at number one on the Billboard
charts. Dre produced the debut single, “California Love,” for Tupac Shakur
before leaving Death Row in 1996 to start his own label, Aftermath Enter-
tainment, with distribution through Interscope Records.
Aftermath initially struggled until, on the advice of Interscope head Jim-
my Iovine, Dre signed a young white rapper named Eminem. Dre produced
three tracks on Eminem’s 1999 debut, The Slim Shady LP, which rose to
number two on the charts and revived Aftermath financially. Dre returned to
the mic for 2001, his second solo foray released the same year, which went
on to six-times Platinum sales and Dre being recognized with the Producer of
the Year Grammy Award. Following the success of 2001, Dre focused pri-
marily on producing other artists, including more tracks with his protégé
Eminem, Mary J. Blige, his next protégé 50 Cent, Jay-Z, the Game, and
Kendrick Lamar.
Iovine and Dre developed the concept for a line of headphones in 2006,
eventually marketed under the Beats by Dr. Dre name upon its 2008 launch,
which became very popular with younger consumers familiar with his music,
in part through an aggressive program of endorsements from top performers,
 DYLAN, BOB • 105
including Lady Gaga. Through savvy partnerships, Beats Electronics grew
to earn $1 billion in sales by 2013, by which time Beats had committed to
providing an end-to-end listening experience for consumers by its purchase
of MOG online music service, signifying Dre and Iovine’s intent to become
an integrated music company with more than headphones to offer the market.
Beats Music, a subscription-only paid music streaming service, launched
in 2014, and soon after Dre and Iovine started negotiations with Apple
Computer, leading to Apple’s August 2014 acquisition of Beats for a re-
ported $3 billion dollars and keeping Dre and Iovine on as senior executives
with Apple’s music division. In June 2015, Beats Music was shuttered simul-
taneously with the launch of Apple Music. Dr. Dre adroitly moved from his
role as one of the most successful rap music producers to a successful music
entrepreneur and company founder.

DYLAN, BOB. Born Robert Allen Zimmerman in Duluth, Minnesota, on 24

May 1941, Bob Dylan is a singer–songwriter who has become one of the
most successful and admired recording artists in popular music history. His
family moved to Hibbing, Minnesota, where Dylan attended school, first
learning guitar and then piano and harmonica. He played in high school rock
bands and after enrolling at the University of Minnesota immersed himself in
the activist folk music scene in Minneapolis, dropping out of college by the
second year. One of his early influences was the life and music of Woody
Guthrie, whose plain-spoken lyrics challenging authority and injustice ac-
companied by bare-bones musical arrangements became the blueprint for
Dylan’s early song output.
Dylan carefully studied recordings to learn as much as he could about
songwriting and music production. In 1961, he moved to New York, the
home to the largest folk movements in America, and started to perform
regularly, meeting many of his musical heroes, including Pete Seeger, Dave
Von Ronk, and the Clancy Brothers, and going to meet an ailing Woody
Guthrie. At the same time, he fabricated an interesting backstory and affected
a folky speaking manner to give himself more authenticity in the Greenwich
Village community. As he continued to develop as a performer, he was
discovered by Columbia Records’ artist and repertoire executive John
Hammond, who signed him in 1961, shortly after manager Albert Grossman
had signed Dylan.
Interestingly, Dylan’s first Columbia album was mostly cover songs and
fared poorly. However, his next two, The Freewheelin’ Bob Dylan (1963)
and The Times They Are a-Changin’ (1964), were predominantly made up of
Dylan’s original compositions. The songs on these two albums became
known the world over as representing the role that intelligent popular music
could take in addressing society’s injustices. Songs such as “A Hard Rain’s
Gonna Fall,” “Masters of War,” “The Times, They Are a-Changin’,” “He’s
106 • DYLAN, BOB
Only a Pawn in Their Game,” and “The Answer Is Blowin’ in the Wind”
became anthems of the civil rights movement and focused the attention of the
largely white, middle-class American youth market on the ills that were
troubling the nation. Ironically, by 1963, Dylan stated that he did not see
himself as part of the protest movement, likely fearing being typecast in what
he perceived to be much too narrow an artistic role.
By 1965, Dylan took a major step when he added amplified instruments to
his sound, jarring the audience at that year’s Newport Folk Festival by per-
forming with a blues/rock band to a chorus of boos that didn’t want the
young singer to abandon his simple folk stylings. The new music Dylan
wrote as part of his jump to a more rock-oriented sound soared up the Bill-
board charts and redefined the standard for how long a hit song could run, as
“Like a Rolling Stone” (1965) clocked in at 6:13, and reluctant disc jockeys
aired it in its entirety due to intense listener demand. Meanwhile, Dylan
became increasingly quiet and, when he did publicly speak, was enigmatic in
his remarks. With his fame came nonstop commitments to tour, record, and
perform, and in 1966 he suffered a serious motorcycle accident, leading to
his stopping touring for seven years. The records made during this time
didn’t match his previous heights, but his addition of the Band in 1974 as his
backup group returned him to the top of the charts with 1975’s Blood on the
Tracks.
Dylan continued to defy expectations, veering into country music, em-
bracing Christianity on two albums, and revisiting the blues that influenced
him so much at the start of his career with his 1997 release Time Out of Mind,
which won three Grammy Awards. His 2004 autobiography, Chronicles,
Volume One, which became a best seller, studiously ignored his rise to prom-
inence and instead focused on a nuanced retelling of various points of his
career from an intensely personal perspective. Modern Times (2007) was a
commercial and critical success, earning the artist two more Grammy nods.
Dylan has been on what he has dubbed “The Never Ending Tour,” which he
started in 1988, averaging more than 100 concerts per year with mixed reac-
tions from fans and critics, due in part to his penchant for idiosyncratic
onstage behavior and his declining vocal abilities. Based on current publicly
available data, he has sold more than 45 million records and is one of the
most covered artists in the history of popular music. As with other artists who
were commercially successful in the pre-SoundScan era, some sources cite
considerably higher overall records sales, of more than 100 million in Dy-
lan’s case. In 2016, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature for his
poetic expressions within the American song tradition. He has also published
seven books of his paintings and drawings, a number of which were used for
cover art on his albums.
 E
EAGLES, THE. The Eagles are a rock band formed in 1971 by Glenn Frey
(1948–2016), Don Henley (b. 22 July 1947), Bernie Leadon (b. 19 July
1947), and Randy Meisner (b. 8 March 1946). They are the best-selling U.S.
rock ’n’ roll band of all time, with an estimated 129 million albums sold
worldwide, two-thirds of which were sold in the United States.
Each of the four original members was a journeyman musician living in
Los Angeles in the early 1970s and became members of the backup group for
vocalist Linda Ronstadt. While backing Ronstadt, the four decided to form
their own band and were signed by David Geffen to his newly formed label
Asylum Records in 1971. From the outset, the band had a distinctive sound,
featuring close three-part vocal harmonies, highly polished studio produc-
tion, and a country-inspired sound that helped the group’s music cross over
to a much greater audience than any other rock group of the 1970s.
Their self-titled first album, released on 1 June 1972, yielded three singles
that cracked the Billboard charts, and the group’s three subsequent albums
also performed well commercially, allowing the Eagles to build their fan
base. It was during the production of their third album that the band hired
personal manager Irving Azoff. With the release of their fourth album, One
of These Nights (1975), the Eagles hit their stride, becoming a headlining act
able to fill arenas in the United States and abroad. One of These Nights also
began a run of four consecutive number one albums for the group, including
Their Greatest Hits (1971–1975), released in 1976, which became the best-
selling album of the decade, eventually resulting in sales of 29 million. The
follow-up release, Hotel California at the end of 1976, contained two number
one hit singles, “New Kid in Town” and “Hotel California,” both of which
topped the charts in 1977. During its first year of release, Hotel California
sold more than six million copies, and it would go on to sell more than 32
million copies worldwide.
At the same time, nearly relentless touring and artistic differences led to
changes within the group, first with Don Felder (b. 21 December 1947)
joining the group as a second lead guitarist in 1974, Joe Walsh (b. 20 No-
vember 1947) replacing Bernie Leadon in 1975, and Timothy B. Schmit (b.

107
108 • EDISON, THOMAS (1847–1931)
30 October 1947) taking over for Randy Meissner in 1977. The group’s next
album, The Long Run (1979), sold more than seven million copies and had
three top 10 singles, including the group’s last number one single to date,
“Heartache Tonight.”
Not surprisingly, after being together nonstop for nine years through tours,
albums, recordings, and business dealings, individual members of the group,
with financial security well in hand, found themselves in frequent arguments,
leading to the band’s breakup in 1980.
As it would happen, the Eagles decided to reunite in 1994 under the
guidance of Azoff, who saw the opportunity for the group to cash in on their
fans’ loyalty in what had become the increasingly lucrative era of megatours.
From 1994 to 2001, the group toured and released two albums, Hell Freezes
Over and a box set titled Selected Works, 1972–1999 (2000), the latter of
which included a selection of Eagles’ hits, a live concert album, and addi-
tional music from the Hell Freezes Over sessions. Both would achieve Plati-
num certification.
Another hiatus followed from 2001 to 2007, with the band returning with
the album Long Road Out of Eden (2007), which went on to sell seven
million copies even though it was available only on the band’s website and at
Walmart in the United States. The band continued to tour selectively through
summer 2011, at which point they stopped touring, due in part to Glenn
Frey’s health difficulties. In February 2013, the career-spanning documen-
tary film History of the Eagles was released and chronicled the band’s rise to
fame, including the high and lows of their 40-plus-year career.

EDISON, THOMAS (1847–1931). Thomas Alva Edison was an inventor

and entrepreneur best known for developing the phonograph, the first prac-
tical recording technology, which used a cylinder recording principle to
record and play back sound. Edison was homeschooled and was reportedly
an insatiable lifelong learner. At the same time, he displayed a strong entre-
preneurial drive, starting his first business, a local newspaper, when he was
12 years old. He became proficient at early telegraph operation and traveled
in his late teens around the Midwest as a substitute telegraph operator. He
moved to Boston and in 1868 invented an electronic voting recorder to rapid-
ly tally votes, with an eye to selling it to the Massachusetts legislature. They
rejected it because they didn’t want to speed up their processes. He next
moved to New York City and invented an improved stock ticker, which he
ended up selling for $40,000. By the age of 22, the young inventor had
experienced failure but also a dramatic success, the income of which allowed
him to open his first small laboratory in Newark, New Jersey.
Edison was gaining a reputation as a talented innovator, and by 1876 he
moved his laboratory to Menlo Park, New Jersey, where some of his most
significant inventions were developed, such as the incandescent electric light
 EK, DANIEL • 109
bulb, the phonograph, alkaline storage batteries, and the Kinetograph, a type
of camera for moving pictures. During this same time, he opened a second,
larger, more professional lab in West Orange, New Jersey. He was also
responsible for envisioning the electrical power generating system and set-
ting up the first electrical distribution systems, which would grow into Gen-
eral Electric.
Edison played a key role in the development of the early recording indus-
try in the United States, although it took nearly two decades after the phono-
graph’s invention for phonograph players and cylinders to be brought to
market on a national basis. After launching the Edison Phonograph Company
in 1887, Edison sold the firm shortly thereafter. Eventually, he regained
control over his phonographic inventions after the companies to which he
had sold his interests failed. By 1896, using the moniker National Phono-
graph Company, Edison started to manufacture and distribute phonograph
players and cylinders first in the United States and then overseas. Competi-
tors, especially Columbia, that started using competing systems eventually
switched from cylinders to discs, but Edison maintained his belief in cylinder
recordings until 1913, when he recognized that cylinders had lost the format
war to the two-sided discs. He joined in, announcing the manufacture of the
Edison Disc Phonograph, along with discs for the new players. Edison’s
foray into the record industry ceased in 1929 when the phonograph and
record-making parts of his empire were closed down due to poor sales that
resulted primarily from an inadequate distribution network, higher pricing,
and incompatibility of Edison products with other manufacturer’s playback
devices.

EK, DANIEL. Daniel Ek was born in Stockholm on 21 February 1983 and is

a Swedish entrepreneur and technologist best known as the cofounder and
CEO of music streaming service Spotify. He founded his first company at
the age of 14 and would go on shortly after to work at or start various tech
firms. Ek sold one of them, Advertigo, for a handsome profit in 2006, after
which he retired temporarily at the age of 23. He soon grew bored, he said,
and began to consider how to develop a new music service that would be the
soundtrack for music lovers in the information age.
In 2006, he and Martin Lorentzen cofounded Spotify AB and made the
music streaming service available in 2008 in their home country of Sweden.
According to Ek, the original Napster had ignited his imagination by provid-
ing access to a seemingly unlimited range of music that helped the then-16-
year-old programmer discover dozens of new artists and genres of music.
Spotify was the realization of his vision to bring a legal service to the masses
that offered the same global reach into every possible type of music as
110 • ELECTRIC GUITAR
Napster did, but which compensated the artists and rights holders. The ser-
vice quickly grew in popularity and today is one of the leading music deliv-
ery platforms, available in more than 50 countries.

ELECTRIC GUITAR. The rise of rock ’n’ roll music in America is inter-
twined closely with the emergence of the electric guitar in the 1950s and
1960s as the most popular, affordable, and accessible musical instrument,
appealing to generations of teens and young adults.
Unlike an acoustic guitar, the electric guitar uses a magnetic pickup to
convert the vibration of its strings, which are normally picked or strummed,
into electrical impulses, which are then amplified. The first practical electric
guitar, dubbed the “Frying Pan” due to its cast aluminum body, was built by
George Beauchamp in 1931 and entered commercial production in 1932 at
the Rickenbacker Guitar Company in Los Angeles.
In 1936, the Gibson Guitar Co. introduced the ES-150 Electric Spanish
guitar, which included an amplifier for its $150 retail price. In 1940, Les
Paul created his famous prototype “Log guitar,” a four-by-four-inch piece of
wood with pickups, neck, bridge, and strings attached, which became the
earliest prototype for his signature Les Paul guitar, which would be intro-
duced in 1952 and is still in production today. While guitarists such as Les
Paul, Alvino Ray, and Charlie Christian were popular artists of the 1940s and
1950s, it was the advent of rock ’n’ roll music and performers such as Chuck
Berry, Duane Eddy, Bo Diddley, and Buddy Holly who by the 1950s were
the visible proof that the electric guitar was the most significant musical
instrument used in the new music’s creation.
When the Beatles made their historic television appearance on The Ed
Sullivan Show in 1964, their reliance on the electric guitar to forge their
sound further enshrined the instrument as the most sought after, essential
element needed for rock music-making. Adding to the electric guitar’s ac-
cessibility, major retail catalogs offered a full range of electric guitars and
amplifiers that could be ordered through the mail and delivered coast-to-
coast. Today, collectors and professionals prize electric guitars and amplifi-
ers sold in the 1960s such as Montgomery Wards’ Airline brand as well those
made under Sears’ Silvertone brand. The market for electric guitars is still
one of the healthiest segments of the overall music products industry, with
the National Association of Music Merchandisers’ 2015 Global Music
Report showing 1.13 million electric guitars sold with a retail value of $505
million.

ELECTRONIC DANCE MUSIC (EDM). Electronic dance music is dance

music with a persistent beat, layered with sampled tracks and sound effects
where texture and rhythm hold primacy over melody and harmony. With
 ELEKTRA RECORDS • 111
countless subgenres and hybrid genres created by DJs since the 1980s, EDM
gained widespread popularity in Europe but was mainly an underground
phenomenon in the United States during that time.
One of the predecessors to EDM was disco, which rose in international
popularity in the 1970s but quickly lost favor in the United States by the end
of the 1970s. Germany is considered the point of origin for EDM, starting in
the mid-1970s with the group Kraftwerk. Following the reunification of Ger-
many, the enthusiasm for the genre increased throughout the country and
spread into Eastern Europe. Other precursors to EDM include the bands
Yellow Magic Orchestra, Human League, and Depeche Mode, as well as the
song “I Feel Love,” a 1977 hit featuring electronic instruments, progressive
bass lines, and Donna Summer’s vocals.
The genre has international appeal due to the low cost of production tech-
nology. The introduction of the digital audio workstation (DAW), low-cost
recording software, and the internet has easily allowed the production, shar-
ing, and generation of new subgenres of EDM to flourish.
The DJ’s role in the EDM experience is to take audience members on a
fantastical musical journey, oftentimes beginning with mellow sounds and
beats and slowly building the energy until the music is louder and faster. DJs
try to keep the audience entertained throughout the entire performance. Drug
culture is also an important component to EDM performances. Many audi-
ence members indulge in mushrooms or ecstasy (MDMA) in order to bring
them to an ecstatic state of euphoria that allows them to party all night long.
EDM started to enter the mainstream in the United States in the 1990s with
commercial hits from the Chemical Brothers, the Prodigy, and Fat Boy Slim.
Recordings like Madonna’s “Ray of Light,” Justin Timberlake’s “Sexy
Back,” and the Black Eyed Peas “I Gotta Feeling” have featured EDM DJs
and have continued to bring attention to the genre. Many large-scale EDM
festivals, including Electric Daisy Carnival, Ultra Music Festival, and Detroit
Electronic Music Festivals, occur throughout the year and have contributed
to EDM’s prominence in the United States.
In 2013, Billboard introduced a new Dance/Electronic Songs chart fo-
cused on EDM to track the top 50 electronic songs.

ELEKTRA RECORDS. Elektra Records was cofounded in 1950 by Jac

Holzman, a college student in his dorm room, with a $600 investment. The
label initially focused on folk music and transitioned into rock music in the
1960s, having success with groups such as the Doors, Bread, Tim Buckley,
the MC5, and the Stooges.
In 1970, Elektra was acquired by Kinney Holdings and merged into War-
ner Music Group. Soon after, Elektra merged with Asylum Records, which
had been founded by David Geffen, to form Elektra/Asylum and signed
112 • ELLINGTON, DUKE (1899–1974)
influential artists such as Carly Simon, Joni Mitchell, and Don Henley. Holz-
man was recruited by Warner Brothers to become the firm’s chief technolo-
gist, leading their entry into home video and cable television services.
As Elektra evolved, the label continued to make strategic signings in hard
rock, pop, and alternative music, adding artists such as Metallica, Phish,
Tracy Chapman, and Third Eye Blind.
The assets and holdings of Elektra were combined with Atlantic Records
in 2004; however, the imprint was dormant until 2009. It was revived at that
point with the release of the original soundtrack of the television show True
Blood. Recent best-selling artists Bruno Mars, Justice, and Cee-Lo Green are
a few of the artists that have helped return Elektra to prominence.

ELLINGTON, DUKE (1899–1974). Edward Kennedy “Duke” Ellington

was an American composer, arranger, pianist, and bandleader who helped
establish jazz as an art form equal to other performing arts around the world.
The son of two pianists, he was raised with an appreciation of the arts and
composed his first piece at the age of 15, “Soda Fountain Rag.” By 1924, he
was leading his first band at New York’s famed Cotton Club and established
himself as an innovative bandleader who attracted some of the most talented
musicians to join his ensemble.
By the mid-1930s, his recordings came to epitomize the innovative sounds
of the era, with songs such as “It Don’t Mean a Thing (If It Ain’t Got That
Swing),” “Mood Indigo,” and “Solitude” becoming global jazz standards.
Ellington’s fortunes ebbed during World War II, although it was at this time
that longtime collaborator, arranger Billy Strayhorn, joined his ensemble.
Ellington’s career continued at a lesser pace since big bands were supplanted
by smaller, less expensive jazz ensembles, but he kept his group together
using his publishing income. Still, his career had a considerable revival after
his big band performed at the 1956 Newport Jazz Festival. He continued to
write and record new music, including a well-received film score (a collabo-
ration with Strayhorn) for the 1959 movie Anatomy of a Murder and one of
his long-form pieces, Far East Suite (1966).
Ellington’s music became synonymous with America, especially during
the cold war, when he and his music were hailed as notable American Jazz
Ambassadors, and his music was heard by tens of millions of listeners around
the world, as it was often featured on the Voice of America’s nightly Jazz
Hour broadcast.

ELVIS. See PRESLEY, ELVIS (1935–1977).

 EMI • 113
EMI. EMI is short for Electric and Musical Industries Ltd., which was
formed in 1931 as a result of a merger between two British companies: the
Columbia Graphophone Company and the Graphophone Company. The
same year, the company opened Abbey Road, an iconic recording studio in
London. Interestingly, most of EMI’s original shares were owned by
American entities.
During the Great Depression, EMI focused on classical music by
American performers and offered subscription series (“Society” series) that
would guarantee sales. As a result of the popularity of radio and cinema, as
well as the economic impact of the Great Depression, EMI suffered great
financial loss, particularly in graphophone record sales.
In the 1930s, the EMI label faced stagnation as a result of its leadership
and a reduced pool of artists. After World War II, EMI focused on rebuilding
itself. This included signing new artists, such as Arturo Toscanini, Wilhelm
Furtwangler, Herbert von Karajan, and the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra.
The Philharmonia was founded in 1945 as the EMI house orchestra, and in
1946 the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra was established. EMI was slow to
keep up with the technical innovations until the 1950s, when it began to put
music on long-playing and 45-RPM records.
During the 1940s, EMI also focused on British popular music and, in the
next 20 years, helped to popularize rock ’n’ roll in Britain. They hired
managers to specifically focus on discovering and promoting artists.
EMI purchased a majority stake in Capitol Records in 1955 after the
licensing agreements with Columbia and RCA Victor ended, which allowed
EMI to maintain representation in the United States. Acquiring Capitol gave
EMI access to several successful popular artists, such as Frank Sinatra and
Peggy Lee. The late 1950s were a highly successful time for EMI under the
leadership of Joseph Lockwood.
EMI Music Publishing was launched in 1958, and over the years it grew to
become one of the largest and most successful music publishers in the
world, developing a strong U.S. presence in song publishing and film music,
in part through a series of key acquisition of successful U.S. publishers,
including the eventual purchase of Columbia Pictures’ Colgems and Screen
Gems music libraries in 1974.
The success continued in the 1960s with EMI recording artists the Beatles,
whose pop music success effectively transformed the music industry and
helped to usher in a period of British popular music domination dubbed the
British Invasion. Other popular artists that recorded for EMI or its subsidiar-
ies included Pink Floyd, Queen, the Beach Boys, Stevie Wonder, the Jack-
son Five, and the Sex Pistols.
114 • EMINEM
In terms of classical music, EMI successfully benefited from a renewed
interest in early or period music from the Baroque and earlier times. The
label worked with new artists, including Janet Baker and Daniel Barenboim.
The classical recording and marketing divisions were eventually consolidat-
ed into EMI Classics.
EMI Music consolidated in the 1970s and invested in films, pubs, and
cinemas. In 1971, it changed its name to EMI Ltd. In 1979, EMI merged with
Thorn Electrical Industries, forming Thorn EMI Ltd. EMI acquired several
record imprints, including Liberty/United Artists, Chrysalis Records, and
Virgin Records. Despite the recession in the 1990s, EMI continued to do well
as consumers replaced long-play vinyl album collections with compact
discs.
EMI separated from Thorn Industries in 1996. In 2000, EMI began licens-
ing its catalog for online music streaming for Steamwaves, an online music
services that later merged with Rhapsody.
EMI was acquired by Terra Firma Capital Partners after sustaining major
financial losses in 2006–2007. The takeover was dramatic and resulted in
several artist’s departure, notably Paul McCartney, Radiohead, and Joss
Stone. Terra Firma instituted measures to consolidate costs, including cutting
thousands of jobs.
In February 2011, Citigroup temporarily acquired EMI due to an impend-
ing default on billions of dollars in debt that had been used in the leveraged
acquisition of EMI by Terra Firma. In 2012, Citigroup sold the company’s
music recording assets and operations to Universal Music Group and its
EMI Music Publishing assets and operations to Sony/ATV.

EMINEM. Eminem was born as Marshall Bruce Mathers III on 17 October

1972 just outside of Kansas City, Missouri. He is a recording artist and
producer and one of the most successful artists in popular music, having
released 10 albums that have topped the charts. His imaginative rapping
style has been cited by a who’s who of rappers as highly influential to their
development.
Eminem grew up in Detroit, Michigan, where he began rapping with a
friend at age 14. He was not initially accepted by the largely African
American community and audience; however, his innate talent was apparent,
and he quickly gained a reputation as a talented performer. This led to his
recruitment to join several local groups. One of these groups, Soul Intent,
released a single in 1995 that also featured Proof, who joined Eminem in
forming D12, a six-member rap collective. Despite this modest success, he
continued to struggle to establish his career but eventually released his first
album, Infinite, with the local label Web Entertainment in 1996. Following
the release, Eminem began to develop his dark alter ego, Slim Shady, in the
wake of a bad breakup with the mother of his daughter, drug and alcohol
 ENDORSEMENT DEAL • 115
abuse, and a failed suicide attempt. This all led up to the Slim Shady EP,
which caught the eye of Jimmy Iovine of Interscope Records and Dr. Dre.
Eminem’s first Interscope record, The Slim Shady LP, was released in 1999
and contained the runaway hit “My Name Is,” launching him into stardom
and earning a Grammy. In 2000, he released the equally successful The
Marshall Mathers LP, which included his first real crossover hit, “The Real
Slim Shady,” making him one of the biggest pop stars of the time. In 2002,
Eminem starred in 8 Mile, a movie loosely based on his own experiences as a
white rapper coming of age in Detroit, which earned him an Oscar for the
track “Lose Yourself” from the film’s soundtrack.
While Eminem has struggled publicly with substance abuse and violent
offenses, the raw emotion and lyrics of his music, often presented by his alter
ego Slim Shady’s rants, injected significant violent intent, particularly
against women, as well as reoccurring homophobic comments into the na-
tional dialogue. As a result of his graphic and highly personalized narrative
style, both his mother and his wife sued him for defamation of character. The
Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) encouraged wide-
spread protest. As a response to the claims that his music may have been
encouraging his listeners to act out some of the violent scenes described in
his music, Eminem released the track “Stan” in 2001, which was a cautionary
tale about a disturbed fan taking the content of his music too far. He per-
formed the song at the 2001 Grammy Awards with Elton John, an outspoken
member of the gay community, calling into question whether or not Eminem
was really homophobic. This launched a discussion of whether or not violent
or offensive content could take away from musical and lyrical talent, which
continues to be debated today. Eminem has sold more than 132 million
albums worldwide and continues to be one of the most successful touring and
recording artists, with an established worldwide fan base.

ENDORSEMENT DEAL. When a well-known musician, band, or artist

forms a mutually beneficial business relationship to help increase awareness
and sales or use of a particular product or service, it is normally accom-
plished through an endorsement deal. There are few limits to the types of
products or services that artists have endorsed, everything from alcoholic
beverages and soft drinks to cosmetic products. Generally, the personal
manager will play a strong role in helping to ensure that any such endorse-
ment deal is well aligned with the artist’s brand image and is unlikely to
cause damage to their fans’ perceptions of the artist. Occasionally, some
artists may also align themselves with a charitable cause, often on a pro bono
basis, which can serve to benefit that philanthropy as well as the artist’s
brand image.
116 • ENTERTAINMENT ATTORNEY
ENTERTAINMENT ATTORNEY. The music and entertainment industry
uses a wide range of specialized language, agreements, contracts, and busi-
ness procedures. As a result, a specialized area of law practitioner, the enter-
tainment attorney, has evolved. Entertainment attorneys are employed
throughout the music industry on behalf of various parties. Large entertain-
ment companies usually hire a range of in-house or staff attorneys to develop
and negotiate agreements. Performers and music managers most often rely
on independent entertainment attorneys to provide legal advice.
In the latter part of the 20th century, some entertainment attorneys began
to go beyond offering legal advice on pending agreements and actively repre-
sented performers, blurring the lines to some degree as to the role of counsel.
As a result, compensation practices for entertainment attorneys include a
variety of options, from a straight hourly fee for services to a percentage
share of the monies generated through a record contract, tour, or other
significant project.

EP. See EXTENDED PLAY (EP).

EQUITY. See ACTORS’ EQUITY ASSOCIATION.

ERTEGUN, AHMET (1923–2006). Ahmet Ertegun was a cofounder of

Atlantic Records and a key proponent of introducing rhythm and blues
music to the mainstream American audience in the 1950s and 1960s. Born on
31 July 1923 in Istanbul, Turkey, Ertegun and his older brother Neshui grew
up in a well-to-do household, as his father was a highly placed diplomat in
the Turkish foreign service. Ertegun’s mother was well versed in music,
playing both keyboard and stringed instruments. The family was posted to
Washington, DC, in 1935, and as a result Ahmet finished his secondary
education and college years in America. He frequented local night clubs and
the Howard Theater in Washington and developed a deep appreciation for
jazz and African American culture. After his father died in 1944, the family
eventually returned to Turkey; however, Ahmet decided to stay in America
to make his fortune. In 1947, Ertegun and Herb Abramson founded Atlantic
Records using an investment from a family friend. After releasing 22 records
with no commercial success, their 1949 release by Stick McGee, “Drinkin’
Wine, Spo-Dee-O-Dee,” was a hit, reaching the number two position and
staying on the R&B chart for six months, thereby establishing Atlantic as a
rising star in the independent label firmament that was focused on bringing
black artists into the mainstream marketplace.
Ertegun was also a songwriter who wrote hit songs sung by Big Joe
Turner, Ray Charles, and the Clovers, to name a few. Under Ertegun’s
leadership, Atlantic began to diversify into rock ’n’ roll in the 1960s, not-
 ESTEFAN, GLORIA • 117
ably with acts including Led Zeppelin, Yes, and Crosby, Stills & Nash.
Although Atlantic was purchased by Warner Music in 1967, Ertegun re-
mained at the helm and successfully managed Atlantic and its sister labels
into the 1990s, finessing the signing of the Rolling Stones to Atlantic to
distribute their own Rolling Stones record label in the 1970s and leading a
successful reorganization of Atlantic’s jazz label in 1996. His tenure as a
recording industry executive and power broker was one of the longest in the
history of the music business.
Ertegun was an active and engaged philanthropist, providing the first $1.5
million gift to establish the Rhythm and Blues Foundation to help provide
funds late in life to underpaid R&B artists. While attending a Rolling Stones
benefit concert in New York City in 2006, he fell backstage and injured his
head. He was hospitalized, and his condition deteriorated until he passed
away on 14 December 2006 in New York City.

ESCALATION CLAUSE. The escalation clause is often included in vari-

ous types of music contracts as an incentive for an artist to help increase
sales, usually of a sound recording. Assuming a predetermined level of sales
is exceeded, then the artist will earn a higher royalty or payment for all sales
beyond the point at which the escalation clause takes effect. There may be
more than one level of escalation, in which case there can be a significant
boost in the artist’s earnings should they achieve all of the goals outlined in
the contract.

ESTEFAN, GLORIA. Gloria Estefan (b. 1 September 1957) is a Cuban

American singer and is one of the most successful crossover artists in Latin
pop music history. She is famous for her energetic dance hits (such as “Turn
the Beat Around” and “Rhythm Is Gonna Get You”) and expressive ballads
(such as “Anything for You”).
Born Gloria Fajardo, she immigrated to the United States in 1959. Fajardo
joined a local wedding band in the mid-1970s named the Miami Latin Boys,
headed by keyboardist Emilio Estefan. The group played a fusion of pop,
disco, and salsa. It was renamed Miami Sound Machine in 1977. Fajardo and
Estefan married in 1978.
Miami Sound Machine’s albums Primitive Love (1985) and Let It Loose
(1988) both scored top 10 hits. In 1990, while on tour, Estefan’s bus was in a
terrible accident, and she suffered a broken vertebra that took her over a year
to recover from. She made a comeback with Mi Tierra (1993), a solo Span-
ish-language album that earned Estefan her first Grammy Award.
118 • EXCLUSIVE LICENSE
In 1996, her song “Reach” was named the official theme for the 1996
Summer Olympics. In 1999, Estefan starred in the film Music of the Heart.
She recorded the film’s title song as a duet with NSYNC, which became a hit
and was nominated for an Oscar.
Estefan preceded the Latin pop craze of the late 1990s and 2000s and has
cemented her identity as the “Queen of Latin Pop.”

EXCLUSIVE LICENSE. On occasion, a music licensee may wish to limit

any other entities’ ability to license a particular piece of music or sound
recording. In such a case, they may attempt to negotiate a limited-term,
exclusive license for that song or record to have it be associated only with
their project or product. In such instances, licensors will demand a premium
be paid since they will not have the option of exploiting that copyright for
the duration of any exclusive agreement. However, most music licensing
agreements are made on a nonexclusive basis.
See also NONEXCLUSIVE LICENSE.

EXCLUSIVITY. As part of the terms of a record contract, the record label

will require that the artist only record for them and not for any other party,
without advance written permission from the label. This is the cornerstone of
the record label’s ability to manufacture and market exclusive sound record-
ings that are not available from any other entity. In exchange for such agree-
ment to record exclusively for the label to which they are signed, the artist
will receive financial and marketing support to record and release one or
more records. In such cases where there may be mutual interest in allowing
the artist to record for another company, the artist’s manager will attempt to
negotiate a release for such an exemption.
See also JOINT RECORDING; SIDEMAN; SOUNDTRACK RECORD-
ING.

EXTENDED PLAY (EP). An extended-play record, or EP, is generally a

collection of four to seven tracks that an artist or record label wishes to
release. Generally, less time and money is invested in creating an EP as
opposed to an album, and the running time of the EP is less than that of an
album. Suggested retail prices for EPs vary widely.
 F
FACE VALUE. The retail price printed on a concert or event ticket that
denotes the intended retail price. Tickets sold on the secondary market
often sell for more than their original face value.
See also SCALPER.

FAIR USE. Section 108 of the U.S. Copyright Code pertains to fair use and
was introduced in 1976. The fair use doctrine is a legal exception to a copy-
right infringement claim. It essentially allows creators minimal use of copy-
right-protected material for specific purposes. The legitimacy of a fair use
claim is determined on a case-by-case basis and includes four factors:

1. The purpose and character of the use

2. The nature of the copyrighted work
3. The amount and substantiality of the portion taken
4. The effect of the use upon the potential market for the original work

In the music industry, the third factor, the amount and substantiality of the
portion used, is often critical to deciding cases involving the issue of plagiar-
ism of musical works, such as lyrics or melodies.
There continues to be ongoing debate regarding the third fair use factor,
which pertains to the amount and substantiality of the portion taken. Sam-
pling and quoting have always been common practices. At times, these prac-
tices have led to accusations of plagiarism and infringement, such as the
2015 litigation and judgment in the “Blurred Lines” copyright infringement
case.

FAN BASE. A body or group of followers of a particular artist, band, or

other arts-related enterprise. Generally, a particular band’s fan base will
share a number of similar demographic characteristics, such as age, gender,
ethnicity, level of attainment, and lifestyle preferences.
See also FAN ENGAGEMENT.

119
120 • FAN ENGAGEMENT
FAN ENGAGEMENT. “Fan engagement” is a term widely used in the
music industry to denote the level of commitment that an individual fan, or
group of fans, demonstrates. While there are various descriptors used to
understand how an individual fan’s commitment deepens, three levels of fan
engagement may be used to outline such growth. A casual fan is one who
knows of a particular artist and has often heard their music. A committed
fan is one who has made some type of discretionary purchase of an artist’s
music, concert ticket, or merchandise or even offered support to a crowd-
funding initiative. A super fan is one who feels a deep, personalized con-
nection to the artist. They act as a champion and tell their friends about the
artist as they take multiple opportunities to engage in supporting the artist
and the artist’s musical and other endeavors. For music managers, learning
how to help move someone who has never heard of the artist to become a
casual fan, and then providing relevant and meaningful content to that fan in
order to help nudge them toward the next level of fan engagement, has
become one of the most important tasks of a modern music manager.

FAN FUNDING. See CROWDFUNDING (FAN FUNDING).

FANNING, SHAWN. Shawn Fanning is an American computer program-

mer, entrepreneur, and investor born on 22 November 1980, best known as a
cofounder of Napster. Fanning attended Northeastern University in Boston
but dropped out in 1999 after the launch of Napster. Napster was sued by the
Recording Industry Association of America in December of 1999 and by
Metallica in 2000. Napster lost both suits and was shut down in 2001.
Since Napster, Fanning has continued to innovate the digital landscape. In
2003, he launched Snocap, which attempted to be a legitimate marketplace
for digital media. Snocap eventually failed due to poor customer support and
many technical issues. In 2006, he launched Rupture, a social networking
tool aimed at players of World of Warcraft, as a communal space aimed at
facilitating conversations between gamers. Rupture was purchased by Elec-
tronic Arts for $15 million. He has also been a part of both Path (a social-
network-enabled photo sharing platform) and Airtime (a social-network-ena-
bled extension for video chat). Shawn Fanning had a great impact on the
music industry because the peer-to-peer file sharing software he created
and the concept of Napster changed the way the public chooses to consume
music. Prior to Napster, people primarily bought compact discs; after Nap-
ster, people are more reluctant to purchase music, let alone full albums. This
has paved the way for services such as the iTunes music store, Apple
Music, Pandora, Tidal, and Spotify.
 FISK JUBILEE SINGERS • 121
FIDELITY. Fidelity pertains to the accuracy of the recording in comparison
to the original sound. This accuracy is the result of the perceptible degrees of
distortion that result during the creation of the recording and in the playback
method.
See also MP3.

FIRST REFUSAL. In a situation where a record company provides funds to

make a demonstration recording, they will retain what is referred to as the
right of first refusal, which means that for a predetermined time period, the
record label has the sole right to sign or pass on the artist for a prospective
recording contract. Such rights were usually limited to a 30- to 90-day win-
dow after the completion of the demo recording.

FIRST SALE DOCTRINE. The first sale doctrine (Section 109[a] of Copy-
right Code) encourages the dissemination of creative works and allows the
owner of a legally acquired physical copy (such as a sound recording or piece
of sheet music) to legally sell or transfer ownership or dispose of the item.
Libraries and video rental businesses rely on the first sale doctrine to operate
legally.
See also COPYRIGHT.

FIRST USE. The original songwriter has exclusive control over who will
make the first recording of a new song, hence the term “first use” in regard to
this original recording. Once the song has been recorded and distributed
publicly as a phonorecord, then the song is subject to being recorded again
via the issuance of a compulsory mechanical license.

FISK JUBILEE SINGERS. The Fisk Jubilee Singers (also known as the
Jubilee Singers and the Fisk Singers) is an African American choral ensem-
ble that established the black (“Negro”) spiritual within American music
history. The ensemble pushed racial boundaries by performing for predomi-
nately white audiences and served as a model for subsequent African
American music groups.
The group was established in 1871 by musical director George L. White
(1838–1895) as an effort to generate funds for the struggling Fisk University
in Nashville, Tennessee, which offered a college education to freed slaves
following the end of the American Civil War.
After an exhausting start in which white audiences were not sure what to
make of the group because they were accustomed to blackface and minstrel
shows, White named the group the Jubilee Singers in reference to the Old
Testament’s book of Leviticus, which describes a “year of jubilee” when all
122 • FITZGERALD, ELLA (1917–1996)
slaves are freed. As they continued performing, audience appreciation for the
group grew, and at the end of their first six-month tour, the funds raised were
able to help Fisk University become financially stable.
They often sang a cappella, and their repertoire included slave songs,
Stephen Foster songs, and spirituals written and sung in black communities.
Segregation and racism were major challenges for the ensemble, especially
when it came to finding restaurants and lodgings that would permit African
Americans. They rejected the stereotypes that were promoted by blackface
minstrelsy, and they always appeared dignified and well mannered.
The ensemble received national attention after an invited performance at
Patrick S. Gilmore’s Second World Peace Jubilee in Boston in 1872. This
was followed by a New England tour and an invitation to perform at the
White House for President Ulysses S. Grant.
In 1873, the Jubilee Singers toured Great Britain and Europe and per-
formed for Queen Victoria. She was greatly impressed by the group. They
returned to Europe soon after and raised enough funds to build Fisk’s first
permanent building, which was named Jubilee Hall and is now designated a
National Historic Landmark.
The Fisk Jubilee Singers remain an important part of Fisk University to
this day. The ensemble was inducted into the Gospel Music Hall of Fame in
2000 and was awarded the National Medal of Arts in 2008.

FITZGERALD, ELLA (1917–1996). Ella Jane Fitzgerald was a jazz singer

and recording artist whose outstanding musicianship elevated the voice to a
previously unprecedented level in American popular music. Born in Newport
News, Virginia, on 25 April 1917, she was raised in Yonkers, New York, and
showed an early aptitude for dancing and singing. She suffered through a
great deal of hardship in her early life, including the death of her mother
when Ella was 15 in a car accident, resulting in her becoming homeless for a
time as a teenager and being sent to a reform school and an orphanage, before
later supporting herself by singing on the street corners in Harlem. Soon after
winning an amateur talent show at the Apollo Theater in 1934, Fitzgerald
was invited by bandleader Chick Webb to join his group in 1935. She soon
became the featured vocalist for Webb’s orchestra and would remain with the
group from 1935 to 1942, during which time she recorded more than 150
songs. Her first hit record was a 1938 song she cowrote based on a nursery
rhyme, “A-Tisket, A-Tasket.” It reached number one on the popular radio
show Your Hit Parade.
Although Webb died in 1939, Ella stayed with the orchestra until 1942,
continuing to perform and record with the ensemble, which was renamed
Ella and Her Famous Band. In 1943, she signed with Decca Records as a solo
singer and proceeded to release a series of hits that featured her gifted voice
collaborating with other notable artists, including Louis Armstrong, the Ink
 FLEETWOOD MAC • 123
Spots, and Louis Jordan. In 1946, she began touring as a member of trum-
peter Dizzy Gillespie’s group, and she expanded her repertoire to embrace
the emerging bebop strain of jazz. Her vocal innovations of this period,
captured on records such as “Flying Home” and “Lady Be Good,” demon-
strated Ella’s bright youthful vocal timbre, her exceptional intonation across
a three-octave range, an impeccable command of phrasing and diction, and
her nonstop inventiveness.
Fitzgerald began a lengthy association with jazz impresario Norman
Granz in the late 1940s when Granz inaugurated his Jazz at the Philharmon-
ic concerts, and over the ensuing years Granz would become an integral part
of Fitzgerald’s success. He served for a long time as her manager and re-
corded her for his Verve and Pablo record labels, resulting in some of Fitzge-
rald’s most critically acclaimed catalog recordings, such as the eight-album,
240-song Songbook series on Verve, which demonstrated that her artistic
range went well beyond the bebop vocal pyrotechnics and led to her being
recognized as a musical talent equal to any of the jazz era’s most gifted
instrumentalists. Along with Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, Fitzge-
rald helped make jazz a more broadly appreciated musical genre not only in
the United States but internationally as well. She was dubbed the “First Lady
of Song,” and her recordings were regular best sellers.
Fitzgerald was an active performer for most of her life, and although her
later recordings often garnered critical acclaim, they did not reach the same
level of commercial success as her records from the 1950s. She continued to
appear at jazz concerts and festivals worldwide throughout the 1970s and
1980s while releasing sporadic albums. Over the course of her career, she
won 13 Grammy Awards and sold a reported 40 million records, influenc-
ing untold numbers of young musicians with her inimitable vocal stylings.
Fitzgerald’s health began to decline in the late 1980s due to complications
from diabetes, leading to her final recording being made in 1991 and her last
concert appearance in 1993. She passed away on 15 June 1996 at her home in
Beverly Hills, California.

FLEETWOOD MAC. Fleetwood Mac is a British American rock group

best known for its landmark 1977 album Rumours, which became a world-
wide hit, selling more than 40 million copies. The group was founded in
England in 1967 and largely comprised musicians who had been a part of
British blues singer John Mayall’s critically acclaimed Bluesbreakers. Fleet-
wood Mac derived its name from drummer Mick Fleetwood (b. 1947) and
bassist John McVie (b. 1945) and featured the blues-based guitar-driven
sound of Peter Green (b. 1946) and Jeremy Spencer (b. 1948), reminiscent of
other English bands of that era that tried to emulate the 1950s blues greats on
Chess Records such as Muddy Waters and Willie Dixon. The group had
some success with its early releases between 1967 and 1970, most notably
124 • FLEETWOOD MAC
with the haunting instrumental single “Albatross,” which reached number
one in the UK, and follow-up singles “Oh Well” and “Black Magic Woman,”
the latter song gaining a much larger audience when it was covered soon
after by Santana.
Founding member Green left the group in 1970, and the band began a
period in which a number of different musicians joined and left, most notably
singer, songwriter, and keyboardist Christine Perfect (b. 1943), who would
help the band develop a more polished commercial sound. While they had
some moderate success with the four albums released between 1971 and
1974, a contractual dispute as to who actually controlled the rights to the
band name led the group to stall out and reassess its options. Then current
guitarist Bob Welch (1945–2012) left the band, and the decision was made to
relocate to Los Angeles in 1974 to get a fresh start by Fleetwood, McVie, and
Perfect, who by that time had married John McVie, taking her husband’s last
name.
Through a fortuitous meeting at an local recording studio, Mick Fleetwood
was introduced to songwriter, producer, and guitarist Lindsey Buckingham
(b. 1949), who impressed Fleetwood to the point that he invited the guitarist
to join the group. Buckingham insisted his partner, singer–songwriter Stevie
Nicks (b. 1948), also be invited to join the band, and with that decided what
may be referred to as the classic lineup for Fleetwood Mac was formed. The
newly added musicians brought a more polished pop sensibility and sound to
the group, which immediately paid off in their 1974 eponymous release,
which would go on to reach number one in the United States and sell more
than five million records on the strength of singles such as “Say You Love
Me,” “Over My Head,” and “Rhiannon.”
However, it was the group’s next album, 1977’s Rumours, which proved
to be their most successful, in large part due to the fact that the band mem-
bers themselves were going through a period of intense turmoil in their
interpersonal relationships and channeled those emotions into the highly pro-
duced, radio-friendly, middle-of-the-road sound the band had mastered. The
album was played in heavy rotation on Top 40 radio throughout the year and
featured four top 10 singles: “You Make Loving Fun,” “Don’t Stop,” “You
Can Go Your Own Way,” and the number one single “Dreams.” The album’s
success led to sold-out worldwide tours that further established the group as
one of the most consistent moneymakers on the concert circuit, a position it
has maintained by its on-again, off-again tours over the ensuing decades.
Fleetwood Mac’s next three albums, released between 1979 and 1987,
each achieved Platinum sales status but unfortunately did not repeat the
tremendous success of Rumours. Individual members released a number of
solo albums in the ensuing years, most notably Stevie Nicks, who became
one of the most important female artists in the 1980s, frequently collaborat-
ing with other performers, including Tom Petty and Don Henley of the
 FOLIO • 125
Eagles. By 1987, the members had tired of one another and Buckingham left
the group, and in 1991 Nicks would also depart. The group continued per-
forming and recording, but by 1995 Mick Fleetwood announced he was
disbanding the group in the wake of the group’s least successful release, the
album Time, which did not even make the Billboard “Top 200” chart upon
release.
The band reformed in 1997, primarily to return to touring, which was still
lucrative. Christine McVie, however, left the band in 1998. Fleetwood Mac
continued to tour with frequent breaks, which allowed solo projects to be
released by Buckingham and Nicks. Christine McVie eventually rejoined the
group to tour in 2014–2015. Concerts sold out within minutes, further ce-
menting the group’s well-deserved status as one of the most successful rock
groups in the world. Buckingham and Christine McVie released a joint re-
cording in June 2017 backed by a 38-date tour. Fleetwood Mac shows no
sign of slowing down at the time of writing, with a much anticipated 2018
concert tour in the band’s plans. The group’s extensive song catalog, espe-
cially from its most successful era during the 1970s, has led to more than 76
million records sold worldwide and continued airplay on classic rock radio
stations around the world.

FOLEY, JACK. See FOLEY ARTIST.

FOLEY ARTIST. A Foley artist is a performer skilled in creating the

sounds that normally accompany live-action scenes in a motion picture or
television production. Due to a production company’s inability to completely
control the ambient sounds present when shooting on location, filmmakers
will rely on Foley artists to re-create the sounds of, for instance, feet walking
on gravel, putting on or taking off clothing, a door closing, a punch to the
stomach, and all manner of sounds that will then be recorded in a sound
studio and dubbed onto the motion picture soundtrack in synchronization
with the filmed live action. The term derives from Jack Foley, the man who
initiated the practice at the advent of the sound era of motion pictures in the
late 1920s. Foley and his team of artists would watch the edited film closely
and record appropriate sounds in time with the action that was taking place
on the screen.

FOLIO. A collection of songs, in sheet music form, compiled and published

for sale. Examples of typical folios include a matching folio, which is sheet
music for all of the songs released on a particular album; a personality folio,
which is often a compilation of songs from various points throughout an
artist’s entire career; or a themed folio, such as a holiday or wedding song
collection.
126 • FOSTER, STEPHEN (1826–1864)
FOSTER, STEPHEN (1826–1864). Stephen Foster was one of America’s
most enduring and beloved songwriters. Foster wrote more than 200 songs,
and his most popular tunes are still learned by children and music students
today, such as “My Old Kentucky Home,” “Camptown Races,” “Suwannee
River,” and “Beautiful Dreamer.” Foster’s talent was recognized as New
York City publisher Firth & Pond entered into an agreement to publish and
sell Foster’s works as sheet music, which lasted from 1849 to 1860, arguably
Foster’s most productive period of composition. “Oh! Susanna,” written in
1845, became a rallying song for the Gold Rush of 1849, immortalizing the
song in American culture. Additionally, Foster’s songs gained wider audi-
ences by a relationship he developed with Edwin Pearce Christy, leader of
that era’s most successful touring minstrel troupe, Christy’s Minstrels, which
allowed the group to be the first to publicly perform Foster’s new songs in
exchange for the printed sheet music including the words “as performed by
the Christy Minstrels” on its title sheet. Unfortunately, Foster came upon
hard times, and in 1861 he moved to New York and was forced to sell the
rights in his songs to survive, in part due to his alcoholism. At the time of his
death in 1864, he was a pauper with only 40 cents to his name.

FRANCHISING. The process of any agent registering with an artists’ guild

or union as an affiliated member is called franchising. In order to represent
musicians that belong to the American Federation of Musicians, a booking
agent must agree to abide by the guidelines for representing union talent.
Screen Actors Guild–American Federation of Television and Radio Art-
ists and Actors’ Equity Association similarly require agents to be fran-
chised in order to represent their members.

FRANKLIN, ARETHA. Aretha Franklin was born in Memphis, Tennessee,

on 25 March 1942, and is an iconic gospel and soul singer, pianist, and
songwriter. She is colloquially known as the “Queen of Soul” for her power-
ful recordings that span her lengthy career.
Franklin’s family moved to Detroit in 1944, where her father became an
important Baptist preacher. His prominence exposed Aretha to a variety of
gospel performers. Aretha’s father recorded his sermons for JVB and Chess.
Aretha recorded her first album of gospel songs at the age of 14 for Chess
Records.
At 18, she moved to New York and signed with Columbia. She recorded
seven albums of jazz, blues, and popular tunes during the period 1961–1966
and had a number of R&B chart hits, although stylistically her performances
showed little if any of her gospel roots. She was able to parlay her chart
success into a successful nightclub and theater act, which formed the basis
for her financial stability in this period. In retrospect, her Columbia record-
 FRANKLIN, ARETHA • 127
ings have been criticized as being overly produced and lacking direction,
which seems fair given the arc of Franklin’s post-Columbia career. Columbia
let Franklin’s contract lapse without offering a renewal.
Eventually, Franklin signed with Atlantic Records and worked with pro-
ducer Jerry Wexler to produce an album. Notably, in January 1967, she
traveled to the tiny town of Muscle Shoals, Alabama, to work at Rick Hall’s
FAME Studio with their in-house band. Wexler encouraged her to take crea-
tive charge of the recordings, which included bringing in her own material,
leading the studio musicians herself from the piano, and bringing in her
sisters, with whom she had performed for years, as her backing singers. The
results were a stripped-down sound that perfectly showed off Franklin’s
gospel pedigree. Their first release from the Muscle Shoals sessions hit the
airwaves that February, “I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Loved You),” and
went to the top of the R&B charts and hit number nine on the pop charts,
driven by Aretha’s gritty, soulful, gospel-drenched performance. The 11-
song LP would go on to achieve Gold status and cement the future direction
that her vocal stylings would take.
Over the next five years, Franklin became an internationally acclaimed
recording artist and performer of the first magnitude. She also proved to be a
talented songwriter, as she wrote or cowrote hits including “Think,” “Spirit
in the Dark,” and “Rock Steady.” She also recorded iconic versions of “Re-
spect,” “You Make Me Feel (Like a Natural Woman),” “Chain of Fools,” and
“I Say a Little Prayer,” making each one her own original interpretation
beloved by fans around the world. Beyond her chart success, Aretha Franklin
became an important symbol for the civil rights movement and the burgeon-
ing women’s movement and a symbol of achievement for black Americans.
However, in the mid-1970s, her career sputtered in spite of working with
producer Quincy Jones, and her Atlantic output between 1973 and 1979 was
uneven, with only a few songs nearing her earlier success.
In the 1980s, Franklin signed with Arista records and collaborated with
Luther Vandross and Narada Michael Walden, leading to a number of hits
and her first Platinum album, Who’s Zoomin’ Who? (1985), which featured
three hit singles, including “Freeway of Love.”
In 1987, she was the first woman to be inducted into the Rock and Roll
Hall of Fame. In spite of battles with health issues, she has remained active,
both recording and performing live and for television specials. A few of her
signature performances include singing the famed aria “Nessun Dorma” at
the 1998 Grammys, “The Star Spangled Banner” at the 2006 Super Bowl,
and “My Country Tis’ of Thee” at President Obama’s 2009 inauguration. She
has collaborated with current pop producers such as Danger Mouse and
Lauryn Hill. In 2014, she signed to RCA Records, the stewards of her rich
20-year Arista Records catalog, and released Aretha Franklin Sings the
128 • FREE GOODS
Great Diva Classics, demonstrating her staying power by hitting number
three on the R&B charts and number 13 on the pop charts. Franklin is
estimated to have sold more than 24 million records throughout her career.

FREE GOODS. As an incentive to encourage wholesalers or retailers to

order additional copies of a new release, record companies may offer what
are termed free goods to their channel partners. Free goods are copies of a
new release that are provided at no charge, subject to a certain minimum
order level of paid records. For example, a label might offer 10 percent free
goods, meaning that for every 100 copies of a new record ordered, the chan-
nel partner will receive 10 additional units at no charge. These units are
nonroyalty bearing for the artist, but the channel partners are able to sell them
at the current retail price and keep the label’s entire share of the sale price
(generally 50–55 percent of retail).

FREED, ALAN (1921–1965). Albert James “Alan” Freed was a radio DJ,
concert promoter, and entrepreneur. He was one of the first entrepreneurs to
realize the unprecedented commercial success that the newly emerging rock
’n’ roll music would achieve.
Freed broke into radio playing classical and light pop fare between 1942
and 1950 before he rose to prominence as one of the first disc jockeys to
introduce rhythm and blues to a white teenage audience. After a move to
Cleveland in 1951, a local record store owner noticed the steadily increasing
sales of rhythm and blues records at his shop and offered to sponsor a radio
show devoted solely to that music. Freed signed on and soon transformed
himself into what was known as a “personality jock” by interjecting his
dynamic personality throughout the broadcast among the energetic, dance-
oriented R&B tracks. This had the intended effect of creating the impression
that he was hosting a wild party in the studio each night, much to his listen-
ers’ delight. Freed’s teen audience responded, and the show became a smash
hit, bringing increased clout to Freed.
After one of many salary disputes Freed engaged in with station manage-
ment over the course of his career, he left Cleveland and moved on to New
York City, where he began hosting a similar show to an even larger audience
and gaining national prominence that led to hosting his own short-lived
weekly musical television series, The Big Beat. Freed claimed and is often
credited as coining the term “rock and roll,” although evidence to support the
claim is scant and the phrase had been commonly used well before Freed
became popular. Freed leveraged his notoriety as a taste-making radio star to
also promote concerts, including his infamous 1952 Moondog Coronation
Ball in Cleveland, which drew more than 30,000 fans to the Cleveland Are-
na, which had only a 10,000-person capacity. While the dance had to be
 FREEMIUM • 129
canceled and ended in a melee between upset teens and police, it is largely
viewed as being the first rock ’n’ roll concert in history. Importantly, Freed
also allowed black and white teens to mix at his concerts, a practice that
many found distasteful at that time.
Freed would also partner with Hollywood to produce a series of inexpen-
sive teen movies in the 1950s that championed rock ’n’ roll and portrayed
wholesome white teens enjoying performances by black and white perform-
ers. These films featured many of the artists with whom he had close busi-
ness ties, nearly all of whom were on smaller independent record labels. In
1960, Congress began public hearings into the practice of payola, which
Freed subscribed to, as did other influential disc jockeys of that era. Corpo-
rate radio went out of its way to try to stamp out the long-established prac-
tice, but Freed answered honestly about the so-called consulting fees he
regularly accepted from record labels, managers, and artists, including cut-in
interest in song copyrights.
Disc jockeys were all asked to sign an affidavit testifying that they didn’t
engage in payola, and Freed declined to do so and was soon fired. Concur-
rently, although thousands of other disc jockeys engaged in payola, nearly all
of them walked away with little more than a small fine or a caution to halt the
practice. Although Freed found work at Los Angeles station KDAY, he was
soon found guilty and the media spotlight focused on his guilt. After his
return to work, it was his insistence in continuing to promote concerts with
artists he had business relationships with that led to his termination from
KDAY, as the station viewed such business activity as a conflict of interest.
With his health in decline due to alcohol abuse and a significant number of
legal bills to pay, plus investigations for tax avoidance by the government,
Freed never returned to the broadcast airwaves. However, he was instrumen-
tal in helping R&B music cross over to a largely white audience and seeing
the synergy that could be created between radio, concerts, and motion pic-
tures to promote new talent.

FREEMIUM. A combination of the words “free” and “premium,” freemium

refers to a pricing strategy implemented for a product or service that allows
users free access, but offers some means to the publisher to generate income
from users. Most often, this will be by the inclusion of advertising messages
to underwrite the cost to provide free content.
Typically, the freemium model is used in the software, mobile gaming,
web services, and streaming media segments. Many freemium services pur-
sue a strategy to encourage spending by the user either by an upgrade of
premium add-on features, removal of ads, or enhanced functionality. The
concept became popular in the 1980s for so-called computer shareware appli-
cations that users could download and use free of change for a limited time
period. Examples of entertainment industry freemium services include Pan-
130 • FRONT OF HOUSE SOUND ENGINEER (FOH ENGINEER, FOH MIXER)
dora, Spotify’s free tier of service, YouTube, and a host of mobile video
gaming platforms that rely on users’ becoming so engaged to a level of play
that they willingly purchase upgrades or in-game credits.

FRONT OF HOUSE SOUND ENGINEER (FOH ENGINEER, FOH

MIXER). The front of house engineer is responsible for adjusting and bal-
ancing the amplified sounds of the musicians and singers performing in a
concert setting. The front of house engineer must have a high degree of
musical, technical, and problem-solving skills to ensure that the sounds
reaching the audience are of high quality and represent the artistic vision that
the performer has in mind. The front of house engineer is often the senior
member of the live sound production team and carries great influence in what
other sound technicians are hired for other sound-related roles that are
needed by a touring artist.

FULL-PRICE RECORD. When a new release, such as a recording of a

single song or a collection of songs, is issued, it will command premium
pricing, often referred to by record labels as full price.

FULL-LINE MUSIC STORE. A musical instrument store that caters to

multiple customer groups, such as rock bands, school music programs, key-
board players, and consumers looking to purchase sheet music. As the face
of retailing has evolved in the internet age, urban full-line retailers have been
largely replaced with more specialized music products retailers that cater to
one specific target customer. In more rural parts of the country, many full-
line music retailers continue to thrive.

FUNDS. See ADVANCE.

FYRE FESTIVAL. The Fyre Festival was an attempt to produce a luxury-

themed 2017 music festival on one of the islands in the Bahamas, Great
Exuma, by the rapper Ja Rule and Fyre Media founder Billy McFarland. The
festival was promoted as being an ultraluxury experience, with single-day
tickets being sold for $1,500 and VIP packages costing $12,000. It was to be
held on two separate weekends in April and May 2017. Unfortunately, the
two festival organizers had no actual experience in what is required to stage
an international music festival on an island that had very little infrastructure
such as housing, food vendors, and basic comforts for the attendees. After
trying to enlist the aid of experienced music festival promoters to run the
festival, all of whom reportedly told McFarland and Rule that it would take
much more money than they had anticipated to stage the festival, they contin-
ued on their own.
 FYRE FESTIVAL • 131
The festival drew a great deal of attention as it benefited from high-profile
social media influencers such as Kendall Jenner and Emily Ratajkowski, who
each promoted the festival continuously, creating a great deal of interest.
Only later was it revealed that these influencers had been paid to promote
Fyre Festival but did not disclose their fiduciary relationship with the pro-
moters, which was a violation of federal disclosure laws. When the festival
audience members began to arrive on 27 April 2017, they found to their
dismay a total lack of preparedness on the grounds, and none of the amenities
or services they believed they had purchased. Poor sanitation, lack of hous-
ing, and food scarcity plagued the site to the point that the government of the
Bahamas stopped all incoming flights to the island.
In March 2018, McFarland pleaded guilty to two counts of federal wire
fraud for bilking 80 investors out of $26 million for the failed music festival
and was ordered by the court to make full restitution to the investors. In a
further development, after his plea was recorded but before he was sentenced
to serve any time, the court learned that McFarland was continuing to de-
fraud ticket buyers by selling $100,000 worth of tickets in late 2017 to
nonexistent events, including a Cleveland Cavaliers basketball game and a
private team dinner with LeBron James. As a result, his bail was revoked and
he was returned to jail to await sentencing on the original charges.
 G
GEFFEN, DAVID. David Geffen was born in New York City on 21 Febru-
ary 1943. He is a music and entertainment executive and entrepreneur who
has founded and led a succession of successful record labels and film studios.
Geffen got his start in the mail room of the William Morris Agency in the
early 1960s and soon worked his way up to the role of agent. After a time, he
left and became personal manager to Laura Nyro and Crosby, Stills &
Nash, both of whom had substantial success while under his direction. At-
lantic Records’ founder, Ahmet Ertegun, was impressed by Geffen’s drive
and abilities and encouraged him to start his own record label. Geffen co-
founded Asylum Records in 1970 to release Jackson Browne’s first album.
Geffen built an eclectic roster of critically acclaimed artists at Asylum, in-
cluding Joni Mitchell, the Eagles, Tom Waits, Linda Ronstadt, J. D. Souther,
and Warren Zevon.
After taking a break from the music industry due to health concerns in
1977, he founded Geffen Records in 1980, where he continued his successful
formula of signing critically acclaimed artists that were also commercially
popular. The roster included John Lennon, Nirvana, Elton John, Peter Ga-
briel, Sonic Youth, Blink-182, Guns N’ Roses, and Neil Young. Geffen ran
the label until 1995, although his focus was split between the record compa-
ny and Geffen Film Company, which was primarily active producing films
from 1980 to 1997. In 1994, he cofounded DreamWorks SKG, a new enter-
tainment company led by Geffen, Steven Spielberg, and Jeffrey Katzenberg.
Geffen retired in 2009 upon DreamWorks establishing a distribution agree-
ment with Disney.

GEIGER, MARC. Marc Paul Geiger was born in Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, on 11 October 1962. He is best known as a talent agent and entrepren-
eur and cofounder of Lollapalooza and ARTISTdirect, one of the first
online digital media entertainment firms. He attended college in San Diego,
where he booked on-campus concerts and started a vinyl record co-op, spe-
cializing in dance remixes. While still a student, he joined a local promoter,
Avalon Attractions, and learned the concert promotion business.

133
134 • GERSHWIN, GEORGE (1898–1937)
Upon graduation in 1983, he moved to Los Angeles and became a booking
agent at Regency Artists, where he spent seven years developing their alter-
native artist roster to include bands such as Jane’s Addiction, the Pixies, the
Smiths, and New Order. He left Regency to join Rick Rubin’s American
Recordings in 1991 as executive vice president of artist and repertoire,
marketing, and new media. His entrepreneurial drive continued, as it was
during this time he purchased the Ultimate Band List, one of the first music-
oriented database directories, which featured more than 600,000 bands, con-
certs, events, and music-related entries.
In 1996, Geiger cofounded ARTISTdirect, the first direct-to-consumer,
artist-oriented digital music distribution company. Leading the firm, Geiger
signed digital distribution agreements with 130 leading artists and added two
labels and a management arm to the company. He left in 2003 to join
William Morris Endeavor (WME), where he rose to his current position as
head of the music division. In that capacity, he oversees the company’s
global music activities. He is also still directly involved in booking for WME
artists such as Lady Gaga, Jack White, Tony Bennett, and Trent Reznor.

GERSHWIN, GEORGE (1898–1937). George Gershwin was one of Amer-

ica’s most prolific songwriters and performers of the early 20th century. He
found tremendous success in composing popular songs as well as works for
orchestra and musical theater. Gershwin had a great ability to traverse the
genres of popular music, classical music, and jazz.
At the age of 15, Gershwin was hired as a song plugger for a Tin Pan
Alley music publisher. He sold songs to musicians by performing for them.
During this time, he accompanied a variety of vaudeville performers and
began composing his own songs. His first big hit was “Swanee,” made popu-
lar by Al Jolson.
Throughout his career, Gershwin worked closely with his brother Ira, a
successful lyricist. Together, they collaborated on their first musical, Lady,
Be Good (1924), which was later performed by Fred and Adele Astaire in the
1941 film. The Gershwins wrote several more musical comedies, many of
which produced several popular songs.
Gershwin’s famous Rhapsody in Blue (1924) for piano and orchestra con-
tains jazz themes and elements and demonstrated his ability to compose
classical music. In 1925, he composed his Concerto in F for Piano and
Orchestra, and three years later he composed the popular orchestral piece An
American in Paris.
Many consider Porgy & Bess, a full-length folk opera, to be Gershwin’s
greatest work. The opera was based on Dubose Heyward’s novel Porgy,
which was about lives of African Americans in Charleston, South Carolina.
 GORDY, BERRY • 135
Heyward and Ira Gershwin both contributed to the libretto. Gershwin com-
pleted the opera in 1935. It was not an immediate success until a lucrative
Broadway revival in the 1950s.
In addition to being a composer, Gershwin was a talented pianist. He often
performed his own works for audiences. From 1934 to 1935, he hosted and
performed on his own radio program on CBS called Music by Gershwin.
The news of Gershwin’s death in 1937 was a shock to the nation. He died
of a brain tumor at the early age of 38.

GHOSTWRITER. A person who is the actual author of a new work but

who does not receive public credit for their creation. Ghostwriters may be
working in a salaried staff position and turn out various types of musical
compositions to order for clients or their employer’s in-house usage.
See also SONG DOCTOR.

GIRL TALK. Girl Talk is the moniker of Gregg Gillis, a New York City DJ
and remixer. Gillis was born on 26 October 1981 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylva-
nia. Girl Talk creates his music on his laptop by seamlessly sampling and
remixing music from a variety of genres over a catchy beat. He began
working under the name Girl Talk in 2000 and released his first album,
Secret Diary, in 2002 under the provocatively named label Illegal Art. Each
subsequent album has progressively gotten more complex and intricate,
creating what could be described as a pop collage.
Some see Girl Talk’s music as a political statement about the issues with
current copyright law and how it restricts artists’ creativity. He offers his
albums for free via download and considers his work fair use. Despite skirt-
ing the limits of legality, he has not faced any legal challenges to date.
Girl Talk has a busy touring schedule as a DJ and plays at a variety of
venues and music festivals.

GOLD CERTIFICATION. A recorded single or album selling 500,000 or

more copies. In 1976, the Recording Industry Association of America
inaugurated a new certification level for sales of 500,000 albums or singles.
This change lowered the earlier standards that had been in effect since 1958
and had previously only awarded Gold to recordings selling one million
units.
See also DIAMOND CERTIFICATION; PLATINUM CERTIFICATION.

GORDY, BERRY. Berry Gordy Jr. was born on 28 November 1929 in

Detroit. He is best known as the founder and president of Motown Records,
which during its heyday in the 1960s and 1970s was the largest African
American–owned business in America. Gordy was born into a middle-class
136 • GORDY, BERRY
family that had prospered in Detroit after moving north in the Great Migra-
tion of African Americans from the southern to northern states due to better
employment opportunities. Gordy’s first foray into the music business was a
failure, as he convinced his family to invest in a record store he started that
soon went out of business. He then turned his attention to songwriting and
cowrote a string of songs recorded by soul singer Jackie Wilson, one of
which, “Lonely Teardrops,” reached number one on the R&B chart and
number seven on the pop chart in 1958. Gordy had meanwhile discovered a
talented singing group called the Miracles, led by Smokey Robinson. Using
the proceeds from his songwriting and with another $800 borrowed from his
family, Gordy started his first record company, Tamla Records, in January
1959.
Gordy produced and cowrote the label’s first releases. At first, he relied on
larger independent labels for distribution, such as Chess and United Artists.
Gordy realized that he would retain a much greater share of the income if he
distributed the records himself, and by 1960 the Motown Record Company
was doing just that. For both the Motown and Tamla labels, Gordy and his
growing staff were churning out singles that were racing up the charts in
1960, including “My Guy” by Mary Wells, “Money” by Barrett Strong, and
the Miracles’ “Shop Around.”
Gordy would develop a stable of talented artists, producers, engineers, and
businesspeople who all worked in-house for Motown. The company operated
out of a row of old homes on Detroit’s West Grand Avenue and converted
the former residences into recording studios, offices, and technical spaces.
Before the term would come into common usage in the late 1980s, Gordy
practiced the do-it-yourself (DIY) approach to growing his business. Gordy
applied what he dubbed an assembly line approach that mimicked Detroit’s
Big Three auto manufacturers to the writing, recording, distribution, and
marketing of the company’s music. This resulted in Motown launching a
rapidly expanding range of new artists, many of which became successful.
Gordy also recognized that as a largely African American company, featur-
ing predominantly black artists, a positive perception by the mainstream
media and general public were essential to his success. He established a
rigorous training program for his artists that including wardrobe, dancing,
deportment, makeup, and interview skills, which led to Motown artists such
as the Temptations, the Miracles, the Supremes, Stevie Wonder, the Jackson
5, Marvin Gaye, and the Commodores all being hailed as some of the most
talented and well-spoken entertainers of their respective eras. By carefully
controlling the look, sound, visual image, and public statements of his artists,
Gordy and his team were able to book Motown acts with the most prestigious
clubs and television programs in America, which in addition to boosting
sales helped to break down racial barriers that existed for entertainers of
color.
 GORDY, BERRY • 137
To help Motown’s music appeal to all races, the label created marketing
slogans and labeled records as “The Sound of Young America,” which
helped the music cross over to the larger mainstream audience. Among the
hundreds of independent record labels that operated in the 1950s–1970s,
Motown’s success was singular for what still amounted to an independent
record label even at its peak: between 1960 and 1969, Motown charted an
astounding 79 singles in the Billboard top 10, a feat no other independent
label of the time could claim. Their music also became very popular interna-
tionally, especially in Great Britain, where sales were substantial. The moni-
ker “Hitsville, U.S.A.,” which Motown proudly displayed on the outside of
the offices, was not hyperbole, as Gordy and his executives developed a
rarely achieved creative hothouse that fostered intense, healthy competition
between his staff songwriters and producers to continually top the company’s
most recent success with their next release. He also employed local talent and
even had an after-school training program for high school students to teach
them nearly every aspect of the record-making business.
Gordy developed a completely integrated business model as Motown
signed its artists to recording, management, publishing, and talent agent
contracts, thereby controlling every revenue-generating aspect of the artists’
career. In time, this proved to be a flaw in the system, as some of the label’s
most talented songwriters, producers, and recording artists chafed under his
total control while some felt they had been taken advantage of financially. As
a result, some of these talented individuals left Motown, while others renego-
tiated better terms for their continued services.
By 1972, Berry Gordy Jr., moved the bulk of the Motown companies to
Los Angeles, in part to develop the company’s interests in film and televi-
sion. He found success with a number of new projects, including hit motion
pictures such as Lady Sings the Blues, Mahogany, and The Wiz. Trading on
the label’s catalog strength, they produced a number of successful television
specials starring the Jackson 5, Diana Ross and the Supremes, and the Temp-
tations. The label continued to be successful, albeit not on the scale that it
had achieved in the 1960s, into the 1980s, signing chart-topping artists such
as Boyz II Men and helping Lionel Richie become one of the best-selling
artists of the decade.
In 1988, Gordy sold Motown Records to MCA for a reported sum of $61
million; however, he retained control of the valuable Jobete Music Publish-
ing catalog. In 1989, he sold the Motown Production television and film
division to former Motown executive Suzanne de Passe for an undisclosed
sum. The publishing assets Gordy retained would prove to be the most valu-
able of all his holdings, as he sold a 50 percent stake in Jobete to EMI
Publishing in 1997 for $132 million, an additional 30 percent share in 2003
138 • GRAHAM, BILL (1931–1991)
for an additional $109 million, and finally sold the remaining 20 percent
interest in 2004 for $80 million more; in total, this represented a $321 million
sale for Gordy.
Gordy penned his autobiography in 1994, titled To Be Loved, sharing his
perspective on his long, successful tenure in the music industry. He resides in
the Los Angeles area and remains active in the industry, serving as producer
and writer for the Broadway production Motown: The Musical, which de-
buted in 2013 and went on for nearly 800 performances on Broadway before
moving to touring productions. The name “Motown,” along with its ever-
green catalog of sound recordings and song copyrights, holds a well-de-
served place as one of the most iconic brand names in the history of the
music industry.

GRAHAM, BILL (1931–1991). Bill Graham was a concert promoter and

entrepreneur best known for developing the modern rock concert business
model starting in the late 1960s in San Francisco, most notably at the Fill-
more Ballroom and Winterland Arena, and later in New York City at the
Fillmore East, doing business as Bill Graham Presents.
He was born in Berlin, Germany, but left the country due to the rise of
Nazism, eventually being sent to America as an orphan, where he soon
became acclimatized to American culture and graduated from City College
of New York with a business degree. After serving in the Korean War, he
worked in the hospitality industry in the Catskills resorts of Upstate New
York. He moved to San Francisco in the early 1960s and soon became
involved in the arts scene, which was blossoming at that time. With the help
of a local black promoter, Charles Sullivan, who owned the master lease on
the Fillmore Auditorium, Graham began promoting music concerts there in
1966, which would go on to define the modern rock concert experience.
During this time, Graham was instrumental in promoting many of the
seminal San Francisco rock bands, including the Grateful Dead, Jefferson
Airplane, Big Brother, and the Holding Company and Santana. Graham and
his staff devoted enormous attention to all the production details, including
the best lighting, sound system, and atmosphere on- and offstage for the
audience as well as the artists. Graham himself often could be seen before
and after concerts attending to the most minute details to help ensure every-
thing would be a success.
Graham’s business grew to encompass personal management and pro-
moting shows at other venues. Other innovations he brought to the concert
business included hiring talented graphic designers to create what became
iconic psychedelic-themed poster and handbill artwork for each week’s con-
cert, providing free on-site medical staff at large-scale outdoor concerts, and
for, in essence, educating his audiences on the tremendous range and diver-
sity of musical styles and genres in America by routinely booking artists
 GRAINGE, LUCIAN • 139
from completely different genres of music for the same concert. The one
constant element in every Graham-produced event was the high quality of the
experience when compared to other contemporary rock concerts.
Top-tier acts such as Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin, and the Rolling Stones all
worked regularly with Graham. He was responsible for a number of firsts in
the concert industry, including the 1973 Watkins Glen, New York, outdoor
concert that successfully reached a paying audience of 600,000; pioneering
the regular use of baseball and football stadiums in the United States for
massive rock concerts with elaborate production and staging with his annual
Day on the Green Series (1973–1992) in Oakland, California; the first-large
scale outdoor benefit concert with the 1975 SNACK show at San Francisco’s
Kezar Stadium, which provided alternative funding for after-school pro-
grams in San Francisco’s public schools after budget cuts had been made;
and coordinating the U.S. portion of the 1985 Live Aid benefit concert to a
global audience of 1.5 billion viewers.
Graham himself was a strong negotiator with a highly competitive nature.
He was fiercely loyal to those whom he trusted and often bested competitors
in securing lucrative agreements through his own hustle and perseverance.
Graham was sometimes criticized for attempting to eliminate competition
and, in essence, created a near monopoly on live music concert promotion
business by the mid-1980s in the San Francisco region. In 1991, Graham was
killed when the helicopter he was riding in after a concert crashed in severe
weather. His company, Bill Graham Presents, was purchased by a series of
different larger companies and was eventually rolled into what became Live
Nation Entertainment in 2003. However, three Graham protégés left Bill
Graham Presents at the time of its takeover by Live Nation to form a locally
owned concert promotion firm headquartered in Berkeley, California, named
Another Planet Entertainment. This new company has embraced the same
“fans first” philosophy that Graham championed during his lifetime.

GRAINGE, LUCIAN. Lucian Grainge was born on 29 February 1960 in

London, England. After completing his education at age 18, he started as a
runner for a local talent company. At the same time, he started calling music
company executives listed in Music Week magazine’s directory and got
through to an executive at CBS Records, whom he impressed and who gave
him a position in artist and repertoire at the CBS subsidiary publisher April
Music. His first signing there was the Psychedelic Furs. He soon began a
steady climb up the ranks, moving in 1982 to RCA Music Publishing, A&R
head at MCA Records in 1986, and then founding PolyGram Music Publish-
ing in 1986.
After moving to Polydor in 1993, Grainge was appointed managing direc-
tor in 1997. As Polydor became part of the Universal Music family, Grainge
continued to lead the UK music company and in 2005 was promoted to
140 • GRAMMY AWARD
chairman for Universal Music International. In 2011, he succeeded Doug
Morris as CEO and chairman worldwide of Universal Music Group.
Grainge stands out among music executives as focusing intently on imple-
menting strategies and tactics to embrace new technologies and to increase
the revenues received for music usage, which plays such a key role in the
digital realm. He is a consummate deal maker, reaching out well beyond the
music industry to mobile, fashion, television, and film to forge new agree-
ments to leverage the popularity of UMG artists to create more value and
revenue. He led Universal’s 2012 $1.9 billion buyout of EMI’s recorded
music division, which includes the recordings of the Beatles and hundreds of
other legacy artists. Interestingly, Grainge represents a bit of a throwback to
an earlier era of the music industry, in which senior executives never relin-
quished their responsibility as being first and foremost developers of new
talent.

GRAMMY AWARD. The Grammy Award is given by the Recording

Academy each year in a host of categories that span the record-making
universe. Since the awards are only voted on by fellow industry profession-
als, winning a Grammy is generally viewed by many artists and managers as
being comparable to winning an Oscar in film.
The awards for the year in question are always given in the succeeding
year, so the first year of awards, 1958, were announced and given in May
1959. They were initially intended primarily as a means of showcasing the
work of many offstage record industry crafts people, such as producers,
engineers, album artwork designers, writers, and so on. Over time, the event
is now a celebration of the recording and music industry past and present and
entails a weeklong celebration that culminates with an international broad-
cast of the awards show. This large-scale event helps promote the recording
industry as well as raising funds and awareness for the initiatives that the
academy supports. It should be noted that some artists have taken an ambiva-
lent or contrary position to the entire Grammy process, claiming that no
award voted on by industry insiders can determine the true value of art.

GRAMOPHONE. See PHONOGRAPH.

GRANZ, NORMAN (1918–2001). Norman Granz was a jazz promoter and

record label owner who helped popularize jazz and elevate its performance to
a level of artistic import equal to other forms of fine art in the mid-20th
century. In 1944, he began a concert series in Los Angeles he named Jazz at
the Philharmonic (JATP), portraying the emerging art form as worthy of
serious performances in a concert hall setting. He fervently believed that jazz
should be considered and appreciated on a par with the finest theatrical,
 GRATEFUL DEAD • 141
operatic, and classical music performances. However, he insisted that the
concerts maintain the spontaneity of jazz, imbuing the evenings with a jam
session flavor, encouraging performers to join in with one another through-
out the evening’s performance.
Granz started two labels, Clef (1946) and Norgran (1953), to showcase
many of the musicians he was booking into the JATP concert series. In 1956,
he launched Verve Records, absorbing the back catalogs from Clef and Nor-
gran and using the new imprint to showcase the talented vocalist Ella Fitzge-
rald, who would go on to become one of the most critically and commercial-
ly successful jazz vocalists of the 20th century. Over the next five years, the
Verve catalog would incorporate many jazz luminaries of that era, including
Bill Evans, Charlie Parker, Billie Holiday, and Lester Young.
Granz himself relocated to Switzerland in 1960, from where he continued
to manage his Jazz at the Philharmonic tours, which prominently featured
Fitzgerald, Oscar Peterson, and Duke Ellington. He decided to sell Verve to
MGM Records in 1961; however, in 1973, he got back into the business of
selling records by founding Los Angeles–based Pablo Records, a company
he managed actively until 1987, when its assets were acquired by Fantasy
Records (now a division of Concord Music). In 2006, Concord entered into a
distribution and licensing agreement with Universal Music Group to market
much of the Verve catalog.
Today, Universal Music Group has resurrected the historically significant
Verve brand as the Verve Label Group, under which a great many historic
jazz, classical, and catalog albums are being reissued. The company also
releases new music from contemporary artists.

GRAPHOPHONE. See PHONOGRAPH.

GRAPHOPHONE COMPANY. See EMI.

GRATEFUL DEAD. The Grateful Dead were a rock group that originated
in the San Francisco Bay Area and became best known for their legendary
extended improvisational concerts, some of which lasted for three to five
hours, and for their extensive audience of super fans, who earned the moni-
ker “Deadheads.” These loyal fans followed the band throughout their
lengthy career, helping them to become one of the most financially success-
ful groups of the second half of the 20th century, largely via their touring and
the eventual release of many of the group’s earlier concert recordings, to
which they held the rights.
The original members of the group included Jerry Garcia (1942–1995),
Bob Weir (b. Robert Hall, 16 October 1947), Phil Lesh (b. Philip Chapman,
15 March 1940), Ron “Pigpen” McKernan (1945–1973), and Bill Kreutz-
142 • GRATEFUL DEAD
mann (b. 7 June 1946). Over the group’s career, many additional members
would join the band to augment its lineup; however, it was drummer and
percussionist Mickey Hart (born Michael Steven Hartman, 11 September
1943) who would join the group in September 1967 and infuse their music
with additional world music influences. The group’s heyday spanned from
1965 to 1995 with Garcia as the group’s figurehead, and they continued to
perform in altered lineups after Garcia’s death under the name the Dead in
2003, 2004, and 2009. A historic 50th anniversary five-concert series featur-
ing the group’s four surviving original members was staged in 2015, which
was billed as the group’s final performances.
The Grateful Dead’s rise occurred as a part of the counterculture and
psychedelic movements that were most notably occurring from 1965 to 1970
in San Francisco’s Haight Ashbury district. The Grateful Dead played fre-
quent concerts, including a number of free outdoor shows, and built an early
following that appreciated the group’s loose, laid-back style. Musically, the
Grateful Dead had a wide range of influences, including blues, jazz, jug
band, honky-tonk, and gospel. Importantly, the group itself embraced the
freewheeling hippie lifestyle, which included the use of drugs to help en-
hance musical creativity. Performing at a series of concerts that featured free
LSD for the audience members and known as “acid tests,” the Grateful Dead
became the most iconic group of the counterculture movement at that time in
San Francisco. They became the model for what would become widely
known as the jam band genre of music, emulated by many later groups,
including Phish, the String Cheese Incident, Widespread Panic, and Dave
Matthews Band.
Throughout their career, the band focused mainly on their unique extended
concert performances, which often featured near-symphonic structure with
one lengthy song filled with individual and group improvisation segueing
seamlessly into the next. Still, at various times during their career, they did
sign record contracts with major labels, most notably with Warner Broth-
ers and later Arista, with the stipulation that the band had to retain full
creative control of the recording process and ownership of their master
recordings and song publishing rights.
From 1965 to 1995, the group released 13 studio albums and nine live
albums. Twelve of these albums would go on to earn Gold or Platinum
status, in large part due to the loyal audience the band had developed by
extensive touring. The group had six singles that made the top 100 charts,
with 1987’s “Touch of Grey” being the highest charting song, hitting number
one on the Mainstream Rock Chart and number nine on the top 100. Among
their albums, American Beauty (1970), the live set Europe 72 (1972), and
Into the Dark (1987) each sold more than two million copies.
 GRATEFUL DEAD • 143
When the group would announce their tours, fans would use word of
mouth and the telephone to share the news with other Deadheads, many of
whom would drop whatever they were doing for a certain period of time to
follow the band from city to city to enjoy multiple concerts over the course of
weeks or even months. The fans often traveled together in cars or vans and
by hitchhiking, wearing colorful tie-dyed clothing and camping near the
concert venues; forming a virtual community of like-minded music lovers for
the duration of each tour, creating a Grateful Dead subculture that helped
sustain the band financially. Tickets were often made available directly from
the band’s Marin County office via mail order, with fans sending in payment
and receiving their tickets back in the mail shortly after they were offered for
sale.
One of the reasons fans appreciated the band so much is that no two
concerts were ever identical, unlike the majority of successful touring acts,
who presented a tightly planned set list that was rarely changed from show to
show. Another important phenomenon that developed around the band was
the culture of fans using their own recording equipment inside the concerts to
record each of the band’s performances. This was done with the band’s
blessing and created a tape-exchange culture in which nearly every one of the
band’s estimated 2,300 concerts was taped and traded among their most loyal
fans. At one point, so many fans were coming to tape the concerts that a
special “taper” ticket was made available on a limited basis, and a section of
each venue was reserved for the tapers to work directly behind the sound-
board.
Interestingly, this free access and use of the band’s live performances
created ever greater interest in the band and its music rather than reducing
interest or income for the group. Recognizing the vitality and scope of their
fans’ interest in their live recordings, in 1991 the Grateful Dead launched
their own series of limited-edition live releases from the band’s extensive
archival collection of concert recordings. To date, they have released more
than 100 archives-based albums, both on CD and as internet downloads
available for purchase directly from the band’s website.
Two other facts are notable about the Grateful Dead. The first is that they
became one of the first groups to recognize and capitalize on the power of
graphic images to help make their brand stand out in the marketplace.
Through a series of logo artwork, the most famous of which is the well-
known “skull and roses” design that first appeared on a 1966 concert poster,
the band developed its own line of themed merchandise, which was highly
profitable for the band. The second is that as the concert industry expanded in
the 1990s, becoming ever more profitable, the close relationship that Grateful
Dead fans felt for the band manifested itself in record-breaking concert re-
ceipts for the group’s tours. Although the band only toured for six years up
until Garcia’s death during the 1990s, they were the second largest concert
144 • GREATEST HITS ALBUM
earner with $285 million in ticket sales according to Billboard, behind only
the Rolling Stones for that decade. More than any other U.S. rock group, the
Grateful Dead proved that by building and sustaining a strong and lasting
relationship with a core fan base, a group may have multigenerational finan-
cial success and security without necessarily having chart-topping sales.

GREATEST HITS ALBUM. The greatest hits album is a standard industry

strategy to resell a number of previously released tracks in a new compilation
album package. The target audience includes existing fans for an artist as
well as prospective new fans who may have heard of the artist but not yet
purchased any of their records. As the record industry continues to shift away
from sales of physical records, the effectiveness of putting out such compila-
tions is lessening. In order to entice existing fans to consider purchasing a
greatest hits (or best of) album, the artist normally includes two to three new
songs that are only available as part of the new compilation.

GREY ALBUM, THE. The Grey Album was an experimental art project by
musician and producer Danger Mouse. The album was released in 2004 and
mixed a cappella tracks from Jay-Z’s 2003 The Black Album with the Beat-
les’ so-called 1968 White Album. The album received rave reviews, enjoyed
a wide internet distribution, and put a spotlight on the practice of remixing
and sampling.
EMI Records, the copyright holder for the Beatles’ master recordings,
attempted to halt dissemination of the record by ordering retailers and Dan-
ger Mouse to cease distribution. In response, a Grey Tuesday event was
organized where participating websites posted copies of the album as a free
download. The event organizers argued that the album was an example of
fair use. Jay-Z and the surviving members of the Beatles made statements in
support of the album.

GRUNGE. Grunge was a subgenre of alternative rock. It developed as its

own subculture in the mid-1980s in Seattle and nearby cities. Sub Pop, an
independent Seattle-based record label, featured artists in the early grunge
scene. The subgenre spread across the West Coast and to other parts of the
country in the early to mid-1990s.
Grunge combined elements of heavy metal and punk rock with song
lyrics full of angst, apathy, and introspection. Nirvana, Soundgarden, Alice
in Chains, Stone Temple Pilots, and Pearl Jam are examples of notable
grunge bands. Beyond the music, grunge emerged as its own kind of fashion,
which included graphic T-shirts, baggy sweaters, ripped jeans, and combat
boots.
 GUTHRIE, WOODY (1912–1967) • 145
Grunge’s prominence declined in the mid- to late 1990s following the
death of Nirvana’s Kurt Cobain in 1994.

GUARANTEED RELEASE. A term used in the context of a recording

contract under which the record label guarantees to release the album to be
recorded by the artist. Since the label would normally prefer to hear the
resulting recordings before deciding whether or not to release the album, an
artist must have gained a certain level of success in order to secure guaran-
teed release of their album. Young artists without a successful track record
will record instead under the pay or play provision found in most standard
record contracts.

GUTHRIE, WOODY (1912–1967). Woodrow Wilson “Woody” Guthrie

was an American folksinger, prolific songwriter, and activist who became a
model to younger folksingers in the folk music revival of the 1960s. Guthrie
had a chaotic home life growing up due to his mother’s severe illness and the
family falling on hard times in the 1920s. He picked up the guitar after his
1929 move to live with relatives in Texas. He was soon writing songs and
performing with local groups and in 1936 set out on a road trip to see more of
America. He ended up in California, where there were extensive homeless
camps due to the impact of the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl migra-
tions westward in the prior years.
The poverty and sadness he witnessed there would help forge his political
views as he became the voice of the underdog and the impoverished, and his
songs soon took on a moralizing bent to draw attention to such injustices in
America. Guthrie performed regularly on radio in Los Angeles in the late
1930s as well as on records. He came to the attention of Alan Lomax of the
Smithsonian Institute after his 1940 relocation to New York City, and with
Lomax’s support Guthrie was featured on a national CBS Radio broadcast
and was signed to RCA Victor to record his music. Guthrie’s most famous
song, “This Land Is Your Land,” was written as a response to Irving Ber-
lin’s “God Bless America,” and in its first version contained verses that
pointed out both America’s richness as well as the long relief lines of unem-
ployed awaiting public assistance for food.
Guthrie served in the Merchant Marine and U.S. Army during World War
II and after the war continued his prolific songwriting output. He joined
activist groups that included Pete Seeger and other folk musicians advocating
for social equity. Although he wrote thousands of songs, as well as an auto-
biography and hundreds of articles and drawings, after 1950 he suffered from
Huntington’s disease, which by 1954 required him to be hospitalized on a
full-time basis. However, his legacy was secure when a new cadre of folk-
146 • GUTHRIE, WOODY (1912–1967)
singers and songwriters in the 1960s such as Bob Dylan, Phil Ochs, and Tom
Paxton all paid homage to Guthrie and his substantial song catalog in their
own music and interviews.
 H
HALL MANAGER. A hall manager is in charge of all activities that occur
at a facility, such as a concert hall, theater, arena, or outdoor amphitheater.
This includes personnel, business and legal agreements, labor and commu-
nity relations, finances, advertising, promotion, and so on. The terms “venue
manager” and “house manager” are often used somewhat interchangeably
with “hall manager.”

HARRY FOX AGENCY (HFA). The Harry Fox Agency was founded in
1927 by the Music Publishers’ Protective Association (later the National
Music Publishers’ Association). HFA licenses, collects, and distributes roy-
alties on behalf of music copyright owners, including an estimated 30,000
publishers. HFA grants mechanical rights that allow the licensee to transmit
recorded music in public spaces as well as reproduce and distribute copy-
righted musical works for a variety of products, such as compact discs,
digital downloads, commercials, and ringtones. The synchronization rights
division closed in 2002. At the time of this writing, the Harry Fox Agency
retains a commission of 11.5 percent of the licensing proceeds for their
services. The agency provides a cost-effective alternative to each publisher
having in-house staff to administer and grant licenses. It has developed an
online licensing portal, SongFile, which allows a fully automated licensing
process for the vast majority of the songs it represents. The Harry Fox Agen-
cy was purchased by SESAC in 2015 from the National Music Publishers’
Association for an estimated $20 million.

HENDRIX, JIMI (1942–1970). James Marshall “Jimi” Hendrix was born

Johnny Allen Hendrix on 27 November 1942 in Seattle, Washington. He is
best known as an innovative guitarist, producer, and live performer whose
brief but dramatic career greatly influenced the course of rock music and
record production. Hendrix grew up under difficult circumstances, sur-
rounded by poverty and parents who were often at odds with one another.

147
148 • HENDRIX, JIMI (1942–1970)
The family struggled with finding stable housing, and Hendrix’s three
youngest siblings were placed in foster care due to the family’s inability to
care for them.
After getting his first guitar in 1958, he practiced constantly and was soon
in and out of a number of local bands. By 1959, he had graduated to his first
electric guitar and was playing in a professional band, the Rocking Kings.
The 18-year-old guitarist was arrested as a passenger in stolen cars, so he was
forced to enlist in the U.S. Army in May 1961 rather than serve time in jail.
However, the discipline required in the army proved problematic for the
nonconformist musician, and a little more than a year later he received an
honorable discharge as he was deemed unsuitable for military service.
From 1963 to 1965, Hendrix was a journeyman guitarist working in Nash-
ville and New York City and playing as a backup musician in the studio and
on tour with Little Richard, the Isley Brothers, Sam Cooke, Curtis Knight,
and Wilson Pickett. By June 1966, he felt limited in his role as a sideman
and moved back to New York City’s Greenwich Village and formed Jimmie
James and the Blue Flames, where he would start to develop his unique
approach to playing and performance that would soon capture the public’s
imagination.
Hendrix went to London in September 1966 at the request of Chas Chan-
dler, a former member of popular British Invasion group the Animals, who
had begun to manage artists. Chandler and his partner, manager Michael
Jeffrey, soon brought on a drummer, Mitch Mitchell, and bassist Noel Red-
ding to complement Hendrix in the newly formed Jimi Hendrix Experience.
The group recorded three singles, each of which made the UK top 10, before
embarking on recording the rest of the songs needed for the group’s first
album, Are You Experienced, which would go on to top-five success in the
U.S. and UK, announcing a bold new artistic voice in the rock music world.
Hendrix often used a lazy, whimsical vocal delivery that appealed to the
teens of the era, but his blistering and inventive guitar playing, especially his
use of amplifier feedback, the guitar’s tremolo (whammy bar) to radically
alter the pitch of notes, and his reliance of then-new guitar effects, such as
the wah-wah pedal and distortion box, made his music at once fresh and
antiestablishment when compared to the standard pop fare of the day. The
guitar parts on the songs “Purple Haze,” “Foxy Lady,” and “Fire” were
imitated by tens of thousands of aspiring guitarists, who each tried to match
Hendrix’s timing, intonation, and expressive note bends.
In the summer of 1967, Hendrix and his group were booked for the Mon-
terey International Pop Festival, which would prove to be the catapult he
needed to achieve superstar status. During his set, Hendrix performed with
his usual panache and guitar artistry, which included playing his guitar be-
hind his back and with his teeth. However, it was his set-closing decision to
place his feedback-generating guitar onstage and light it on fire that galva-
 HENDRIX, JIMI (1942–1970) • 149
nized the thousands of fans in attendance. Captured on film and photo-
graphed, kneeling before his guitar and summoning flames became an iconic
image that made him a household name. When the Monterey Pop documen-
tary film debuted the following year, his performance in the movie helped
him to gain an even larger audience.
The group would go on to release two more albums during their tenure,
both in 1968. Axis Bold as Love and Electric Ladyland, a double album,
provided Hendrix with a much broader musical canvas than his first studio
album. On Axis, Hendrix began to experiment with carefully created stereo
panning effects, to create the illusion that his guitar was flying back and forth
around the listener, as well as experimenting with a newly developed process
called phasing, which produced an ethereal swooshing sound that other art-
ists soon emulated.
Hendrix had developed enough confidence in his production abilities that
he spent more than six months in the studio creating the follow-up, Electric
Ladyland, and involved a number of other musicians to realize his vision.
The double album clocked in at more than 75 minutes, twice the convention-
al album length, all of it original in its sound, with the majority of the tracks
charting new territory for popular music. Ranging from a memorable cover
of Bob Dylan’s “All Along the Watchtower,” which became another top 40
hit for Hendrix, through the 15-minute slow blues jam “Voodoo Chile,” to
the futuristic, otherworldly 13-minute sonic collage represented by “1983 (A
Merman I Shall Turn to Be),” Hendrix’s final album with the Experience
showed the full range of his musical influences, including jazz, blues, pop,
electronic music, and soul. It reached the top of the charts and would go on to
sell more than two million copies in the United States. While it was em-
braced by the listening public, critics offered tepid reviews, most of which
decried what they perceived as excessive experimentation and overly lengthy
jams. Chandler and Hendrix also dissolved their working relationship as
Chandler felt Hendrix was no longer following his advice. Jeffrey continued
in his role as sole manager for Hendrix.
The next milestone of Hendrix’s career was his performance at the 1969
Woodstock Festival as the final act of the three-day festival attended by
more than 400,000 concertgoers. Originally scheduled to go on at midnight
Saturday, Hendrix instead opted to perform on Sunday morning at 8 a.m. to a
much smaller audience. Similar to his performance at Monterey, it was docu-
mented on film while he performed “The Star Spangled Banner” as a solo
electric guitar piece, simulating the bombs, rockets, and bullets described in
the song with his guitar pyrotechnics. His filmed performance has been rec-
ognized by fans and critics alike as one of the most iconic moments of the
1960s.
150 • HIP HOP
The original Jimi Hendrix Experience, however, had broken up in mid-
1969, and Hendrix then performed with various lineups of support musicians.
In the fall of 1969, post-Woodstock, Hendrix formed a new trio with his
longtime friend Billy Cox on bass and seasoned drummer Buddy Miles.
Dubbed the Band of Gypsys, the group recorded a well-received eponymous
live album on the nights of 31 December 1969–1 January 1970 at Bill Gra-
ham’s Fillmore East Ballroom. The album, released in April 1970, featured
another bravura genre-bending guitar explosion from Hendrix on the track
“Machine Gun,” which provided commentary not only on the increasingly
unpopular Vietnam War but also the civil rights struggles going on in Ameri-
ca’s cities.
Jimi Hendrix by this time was frequently using drugs and alcohol, which
sometimes led to him acting aggressively or becoming uncharacteristically
withdrawn. After dissolving the Band of Gypsys shortly after the recording
of their live album, Hendrix and his manager Michael Jeffrey formed the Cry
of Love band with Billy Cox and original drummer Mitch Mitchell to contin-
ue performing in the United States and overseas. At some of the group’s 32
U.S. performances, Hendrix was impaired by the drugs he had taken before
the concerts, and as a result the band’s sets were uneven.
Based on the then seemingly extraordinary studio time and attendant costs
required to create his third studio album, Hendrix and manager Michael
Jeffrey decided to build a custom recording studio in New York City to
afford a creative home for the artist and to control recording costs on future
projects. The Greenwich Village studio was named for his third studio al-
bum, Electric Ladyland, and opened in June 1970 with a jam session featur-
ing Hendrix and members of the band Traffic. Hendrix would only record
one song there, “Night Bird Flying.” The studio, which reportedly cost one
million dollars to design and build, opened its doors to outside clients after an
opening party on 26 August 1970. It is regarded as a premiere recording
facility today and continues to operate under its original name.
With management pressing to continue the Cry of Love Tour in Europe,
Hendrix returned to London and headlined the prestigious Isle of Wight
Festival. However, he continued to suffer ill effects from drug use, and the
band gave a lackluster performance in Denmark that was canceled after only
three songs. Then an appearance at a German festival was canceled due to
risks of playing outdoors in the rain. Hendrix returned to London and stayed
with friends, and on 18 September 1970, Hendrix died as a consequence of
taking an overdose of sleeping pills provided by a friend.

HIP HOP. The collective term “hip hop” may be applied in reference to any
modern urban art form but is most commonly used historically to describe
the artistic output of MCs or rappers, DJs or turntablists, break-dancers
(also referred to as b-boys and b-girls), and graffiti artists. These are some-
 HOLLY, BUDDY (1936–1959) • 151
times referred to as the original “elements” of what became hip hop. Founda-
tions of hip hop culture can be traced back to the severe economic, social,
safety, and housing hardships faced by ethnic minorities in big cities across
America, but most particularly in the South Bronx area of New York City,
where gangs ruled the streets. In answer to the desperate times, young people
in the Bronx turned to self-made art to find a way to express themselves and
share their joys, fears, and frustrations with each another.
Cultural gatherings as early as 1974, championed by one of the first well-
known DJs, Afrika Bambaataa, combined all of the elements, including mu-
sic, dance, and graffiti made by a range of participants to create a peaceful
experience, under an umbrella organization Bambaataa dubbed the Zulu Na-
tion, although all ethnicities were welcomed. The music industry first took
note of what was happening when a small independent record label with
scant connection to the street-level hip hop scene had a hit in 1979 with the
Sugar Hill Gang’s “Rapper’s Delight.” The song used the term “hip hop”
repeatedly in the lyrics, and the term itself was soon appropriated to primari-
ly mean the overlay of a rapper or MC over a repetitive music track. And
while the three MCs hired to perform as the Sugar Hill Gang had little street
credibility, the listening audience heard an exciting new music style that
caught the public’s imagination.
Once the major record labels saw the potential in developing a market for
the new music, what started as an authentic do-it-yourself-based form of art
became part of the music industry’s repeating pattern of appropriating fresh,
original new music to commoditize it for financial gain. By the mid-1980s,
hip hop primarily meant rappers performing on MTV, releasing hit records,
and performing in concert. The other essential three elements—graffiti art,
break dancing, and DJs—had only limited commercial acceptance, outside of
many hip hop groups incorporating a DJ and a short run of Hollywood films
that prominently featured break dancing in the mid-1980s. As hip hop built a
global audience, multinational entertainment corporations enlisted the help
of the music’s most visible stars to launch fashion, beverage, fragrance,
automobile, jewelry, and other lifestyle product categories that became very
successful.

HOLLY, BUDDY (1936–1959). Charles Hardin Holley was a songwriter,

singer, and guitarist who went by the stage name Buddy Holly. He helped to
originate the early electric-guitar-driven sound of rock ’n’ roll. Holly was
born on 7 September 1936 into a musical family and grew up surrounded by
popular, gospel, and country music influences. While in high school, he
began performing regularly, and by 1955 he was invited to open for Elvis
Presley. While his early sound emphasized his country roots, after seeing the
152 • HOUSE MANAGER
impact Presley had on the audience, Holly switched his sound to emphasize
the strong backbeat and catchy melodies that defined his best pop composi-
tions.
Holly’s backup group, dubbed the Crickets, helped to define the future
sound of rock ’n’ roll with its instrumentation of two guitars, bass, and
drums. Typical of his sound were the hit records “That’ll Be the Day,”
“Peggy Sue,” and “Maybe Baby,” which were beautifully performed, simple
songs that captured the essence of early rock ’n’ roll. Like the best songs of
contemporary Chuck Berry, Holly’s lyrics recounted the emotions and teen-
age growing pains of postwar adolescents. Holly also embraced a clean-cut,
boy-next-door image, with neatly tailored suits, a tie, and his trademark
heavy black horn-rimmed glasses.
His single “That’ll Be the Day” climbed the charts in the summer of 1957
so that by September of that year it was the best-selling single in the nation, a
feat it would achieve in November of that year in the UK. Holly toured
throughout 1958, including a visit to England, as his songs gained more and
more airplay. Members of the groups that would eventually become the
Rolling Stones and the Beatles attended Holly’s concerts and were influ-
enced greatly by his mannerisms, wardrobe, and music.
He was on tour during the winter of 1959 and due to poor tour planning
decided to charter a small four-seat airplane to fly from Iowa to Minnesota
for the next tour stop, while the band would travel all night by bus. Tragical-
ly, the plane crashed on takeoff due to severe weather, and Holly, along with
two other rising stars, Ritchie Valens and the Big Bopper (J. P. Richardson),
was killed, as was the pilot, in the early morning hours of 3 February 1959.
Although he died at only 22 years of age, Holly’s influence proved to be
seminal as artists such as John Lennon and Paul McCartney, who studied
every one of Holly’s songs, would cite him as one of their main influences
and even named their band, the Beatles, as an homage to Holly’s Crickets.

HOUSE MANAGER. See HALL MANAGER.

HOUSTON, WHITNEY (1963–2012). Whitney Houston was an American

singer and actress. She was one of the top-selling female vocal artists of all
time, known for her rich voice and melodic embellishments with crossover
appeal across gospel, pop, and soul.
Houston was born on 9 August 1963 in Newark, New Jersey. She grew up
singing in her church gospel choir. She performed with her mother, noted
backup vocalist Cissy Houston, as a teenager. In 1985, she released her debut
album, Whitney Houston, which contained the hits “You Give Good Love”
and “Saving All My Love for You.” Rolling Stone named the album the best
of 1986.
 HOUSTON, WHITNEY (1963–2012) • 153
Her second album, Whitney (1987), entered at number one on the charts
and contained several hits, including “Didn’t We Almost Have It All,” “I
Wanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me),” and “So Emotional.” She
is the only artist to chart seven consecutive number one hit singles.
Houston turned her attention to acting in the 1990s, appearing in the films
The Bodyguard (1992), Waiting to Exhale (1995), and The Preacher’s Wife
(1996). Waiting to Exhale and The Preacher’s Wife were accompanied by hit
soundtrack albums featuring Houston’s singing.
Personal problems plagued Houston in the 1990s. She canceled several
performances and television appearances due to illness. Her marriage to Bob-
by Brown turned tumultuous and became fodder for the tabloids.
Houston divorced Brown in 2006 and attempted a comeback with her
album I Look to You (2009). She went on an international tour in 2010. In
2011, she entered a rehabilitation center for ongoing issues with drugs and
alcohol. On 11 February 2012, the day before the Grammy Awards ceremo-
ny, Houston was found dead in her hotel room, a victim of accidental drown-
ing as a result of cocaine misuse and an ongoing heart condition.
 I
INDEPENDENT RADIO PROMOTION. The efforts to gain the interest
and support of radio programmers for a new artist or record may be en-
hanced by a record label or artist hiring an independent radio promotion
firm. Such firms have strong relationships with key decision makers in radio
and have a track record of securing the all-important early exposure for a
new record needed to build an audience. It’s important to note that nearly all
record companies have their own in-house radio promotion teams, but often
extra investment in independent radio promotion can lead to much greater
returns, in part due to the fact that at the majors, the in-house radio promo-
tion team may be attempting to promote dozens of new releases each week
rather than the more focused promotional messaging that an independent
radio promoter can provide. Radio promoters have been subject to govern-
mental scrutiny over the years for providing cash or other financially mean-
ingful incentives to radio programmers or disc jockeys, a practice referred to
as payola.

INDEPENDENT RECORD LABELS (INDIES). In common music indus-

try parlance, independent record labels are most often referred to as “indies.”
Independent record labels fall into two general categories, as distinct from
major record labels. The first type comprises record labels wholly owned
and operated by their founders, or successors, and that have no business
relationship with the so-called major labels. They are often referred to in
industry jargon as “true indies.”
The second type are independent labels that have major-affiliated record
distribution or co-ownership. In the latter category, there are many labels
perceived as “indies” that are in fact subsidiary operations of the major
labels, which provide varying levels of financial and in-kind support. For
example, if a particular recording artist achieves superstar levels of success
and wishes to have more creative control over their future records, their
major label will often encourage the artist to establish his or her own record

155
156 • INDIES
label imprint to produce and release his or her own music and perhaps that of
the artist’s protégés. Eminem’s Slim Shady Records is an example of a
major-affiliated indie label.

INDIES. See INDEPENDENT RECORD LABELS (INDIES).

INSERTS. Any type of additional printed media included inside the retail
package of a physical record. In the era of the long-playing record, this
might have included a two-sided sheet of lyrics and artist photos, or a mail
order form from the record label for other titles in their catalog. If the artist
requests that a special insert be included, the record label will charge the
artist for the added expense.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY. See COPYRIGHT; PATENT; TRADE-

MARK.

INTERACTIVE RADIO. See MUSIC STREAMING.

INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF THE PHONOGRAPHIC IN-

DUSTRY (IFPI). The IFPI is an international advocacy organization head-
quartered in Switzerland that has local affiliates in 57 nations around the
world and represents the concerns around intellectual property and recorded
music of 1,300 record labels. The organization’s mission is threefold: to
promote the value of recorded music, to lobby for the rights of record pro-
ducers, and to expand the commercial uses of recorded music. The organiza-
tion also compiles industry data from around the world and provides insights
and analysis to help music managers make better decisions regarding the
global market for recorded music in all its forms.

INTERNATIONAL SOUND RECORDING CODE (ISRC). The Interna-

tional Sound Recording Code is an international code used for uniquely
identifying sound recordings and music video recordings. This allows the
recording to be recognized by the unique ISRC number, which becomes part
of the track’s accompanying metadata. It should be noted that an ISRC
identifies a specific sound recording, not the underlying composition or mu-
sical work the recording is based on. This means different recordings or even
remixes of the same song have their own individual ISRC. In the United
States, the Recording Industry Association of America provides labels and
self-releasing artists the authority to assign their own ISRCs, following the
international standards.

INTERNET RADIO. See STREAMING RADIO.

 IPOD • 157
IOVINE, JIMMY. James “Jimmy” Iovine was born on 11 March 1953 in
Brooklyn, New York. He is best known as a music producer and entrepren-
eur, having worked on approximately 250 albums during his career, before
becoming a label executive, starting Beats Electronics, and joining Apple
Computer in an executive role.
Iovine started at the bottom of the recording industry. His first job was
cleaning a recording studio each night. He became a recording engineer in
the early 1970s and was quickly recognized as a go-to sound engineer
through the 1970s and 1980s for artists including John Lennon, Bruce
Springsteen, Patti Smith, Tom Petty, Dire Straits, and U2. In 1990, he took
a step few engineers and producers have by founding Interscope Records, a
label that became legendary for the development of rap and hip hop music
throughout the next decade with platinum-selling artists such as Tupac Sha-
kur and N.W.A.
In 1999, Iovine merged the label with Geffen and A&M, and shortly
thereafter the label’s success with both Eminem and Lady Gaga continued
their string of chart-topping artists. Iovine furthered his entrepreneurial scope
by cofounding Beats Electronics in 2006 with music producer Dr. Dre. To-
gether, they parlayed the company into a diversified entertainment firm with
products such as headphones and cables and then music streaming services.
In 2014, Apple purchased Beats for $3 billion and installed Iovine in a senior
executive role with the tech firm, helping it to maintain productive relation-
ships with the music community and steer Apple’s future music initiatives.

IPOD. Apple Computer launched its first portable music player, the iPod,
in October 2001, a few months after debuting its iTunes music software.
Apple cofounder Steve Jobs adopted a visionary zeal to embrace music as a
key part of individual’s lives and saw the combination of the iPod music
player, iTunes software, and the soon to be launched iTunes music store as
game changing for both Apple and the music industry. While initial reaction
was lukewarm due to the comparatively high price of Apple’s MP3 player,
the debut of the iTunes music store and the Windows version of iTunes
created a buzz that led to the iPod’s 2004 rise as the most coveted portable
music player among the public. By July 2005, the iPod reportedly had
achieved 74 percent of the U.S. market share for portable music players. By
2007, Apple reported selling 100 million iPods, making it the best-selling
music player in history. Its cachet as the music player of choice has contin-
ued, and in 2012 Apple reported worldwide sales in excess of 350 million
iPods. Apple has wisely diversified its product offerings under the iPod label,
with some priced as low as $79. Today, although the mobile phone is serving
as a media player for many consumers, the iPod continues to be offered by
Apple, while vintage models, some of which boast storage capacity of up to
160 gigabytes, are prized by collectors.
158 • ITUNES MUSIC STORE
ITUNES MUSIC STORE. iTunes began life as a computer-based music
library and player software program released by Apple Computer in January
2001, in large part as an answer to the music industry’s inability to respond to
the rapid spread of unauthorized distribution of popular music via the MP3
file format, peer-to-peer file sharing, and the internet. The companion
iTunes music store, launched in 2003, provided the first consumer-friendly
option for legally acquiring digital downloads and rapidly became the
biggest retailer of music in the world, selling one million tracks in its first
week of operation and 50 million by the end of its first year.
Initially, songs purchased via the iTunes music store had digital rights
management (DRM) embedded in the file at the insistence of the major
labels, which limited the consumer’s ability to copy or share the file. In
2009, Apple removed all DRM limits on songs purchased through the iTunes
music store. Today’s iTunes has grown into the world’s leading comprehen-
sive media ecosystem providing access, organization, and programming op-
tions for consumers to enjoy music, movies, podcasts, audio books, and a
growing range of media and entertainment options.
See also IPOD.
 J
JACKSON, MICHAEL (1958–2009). Michael Jackson was born on 29
August 1958 and is widely referred to as the “King of Pop” due to his
dominance on the pop music charts in the late 1970s and 1980s. Jackson was
an iconic pop singer, dancer, producer, and songwriter who rivaled the
Beatles as a globally recognized superstar. Born in Gary, Indiana, he started
singing professionally at the age of six and first achieved fame as the 11-
year-old lead singer of the Jackson Five. The group, which consisted of him
and his brothers, rose to fame in the 1970s while recording for the Motown
label. Some of the Jackson Five top 40 hits include “I Want You Back,”
“ABC,” and “I’ll Be There.”
Jackson’s solo career flourished in the late 1970s. He collaborated with
Quincy Jones on the 1979 album Off the Wall. The two worked together to
update Jackson’s sound and image so that he would appeal to mainstream
audiences with a blend of funk, pop, and disco. Jackson’s own vocal style
had matured significantly from his early success with his brothers, and he
displayed his well-known melodic inventiveness and rhythmic drive, which
helped propel Off the Wall to chart four top 10 singles from the album and go
on to sell more than 20 million copies worldwide.
For many artists, that level of success could be career-defining; however,
Jackson and Jones’s next collaboration, Thriller, released in 1982, raised the
bar even further. It became an international hit, breaking sales records in
nearly every territory it was available. Songs such as “Beat It,” “The Girl Is
Mine,” and “Billie Jean” successfully transcended genres, including soul,
heavy metal/hard rock, and disco. The music videos for the songs on Jack-
son’s Thriller album also became very popular, in large part because he and
his record label invested heavily in high-quality music videos at the start of
the MTV era, featuring Jackson’s telegenic presence with an immediacy that
radio and records could not rival. The 14-minute-long music video for the
song “Thriller” is regarded today as having established a then new standard
for music videos, in part due to its then-staggering one-million-dollar pro-
duction budget.

159
160 • JACKSON, MICHAEL (1958–2009)
Jackson’s videos posed a problem for the nascent MTV network in that
black artists were seldom featured. MTV believed that Jackson’s music
would not appeal to their target audience, which was mainly white males.
The crunching guitars on “Beat It” helped persuade MTV to air Jackson’s
videos, and they soon became some of the most requested programming in
the network’s short history. Thriller was unprecedented in its success, even-
tually selling 65 million copies worldwide. Its success caused a paradigm
shift in music industry thinking to what became referred to as the “superstar
model,” where a label’s marketing assets would be concentrated very nar-
rowly on a select artist or two in order to maximize sales and profits, rather
than investing a modest amount in dozens of artists hoping for one to pay off.
Jackson also used his success to leverage a variety of lucrative business
deals. By the time Thriller was released, he had reportedly bargained to
receive nearly two dollars per album in artist royalties, double the normal
rate for chart-topping artists. In 1984, Jackson signed a $5 million contract
with Pepsi for television commercials, while also arranging profitable
endorsements with a wide range of other firms. By 1985, with income flow-
ing in at a record pace, Jackson purchased the publishing group ATV Music,
which included the rights to tens of thousands of hit songs, most notably the
Lennon–McCartney catalog written for the Beatles.
Jackson partnered with Lionel Richie on the 1985 all-star collaboration
“We Are the World.” The song was released both as a single and as part of an
album titled USA for Africa and helped raise $63 million for famine relief in
African nations.
The albums Bad (1987) and Dangerous (1991) were extremely successful
commercially, each logging global sales in excess of 20 million units, but
Jackson could not attain the same success as Thriller. Some of Jackson’s
critics believed he was simply repeating himself in term of sound and
themes; nevertheless, due to his megastar status, the albums were very profit-
able.
Jackson’s personal issues became the center of the public’s attention in the
1990s. He was charged in a civil suit of sexual abuse in 1991, which settled
out of court in 1994. Reception to his next two albums, HIStory in 1995 and
Invincible in 2001, were disappointing and mixed, although both still resulted
in multi-Platinum sales. Jackson was again charged with sexual abuse in
2004 and was acquitted on all charged in 2005. The nonstop global media
coverage of the case was intense and overwhelming. As a result, the preter-
naturally shy Jackson retreated even further into seclusion.
Jackson and his team of advisors hatched a comeback plan for a world tour
that would be kicked off with a 50-show residency at London’s O2 Arena,
but while he was in the midst of rehearsals, Jackson died on 25 June 2009
from a prescription drug overdose, leading to a protracted legal battle over
his substantial estate. Since a great deal of Jackson’s sales totals came in the
 JAY-Z • 161
pre-SoundScan era, opinions differ on how many records he actually sold.
According to publicly available information, he sold more than 184 million
records globally. However, other sources cite Michael Jackson’s estimated
global sales at 350 million albums. Nevertheless, he won 13 Grammy
Awards and left behind a rich catalog of iconic recordings and videos and
fostered widespread humanitarian efforts help to ensure his legacy as one of
the most successful entertainers in music history.

JAY-Z. Jay-Z, born Shawn Corey Carter on 4 December 1969, is a hip hop
artist, producer, and entrepreneur. He was born in Brooklyn, New York, and
was raised in the poverty-riddled housing projects. As an adolescent, he was
fatherless and sold crack cocaine on the streets, experiences that he later used
as material in his rap songs.
In 1996, he founded Roc-A-Fella Records with Damon Dash and Kareem
Burke. He released his debut album, Reasonable Doubt, in 1996. The album
has come to be known as one of his cornerstones of the rap genre, reaching
number 23 on the charts. Jay-Z’s fame slowly grew as he collaborated with
established artists, such as Notorious B.I.G., Mary J. Blige, and Nas.
He followed up his first album with In My Lifetime, Vol. 1 in 1997, which
was a fusion of gansta rap and pop, rising to number three on the charts. In
1998, Jay-Z released Vol 2 . . . Hard Knock Life, which contained hits
including “Can I Get A” and “Hard Knock Life (Ghetto Anthem),” which
sampled the same song from the musical Annie. The album won a Grammy
for Best Rap Album and went on to achieve five-times Platinum status.
Vol 3: Life and Times of S. Carter was released in 1999 and featured well-
known hits “Big Pimpin’” and “Do It Again (Put Ya Hands Up).” That same
year he launched the Rocawear clothing line, which reached sales of $700
million in 2007.
After releasing several more albums, including Dynasty Roc la Familia
(2000), The Blueprint (2001), Unplugged (2001), The Best of Both Worlds
(2002), The Blueprint2: The Gift & the Curse (2002), and The Black Album
(2003), Jay-Z announced his retirement. He became the president of Def Jam
Records with the mission of providing direction to the struggling label.
Under Jay-Z’s leadership, Def Jam found success with new artists like Ri-
hanna and Young Jeezy.
Jay-Z has been the focus of several controversies, including the stabbing
of a record producer in 2001, which led to a sentence of three years’
probation, as well as public feuds with prominent rappers such as Prodigy
and Nas.
He came out of retirement in 2005 for the “I Declare War” concert in New
York City and went on to release Kingdom Come (2006) and American
Gangster (2007). He left Def Jam in 2009 so that he could establish Roc
Nation, a talent agency, label, and music publisher. He has diversified his
162 • J-CARD
holdings to include nightclubs, a sports agency, stakes in beverage compa-
nies, and many other business initiatives. In 2008, he wed recording artist
Beyoncé, and in 2015 he led the acquisition of music streaming service
Tidal. Since his so-called 2005 retirement, all four of his studio albums have
attained Platinum sales levels.
Through his prolific artistic output and strong business acumen, Jay-Z has
solidified his position as one of the top male rappers and entrepreneurs of all
time, selling in excess of 100 million albums and winning 21 Grammy
Awards.

J-CARD. In the era of the compact music cassette, the normal album art-
work was adapted to fit onto a small printed cover, which would be inserted
into a plastic case that was then shrink-wrapped and ready for retail sale. Due
to the cover’s dimensions, when viewed from the side it resembled the letter
J.

JINGLES. A term used to describe music composed and performed for the
benefit of a company advertising a product or service to consumers. The
composition often contains lyrics that may mention the product name, a
perceived benefit, or another slogan. Jingles often conform to the standard
length of radio or television advertisements, for example, 30 or 60 seconds in
duration. Composers who specialize in this area of music are often termed
jingle writers, and music firms that become well known for such work may
be referred to as jingle houses. Prior to the advent of cable television, popular
jingles became as ubiquitous as the most successful hit songs due to their
heavy rotation on prime-time television and radio broadcasts.

JOINT RECORDING. A sound recording that features more than one es-
tablished artist in an equal or costarring role. Most often, this takes the form
of a duet, but larger ensembles may be made up for the purpose of joint
recordings, an example being the 1990s phenomenon of the Three Tenors.
In most cases, the artists on the joint recording will share billing and royalties
equally.

JONES, QUINCY. Quincy Delight Jones Jr. was born on 14 March 1933 in
Chicago and is an African American producer, entrepreneur, musician, and
philanthropist widely known for producing Michael Jackson’s best-selling
albums. Jones relocated to the Seattle area with his family at the age of 10.
There he developed his musical abilities, playing trumpet in a number of
musical groups. After attending some college, he joined Lionel Hampton’s
band and toured Europe at the age of 19. By the 1960s, Jones was an in-
demand arranger, composer, and bandleader, breaking into film music for
 JOPLIN, SCOTT (1867/68–1917) • 163
the 1964 film The Pawnbroker, the first of 33 motion pictures he would
score. He continued to write and release his own music while also serving as
an executive for Mercury Records.
In 1975, Jones founded Qwest Productions, one of a number of media and
entertainment companies he would found and guide to exceptional success in
music, television, Broadway musicals, and motion pictures. He famously
brought together dozens of A-list performers to raise money and awareness
to the plight of Ethiopians via the 1985 charity project “We Are the World.”
It was Jones who helped define the 1980s pop music milieu with his work
producing Michael Jackson’s albums Off the Wall (1979), Thriller (1982),
and Bad (1987), each of which went on to sell millions of copies and influ-
ence untold numbers of musicians around the world. He is also an outspoken
advocate for civil rights and helping underprivileged youth. He has been
recognized by his peers with an unprecedented 79 Grammy Award nomina-
tions, winning a Grammy 27 times during his storied career.

JOPLIN, SCOTT (1867/68–1917). Scott Joplin was a composer best known

as the “King of Ragtime” due to the more than 40 popular ragtime composi-
tions he wrote between 1899 and 1914, a number of which, such as “Maple
Leaf Rag” and “The Entertainer,” are still popular today. Born into a musical
family in Texarkana, Texas, he reportedly benefited from music instruction
from a German immigrant music teacher at an early age. As a young man,
Joplin gained employment as a touring musician, playing cornet. He pub-
lished his first two songs in 1895. In 1894, he was living in Sedalia, Missou-
ri, and attending music classes at a local college while also taking on his own
piano and composition students.
Joplin’s first piano rag song, “Original Rags,” was published in 1899
under the then-standard arrangement in which the publisher paid the compos-
er a one-time fee of $25 to turn over outright ownership of the work to the
publisher. Joplin decided to consult an attorney before his next song, “Ma-
ple Leaf Rag,” would be published. The attorney advised him to obtain a
royalty agreement with his publisher, Stark Music, which would pay Joplin
one cent for each copy of the sheet music to this song. Although only 400
copies of “Maple Leaf Rag” were sold in the first year, it steadily grew in
popularity so that by 1909 it had sold more than half a million copies and
Joplin’s financial future was secure.
In addition to his well-known piano rags, Joplin also wrote musical theater
works, the best known of which was Treemonisha. Although it was never
performed in its entirety during his lifetime, the musical did enjoy a select
number of performances in the 1970s, when ragtime music, and Joplin in
particular, experienced a dramatic revival. The music became newly popular
long after Joplin’s passing and was the focus of numerous new recordings,
concerts, and articles celebrating his works and the contributions he made to
164 • JORDAN, LOUIS (1908–1975)
America’s musical heritage. It was at this time that some of Joplin’s songs,
most notably the song “The Entertainer,” appeared on the popular music
charts due to its prominent use in the 1973 film The Sting, which was a box
office success. Joplin’s musical scores were published in new editions, and
live performances of his repertoire were appreciated by jazz, classical, and
popular music audiences.

JORDAN, LOUIS (1908–1975). Louis Thomas Jordan was a performer,

songwriter, bandleader, comedian, and singer who helped pave the way for
rock ’n’ roll music with his groundbreaking group, the Tympany Five.
While Jordan came of age during the Big Band era and played in well-known
groups, he really came into his own just before World War II, pioneering the
use of a small group, five or six players, and combining elements of jazz,
blues, and boogie-woogie to create his own dance-focused sound, referred to
as “jump blues.” Jordan’s music appealed to both black and white audiences,
and he had 18 number one hits. His telegenic personality perfectly suited
film, and he appeared in a number of motion pictures, as well as the short-
lived phenomenon known as “soundies,” short 16-millimeter films that
would be available in the lobby of theaters and other stores to view via a
coin-operated jukebox, a precursor to the music videos of the 1980s.

JUKEBOX. A jukebox is a partially automated music playback system,

most often found in restaurants or nightclubs, used by consumers to select
and play back a particular popular song for a fee. The first jukebox, then
called a coin-in-the-slot phonograph, was invented in 1889 and was able to
automatically play back an Edison phonograph cylinder after a coin was
dropped in a slot and the listener wound up a spring motor to then play the
recording. The devices captured the imagination of the public to such a
degree that exhibitors would rent a space to place a number of the machines,
each able to play back one song through a listening tube. People flocked to
experience the novelty of listening to recorded music in these so-called
phonograph parlors.
By the late 1920s, discs had replaced cylinders, and jukeboxes of the day
featured as many as eight record selections. Restaurants and bars signed up
by the score to install a jukebox as they proved popular for dancing and
listening to music while generating revenue for the owner and location. Un-
like radio or television, there were no racial guidelines for what artists could
be stocked and played, resulting in many people being exposed to rhythm
and blues artists before such music became widely accepted.
During the 1950s, with the rise of rock ’n’ roll and teen culture, the
jukebox became an iconic emblem of the age, with many of the jukebox
designs mimicking the dazzling color schemes, chrome, and glass featured
 JUKEBOX • 165
on automobiles of the era. Jukeboxes continued to evolve with the move to
compact discs in the 1980s and streaming media via an internet connection
in the 21st century. They can still be found in bars, restaurants, and other
establishments today.
 K
KESHA (KESHA ROSE SEBERT). Kesha Rose Sebert was born on 1
March 1987 in Los Angeles. She is best known as a singer, songwriter, and
rapper. She was raised by her mother, Pebe Sebert, who is also a songwriter.
Kesha grew up in Nashville, Tennessee, where the family relocated to benefit
her mother’s musical career. Kesha showed early musical promise with her
voice and played saxophone and trumpet in her high school band. In 2005, at
the age of 18, she opted to drop out of high school and forgo college to sign a
record contract with producer Dr. Luke and his RCA Records imprint,
Kemosabe Records. Over the next four years, Kesha struggled to support
herself, mainly doing background vocals and working as a waitress.
Her breakthrough as a performer came due to her 2009 credited feature
vocal on the Flo Rida hit “Right Round,” which would go five-times Plati-
num and top the charts. Kesha’s own debut album, Animal, was released on
5 January 2010 and featured four top 10 singles, propelling the album to
double Platinum status. Her follow-up releases, including the albums Warri-
or (2012) and Rainbow (2017), however, when compared to her debut re-
lease, were commercially disappointing.
After 10 years under contract to Kemosabe, Kesha found her working
relationship with Dr. Luke to have become untenable, in large part due to her
allegations that he belittled and sexually harassed her repeatedly during this
period. These allegations led to a lawsuit she filed in 2014 describing what
was termed by Kesha’s attorney as sexual assault and battery, harassment,
and emotional abuse over the course of her ten-year contract. After nearly
two years of legal proceedings, the suit was dismissed, in large part because
the statute of limitations had expired for the instances of alleged sexual
assault. The dispute, however, brought mainstream media attention to the
environment that women sometimes encounter in the music industry and
elicited wide support from international artists, including Adele, Lady Gaga,
Janelle Monae, Lorde, and others.

167
168 • KEYBOARD STORE
Kesha’s songwriting credits include compositions cowritten for artists
such as Miley Cyrus, Britney Spears, Ariana Grande, and Iggy Azalea. Her
single “Tik Tok” has sold more than 15 million copies, and overall she has
sold an estimated 76 million records (albums and singles) worldwide.

KEYBOARD STORE. A specific type of music products retail store that

offers pianos and keyboards for sale or rental. Many keyboard stores also
offer music lessons. While there is still a market for acoustic pianos, the
interest and growth of the digital keyboard market has been a boost for
keyboard stores. Since keyboards are sold at various types of retailers, in-
cluding keyboard, combo, internet, and full-line music stores, the 2015
National Association of Music Merchandisers’ Global Report cites the
following sales by category: acoustic pianos, $304 million; portable key-
boards, $187 million; digital pianos, $165 million; keyboard synthesizers/
controllers, $104 million; institutional organs, $28 million; and home organs,
$13 million.

KICKERS. An industry term used to describe financial incentives tied to a

particular level of performance for a project, often a motion picture or televi-
sion show, that incorporates music. This is often a strategy used to reduce the
front-end costs in producing such a project while still offering the possibility
for additional payments to the composer or songwriter of the music used on
the project in the event that sales and revenue for that property meet or
exceed certain predetermined levels.
See also ESCALATION CLAUSE.

KING, CAROLE. Carole King, born Carol Joan Klein on 9 February 1942,
in Brooklyn, New York, is a songwriter, performer, and recording artist best
known for her 1971 album Tapestry, which would go on after its release to
sell more than 25 million copies. She started learning piano from her mother
at the age of three. She excelled at music and school and by high school was
making demonstration recordings for $25 a session, sometimes pairing
with her friend Paul Simon. However, her songwriting was a part-time avo-
cation as she studied at nearby Queens College, where she met fellow song-
writer Gerry Goffin, who was studying chemistry. They married in 1959 and
both quit school and took day jobs, continuing to write in their spare time.
One of their songs, “Will You Still Love Me Tomorrow,” was recorded by
the Shirelles and went to number one on the Billboard charts in 1961,
allowing them to focus full-time on songwriting.
As members of the talented young group of songwriters in New York
City’s Brill Building, through the 1960s King and Goffin wrote more than
two dozen hit songs for a variety of artists, including Aretha Franklin, the
 KLEIN, ALLEN (1931–2009) • 169
Drifters, the Monkees, and Herman’s Hermits. By 1968, the couple had
divorced and King moved to Los Angeles, where she continued to write and
perform, leading up to her breakthrough album as an artist, Tapestry. In total,
King has written 118 top 100 songs for various artists throughout her career
and won four Grammys and numerous other accolades, including becoming
the first woman ever to win the nation’s highest songwriting honor, the
Gershwin Prize for Popular Song, in 2013.

KING RECORDS. Syd Nathan (1904–1968) founded King Records in 1943

in Cincinnati, Ohio. The label initially released primarily hillbilly music,
which would soon come to be known as country music. Nathan was an
exceptionally entrepreneurial individual and expanded his company’s offer-
ings by adding the Queen label to release so-called race records, and a third
imprint, Federal Records. Nathan believed in total control of the entire
record-making process, so he maintained writing and recording studios, jack-
et printers, and record presses all under one roof. One of his other notable
innovations was having black artists cover the hits of King’s country singers
and having the country artists release their own interpretations of the Queen
label’s rhythm and blues hits. In this way, he maximized his earnings from
song copyrights and helped bring new music to different audience segments.
The 1952 release of the song “Sixty Minute Man” on Federal by the Domi-
noes is regarded as one of the first race records to crack the popular (white)
music charts, reaching number 17 there while topping the rhythm and blues
chart. Other significant King family artists include James Brown, Moon
Mullican, Hawkshaw Hawkins, the Delmore Brothers, Hank Ballard, and Joe
Tex.

KLEIN, ALLEN (1931–2009). Allen Klein was an entrepreneur, business

manager, accountant, and music executive. He is best known for establish-
ing new models for artist compensation from record labels in the 1960s and
1970s. Klein was born on 18 December 1931 in Newark, New Jersey, and
grew up partially in an orphanage due to the fact that his mother died shortly
after he was born. After military service, he graduated from college in 1957
with a degree in accounting and proved facile with numbers and contracts
throughout his lengthy career. The first artist for whom Klein negotiated a
radically improved compensation scheme was soul singer Sam Cooke. Klein
renegotiated Cooke’s deal with RCA Records in 1963, allowing Cooke to
write, record, produce, and own his own records, then to lease them back to
RCA for a finite period, after which the records would revert to Cooke’s new
company. Additionally, Klein negotiated substantially larger advances
against future releases for Cooke.
170 • KLEIN, ALLEN (1931–2009)
Soon after his success with Cooke, Klein started to help many of the so-
called British Invasion groups negotiate more lucrative recording deals.
These included negotiations on behalf of the Animals, the Kinks, Lulu, and
Peter Townsend of the Who. Klein’s reputation led to a meeting with An-
drew Loog Oldham, one of the managers of the Rolling Stones, who invited
Klein to help the Stones renegotiate their contract with Decca Records. Klein
masterfully handled the transactions and ended up securing the band a $1.2
million advance in 1965 from Decca and their U.S. subsidiary, London
Records. As the band’s popularity skyrocketed, Klein then renegotiated the
Stones’ deal in 1966 up to the then unheard of advance sum of $2.6 million.
After the death of the Beatles’ manager, Brian Epstein, the group faced
mounting financial difficulties, and in early 1969 Klein met with John Len-
non and Yoko Ono to discuss possible representation to help the Beatles
regain control of their finances. Their altruistic Apple Corp. was bleeding
money faster than the band could earn it. Although only three of the Beatles,
Lennon, Harrison, and Starr, chose to work with Klein, he helped them
regain their financial footing and negotiate much more lucrative contracts
with EMI and Capitol Records as band members and solo artists.
Although Klein initially was hailed by many of the artists with whom he
worked as a genius, he had a propensity for inserting himself or one of his
subsidiary companies, the most famous of which was ABCKO Entertain-
ment, into an ownership stake in his clients’ intellectual property, a move
that few other managers had ever taken before. This led to an acrimonious
and extended sequence of lawsuits between the Stones and Klein’s compa-
nies that ran from 1971 through the 1980s, with the band alleging that Klein
had withheld millions in royalties due to them. Similarly, by the mid-1970s,
the three Beatles signed to Klein came to see some of his practices as unethi-
cal and broke ties with the manager.
Klein was a polarizing figure in the music industry, due in large part to his
inability to adhere to the basic fiduciary responsibilities that all artist and
business managers should embrace. His ability to consistently take an owner-
ship interest in the creative works of his clients, as well as his often apparent
lack of transparency in dealing with millions of dollars of artist royalties,
ended up severely damaging his reputation with his clients. Still, Klein did
help to usher in much greater creativity in how recording and publishing
contracts were structured, with the result that artists were able to earn much
greater financial rewards from their musical output. Klein continued to help
manage ABCKO Entertainment and its various subsidiary companies into the
21st century. He passed away in New York City from respiratory failure on 4
July 2009 after being diagnosed with Alzheimer’s a few years earlier.
 KNOWLES, BEYONCÉ • 171
KNOWLES, BEYONCÉ. Beyoncé Giselle Knowles is a singer, songwrit-
er, actress, and producer born on 4 September 1981 in Houston, Texas. She
only uses her first name in her professional capacity. Beyoncé’s success in
the music industry began as a member of vocal trio, Destiny’s Child. They
debuted their first album in 1998 and had several hits, such as “Survivor,”
“Say My Name,” and “Bootylicious.”
Knowles took a break from the group in 2003 and released her first solo
album, Dangerously in Love, which featured artists such as Sean Paul, Missy
Elliott, and her future spouse, Jay-Z. The album went multiplatinum and
earned her five Grammys.
Destiny’s Child reunited in 2004 to release an album, Destiny Fulfilled.
After a tour and releasing a greatest hits compilation, the group officially
parted ways, allowing Beyoncé to focus on her solo career. In 2006, she
released B’day and played a role in the award-winning film Dreamgirls.
Beyoncé released the album I Am . . . Sasha Fierce in 2008, which contained
the international hit single “Put a Ring on It (All the Single Ladies).” Her
fourth studio album, 4, was released in 2011.
In December 2013, Beyoncé surprised the world with releasing the album
Beyoncé with no prior announcement or publicity, a move no artist of her
stature had ever attempted. Drake, Frank Ocean, and Jay-Z all made guest
appearances on the album. The album was a great success and quickly went
to number one on the charts, in large part due to her loyal fan base promot-
ing its surprise release via social media.
In early 2016, Beyoncé released Lemonade, a visual album for which each
of its 12 songs was presented through an elaborately produced video. The
album premiered on the cable network HBO. Lemonade received both com-
mercial and critical acclaim, not only because of its artistic quality but also
due to the fact that it thematically addressed thoughtful topics such as race,
gender, relationships, and societal issues.
Beyoncé has also been involved in the fashion industry, inaugurating a
fashion and home goods line called House of Dereon, a collaboration with
her mother, and expanded into an activewear line with the British fashion
retailer Topshop. Like many superstars, Beyoncé has attracted long-stand-
ing, lucrative endorsement deals with corporations in the cosmetics, fashion,
soft drink, and gaming companies, with the most notable such deal being a
reported $50 million endorsement agreement with Pepsi in 2012.
Beyoncé’s artistic output and ability to continue to appeal to audiences
worldwide is impressive and has solidified her position as one of the most
successful artists of the 21st century. She has won 22 Grammy Awards and
sold more than 81 million records worldwide. She has also developed a high
profile as a philanthropist, lending her celebrity to a wide range of nonprofit
organizations and initiatives to help address societal and economic issues.
172 • K-POP (KOREAN POP)
K-POP (KOREAN POP). The term “K-Pop” is used internationally to iden-
tify popular music that is created and produced in South Korea and exported
worldwide. K-Pop performers are the product of a years-long preparatory
program that includes vocal and musical training, dancing, deportment, and
language skills. Similar to the boy band phenomenon in the West, K-Pop
groups feature visually appealing young men or women performing highly
produced music that is inspired by Western pop music. Three large K-Pop
production companies dominate the field and are models of vertical music
industry integration similar to the model that Motown Records followed in
the 1960s, combining record label, production company, booking agency,
and music publishing arms to maximize profits. The three firms are YG
Entertainment, SM Entertainment, and JYP Entertainment. Collectively, the
three firms reported $669 million in 2016 revenues.
K-Pop has broadened its appeal beyond South Korea by having the groups
perform in other languages, including Japanese and Chinese. The worldwide
success of K-Pop singer Psy and his 2012 hit song “Gangnam Style” helped
increase awareness of the genre in Western territories, where he and other K-
Pop artists are building a following. At the time of writing, a number of K-
Pop groups, such as EXO, BTS, and Girls Generation, have cracked the
Billboard “Top 200” chart and made sold-out appearances at American are-
nas, demonstrating the staying power and growth K-Pop has developed.
 L
LABEL SERVICES DEAL. Similar to a pressing and distribution (P&D)
deal, which is designed to help an independent record label take advantage
of a major distribution company’s muscle to get the indie label’s records to
all relevant retail channels, a label services deal is an option for the indepen-
dent artist who does not have his or her own label and has an established
audience. In a label services deal, certain music companies will provide
funding to press the artist’s record, as well as market and promote it, for a
share of the revenues generated by the record’s sales. The advantage to the
artist is that once they have funded the recording of the album, the other party
pays all of the necessary costs for manufacturing, shipping, distribution,
marketing, and promotion, in turn taking a larger share than if the artist had
secured a P&D deal.

LADY GAGA. Lady Gaga was born Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta in
New York City on 28 March 1986 and is considered one of the first millenni-
al superstars. She attended school at New York University’s Tisch School
for the Arts. She withdrew from school after two years to pursue a career in
performance. She is best known as a singer, songwriter, performance artist,
and actress who has made her reputation by presenting unconventional and
provocative art and visual images to her audience.
After honing her songwriting and vocal skills performing in coffee houses
and clubs around New York, she was signed to a record deal with Def Jam
Recordings but was then dropped. She secured a staff songwriting position
at a music publisher and kept building her contacts. She eventually came to
the attention of the artist Akon, who helped her sign a new deal with Inter-
scope Records in 2007. Gaga released her debut album in 2008, titled The
Fame, which sold more than 12 million copies worldwide. Some of the songs
on The Fame were hits, including “Just Dance,” “Paparazzi,” and “Poker
Face.” In 2009, she released an EP, The Fame Monster, which was a deluxe
addition to her debut album featuring hits like “Bad Romance” and a well-
received duet with Beyoncé, “Telephone.” Combined sales of the album and
EP topped 15 million worldwide.

173
174 • LAMAR, KENDRICK
Lady Gaga released her second album, Born This Way, in 2011. The album
achieved double Platinum status despite mixed reviews. The title track,
“Born This Way,” became an empowerment anthem and was embraced by
those seeking marriage equality for LGBTQ persons. Her third album, Art-
pop, was released in 2013, debuting at number one. The following year, she
showed her range by releasing an album of jazz standards performed as duets
with legendary singer Tony Bennett titled Cheek to Cheek; it debuted at the
top of the charts and helped Gaga cross over to a new audience. In 2016, she
released Joanne, continuing her streak of album debuts at the number one
position.
Lady Gaga’s style is theatrical, extravagant, and glamorous. She is known
for her outrageous and elaborate costumes, frequent set and wardrobe
changes during her concerts, and for creating a media firestorm with her
creative ideas, such as the infamous dress made of raw beef that she wore at
the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards. Her music videos and live perfor-
mances are spectacles that present creative art form as mainstream entertain-
ment. She calls her devoted group of fans “Little Monsters”; however, the
size and intensity of her fans’ devotion to her is singular in today’s pop music
milieu, with a proportionally higher ratio of super fans than any other pop
star. More than any other contemporary artist, Gaga inspires fan engage-
ment at a level that helps make every new recording, tour date, and public
announcement a major media event.
Importantly, Gaga has used her celebrity throughout her career to cham-
pion causes ranging from the aforementioned LGBTQ rights to disaster relief
around the world. In 2012, she founded the Born This Way Foundation to
address issues of youth empowerment, antibullying, and self-esteem. She has
won numerous awards, including six Grammy Awards, as well as a Golden
Globe for her acting in the series American Horror Story and numerous
fashion awards. While her worldwide album sales of 27 million units are
impressive, she is best known as a singles artist, having sold an estimated
146 million singles worldwide as of 2016. In 2017, the Recording Industry
Association of America certified that Gaga is one of the top-selling digital
artists, having sold more than 60 million digital downloads or streaming
equivalents.

LAMAR, KENDRICK. Kendrick Lamar Duckworth (b. 17 June, 1987) is

an American songwriter, record producer, rapper, and singer. Lamar is
known as a remarkable storyteller and for making compelling concept al-
bums on which he has collaborated with a variety of hip hop, jazz, and pop
artists. His albums have earned him numerous awards, including the Pulitzer
Prize for Music in 2018 for his fourth studio album, DAMN.
 LEAGUE OF AMERICAN ORCHESTRAS • 175
Lamar was born and raised in Compton, California, and began his musical
career as a teenager using the moniker K-Dot. In 2010, his self-produced
mixtape, Overly Dedicated, drew attention to his abilities leading to a
contract with Top Dawg Entertainment. Soon after, he released a full length
album, Section.80, to positive reviews that resulted in his first appearance on
the Billboard charts in 2011. His major label debut album, good kid, m.A.A.d
city (2012) went Platinum and contained hits like “Bitch, Don’t Kill My
Vibe” and “Swimming Pools (Drank).” In 2015, Lamar’s third album, To
Pimp a Butterfly, was released to both critical and commercial acclaim, hit-
ting number one on the Billboard chart. It was awarded a Grammy for Best
Rap Album and was nominated for Album of the Year. It contains jazz, funk,
spoken word, and soul elements and also explores both socio-political and
personal issues affecting African Americans. Lamar released his fourth al-
bum, DAMN, in 2017, which topped the charts for 11 weeks. Notably, each
song on DAMN entered the Billboard 200. The album went triple Platinum
and won Lamar another Grammy for Best Rap Album. DAMN was awarded
the 2018 Pulitzer Prize for Music—the first time a non-jazz or classical work
received the award. Lamar was also involved in each track of the soundtrack
for the smash hit movie, Black Panther (2018), which has become one of the
best-selling soundtrack albums of recent years.

LEAD SHEET. A lead sheet is a written representation of a particular song

with the melody and often the accompaniment written on a musical staff. The
accompaniment may be in the form of a notated piano part or simply the
chord symbols used to accompany the song’s melody. They are often made
for the purpose of a rehearsal or recording session to facilitate other musi-
cians playing that song together. Prior to the Copyright Act of 1976, the
Library of Congress required lead sheets to be submitted to register a song
copyright.

LEAGUE OF AMERICAN ORCHESTRAS. Formerly known as the

American Symphony Orchestra League, the organization was founded in
1942 as an advocacy group for orchestras and instrumental music perform-
ers. Since that time, the League, as it is commonly referred to, has grown to
more than 2,000 organization and individual members working collectively
to advance music and arts in American society. The League underwrites
ongoing studies on arts presenting, audience development, societal and dem-
ographic changes impacting orchestras, and a host of other relevant topics.
The League also offers ongoing training and professional development op-
portunities for aspiring and established arts administration professionals.
176 • LEGACY ACT
LEGACY ACT. The term generally refers to artists or musical groups that
are no longer in the prime portion of their career yet retain a measurable level
of support from music fans. Legacy acts often reunite if the prospects for a
tour or other revenue-generating activities seem to justify such an invest-
ment. In large part, due to the economic clout of the baby boomer generation,
legacy acts make up the greatest portion of successful mid- to large-scale
tours annually. Examples include artists such as the Rolling Stones, Fleet-
wood Mac, Journey, Boston, Earth, Wind & Fire, Guns N’ Roses, and the
Backstreet Boys—all of whom have completed profitable tours, in part be-
cause their older recordings remain popular on oldies radio stations and via
music streaming sites.
For artists who are deceased, the management of their estates and intellec-
tual property represents another important part of the overall music industry.
The music and other assets of artists such as Elvis Presley, Michael Jack-
son, Jim Morrison, Prince, James Brown, John Lennon, and Janis Joplin
afford opportunities for music managers to work with the artist’s survivors to
continue to benefit from the artist’s past work and image.

LIBERACE (1919–1987). Liberace, born Wladziu Valentino Liberace, was

an American pianist, singer, and actor who enjoyed tremendous fame over
his 40-year career on the international stage. He was born in West Allis,
Wisconsin, on 16 May 1919 to working-class immigrant parents and showed
early talent on the piano, which he took up at the age of four. In his teens, he
not only mastered classical piano but played popular music and jazz in a
number of ensembles. As a teenager, he reportedly was singled out and
ridiculed by other students due to his effeminate nature, avoidance of sports,
and love of cooking, but he poured his energy into his music, winning praise
in a 1937 classical music piano competition for his abilities. In 1940, he
made his debut as a soloist with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, which led
to touring as a classical pianist throughout the Midwest.
During the war years, Liberace changed his performance strategy to incor-
porate popular music, along with stage patter and audience involvement that
lent an air of comedy to his performances. His new stage act went over well
with the public, and by 1945 he was invited to perform in the premiere
venues in Las Vegas, then just beginning to become an entertainment desti-
nation. An integral part of his act was elaborate costumes, which included
capes, furs, jewels, and other trappings normally associated with royalty. He
bought and adapted various pianos with rhinestones, jewels, and ornate deco-
rations, further distinguishing his concerts from that of other pianists. Each
piano would be adorned with his signature candelabra. Along with this, he
masterfully orchestrated nearly nonstop publicity that not only praised his
musically entertaining performances but also played up his extravagant and
showy lifestyle, which included building his first celebrity house in 1953 that
 LIBERACE (1919–1987) • 177
featured a piano-shaped swimming pool. His fame grew to the point that by
1954 he was able to perform at a sold-out Madison Square Garden, earning a
then record $138,000 for a single performance. When he performed at night-
clubs, his concerts would often end with his invitation to the audience to join
him onstage, where he would chat with audience members, show them his
costume, and treat them like guests in his own home. His plainspoken, folksy
mannerisms contrasted dramatically with his flamboyant look, further en-
dearing him to his legions of admirers. At one point, his ardent admirers were
maintaining a reported 200 different Liberace fan clubs that helped sustain
his career over the long haul.
It was the advent of television that helped Liberace become one of the first
television superstars of the 1950s. His foray into television began when he
created a very successful 15-minute television show in 1952 that ran for a
few weeks and demonstrated the appeal Liberace had to viewing audiences.
Soon after, the producer of that show filmed one of Liberace’s concert ap-
pearances with a live audience. This show was offered in syndication over
the next two years to scores of television stations around the United States
and earned more than $7 million for Liberace. Over the ensuing years, televi-
sion would prove to be the most effective means for Liberace to grow his
audience. This impacted the performance fees he was able to command,
which grew dramatically from the $50,000 per week for his nightclub perfor-
mances in the 1950s to more than $300,000 per week by the 1970s. At the
same time, he was selling hundreds of thousands of records.
Between the years 1958 and 1970, Liberace had a regular half-hour day-
time television show, first airing on ABC and then CBS, which drew an
audience of over 30 million viewers, mostly women. He reportedly received
as many as 10,000 fan letters per week during the peak of his television
popularity. He also made frequents appearances as himself on shows as
diverse as variety shows such as The Ed Sullivan Show and Jack Benny Show
to The Muppets, Kojak, Saturday Night Live, The Tonight Show, and even
WrestleMania. All the while, his nightclub act continued to be well attended,
with regular residencies in Las Vegas, where his fans would travel to see his
show and meet him afterward.
While critics generally panned Liberace, he famously responded to harsh
reviews with the sardonic line, “I cried all the way to the bank,” further
cementing his place as one of the most successful showmen in the entertain-
ment business over his 30-plus-year run. He also diversified his business
interests, publishing a number of best-selling cookbooks and owning an
antiques store in Beverly Hills. Tabloid newspapers published allegations of
Liberace’s homosexuality, which he successfully fought in court, winning
significant judgments in each case. Liberace’s star power was undiminished
later in his life, as his last public performances were a series of 18 sold-out
shows in the fall of 1986 at New York City’s Radio City Music Hall that
178 • LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
grossed a reported $2.5 million for the entertainer. Soon after, he taped a
performance for The Oprah Winfrey Show in late November, which was
aired on Christmas Day 1986.
Liberace was diagnosed privately as being HIV positive in August 1985
by his personal physician and never announced publicly that he had AIDS.
As his health declined, he retreated to his home in Palm Springs, California,
and passed away on 4 February 1987 from complications due to AIDS.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. The Library of Congress is the home of the

Copyright Office in the United States. New original musical works that will
be commercially exploited are normally registered with the Copyright Office
to afford the composer or songwriter the maximum protections under copy-
right law.

LICK. A lick is similar to a riff but more commonly applies to a distinctive

series of notes used in a solo or instrumental section of a music performance
or recording. The concluding series of notes played at the end of the electric
guitar solo during the Led Zeppelin song “Stairway to Heaven” is a typical
example of a lick well known to many rock guitarists.
See also MOTIF.

LIGHT, ROB. Rob Light is an agent specializing in live music concerts and
heads the Music Department at Creative Artists Agency (CAA), which in
2015 was responsible for booking artists that earned $3.4 billion in concert
sales. He attended Syracuse University, where he was in charge of staging
campus concerts before earning a degree in film and television. He began his
career in the entertainment industry in the mail room at International Crea-
tive Management in 1978, becoming an agent one year later. Light moved to
CAA in 1984. Two of his most notable contributions to the field include
expansion of full-service offices overseas both to develop new relationships
and to take care of U.S.-based artists during international touring, and the
development of the so-called integrated services model, whereby his team
develops new opportunities for endorsements, film placements, licensing,
acting, apparel, fragrance, beauty products, and other ancillary fields.

LILITH FAIR. Lilith Fair was a tour founded by Sarah McLachlan in 1997
as a way to highlight talented female musicians and female-led bands. The
tour continued until 1999 and featured headliners, up-and-coming perform-
ers, and local musicians. Some of the performers who toured with Lilith Fair
were Paula Cole, Lisa Loeb, Bonnie Raitt, Tracy Chapman, Jewel, Indigo
Girls, Erkyah Badu, Natalie Merchant, Sheryl Crow, Dixie Chicks, Christina
 LIND, JENNY (1820–1887) • 179
Aguilera, Nelly Furtado, and Queen Latifah. It was an opportunity for female
artists from different genres to come together and raise awareness of wom-
en’s issues.
In 1997, Lilith Fair earned $16 million and was the top-grossing festival
tour of the year. The tour also donated money to women’s charities through-
out Canada and the United States. The festival was revived in 2010 with
mixed reviews.

LIND, JENNY (1820–1887). Jenny Lind was a Swedish singer who capti-
vated the American listening public with her yearlong American tour, which
was orchestrated by master promoter P. T. Barnum. Barnum was a master
salesman and impresario who managed to read the public like few others
before or after him. He was so confident in his ability to create a near frenzy
of interest for the singer, whom he dubbed the “Swedish Nightingale,” when
she arrived in America, Barnum prepaid the then-extraordinary concert fees
of $187,000, which Lind may have demanded to discourage such an ex-
tended foreign tour.
Barnum recognized her outstanding vocal ability and charismatic person-
ality and combined those with his unique and effective promotion tech-
niques, which included newspapers, posters, and word of mouth. By drawing
the public’s attention to her upstanding Christian character with the prestige
of operatic singing, a relatively new musical style to the American audience,
he built up enough interest so that when her steamship docked in New York
Harbor on 1 September 1850, she was greeted by 30,000 admirers. Much like
the frenzy that would arise in the next century for Frank Sinatra, Elvis
Presley, and the Beatles, everywhere Lind made an appearance would turn
into a mob scene filled with thousands of fans straining to get a look at her.
Furthermore, to raise interest in her future concerts, Barnum would ar-
range a public auction of the first two tickets that could be purchased in each
city, with a reported $625 paid for the two tickets to her Boston concert.
These and other astounding sums paid at auction made further news head-
lines in advance of each of her appearances and fueled the ticket-buying
demand at each stop of her tour.
Lind clearly profited from her American tour, which was attended by
thousands, but Barnum made even more. As a precursor to the modern music
industry and its reliance on Jenny Lind–themed merchandise to provide
substantial revenue, Barnum sold not only concert tickets but also sheet
music, pianos, gloves, and even stoves. Barnum’s profits from the Jenny
Lind tour were estimated to be in excess of $500,000.
180 • LINER NOTES
LINER NOTES. Liner notes refer to the credits for anyone who contributed
in any way to the making of a commercial recording. It is normally the task
of the record producer to document and compile the liner notes, ensuring
that no one is left out and that everything is accurate. More recently, artists
often include thank-you lists as part of the liner notes, as well as any refer-
ences to endorsement deals they may have in effect.

LIQUIDATING THE RESERVE. The process whereby the record label

accounts for actual sales and pays the artist the appropriate amount of royal-
ties for the sales made, less any returns. This normally occurs within a two-
year window after the shipments were made to the distributors. Due to the
complexity of record label accounting, an artist will often employ a business
manager who is familiar with typical royalty accounting statements and
practices to protect their interests.

LIVE AID. The Live Aid charity concert was held on 13 July 1985 in
London at Wembley Stadium and a few hours later continued at JFK Sta-
dium in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Live Aid was one of the highest profile
among a host of sociopolitical efforts to mobilize music fans to effect social
change held during the 1980s.
The effort was organized by Bob Geldof, an Irish musician who had be-
come aware of the horrendous famine and starvation that was then devastat-
ing Ethiopia and other African nations after making a trip to see the horrific
effects caused by the famine. Combined, the two concerts ran back-to-back
for 16 hours, and with the help of then-new satellite broadcast technology,
the performances were beamed out simultaneously to 110 countries.
The concert was put together in only 10 weeks, and the roster of perform-
ers spanned genres and styles, from U2 to the Beach Boys, Madonna, the
Who, Run-DMC, Santana, Queen, David Bowie, and Sting; 70,000 attended
the London concert and 100,000 in Philadelphia, while an estimated audience
of 1.5 billion viewed it globally. Forty countries set up telephone call centers
to help raise funds locally, resulting in a total of $127 million raised to be
used for famine relief in the affected region. Furthermore, the publicity sur-
rounding the event encouraged prosperous Western nations to donate surplus
grain immediately to stem the famine.
In 2005, Geldof once again organized a series of 11 celebrity concerts
around the world, this time with the aim of debt relief for the world’s poorest
countries. Dubbed Live 8, it featured more than 1,000 performers and was
seen or heard on radio and television by an estimated audience of three
billion. Importantly, rather than a direct plea for financial support, Geldof
and his backers asked the audience to make their voice heard to politicians
and financiers to give debt relief to the poorest nations. Soon after, the
 LOLLAPALOOZA • 181
decision was made by the so-called G8 nations to cancel the debt of 18 of the
world’s poorest nations and to provide more and better access to AIDS
medication and to increase the level of foreign aid to African nations in the
ensuing years.

LIVE NATION ENTERTAINMENT. Live Nation Entertainment is one of

the largest entertainment companies in the world, formed by the 2010 merger
of Live Nation, a concert production company, and Ticketmaster, the na-
tion’s largest ticketing service. The company was built largely through acqui-
sitions starting with SFX Entertainment, a company that acquired nearly all
of the leading independent concert promoters across the United States in the
late 1990s.
In 2004, Clear Channel Communications, an established media company
with primary holdings in radio and outdoor advertising, purchased SFX En-
tertainment. Shortly after that, in 2005, the firm spun off Clear Channel’s
Entertainment Division to form Live Nation as a separate publicly traded
company. The company soon entered into high-profile, multiyear contracts
with arena-level artists such as Madonna, Jay-Z, U2, and Nickelback. Ma-
donna’s deal was valued at $120 million and Jay-Z’s at $150 million. Live
Nation stages an estimated 22,000 live events annually around the world at
more than 100 venues across the globe.
See also RAPINO, MICHAEL.

LOCATION SOUND RECORDIST. The person charged with recording

sounds during the actual filming of a motion picture, either on location or on
a sound stage. This may include recording dialogue, sound effects, stage
directions, or any other audio element that the filmmaker may need in the
postproduction process.

LOLLAPALOOZA. Lollapalooza is a music festival that features a variety

of alternative rock, heavy metal, hip hop, and punk rock musical acts, as
well as comedy acts, dance performances, and craft booths.
The first Lollapalooza was created by Perry Farrell in 1991 as a farewell
tour for his band Jane’s Addiction. The festival went on hiatus in 1996 in part
due to the high cost of tickets. The festival was revived in 2003, and in 2005
Lollapalooza was reformatted as an annual weekend destination festival in
Grant Park, Chicago, with a variety of musical acts and several stages. Be-
ginning in 2010, Lollapalooza was held in various Latin American countries,
including Chile, Brazil, and Argentina. In 2014, the first Lollapalooza was
brought to Europe, which was held in Berlin.
Through a partnership with Red Bull, the festival is broadcast live on Red
Bull TV.
182 • LOMAX, ALAN (1915–2002)
LOMAX, ALAN (1915–2002). Alan Lomax was a folk music scholar, au-
thor, and audio preservationist who traveled throughout America in the mid-
20th century to capture folk, blues, and cowboy songs at their source in the
rural regions of the South. He was born in Austin, Texas, on 15 August 1915,
the son of John Lomax, who was also an audio preservationist and worked in
the Library of Congress. John Lomax was a staff member working to com-
pile the library’s extensive Archive of American Folk Song and influenced
the path that Alan’s life would follow. Father and son would eventually team
up to travel by car across the South with various early sound-recording
devices to document the original rural music that formed a record of
American folk song.
Alan Lomax was a prolific author and documented his studies of blues,
jazz, and cowboy songs in various books and essays. He helped to broaden
the appreciation of folk songs and the innate creativity displayed in out-of-
the-way places by musicians who often carried on a generations-old aural
tradition of America’s earliest folk music. Notably, up until the pioneering
work of Lomax to make his extensive collection of field recordings, these
examples of truly American music were largely undocumented. He helped to
pioneer the study of both the cultural and geographic impact on music and
how various regions have their own sound and culture. His years of extensive
field recordings resulted in a wide selection that provides a detailed listening
library of the sound of American folk music in the 20th century. Lomax
retired in 1996 and passed away on 19 July 2002 in Sarasota, Florida.

LONG-PLAYING RECORD (LP). A long-playing record is a 12-inch vi-

nyl phonographic disc that plays at a speed of 33 1/3 RPMs. The LP was
introduced by Columbia in 1948 as a way to reproduce longer-running
works of music than could be accommodated on 78-RPM records. The LP
became the standard for commercial music releases in the 1950s.
Another important feature for LPs were the cover and liner notes, which
provided the record publisher an opportunity to include pictures, lyrics, and
explanatory notes.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, popular musicians took advantage of the
superior sound quality of the LP to add complex sounds to their LP record-
ings.
While sales for LPs diminished in the 1990s, a small market for the format
persists among musicians and collectors who appreciate the nostalgia and the
superior sound quality that the LP offers in comparison to a downloaded
sound file. More recently, millennials have embraced LPs and turntables as a
retro form of tactile music enjoyment, leading to a steady resurgence in
demand and availability for select titles being released on vinyl as well as
more modern digital delivery methods.
 LYMAN, KEVIN • 183
LONG TAIL. Author and journalist Chris Anderson popularized the theory
of the long tail with a 2004 article he wrote in Wired magazine that argued
that internet companies such as Amazon were benefiting by providing access
to media content that would not normally be stocked in a brick-and-mortar
store. While statisticians had cited the long tail, referring to the far-right side
of any X–Y axis graph of a demand curve as far back as the 1940s, it was the
emergence of digital media and firms such as Apple, Rhapsody, and Ama-
zon that could create unlimited shelf space in their online digital stores that
spurred industry conversations about the long tail.
Anderson published two editions of a book titled The Long Tail to argue
his case and applied to the music and entertainment industry. In particular,
Anderson believed there were significant sales opportunities for the less
popular catalog titles (which he referred to as “un-hits”) found closer to the
tail, far from the hit titles that usually make up the head of any demand curve.
Anderson’s theory became hotly debated as a number of industry pundits and
scholars provided counterarguments that Anderson’s so-called long tail me-
dia would be unlikely to ever amount to a substantial portion of consumer
media purchases.

LYMAN, KEVIN. Kevin Lyman is a concert promoter, entrepreneur, and

music branding expert. He was born on 5 April 1961 and is best known as the
founder of the Vans Warped Tour, one of the longest-running touring music
festivals in North America. He is also cofounder of 4Fini Inc., a live event
production company and brand strategy firm. Lyman began putting on con-
certs while attending California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, and
found he had a knack for identifying up-and-coming talent and drawing
sizable crowds. After college, he went on to work as a freelance concert
production manager in the Los Angeles market for nearly a decade. In 1991,
he became part of the team that produced the original Lollapalooza festivals,
and after the 1994 Lollapalooza he developed the first Warped Tour package.
Debuting in 1995, the initial Warped Tour proved popular with fans; how-
ever, with its lower-than-average festival ticket pricing, the model needed
additional financial support to become sustainable. Lyman decided to find
corporate partners to help sponsor the touring festival. Based on his recogni-
tion that the Warped audience represented a homogenous market segment, he
set out to find the right backers. The Vans shoe and clothing company pro-
vided some financial support for the first run out, and based on initial suc-
cess, in 1996, they took on naming sponsorship for what then became the
Vans Warped Tour. Vans clearly recognized that the Warped fans were the
same customers as for their own products, young consumers interested in
skateboarding, snowboarding, and active, alternative lifestyles.
184 • LYRICIST
The festival ran annually, covering as many as 41 cities, from 1995 to
2018 as a North American (United States and Canada) tour. There have also
been occasional international legs (1998–1999, 2012, 2015). Notable artists
who gained important early exposure on the Warped Tour include Eminem,
No Doubt, Katy Perry, My Chemical Romance, Fall Out Boy, Paramore,
Blink-182, and Black Eyed Peas. The festival has always maintained an
affordable ticket price so young fans can attend, while also donating a por-
tion of the proceeds from ticket sales to charity.
Lyman has leveraged his intimate knowledge of youth marketing to co-
found 4Fini Inc., a firm that now consults with dozens of companies in the
clothing, beverage, musical instrument, automobile, cosmetic, and publish-
ing sectors to help them promote their products to youth markets. In addition
to his professional work, Lyman founded the nonprofit Unite the United, a
charitable organization that works with many national and local nonprofit
agencies to support those organizations’ efforts to improve society. Late in
2017, Kevin Lyman announced that the 2018 Vans Warped Tour would be
the final version of the cross-country tour, but he left the door open to future
Warped-branded music events, likely on a smaller scale.

LYRICIST. A term that refers to a person writing lyrics to be used in a

musical setting. While some songwriters compose both the music and lyrics
to their original compositions, other songwriters specialize in creating mem-
orable lyrics and partner with one or more musicians to add music to their
lyrics, or vice versa, or create new lyrics for an existing musical idea.
 M
MADONNA. Madonna Louise Ciccone was born on 16 August 1958 in Bay
City, Michigan. She is a performer, songwriter, actress, author, and entre-
preneur who has challenged the traditional roles women have played in the
music industry. In the process, she has become an internationally recognized
superstar and one of the most powerful and influential persons of either
gender in the music and media industries.
Madonna excelled at drama and dance in high school and in 1978 moved
to New York City, where she studied with Alvin Ailey’s dance company,
played drums in a band called Breakfast Club, and sang background vocals
on a number of dance records. By 1982, some of her own original music
came to the attention of Sire Records, who signed her and released her first
single, “Everybody,” which became a club hit. On the strength of that single,
she recorded and released her first album on Sire, 1983’s self-titled Madon-
na, which contained three hit songs that would form a part of the Madonna
canon: “Holiday,” “Lucky Star,” and “Borderline.”
Throughout the 1980s, Madonna joined an elite group of Platinum-selling
superstar artists who defined pop music globally in the MTV era. Her songs
routinely occupied the top positions on the charts, and her controversial song
topics, fashion sense, and outspokenness led to her being lionized by young
girls nearly everywhere. She implicitly understood how to gain the greatest
attention via visual and print media as well as how to maintain a steady
stream of controversy in the press, all of which only heightened her cachet
with young audience members. At the same time, she leveraged her celebrity
to convince her record label, Time Warner Music, to fund Maverick, a new
entertainment, book publishing, video, film, music publishing, and new
record label venture in a reported $60 million investment. Madonna, along
with three other partners, owned the new company. Maverick would have
great success soon after releasing Platinum albums by Candlebox (four times
Platinum) and Alanis Morissette (16 times Platinum) among a string of hits
throughout the 1990s, in addition to Madonna’s own best-selling albums.

185
186 • MAGNETIC TAPE
In addition to her role as a co-owner of Maverick, Madonna continued to
push boundaries with her 1992 book Sex and by continuing to address issues
of sexuality, gender, and identity through her music, videos, costumes, and
outspoken opinions. Songs such as “Papa, Don’t Preach” addressed teen
pregnancy, while “Like a Prayer” dealt with interracial relationships. Stylisti-
cally, Madonna has always been able to adapt to the shifting tastes in popular
music, in part by finding new collaborators to help her stay abreast of the
public’s changing preferences. While the frequency of her album releases
and tours have tapered somewhat, the touring aspect of her career has re-
mained near the top of the list of highest-grossing tours around the world. In
2007, she entered into a 10-year, $120 million deal with Live Nation to
support her tours, fund three albums, and share proceeds from licensing and
name rights. The Sticky & Sweet Tour in 2008 reported $408 million in
ticket sales, at that time one of the highest-grossing tours ever. At the conclu-
sion of her 2015 Rebel Heart Tour, her combined tour earnings from
1990–2015 topped $1.31 billion, making her the most successful solo touring
artist according to Billboard magazine.
Madonna’s uncanny ability to reinvent herself musically over her lengthy
career, while continuing to remain relevant with fans of varying ages and
backgrounds, has led to her continued success, especially as a bankable are-
na-level live performer. Madonna continues to be a fashion, style, and musi-
cal leader well into her fourth decade in the music industry. Her sales of more
than 170 million records worldwide places her among the most successful
artists of any era.

MAGNETIC TAPE. Magnetic tape for sound recording was invented in

1928 in Germany by engineer Fritz Pfleumer. Pfleumer reasoned that strips
of magnetic metal oxide on paper could replace disc and wire recorders. He
licensed the technology in 1932 to AEG, which debuted the first ever mag-
netic tape recorder in 1935 at a broadcast fair in Germany.
The use of magnetic tape became popular in the United States after its
postwar introduction. At the time, magnetic tape produced better fidelity in
comparison to other methods. It was also easy to edit to shorten or take out
errors or create composite master recordings made up of sections from
various recordings of the same piece of music.
See also MULLIN, JACK (1913–1999).

MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDING. Developed in the 1930s in Germany,

magnetic sound recording tape and audio tape recorders altered the future of
the recorded music industry. Prior to the invention of tape-based recording,
disc or wire recordings were the norm. These offered limited recording times
and very few options for sound editing. In the aftermath of World War II,
 MARTIN, RICKY • 187
American troops came across some of the German “Magnetophon” recorders
and brought them back to America. The German designs became the basis
for the first American tape recording systems developed Ampex and other
companies.
See also CROSBY, BING (1903–1977); MAGNETIC TAPE; MULLIN,
JACK (1913–1999); REEL-TO-REEL.

MAJOR DISTRIBUTOR. Each of the three major record labels owns a

major distribution subsidiary company that acts to market and distribute that
label’s releases to the various retail channels where music is purchased or
otherwise consumed. Interestingly, in the consolidation of the record indus-
try, each of the three multinational major labels, Sony, Universal, and War-
ner, also has an affiliated “independent” distribution arm that utilizes a dif-
ferent sales staff to serve the differing needs of independent artists and labels.

MAJOR RECORD LABELS (MAJORS). As the recording industry

evolved, the leading record labels that held the greatest percentage of market
share came to be known in the industry as the “majors.” At the peak of the
record industry, there were as many as six major labels; however, due to
corporate consolidation, as well as the shifts in music consumption patterns
in the 21st century, there are currently only three major labels: Sony Music
Entertainment, Universal Music Group, and Warner Music Group.

MAJORS. See MAJOR RECORD LABELS (MAJORS).

MANUFACTURER’S SUGGESTED RETAIL PRICE (MSRP). See

SUGGESTED RETAIL LIST PRICE (SRLP).

MARTIN, RICKY. Ricky Martin (b. Enrique Martín Morales) is a Puerto

Rican American singer and actor. Born on 24 December 1971, Martin joined
the famous boy group Menudo in 1984. He performed with the group for five
years and became famous in the Latin music scene. Martin moved to the
United States and starred in the soap opera General Hospital and performed
in the Broadway production of Les Miserables. He crossed over into
American pop fame with his first English-language album, Ricky Martin
(1999), which earned gold status and contained the song “Livin’ La Vida
Loca.”
Martin was part of the late 1990s and early 2000s Latin pop explosion,
which included artists such as Shakira, Enrique Iglesias, Jennifer Lopez, and
Marc Anthony.
Martin publicly announced that he was gay in 2010. Through the Ricky
Martin Foundation, he is involved in various humanitarian efforts.
188 • MASHUP
MASHUP. A term used to designate the combination of one or more existing
recordings to create a new musical work. This technique is routinely used in
popular music and is facilitated by digital recording and sampling technolo-
gy. The term is used interchangeably as a noun or a verb.

MASTER LICENSE. A master license is granted to an organization or

entity to use a master sound recording for a purpose other than its original
use. Record labels often control the master rights of the sound recordings,
which they paid to make. By licensing these master sound recordings for
additional uses, the label generates new revenues, some of which may benefit
the artist or songwriter. Typical master license deals would be an original
sound recording used on a radio or television commercial, an original sound
recording included on a compilation album, or as part of a soundtrack
album for a movie.

MASTER RECORDING. A term used to denote a completed sound record-

ing of a song that is intended to be released commercially to the public. Since
1972, Congress has authorized a distinct copyright for each original master
recording, resulting in licensee’s necessarily securing master licenses to
reuse any original sound recording, such as a well-known recording of a song
for a film or advertisement.
See also DEMONSTRATION RECORDING.

MASTERING ENGINEER. The mastering engineer is usually involved in

the final creative steps of making a commercial sound recording and makes
subtle alterations to the loudness, timbre, or tonal quality of a music record-
ing. Mastering engineers are usually specialists who develop a loyal cadre of
clients who rely on their sonic judgment to enhance the final version of the
sound recording that will be distributed to consumers. Mastering engineers
may specialize in preparing recorded music tracks for various distribution
formats, including MP3 or other downloadable formats, compact disc, or
vinyl, each of which has its own specifications. They will normally provide
the artist and producer with a reference disc or file to compare with the
unmastered tracks, and once approved, they will then send it off to the
requisite manufacturer and distribution partners specified by the artist and
record label.

MC. A term used commonly in rap music to denote a performer who vo-
calizes rhymes over the music provided by a DJ. Historically, the term has
been used somewhat interchangeably with the alternatives “emcee” and “rap-
per.”
 MERCHANDISE • 189
MECHANICAL LICENSE. This license is given for the right to incorpo-
rate any song that is copyright protected into a phonorecord that is made
and distributed to the public. The term originated immediately after the
Copyright Act of 1909 and was used to refer to the license publishers were
now able to require for their songs to be mechanically reproduced on the then
popular piano rolls. Any audio-only means of reproducing a song requires
that a mechanical license be secured before the new phonorecord can be
distributed.
See also COMPULSORY MECHANICAL LICENSE; DIRECT LI-
CENSE; MECHANICAL ROYALTIES.

MECHANICAL RIGHTS. Mechanical rights are distinctive from syn-

chronization rights, public performance rights, and publishing rights.
They include reproducing and distributing copyrighted material onto a
sound recording, which can include any object in which sounds can be fixed
(compact discs, cassette tapes, vinyl records, digital downloads, etc.). This
term originates from when sound recordings were produced mechanically.

MECHANICAL ROYALTIES. Copyright law requires a mechanical li-

cense and corresponding royalty payment be made by any person or entity
wishing to reproduce a phonorecord or other form of sound recording. Gen-
erally, a record label will secure a mechanical license from a music pub-
lisher that controls the copyright for a given musical work and pay a corre-
sponding mechanical royalty rate for each copy of the record that is manufac-
tured and distributed, including digital downloads.
See also DIRECT LICENSE.

MEET AND GREET. A special event held either immediately before or

after an artist’s concert appearance that provides fans with a personalized
interaction with the artist for a premium ticket price. Such events have grown
to be standard operating procedure for many touring acts and serve the dual
purpose of enhancing tour revenues and allowing artists to engage in one-on-
one interactions with consumers who often may be considered super fans.
Occasionally, such events may target industry players such as the press, radio
personalities, or influential civic or societal leaders.

MERCHANDISE. Merchandise (merch) is all artist-related products, espe-

cially wearable items such as T-shirts, sweatshirts, ball caps, or beanies, as
well as a wide array of other types of products, that are branded to and
associated with an artist, tour, or album release.
190 • METADATA
The types and retail price points for various merch items will be deter-
mined to best align with an artist’s target audience demographics. One of the
most successful touring bands, the Rolling Stones reportedly offered 50
different merch items for sale on a world tour, while over its 35-year career,
Kiss is estimated to have earned more than $500 million through selling
more than 1,000 different branded items.
Merchandise sales revenues can be substantial for touring artists; as a
result, an artist may partner with specialized merchandise manufacturers that
will bid to provide capital investment and inventory of the required merchan-
dise for a tour in exchange for a share of the proceeds. Additionally, many
venues or halls may charge what is referred to as a “hall fee” for the right to
offer artist merchandise for sale in their facility. Finally, for artists that have
strong brand recognition, they may be able to secure product placements in
major retailers to augment merch revenues even when the band is not on tour.

METADATA. Metadata is data that describes data. In the music industry,

this includes information found on a score or sound recordings. In the in-
stance of a sound recording, metadata fields include the name of the tracks,
composers or songwriters, musicians, and record label, most commonly
found in a track’s International Sound Recording Code number. Metadata
is essential in the discovery and tracking of music since music is now distrib-
uted globally through an increasing array of media. Having reliable metadata
is essential for performing rights organizations to accurately track and pay
royalties to songwriters and publishers, which has been a problem since there
is not yet a universally adopted standard metadata system.

METALLICA. Metallica is one of the most influential heavy metal bands of

all time. The group rose to fame in the 1980s with virtually no support from
mainstream radio, instead touring regularly and developing a fiercely loyal
group of fans who viewed the music and lifestyle the band evidenced as
being authentic to the heavy metal genre, relatively free of corporate influ-
ences. The band has remained closely involved in their brand and business
activities over the years, paying close attention to their audience attitudes to
help ensure they do not alienate their ardent longtime fans. As they built their
career album by album, the band brought heavy metal to mainstream audi-
ences. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Metallica continually redefined the
heavy metal genre by composing increasingly complex and intricately struc-
tured songs that appealed to a wide variety of listeners.
The group originally formed in 1981 in Los Angeles and included James
Alan Hetfield (b. 1963) on vocals and guitar, Kirk Hammett (b. 1962) on
guitar, Lars Ulrich (b. 1963) on drums, and Cliff Burton (1962–1986) on
bass.
 MIDLEVEL ARTIST • 191
After the success from their first two albums, released by independent
record label Megaforce Records, Kill ’Em All (1982) and Ride the Lightning
(1984), Metallica signed with Elektra and released their third studio album,
Master of Puppets, in 1986, the group’s first to reach Gold status. While the
band was on tour in Sweden that year, Burton tragically died when their tour
bus crashed. Jason Newsted (b. 1963) replaced Burton on bass until 2001. In
2003, bassist Robert Trujillo joined the group and remains a member today.
Their 1991 hit album Metallica solidified their mainstream status and
remains to date their best-selling album, registering more than 16 million
copies sold in the United States. The album contained more concise songs,
with hits including “Enter Sandman” and “Wherever I May Roam.” Follow-
ing the release of the album, the band launched a tour that lasted nearly two
years.
In 1999, Metallica collaborated with the San Francisco Symphony on a
live album, entitled S&M, which stood for Symphony and Metallica.
In 2000, Metallica filed a lawsuit against Napster for allowing users to
share the band’s copyrighted music across the peer-to-peer network with-
out authorization. While the lawsuit was unpopular with some of their fan
base, the band nevertheless prevailed in court. More importantly, as the first
case of a world-renowned artist suing a digital music company, the case
brought much greater public awareness to the issues the music industry was
facing with unauthorized music file sharing.
The group has to date released a total of 10 studio albums, all of which
continue to sell today to their multigenerational fan base. They have sold an
estimated 94 million albums worldwide, making them one of the best-selling
groups of all time. In 2012, the band ended its relationship with Warner-
Elektra, purchasing the rights to all of its previously released master re-
cordings. Metallica then launched their own imprint, Blackened Records,
which released the group’s latest album in 2014, Hardwired . . . to Self-
Destruct, which debuted at number one and achieved Platinum status.

MIDLEVEL ARTIST. This term usually refers to an artist who is some-

what established and has a track record of selling in excess of 200,000
records with their most recent release. The term is used loosely for artists
who have advanced beyond the baby band stage but have not approached
the level of success of a superstar. A new artist that has developed a signifi-
cant following or online presence may end up receiving a record contract
offer comparable to that of an established midlevel artist if their fan base is
viewed as justifying such a commitment on the part of the record label.
192 • MIDPRICE RECORD
MIDPRICE RECORD. When sales and interest in a new record have de-
clined to the point where no further promotion is occurring, the record label
may change the price point to what is termed midprice or catalog price. The
strategy is that with a reduced price, some fans may see it as a good value
and continue to purchase the record. The reduction is usually 65–80 percent
of that label’s new release published price to dealers. Artist royalties are
reduced from what the artists earns on a new release by the same percentage.

MINIMUM ADVERTISED PRICE (MAP). The minimum advertised

price represents a retail pricing floor that is established by a manufacturer of
a particular music product in order to provide a more level playing field
between all of its dealers across the country. MAP policies, set by each
manufacturer, specify the lowest price that any of its dealers may advertise a
particular product for sale. Note that the actual selling price may in fact be
below the MAP.
The policy is also designed to help minimize perceived loss of value in the
mind of consumers. In 2009, the Federal Trade Commission found that the
National Association of Music Merchandisers (NAMM) trade association
had organized meetings at which competitors had met privately to discuss
MAP and other pricing policies that may have resulted in the regulation of
prices within various music product categories. A consent order was agreed
to in that year with NAMM, resulting in the organization agreeing to no
longer organize any anticompetitive activities between its members.

MINSTRELSY. See CHRISTY, EDWIN PEARCE (1815–1862); FOSTER,

STEPHEN (1826–1864); RACE RECORD (RACE MUSIC); RAGTIME.

MIXING ENGINEER. An engineer who specializes in mixing down the

multichannel master studio tracks that have been recorded into the final two-
channel master that will then be sent to mastering, replication, and digital
service providers. Mixing engineers are usually paid a fee per song, while the
most successful may also command a small royalty percentage on the song(s)
they mixed, usually around 1 percent of sales.

MIXTAPES. A mixtape is a self-made compilation of music made to share

widely with fans or associates of a person or artist, generally at no cost. The
invention of the cassette tape and introduction of the Walkman portable
cassette player spurred musicians as well as fans to begin creating and shar-
ing their own custom compilations of music. As technology evolved, mix-
tapes embraced first the compact disc format via homemade recordable
compact discs (CD-Rs) and now with MP3 playlists distributed and down-
loaded via the internet. Contemporary artists such as Drake and the Weeknd
 MONTEREY INTERNATIONAL POP FESTIVAL • 193
have leveraged distribution of a free mixtape made exclusively of original
material to build a substantial audience prior to launching their major label
careers. Such a strategy minimizes risk for the successful mixtape artist and
label as the market potential has been clearly demonstrated. Many well-
established artists, including Kanye West, have relied on occasionally releas-
ing free original songs to stimulate their fans’ interest in advance of a com-
mercial release.

MONITOR ENGINEER. Performers normally require some type of sound

monitor system to help them adjust their own vocal and instrumental perfor-
mance in a live concert setting. The monitor engineer is responsible for
providing the musicians onstage with a discrete sound mix of their choice for
this purpose. The monitor engineer is normally positioned on a stage wing in
order to have a clear line of sight to all of the onstage performers. The
monitor engineer plays a crucial role by feeding just the right sound levels
and mix to each performer to help them optimize their performance.

MONTEREY INTERNATIONAL POP FESTIVAL. The Monterey Inter-

national Pop Festival was held 16–18 June 1967 in Monterey, California,
drawing an estimated 100,000 attendees over its three-day run. It was initial-
ly conceived by artists the Mamas and the Papas, Beatle Paul McCartney,
and record executive Lou Adler to raise the profile of rock music and make
the case that it should be considered another form of art, comparable to jazz
in its stature. The festival became the blueprint for a series of festivals that
followed in the ensuing years, with a diverse range of artists, affordable
tickets, and an emphasis on sharing and community that characterized the
counterculture movement of the 1960s and 1970s.
Artists agreed to waive their performance fees, opting for the proceeds to
go to a charitable foundation, receiving transportation, lodging, and hospital-
ity alone for their services.
The lineup of artists featured an eclectic mix of talent, such as the Who,
Simon & Garfunkel, Hugh Masakela, Big Brother & the Holding Company
featuring Janis Joplin, the Grateful Dead, Jimi Hendrix, and Ravi Shankar.
Recording industry executives in attendance included Clive Davis, who rec-
ognized the talent of Joplin and immediately signed her group to Columbia
Records.
The festival was documented in a film of the same name shot by D. A.
Pennabaker using then state-of-the-art 16-millimeter film equipment with
synchronized sound capabilities and new film that allowed for the low light
atmosphere of the evening sets to be filmed. The resultant film, which in-
cluded scenes of the planning for the event, provided a visual road map for
future festival promoters and fans alike of what was possible in the future of
194 • MOOG, ROBERT (1934–2005)
music festivals. Based on the film and companion soundtrack’s successful
reception, the careers of many of the featured artists received a tremendous
boost in the American marketplace.
More importantly, the market potential of the festival’s attendees was
recognized, not only by record labels who rushed musical product by the
featured performers to market but by mainstream businesses that quickly
started to develop and market films, television shows, fashions, and other
products directly aimed at the youth market of the day and incorporating the
ethos first displayed at the Monterey Pop Festival.

MOOG, ROBERT (1934–2005). Robert “Bob” Moog was a pioneer in the

development and design of electronic instruments, including the Moog
synthesizer. Throughout his career, Moog worked closely with musicians,
including Wendy Carlos, John Cage, Keith Emerson, and Clara Rockmore, in
order to improve his designs.
At age 14, Moog built his own theremin, which is an instrument that uses
an electromagnetic field to produce sound. When he was 19, he formed his
own company, R.A. Moog Company, which sold theremin kits by mail order.
He used the profits from his business to fund his college education.
After graduating from college, Moog developed his first voltage-con-
trolled modular synthesizer. His synthesizers became popular with rock
musicians such as the Beach Boys, the Monkees, and the Beatles. He later
moved on to producing the MiniMoog in 1970, which was popular due to its
price point and portability. The MiniMoog was used by Pink Floyd, Tange-
rine Dream, Donna Summer, and others.
In 1972, the company became Moog Music and went through various
changes of ownership throughout the years. Moog left his own company in
1977. The following year, he started a new company called Big Briar, which
specialized in theramins and analog effects pedals. In 1999, Moog collaborat-
ed with Bomb Factory to develop the first digital effects that used Moog’s
plugins for Pro Tools software.

MORRIS, DOUG. Doug Morris was born on 23 November 1938 in New

York City. He attended Columbia University and started out as a staff song-
writer for a music publisher, penning the song “Sweet Talkin’ Guy,” which
became a top 40 hit for the Chiffons. Working in various roles, including
songwriter and producer for Laurie Records, he eventually founded his own
label, Big Tree Records, which was acquired by Atlantic Records in 1974.
He rose up the ranks at Atlantic, becoming president in 1980 and cochairman
in 1990.
 MOTION PICTURE MUSIC PUBLIC PERFORMANCE EXEMPTION • 195
Morris left Atlantic one year after having taken over as chairman of War-
ner Music, landing at the newly formed Universal Music Group in 1995.
He stayed there until 2011, when he left Universal to take the helm at Sony
Music Entertainment, where he led restructuring and the revitalization of a
number of Sony’s storied label brands. He is known as a tech-friendly music
executive, evidenced by his role in the 2009 cofounding what would rapidly
become the most popular online destination for high-quality music videos,
Vevo, in partnership with Google. Vevo allows artists, labels, and songwrit-
ers to better monetize music video viewers than previous models.

MOST FAVORED NATIONS. In an effort to help ensure that no contribu-

tor to a music project is compensated less than other similar-level contribu-
tors, they may require a “most favored nations” clause. This stipulates that
their compensation or royalty will be the best, or most “favorable,” terms
offered to any other contributor. For instance, if a music publisher agrees to
have one of the songs they control included on a new album for 75 percent of
the statutory mechanical license rate, then no other publisher or songwrit-
er can be paid more than the 75 percent statutory rate or the record label
would be in violation of the clause in the original agreement.

MOTIF. A motif often refers to a particular short sequence of notes used to

denote a character, event, or emotion in composed music, whether that be a
concert piece, such as the iconic four-note pattern that is the basis for Beetho-
ven’s Fifth Symphony, or the similarly iconic rhythmic theme composed by
John Williams to represent the shark in the film Jaws. Each motif may be
identifiable by any one of its musical characteristics, including melody, har-
mony, or rhythm.
See also RIFF.

MOTION PICTURE MUSIC PUBLIC PERFORMANCE EXEMP-

TION. The United States is the only World Intellectual Property Organ-
ization–signatory nation that does not provide public performance royalties
for songwriters or publishers when music is played back during the exhibi-
tion of a motion picture in a theater. Hollywood successfully lobbied Con-
gress to create this exemption. However, copyright law does allow music
rights holders to negotiate on a case-by-case basis a synchronization license
before any existing music can be incorporated into a motion picture as part of
its creation. If the original master recording is also used, a separate master
synchronization license must also be obtained from the record label or master
rights holder.
196 • MOTOWN RECORDS
MOTOWN RECORDS. Motown Records was founded in Detroit, Michi-
gan, in 1959 by Berry Gordy Jr., an African American entrepreneur and
songwriter. The name “Motown” was derived from Detroit’s nickname of
Motor Town, a nod to the region’s dominant place in U.S. automobile manu-
facturing. Gordy was known for being a perfectionist, which was beneficial
in producing hit songs. A major part of Motown’s success was its ability to
appeal to white audiences, which Gordy predicted consisted of 70 percent of
his record buyers. During its heyday from 1961 to 1969, the label charted 79
top 10 hits on the Billboard charts, an unprecedented feat for an indepen-
dent record label, leading Motown to be recognized as the largest black-
owned company in the country for a number of years.
Motown Records’ roster includes such notable artists as the Marvelettes,
the Miracles, Stevie Wonder, Marvin Gaye, the Supremes, the Four Tops,
the Temptations, the Jackson Five, and the Commodores. The distinctive
Motown sound resulted from the continuity of employing the same teams of
songwriters, engineers, and producers; the label’s in-house studio band,
dubbed the Funk Brothers; and the same in-house recording studio for nearly
all of the label’s seminal hits.
Gordy himself drove his artists and staff relentlessly to turn out the best
possible product possible and chaired the infamous Friday-morning produc-
tion meetings at which the latest songs would be reviewed and critiqued in a
highly competitive environment, with in-house producers competing to be
chosen for the company’s next release. As a result, only the very best records
received the nod to move on to release.
Gordy was an exceptionally keen observer of pop music trends and recog-
nized that there was a large market for danceable pop music with a strong
backbeat and memorable vocals that were easy to follow. This became the
Motown formula, which was also carefully crafted during the 1960s to avoid
any potentially controversial topics. Simultaneously, Gordy developed a star-
making process whereby Motown artists received training in choreography,
makeup and wardrobe essentials, deportment, and how to answer questions
from the media. The results were dramatic, with Motown artists starting to
make appearances at nightclubs and on television shows that had rarely fea-
tured black entertainers.
Gordy was also one of the first music executives to exploit a completely
vertically integrated music industry business model that included his various
record labels, music publishing companies, artist management firm, book-
ing agency, and other affiliated businesses. In this way, Motown was able to
fully capitalize on the celebrity that its artists had attained and maximize
profits.
After attaining substantial success in terms of talent and finances, Gordy
relocated the Motown office to Los Angeles in the 1970s in an effort to
expand into the television and movie industry. Motown Records achieved
 MP3.COM • 197
some successes and failures with television specials, variety shows, and mo-
vies with artists including Diana Ross, Lionel Ritchie, Rick James, the
Temptations, and the Jackson Five. Over time, however, the earlier successes
were not able to be replicated with the same consistency as the hit-making
machine that Motown of the 1960s represented. In part, this was due to the
fact that artists now had much better representation from outside counsel and
expected better treatment and more earnings than had been common in the
earlier era. By the 1980s, Motown lost its luster and became mired in law-
suits as much of the Motown talent came to mistrust the management, believ-
ing that in many instances they had been treated poorly or shortchanged on
their earnings.
In 1988, Gordy sold Motown to MCA Records for $61 million; however,
he retained the rights to the valuable Jobete Musicsong catalog, which con-
tinues to generate revenue today at a substantial rate. Universal Music
Group retained the rights to use the Motown imprint and in 2011 relaunched
the label to produce contemporary popular music. Gordy was instrumental in
developing a Broadway musical based on the Jobete catalog titled Motown:
The Musical, which has resulted in a new infusion of 21st-century profits for
the long-standing brand name and songs.

MP3. MP3 is an audio coding format developed by the Fraunhofer Institute

in Germany in 1993. It was designed to facilitate practical transfer of media
and audio files via the internet. It uses a form of lossy media compression to
whittle down the file size of an uncompressed compact-disc-quality sound
file by 75 to 95 percent, making it practical to send media files via the
internet, especially in the dial-up era of online file exchange.
The MP3 codec (short for its encoding and decoding features) is widely
used in nearly all popular music and media players. It utilizes what is known
as perceptual coding to identify and retain only the most critical parts of the
data stream that will allow most listeners to hear an acceptable version of the
song. What is gained in file size reduction, however, is lost in fidelity, as
most listeners can hear the notable differences between a CD-resolution
audio file and its lossy compressed MP3 cousin. Still, convenience has been
a determining factor in how consumers access music, and as the drive toward
portability and access continue, lossy file formats such as MP3 continue to
play a significant role in the music industry.

MP3.COM. MP3.com was an online music service founded by Michael

Robertson in 1997 where users could listen to tracks and purchase individual
songs or entire albums online. It proved very popular and went public in
1999, making it the largest technology initial public offering at the time.
198 • MTV
Anyone could upload their music to the site (which was reviewed prior to
publication to ensure all of it was licensed), which made it very popular
among independent artists.
On 12 January 2000, MP3.com launched My.MP3.com. This allowed us-
ers to access music that they had already purchased on compact disc
wherever they traveled so long as there was an internet connection and com-
puter. Users would insert their copy of the legally acquired CD and the
MyMP3 software would register it and then provide access to the digital
version of that album for the consumer, which was held in that user’s person-
alized virtual “music locker.” MP3.com aimed to upload as many CDs as
possible to the service to give users as universal an experience as possible.
According to the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA),
this amounted to about 45,000 commercial CDs. MP3.com was sued by the
RIAA, representing the five major record labels of the day: Universal,
Sony Music Group, Bertelsmann’s BMG Entertainment, Warner Music
Group, and EMI Recorded Music. Robertson reached settlements with four
of the five labels; however, Universal Music Group refused to settle.
MP3.com argued that their service was protected under fair use because both
MP3.com and the users had legally purchased and owned physical copies of
the songs and were just storing their libraries online. Robertson lost the
lawsuit and was ordered to pay Universal $25,000 for each CD the site
posted, totaling $53.4 million. After the trial with Universal ended, litigation
continued, with individual licensing agencies also deciding to sue MP3.com.
This loss and continued legal trouble weakened the once powerful MP3.com
financially, and the company was sold, ironically, to Universal, who was
unable to make it a profitable endeavor.

MTV. On 1 August 1981, Warner-Amex cable premiered MTV, short for

Music Television, a basic cable and satellite channel with a goal of attracting
a youthful audience by playing and commenting on music videos. The origi-
nal format was developed by Robert Pittman, who had tested the concept
earlier with a 15-minute show titled Album Tracks on New York City’s
WABC in the late 1970s. Airing music videos 24 hours a day, seven days a
week, the channel soon grew to international prominence and at its peak in
the late 1980s was available in many countries around the world.
Initially, U.S. record labels did not have an interest in providing music
videos to the fledgling network, so MTV relied almost exclusively on British
bands since the UK had been using music videos as promotional pieces
throughout the late 1970s. MTV’s popularity soon led to groups such as
Duran Duran and Culture Club having breakout hits on the Billboard charts,
a fact that led the U.S. labels to start to fund music video production. This
period came to be known as the second British Invasion, as a reference to the
first British Invasion led by the Beatles and Rolling Stones in the 1960s.
 MULLIN, JACK (1913–1999) • 199
MTV also drew varied levels of criticism from groups such as the Parents
Music Resource Center and the Parents Television Council for airing what
were viewed at the time as sexually suggestive programming. Regardless of
such criticism, MTV has remained a key cultural indicator for what interests
the 18- to 25-year-old market segment.
At its outset, the network programmed rock music, which led to criticism
that it was keeping diversity, in the form of ethnic artists, especially African
Americans, off its shows. At first, MTV defended its programming choices
as being the music its viewers wanted to see, but in time they began to
program a greater range of artists and eventually developed programs dedi-
cated to rap and hip hop music.
In the early 1990s, the network diversified by adding so-called reality
programming, which featured edited vignettes starring everyday people in
often-uncomfortable scenarios. Due in part to its low cost to develop, this
trend soon spread throughout cable and broadcast channels. The network also
produced a number of feature films as well as animated series, which ap-
pealed to its young viewers, most notably the long-running series Beavis and
Butt-Head. The network also initiated some campaigns to encourage voting
and social activism, including Rock the Vote and Power of 12. The network
continues to operate today, more than 30 years after its founding.

MULLIN, JACK (1913–1999). John Thomas “Jack” Mullin was an engi-

neer and innovator in the field of audio recording in the postwar era. Born on
5 October 1913 in San Francisco, he completed an engineering degree and
was assigned to the U.S. Army Signal Corps in World War II in Europe.
While there, he was astounded to hear broadcasts of classical music being
played by German radio stations round the clock without the telltale clicks
and pops found on disc recordings of the era. His curiosity aroused, he found
himself in Germany near the war’s end and discovered what the source of
these broadcasts had been: two German Magnetophon recorders that relied
on magnetic tape instead of discs to record and play back music. He under-
stood that the Germans’ newly developed sound recording technology had
the potential to revolutionize the music, radio, and film sound recording
businesses. He carefully disassembled the units and along with their design
schematics shipped them home, where he then reconstructed them and in
spring of 1946 gave a public demonstration, at which the audience made up
of radio professionals were unable to discern between live musicians per-
forming and the playback of their performance via the Mullin-modified Mag-
netophon. Mullin would go on to share much of his design work with the
Ampex Corporation, which soon became the leading American manufacturer
of tape recorders and magnetic tape in North America. He was also instru-
mental in working with Bing Crosby Enterprises to develop early video tape
200 • MULTITRACK RECORDING
recording, using what was then called a “filmless camera.” He subsequently
worked for 28 years for 3M in their media division before retiring in 1975.
He passed away on 24 June 1999.

MULTITRACK RECORDING. Any recording process or system that al-

lows musicians to record the sounds of various instruments on separate audio
tracks for manipulation at some later date. Multitrack analog tape recording
was developed in the post–World War II era to allow greater control over
how and when records were made. Les Paul was one of the first artists to
develop and use multitrack recording to create a unique sound on his records.
As multitrack technology became more widespread in the 1960s, the Beach
Boys and the Beatles were two groups that imagined densely layered new
music that could only be created by using multitrack recording techniques.
With the advent of affordable computer hardware and recording software in
the 1990s, multitrack recording became a largely digital phenomenon.

MUSIC ARCHIVIST. An archival professional that is active in the preser-

vation, documentation, and accessibility of historical musical materials, in-
cluding such items as sound recordings, manuscripts, letters, artwork, sheet
music, instruments, playback systems, and the like. Music archivists often
receive training in library science and must be able to evaluate whether an
item or collection is historically significant and, thus, should be preserved.
They work closely with donors and their host institution, identify and access
new materials, work on preservation of assets that may deteriorate over time,
develop and implement strategies to provide online access to digital copies of
original materials, aid students and researchers in accessing and using archi-
val collections, create and promote finding aids to allow greater access, and
generally serve as a liaison to the scholarly community as well as the general
public to inform and educate them about the value in the archival materials
under their stewardship. Examples of music-related archives in the United
States include the Library of Congress, the Smithsonian, the Rock and Roll
Hall of Fame Library and Archives, the New York Public Library for the
Performing Arts, Experience Music Project Collections, and the Institute for
Jazz Studies.

MUSIC ATTORNEY. See ENTERTAINMENT ATTORNEY

MUSIC CLEARANCE. The process whereby rights are granted to legally

use a particular piece of music or sound recording for a purpose other than
what it was originally created for. A small industry has evolved of music
licensing professionals who provide clearance services for filmmakers, tele-
 MUSIC DOWNLOAD • 201
vision production companies, advertisers, and any sort of promotional use of
existing music. Most of these music clearance firms are located in or around
media centers such as Los Angeles, New York, and London.
See also MUSIC SUPERVISOR.

MUSIC CORPORATION OF AMERICA (MCA). The Music Corpora-

tion of America (MCA) was founded in 1924 in Chicago. It originally started
as a talent agency. In 1964, MCA purchased Decca and merged with Univer-
sal Pictures. The company later entered the publishing industry in 1964 when
it established MCA Music. MCA entered the recording industry in the late
1970s, where it focused on jazz, officially launching a jazz division in 1985.
MCA acquired Chess Records along with its subsidiary labels that same
year. In 1990, MCA acquired GRP and Geffen and formed MCA Music
Entertainment. That year, Matsushita Electric Industrial, a Japanese compa-
ny, acquired MCA. In 1995, MCA was sold to Seagram’s, a Canadian spirits
manufacturer. MCA changed its name to Universal Music Group in 1996.

MUSIC DIRECTOR. The music director of a radio station is the person in

charge of determining what music is played, how new songs are evaluated
for prospective adds to the station’s playlist, and monitoring what the re-
sponse is from listeners to the music currently being played on the station.
Music directors play a key role in the radio industry for stations that are
music focused. For stations that have an in-house music director, that person
is often besieged by record label representatives, artists, managers, and even
personal acquaintances who wish to recommend a particular artist for consid-
eration.
The music industry has a long history of music directors that took a chance
on an unknown artist and helped to break them onto a much larger stage.
Since the advent of the consolidation of radio station ownership in the wake
of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, larger broadcasters that own multi-
ple stations across the United States have moved to using a centralized music
director who then dictates what music will be played on genre-specific sta-
tions across the country. This has led to the decline in music directors at local
stations. There remain many music directors at radio stations that are not
owned by the major corporations, and these music directors still play a vital
role in shaping what music is on the air across the nation.
See also CONDUCTOR.

MUSIC DOWNLOAD. See DIGITAL DOWNLOAD.

202 • MUSIC MANAGERS FORUM
MUSIC MANAGERS FORUM. The Music Managers Forum was orga-
nized in 1992 in Manchester, England, and is a professional community of
music managers dedicated to providing support, education, representation,
and networking. Since its founding in the UK, the organization now has
branches in 50 countries, affiliated through the umbrella organization the
International Music Managers Forum. The organization advises and lobbies
on behalf of matters that affect managers and their constituents to representa-
tive government bodies and serves as a platform for advocacy for music and
artists in the digital age. The Music Managers Forum offers a series of
educational sessions designed to help educate, inform, and develop capable
and ethical future managers, while helping to maintain a dialogue among
managers and affiliated organizations regarding critical issues facing the mu-
sic industry today, such as the secondary ticket market, transparency in
sales and royalty reporting, and international touring.
See also PERSONAL MANAGER.

MUSIC PRODUCT RETAILER. A retail business set up to provide any

combination of music products such as musical instruments, sheet music,
accessories, sound or recording equipment, school or band instruments, and
the like. Many stores also offer music lessons and repair services. Recent
trends have seen the rise of the inclusion of performance or recital spaces in
some music retailers, as well as continuing education programs targeting
specific segments of the population, such as a kids’ rock band program, a
baby boomer rock band camp, or a senior citizen community orchestra or
band. Since the advent of flourishing online marketplaces for musical instru-
ments, most notably eBay and Reverb.com, music products retailers have
had to face an increasingly global landscape for competition for sales of new
and used music products.

MUSIC PUBLISHER. A music publisher represents the musical works of

songwriters that have agreed to allow the music publisher to administer the
copyright-protected musical works. Publishers act as middlemen between
those persons or entities wishing to use a copyright-controlled musical work
and the work’s composer or creator. Music publishers and songwriters enter
into limited term agreements during which copyright control of the musical
works covered is transferred from the songwriter to the publisher, who then
works to find paying users for those works. Once a prospective user has been
identified, the publisher will issue a license for the use, which will specifical-
ly stipulate the terms of use covered by the agreement, including payment,
term of license, authorized means of dissemination, and so on. The publisher
collects the royalties on behalf of the songwriter, generally keeping 50 per-
cent of the proceeds for its fee, and remits the remaining 50 percent to the
 MUSIC VIDEO • 203
songwriter. Typical uses for a song that a music publisher may develop
include a new recording of the song by an artist, use in a movie or television
show, use in a radio or television commercial, publishing the music in print
or online format, and even “singing” greeting cards. Although the revenues
for recorded music have declined dramatically in the 21st century, music
publishing revenues have remained relatively stable and, as licensed uses
have grown, signify one of the most reliable sources of income for songwrit-
ers.
See also SUBPUBLISHERS.

MUSIC STREAMING. Services that allow the listener some control over
the selection of music they will hear are referred to as interactive radio or
music sites. This includes internet-only radio services such as Spotify and
Pandora, which each offer a free level of access with advertisements inter-
spersed between songs. Still, these sites afford some level of control to the
listener as they may choose to skip a limited number of songs per day. Each
service also offers a premium subscription version, which allows more con-
trol and eliminates advertisements. In April 2016, Digital Music News esti-
mated that the worldwide total for consumers paying for a premium music
subscription service was nearly 90 million users, while the Recording In-
dustry Association of America cited rapid growth in paid subscriptions to
music streaming services as one of the bright spots in the changing landscape
of the current music industry.
See also FREEMIUM; STREAMING RADIO.

MUSIC SUPERVISOR. The music supervisor is generally hired by a mo-

tion picture director to oversee the music options, choices, licensing, acquisi-
tion, formatting, and delivery of music to be used as part of a movie. Music
supervisors must have a wide range of connections at record labels, music
publishing companies, and other music firms to meet the director’s needs
while staying within the prescribed budget. Once the director and music
supervisor have agreed on the types of music and likely number of cues
needed, the music supervisor will then start to preview music that they be-
lieve will be attainable within the budget and time frame, simultaneously
engaging in discussions about the licensing fees that will be needed to clear
the specific music in question.
See also MUSIC CLEARANCE; SYNCHRONIZATION LICENSE
(SYNC LICENSE).

MUSIC VIDEO. Any type of video or film that includes a performance by

an artist of a song that can be used for promotional purposes. While one of
the first instances of promotional music films were the soundies of the
204 • MUSICAL DIRECTOR
1940s, music videos became the main driver of popular music marketing in
the 1980s with the rise of MTV. Throughout the 1980s, music videos be-
came more elaborate and utilized top Hollywood and Madison Avenue direc-
tors, resulting in many six-figure music video budgets.
For most artists, however, the costs of making music videos became a
liability, in that they would be required to pay back some or all of the
production costs through their anticipated artist royalties. More recently,
with the advent of powerful personal computers and high-quality, affordable
high-definition cameras, artists have begun to use music video more regular-
ly as part of their overall marketing and communication efforts. The rise of
YouTube has necessitated that artists use videos to offer fans more than just
music to help nurture their artist–fan relationship. While such videos may
often be a performance of a song, they also now include tour diaries, behind-
the-scenes looks at record making and songwriting, or even a glimpse of the
artist’s favorite foods or clothing.

MUSICAL DIRECTOR. The musician who is chosen to make or recom-

mend the artistic decisions reached by a musical organization, such as an
orchestra, opera, or musical theater company. Most often, this person will
also be the principal conductor for that organization. The musical director
generally works closely with the business management of the organization to
ensure that programming decisions are in harmony with the organization’s
vision and mission. Musical directors often hold more than one position and
also are frequently welcomed as guest conductors once their reputation has
been established.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENT DIGITAL INTERFACE (MIDI). Musical In-

strument Digital Interface is a standard established in 1983 to allow musical
data to be communicated across digital music equipment, including comput-
ers and instruments. MIDI can be used for composing and recording as it
allows controls for notation, pitch, dynamics, tempo, and more.
The advent of MIDI has allowed musicians to easily collaborate, and it
allows users lacking notation skills to compose their own arrangements.
MIDI helped to further the trend of home recording and the do-it-yourself
model by allowing musicians to build complex sounds without the need for a
large group of musicians.
MIDI is maintained by the MIDI Manufacturers Association (MMA).

MUSICAL INSTRUMENT DISTRIBUTOR (MI DISTRIBUTOR). A

musical instrument distributor is a company that provides music products
retailers with one or more products for eventual retail sale on behalf of the
instrument’s manufacturer. MI distributors are middlemen. The benefit to
 MYSPACE • 205
retailers is that a few distributors can provide nearly all of the products
needed to fill their store, rather than dealing with a few hundred different
manufacturers. However, some manufacturers choose to sell direct to their
retail accounts and do not use a distributor.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENT SECTOR (MI). Musical instruments, in refer-

ence to the musical products industry, is a category defined broadly as the
manufacture, distribution, and retailing of any products related to the creation
or performance of music. In the United States, the MI industry supply chain
is organized into a system of product manufacturers, distributors (many of
whom carry multiple brands and product categories), brick-and-mortar as
well as online retailers, and consumers of MI products. According to the
National Association of Music Merchandisers, in 2014 the total MI indus-
try in the United States had a value of $7 billion.

MUSICBIZ.COM. Founded in 1958 as the National Association of Record

Merchandisers, MusicBiz.com, as it is now known, is a trade association that
promotes all forms of commerce for music, including physical, digital, mo-
bile, and other new emerging technologies. The organization collects and
reports industry data, hosts various gatherings including an annual confer-
ence, and provides resources to its members, with some information avail-
able freely to all stakeholders in the music and entertainment industry.

MUSICOLOGIST. A musicologist is a music historian, often specializing

in a particular type or era of music history.

MYSPACE. Myspace.com was an early social media site that offered users a
free, easy-to-navigate platform to share music, photos, profiles, and other
types of information with their network of contacts. Founded in 2003 as an
in-house project at eUniverse by CEO Bud Greenspan, it was inspired by the
then popular platform Friendster. Importantly, it was decided to keep the
platform free of any charges for users, with the company earning revenue
through ad placements as well as the user profile data it could gather and
market to third parties.
Due to its rapid growth, the company was sold to NewsCorp in 2005 for a
sum of $580 million. At its peak in 2008, an estimated 76 million users made
the site the go-to destination to share and discover new music online; howev-
er, it was soon eclipsed by Facebook as the internet’s most popular social
media site. This led to Myspace’s decline as the leading music-sharing site. It
remains a part of the online music space today, with more than 50 million
users and approximately 13,000 songs still being uploaded each day to its
206 • MYSPACE
catalog of more than 50 million songs. However, according to Myspace, of
its roster of 14.2 million artists with accounts, 14 million are unsigned bands
with less than 1 percent, or 133,000 artists, having secured record deals.
 N
NAPSTER. Napster was a pioneering peer-to-peer file sharing service in-
tended primarily for music encoded as MP3s founded in 1999 by Sean Park-
er and Shawn Fanning. Prior to Napster, consumers had to purchase music
as a physical copy; however, with Napster, users were able to download any
song they wanted for free so long as it resided on any other Napster subscrib-
er’s hard drive. At its peak, Napster boasted 60 million users worldwide.
While a number of high-profile artists were happy with the new life and
enthusiasm Napster was breathing into the music industry (most notably
Thom Yorke of Radiohead and Chuck D of Public Enemy), others, especial-
ly record labels and publishers, were upset that people now had access to
their music without paying for it. In December 1999, the Recording Indus-
try Association of America filed suit against Napster for infringement as
millions of unauthorized downloads were being facilitated daily by Napster’s
peer-to-peer software. Drummer Lars Ulrich of Metallica was very outspok-
en against Napster, and in 2000 the band filed its own suit. The court found
in favor of the RIAA, and as a result Napster lost its right to host copy-
righted music, prompting it to shut down in July 2001; in 2002, after a failed
effort by BMG to purchase Napster, the company filed for bankruptcy.
Since 2002, Napster has been bought and sold by a number of different
companies; however, none were able to reignite the spark from the compa-
ny’s earliest days and make Napster relevant to new users. In 2016, Rhapso-
dy, one of the first paid subscription music services, bought Napster in hopes
that adopting its high-profile name would help Rhapsody compete with more
popular streaming services, such as Spotify and Pandora.

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF RECORDING ARTS AND SCIENCE. See

RECORDING ACADEMY.

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BROADCASTERS (NAB). The Na-

tional Association of Broadcasters represents more than 8,300 terrestrial
radio and television stations as well as various broadcast networks. It is a
trade association and lobbying group. It was founded in 1922, just as com-

207
208 • NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF MUSIC MERCHANDISERS (NAMM)
mercial radio was getting its start in the United States. Throughout the 1920s,
the NAB worked closely with the government to establish the commercial
radio industry, with an emphasis on what would be most beneficial to for-
profit, advertising-supported models. Although there was opposition to such
a system, early NAB members successfully lobbied Congress, and the resul-
tant Communications Act of 1934 codified the for-profit terrestrial radio
broadcast system that exists today.
In 1951, television broadcasters were welcomed into the organization. The
NAB hosts two annual trade shows, one each spring that covers all aspects of
broadcasting, media, and entertainment technology and a second conference,
called the NAB Radio Show, which only focuses on the terrestrial radio
industry and its offshoots. Congress has allowed an exception for terrestrial
radio stations to be exempt from any public performance royalties for the use
of master recordings during their broadcasts, and this has emerged as a key
point of debate in the internet age as artists and labels seek to earn revenue
from such usage. The original argument was that performers benefited as
radio airplay drove consumers to purchase records, and thus radio plays were
a form of free promotion for the artists. With the sales of recorded music
continuing to plummet in the age of streaming, such an argument bears
reconsideration.

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF MUSIC MERCHANDISERS

(NAMM). The National Association of Music Merchandisers is the primary
trade association and lobbying group for the music products industry.
Founded more than 100 years ago, NAMM provides leadership, advocacy,
and research and helps its varied members with professional development,
annual trade shows, and policy planning to ensure that future generations of
music makers will continue to support the role played by music making in
society. Two important subsidiary firms include the NAMM Foundation, the
research and philanthropic arm of the organization, and the Museum of Mak-
ing Music, located on site at NAMM’s headquarters in Carlsbad, California.
The museum also sponsors an ongoing oral history collection project that is
capturing the living history of the music products industry for posterity.

NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE ARTS (NEA). The National

Endowment for the Arts (NEA) is a federally funded independent arts-grant-
ing agency that supports all areas of artistic endeavor with funding, training,
and professional staff who work to identify and foster artistic excellence
across the nation. It is based in Washington, DC. Since its formation by an
act of Congress in 1965, the NEA has awarded a total of 128,000 grants,
representing more than $5 billion dollars invested in the arts in America.
Larger established arts organizations such as professional orchestras, opera
 NEW YORK PHILHARMONIC • 209
companies, and theaters often apply for and receive NEA support, but it is
noteworthy that a significant portion of the agency’s grants are awarded to
smaller, grassroots, community-based arts initiatives. Such awards have the
effect of furthering the positive benefits derived by engaging local commu-
nities in the creation of and appreciation for all types of arts.
Over the years, there have been challenges to the concept of using taxpay-
er funds to support the arts. Threats were made in the 1980s and 1990s to
defund the NEA, and while this course of action was not taken at that time,
the agency’s overall budget was reduced dramatically in the mid-1990s due
to pressure from more conservative groups who considered some of the grant
recipients’ artwork as lacking artistic merit. In one instance, a 1989 dispute
arose that led to one grant recipient canceling an art gallery debut in order to
reduce the perceived risk to the NEA of losing funding. This resulted in a
dialogue to address concerns about freedom of speech and censorship.

NATIONAL MUSIC PUBLISHERS’ ASSOCIATION (NMPA). The Na-

tional Music Publishers’ Association is the trade association that represents
approximately 27,000 U.S. music publishers and indirectly, the publishers’
songwriting partners. Founded in 1917 to better promote the licensed use of
their musical works, the NMPA has evolved into an advocacy organization
dedicated to ensuring that music creators receive fair compensation and cred-
it for their works in all existing and future media. It was the parent organiza-
tion of the Harry Fox Agency until the 2015 sale of the Harry Fox Agency
to SESAC.

NEW ARTIST. See BABY BAND.

NEW USE FEES. See REUSE FEES.

NEW YORK PHILHARMONIC. The New York Philharmonic is Ameri-

ca’s oldest orchestra. Throughout its long history, the Philharmonic has dedi-
cated itself to sharing music across the country and world by broadcasting its
concerts and touring to more than 60 countries.
The orchestra was founded in 1842 by American conductor Ureli Corelli
Hill. It was first called the Philharmonic Society of New York, and its first
concert was on 7 December 1842. The program included Beethoven’s Sym-
phony No. 5 as well as selections of chamber and operatic music, which was
the style at the time.
With the help of wealthy New York financiers, the Philharmonic musi-
cians increased the number of concerts and hired Gustav Mahler as their
conductor in 1909. The group made its first recording in 1917.
210 • NEXT BIG SOUND
The Philharmonic merged with the National/New Symphony Orchestra,
the City Symphony Orchestra, and the New York Symphony in the 1920s.
The official name of the combined ensemble became the Philharmonic-Sym-
phony Society of New York.
In 1930, the orchestra began doing weekly radio broadcasts. That same
year, Arturo Toscanini led the Philharmonic on a tour of Europe, which
began a tradition of traveling to and performing in a variety of countries.
Leonard Bernstein became the musical director of the Philharmonic in
1958. Bernstein led the Philharmonic Young People’s Concerts, which were
televised between 1958 and 1972. In 1971, Bernstein retired and was suc-
ceeded by Pierre Boulez. The Boulez years notably expanded the repertoire.
The orchestra began its Emmy-award winning Live from Lincoln Center
television series in 1976, which has continued to this day.
Zubin Mehta took over the position of music director from 1978 to
1991—the longest in Philharmonic history. In 1980, the orchestra toured
Europe to mark the 50th anniversary of the Toscanini trip.
In 2008, the Philharmonic was invited to perform in Pyongyang, North
Korea. It signified one of the first cultural visits from the United States
following the end of the Korean War.

NEXT BIG SOUND. Next Big Sound is a music data analytics firm that
allows music industry professionals to view relevant online music data and
reports for artists. Founded in 2008 in New York, New Big Sound uses
metrics such as social media activity, sales data, radio plays, website activity,
and more to provide a snapshot of a particular artist’s popularity.
In 2010, the company teamed up with Billboard to create the Social 50, a
chart measuring the top 50 artists across social media platforms. In 2015, the
company was acquired by the publicly held Pandora Inc.

NONEXCLUSIVE AGREEMENT. A nonexclusive agreement is any mu-

sic industry agreement that grants rights to another party that may also then
be granted to a different party or entity. For instance, if a music publisher
licenses the use of a particular song for a radio advertisement, they may also
license that same song for use as a cover version on a new album or for use
in a motion picture.
See also EXCLUSIVITY.

NONEXCLUSIVE LICENSE. Nearly all music licenses granted are “non-

exclusive,” meaning that the same musical work or sound recording may be
licensed to additional parties without limitation.
See also EXCLUSIVE LICENSE.
 NOTORIOUS B.I.G. (1972–1997) • 211
NONCONTROLLED COMPOSITION. See OUTSIDE COMPOSITION.

NONINTERACTIVE RADIO. Noninteractive radio refers to radio broad-

casts that do not allow the listener any choice in the music and programming
that they may access. Terrestrial radio is a noninteractive format, as are
many of the simultaneous webcasts that commercial radio stations offer
online. The Copyright Royalty Board governs licensing fees for music
usage in noninteractive radio streaming. A statutory rate is available for
noninteractive radio broadcasters.
See also MUSIC STREAMING; SOUNDEXCHANGE.

NOTE SETTER. A person with strong musical abilities hired to listen to

music and transcribe the notes and sounds onto manuscript paper for others
to read and perform. Note setters are commonly used to transcribe contempo-
rary popular music to be sold as sheet music or folio editions by a print
music publishing company.

NOTORIOUS B.I.G. (CHRISTOPHER WALLACE, BIGGIE

SMALLS, BIGGIE) (1972–1997). The Notorious B.I.G. was an American
rapper who was tragically murdered at the height of his career. He was born
on 21 May 1970 and grew up as Christopher Wallace in Brooklyn, New
York. In his youth, he was a drug dealer and aspiring rapper under the
adopted name Biggie Smalls.
Wallace came under the notice of music producer Sean “Puffy” Combs,
who produced his first album, Ready to Die (1994), for Combs’s Bad Boy
Records. Wallace changed his stage name to the Notorious B.I.G. for the
album, which reached the top 10 on the pop and R&B charts and contained
successful hits, including “Big Poppa” and “Juicy,” each of which sold more
than one million units as singles.
In 1994, Tupac Shakur was shot in the lobby of a New York recording
studio. Shakur survived and accused Wallace and Combs of orchestrating the
attack. They denied the accusations. A heated rivalry between West Coast
and East Cost hip hop intensified, with each group vying for supremacy.
Notably, the feud was fueled by nearly constant media attention and frequent
posturing by artists and managers in both camps who hurled insults back and
forth, studiously reported by the media.
In addition to the rivalry, Wallace also ran into problems with the law. In
1995, he pled guilty to attacking two harassing fans with a baseball bat. In
1996, police raided his home and found marijuana and weapons.
When Shakur was murdered in September 1996, rumors circulated that
Wallace was involved, but it was never proven. Many hoped that the vio-
lence would end with Shakur’s tragic death, but on 9 March 1997 Wallace
212 • NOTORIOUS B.I.G. (1972–1997)
was leaving a party in Los Angeles and was shot and killed as he sat in the
passenger seat of an SUV. Rumors spread about who was responsible, but no
one was ever charged with the crime.
A few weeks after his death, Wallace’s second record, Life After Death, a
double album, was released. The album was a runaway hit, topping the charts
and going on to sell 10 million copies. Several more posthumous albums
were released in the years following his murder, and these have served to
further document Wallace’s place as one of the most talented MCs in all of
rap music.

NPD GROUP INC. The NPD Group Inc. works with a variety of industries,
including the music industry, and offers market research products and solu-
tions for consumers and retailers by tracking consumer behavior. Originally
founded in 1966, the company works with various industries, including auto-
motive, beauty, entertainment, fashion, food, sports, technology, and video
games.
 O
OKEH RECORDS. Founded in 1918 by Otto Heinemann, who was a sup-
plier of phonograph players, to diversify his company’s offerings, Okeh was
one of the first record labels in America to identify specific market seg-
ments of the general public and to then market music tailored for that audi-
ence. In particular, their so-called race records captured performances by
many of the day’s most celebrated African American artists, including Louis
Armstrong, Mamie Smith, and Duke Ellington. Similarly, Okeh’s coun-
try/hillbilly line featured popular artists such as Fiddlin’ John Carson, Jim-
mie Rodgers, and the Carter Family. During the 1920, Okeh’s director of
recording, Ralph Peer, displayed an uncanny knack for identifying regional
talent and bringing in new recording artists that suited the exploding pre-
Depression demand for recordings. Columbia Records acquired Okeh in
1926, but its legacy has remained secure today, as a number of the label’s
early recordings, many of them made with portable recording equipment,
document some of the earliest hit records in American popular music.

ON-AIR TALENT. See DJ (DEEJAY).

OPTIONS. In general terms, the use of options within a music contract

affords one or both parties the opportunity to continue or terminate the agree-
ment. For example, under the terms of a typical record contract, if an
artists’ latest recording fails to sell a predetermined number of copies, then
the record label may exercise the option to terminate the recording agreement
and any further obligations the label has to that artist. Conversely, if the artist
delivers a record that meets or exceeds the label’s sales expectations, then the
label may exercise their option to extend the recording agreement and require
the artist under contract to record one or more future albums. Various other
music industry contracts, such as agency agreements, personal management
contracts, and merchandise contracts, may include option clauses allowing
one or the other party to extend or terminate the agreement based on success
or failure in achieving predetermined measurable goals.

213
214 • ORCHESTRATOR
ORCHESTRATOR. An orchestrator works closely with a composer to
create the individual parts that a large musical ensemble, such as an orches-
tra, will perform. Orchestrators must have a broad musical vocabulary and be
able to integrate a variety of musical influences and conventions into their
orchestrations. One of the reasons that orchestrators are so important was to
allow composers to do more work simultaneously. A composer could create
the basic musical idea for each part of a new project, turn those ideas over to
their orchestrator, and move on to another new project. Today, orchestrators
are utilized in the film scoring world, although advances in computer soft-
ware have afforded composers more options to create individual parts via
programs such as Finale and Sibelius.
See also ARRANGER; COPYIST.

OUTSIDE COMPOSITION. This term refers to a prospective piece of

music that is requested for inclusion in a new project that the currently
contracted composer did not write. An example would be a current popular
song that has been identified for use in a new movie, but that has already
been composed by a writer other than the film’s composer. Similarly, if a
self-contained band or artist wishes to include an outside composition, one
that they did not write or control, then such an outside composition would
require prior licensing from that song’s rights holder.
See also CONTROLLED COMPOSITION.
 P
P&D DEAL. See PRESSING AND DISTRIBUTION DEAL (P&D DEAL).

PACKAGE DEALS. Film, television, or advertising companies may re-

quest that a composer create, record, and mix a finished piece of music for a
given project for a fixed fee. Such deals are referred to as package deals and
place responsibility on the composer for all costs associated with the music
production, including recording studio costs and session musicians. With the
increasing power and range of recording technology, composers can utilize
powerful sample libraries to create the sound of a full orchestra or chorus
without actually hiring those musicians.

PACKAGING CHARGE. See PACKAGING DEDUCTION.

PACKAGING DEDUCTION. Nearly all 20th-century recording contracts

included a packaging deduction clause, alternately referred to as a container
charge or packaging charge. The logic was that the artist should only receive
a royalty on the retail price of the record itself, which contained the sound
recording, not the container that carried the record to the consumer. The
packaging deduction in the compact disc era (1982–2003) was 25 percent of
the suggested retail list price, so it had a great impact on artist earnings.
During that era, as the cost to manufacture CDs plummeted, labels main-
tained the initial packaging deduction rate, thereby enhancing their profits
significantly.

PANDORA RADIO. Pandora Radio, operated by Pandora Media Inc., is a

music streaming and automated music recommendation service available in
the United States, Australia, and New Zealand.
Music consumers play selections based on a genre, artist, or song that
Pandora uses to create a personalized station. The user then gives the song a
“thumbs up” or “thumbs down,” and the station will adjust accordingly.

215
216 • PARENTAL ADVISORY
Pandora offers ad-free subscriptions; however, the majority of Pandora’s
revenue comes from advertisements as a result of consumers who use its free,
ad-supported service.
Pandora Media Inc. was first founded as Savage Beast Technologies in
2000 by Will Glaser, Jon Kraft, and Tim Westergren with the goal of helping
people create their own customized radio station with only music that they
like. This effort was dubbed the Music Genome Project, as the founders
worked to identify up to 450 attributes that could be used to distinguish one
piece of music from another, thereby providing a systematized approach to
making algorithm-derived music recommendations based on an individual
consumer’s demonstrated music preferences. The company became Pandora
Media Inc. in 2004. After beginning as a paid service, Pandora updated its
advertising service to make it available for free.
Pandora launched its IPO on the New York Stock Exchange in 2011.
Despite financial struggles, the company continues to be one of the major
streaming music services in the music industry.
See also SPOTIFY; STREAMING MEDIA.

PARENTAL ADVISORY. See CENSORSHIP.

PARENTS MUSIC RESOURCE CENTER (PMRC). The Parents Music

Resource Center was founded in 1985 by the so-called “Washington Wives.”
The group included Tipper Gore and other women married to prominent
politicians and public figures. PMRC sought to address the sexually and
violently explicit lyrics in American popular music and what they believed to
be the deleterious effects of those songs on American society, especially
children.
The group identified 15 popular songs, “The PMRC Filthy Fifteen,” that
they believed were harmful to America’s youth. Their list included Twisted
Sister’s “We’re Not Gonna Take It,” Madonna’s “Dress You Up,” and
Black Sabbath’s “Trashed.” Their goal was to create a rating system, similar
to the movie industry, that would uniformly and visibly warn parents if the
album contained any perceived reference to explicit violence, sexuality, or
the glorification of drug and alcohol use.
The PMRC launched a media campaign that included appearing on numer-
ous television and radio talk shows, making the case that popular music was
corrupting America’s youth. The rhetoric the PMRC employed went so far as
to equate offending songs as being comparable to pornography. The group
met with the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and in
September 1985, they successfully lobbied to secure a series of public hear-
ings before the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transporta-
tion. The American Civil Liberties Union and popular musicians Frank Zap-
 PARKER, TOM (1909–1997) • 217
pa, Dee Snider (of Twisted Sister), and John Denver represented the opposi-
tion, each giving thoughtful, impassioned testimony arguing that freedom of
expression was central to America’s core values. They also claimed that a
labeling system constituted a clear form of censorship.
Two months later, the RIAA and PMRC reached a deal that would require
albums with explicit content to be voluntarily labeled by the record company
releasing the music. In retrospect, it was believed that the RIAA agreed to the
deal in order to gain favor with the Senate committee to vote favorably on the
Home Audio Recording Act, then pending in Congress, which included a
blank tape tax that would generate millions of dollars for their members’
companies. The labeling system was standardized in 1990 and continues
today, with the word “Explicit” found next to various songs sold or streamed
online.
The PMRC dissolved in 1992 after Tipper Gore left the group when her
husband, Al Gore, was elected vice president of the United States.

PARKER, TOM (1909–1997). “Colonel” Tom Parker was born in Holland

as Andreas Cornelis van Kuijk and is best known as the manager who
brought Elvis Presley to international prominence in the 1950s and 1960s.
Parker immigrated to the United States in 1929 and worked in the carnival
business and served in the U.S. Army, taking the name he would retain to
obscure his foreign citizenship. He eventually became an artist manager and
music promoter. One of his first major clients was the singer Eddy Arnold
from 1945 to 1953. Parker helped the singer dramatically increase his earn-
ings and presence in popular music. It was while Parker was managing
another singer, Hank Snow, that he discovered Presley in Memphis and in
1955 signed the 20-year-old to what would be a series of management
contracts that extended throughout the rest of Presley’s life. Elvis purported-
ly paid Parker as much as 50 percent of his gross earnings, a sum greater than
what was the standard 15–20 percent and which is viewed today as usurious.
While his ethics were certainly questionable, Parker set a new standard for
how a manager could successfully merchandise and promote a music per-
former, including his work to build demand through fan clubs, souvenir
sales, television and film appearances, driving hard bargains with record
companies and film makers, and requiring every songwriter that wished to
have Elvis record their song turn over a portion of the song’s copyright to
Presley. After Presley’s death in 1977, Parker continued to manage his assets
and estate, keeping most of the proceeds for himself, although a 1981 court-
ordered investigation confirmed that his handling of Presley’s finances had
not been appropriate.
See also PERSONAL MANAGER.
218 • PATENT
PATENT. A patent is a form of intellectual property that includes a set of
rights granted to an inventor or other business entity for a unique and useful
invention or process. Patent rights are for 20 years from the filing date.
Musical instruments and other technological designs are common patents in
the music industry.

PATTERN RECOGNITION SOFTWARE. Pattern recognition software

analyzes the waveform of a particular piece of recorded music and compares
it to a database that contains millions of other song recordings. Once a match
has been found, it identifies the song title and artist. Pattern recognition
software is widely used to measure the frequency with which radio and
television broadcasters play a particular piece of music. Consumer versions
of pattern recognition programs allow consumers to quickly identify new
music they may find appealing.

PAUL, LES (1915–2009). A self-taught inventor and musician born in Wau-

kesha, Wisconsin, Les Paul was well known as both the father of what is
generally known today as the electric guitar and the inventor of modern
multichannel or multitrack recording. It is important to note that Paul mod-
ified existing recording equipment at his own lab to achieve these recordings,
as there were no commercially available multichannel recording systems at
that time. Paul himself was a musician and recording artist and had a string of
hit records throughout the 1940s and 1950s with his performing partner,
Mary Ford. Les Paul and Mary Ford’s recordings, such as “How High the
Moon” and “Vaya con Dios,” provided a showcase for the multichannel
recording techniques that he pioneered and which allowed him to layer
multiple guitars, some recorded at slower-than-normal speeds, to create a
dense tapestry of instruments. Mary Ford also harmonized with herself,
creating a chorus effect through Paul’s multichannel techniques. In the
1960s, a number of manufacturers began selling multichannel tape recorders,
and this led to the rise of artists such as the Beach Boys and the Beatles, who
used the multichannel recording techniques pioneered by Les Paul to reshape
the sound of popular music. The Les Paul electric guitar he helped develop in
association with Gibson Guitars has, for more than 60 years, kept his name
alive while serving as one of the most iconic musical instruments in rock. He
passed away on 12 August 2009 in White Plains, New York.

PAY FOR PLAY. A generic term used to denote some form of payment in
exchange for services rendered. Music industry examples include payola or
other inducements in order to gain radio or internet airplay or offering young
artists a performance slot in exchange for purchasing a set number of tickets
to secure the booking.
 PEARLMAN, LOU (1954–2016) • 219
PAY OR PLAY. Most recording contracts include a pay or play provision,
which in essence allows the record label to sign an artist and wait until after
they have finished making the contracted record before deciding whether or
not the label will release it. In the event that the label is hesitant to release the
record, they have the option to simply pay the artist a flat minimum fee as
compensation for their recorded performance and then hold back the record
from commercial release. Artists with a moderate amount of clout may be
able to negotiate for guaranteed release of their album, in which case the
“pay or play” provision is struck from the contract.

PAYOLA. A term used to designate payments or consideration provided to a

radio programmer or DJ to secure radio airplay for a particular artist or track.
The term came into usage in the 1950s as the rock ’n’ roll revolution was
inundating American culture, although payments to enhance sales were stan-
dard operating procedure in the vaudeville and Tin Pan Alley era. In 1959,
Congress initiated an investigation into the practice and ruled such practices
illegal. Nonetheless, the practice continued with more circumspection, in
large part by the growth of so-called independent promoters, who served as
surrogates for record labels to secure preferred airplay on radio, which was
much harder to prosecute and so went largely unchallenged for decades. Still,
the issue of payola once again drew national headlines from 2002 to 2006
when the State of New York found various major labels and radio networks
guilty of the practice, resulting in the payment of substantial fines.
See also PAY FOR PLAY.

PD. See PROGRAM DIRECTOR (PD).

PEARLMAN, LOU (1954–2016). Lou Pearlman, born on 19 June 1954 in

Flushing, New York, became a prominent figure in the popular music indus-
try, establishing and managing several notable boy bands.
Cousin to Art Garfunkel, Pearlman had a fascination with celebrity; how-
ever, he found early financial success through a helicopter shuttle service and
a blimp leasing venture he developed after dropping out of college.
In the 1980s, he was inspired by the success of New Kids on the Block,
and so in 1992 he entered the pop music world by creating Trans Continental
Records and putting a classified ad in the Orlando Sentinel for teen male
vocalists. He used millions of dollars in order to launch the Backstreet Boys.
The Backstreet Boys became a worldwide success, selling millions of al-
bums. Next, Pearlman launched NSYNC, another chart-topping group that
achieved international fame. Other artists Pearlman worked with include O-
Town, Take 5, and Aaron Carter.
220 • PEER, RALPH (1892–1960)
Several of his artists, including Aaron Carter, the Backstreet Boys, and
NSYNC, later sued Pearlman for deceitful business practices. Pearlman pro-
vided rock-star treatment to his artists, seemingly at his own personal ex-
pense, but the contracts he had with the boy bands stipulated that his Trans
Continental companies would recoup all the expenses from the group’s fu-
ture earnings, which grew to be substantial when each group went on to sell
tens of millions of records. As a result of the revelations of Pearlman’s
fiduciary misconduct, he was discredited as a personal manager, and the
successful brand building he orchestrated with both boy bands was largely
forgotten.
In 2007, Florida regulators discovered that Pearlman had also been operat-
ing a decades-long Ponzi scheme that had defrauded investors of millions of
dollars. He was sentenced to 25 years in prison. He passed away in 2016
while in prison at the age of 62.

PEER, RALPH (1892–1960). Ralph S. Peer was a record producer, record-

ing engineer, and music publisher who was responsible for some of the
most important recordings in American popular music during the early 20th
century. He was born on 22 May 1892 in Independence, Missouri. As a high
school student, he spent summers working for the Columbia Phonograph
Company, and joined them after graduation. He was soon put in charge of
Columbia subsidiary Okeh Records, where he distinguished himself by
traveling around the country in search of new talent to record, using the latest
recording equipment to secure high-quality recordings. The list of artists
recorded by Peer includes Mamie Smith, King Oliver, Louis Armstrong,
the Carter Family, Jimmie Rodgers, and Hoagy Carmichael, to name a few.
He was one of the first music industry professionals to tie songwriting in-
come to future success and encouraged many of his recording artists to write
their own repertoire, which he then signed to his own Southern Music pub-
lishing imprint. Throughout his career, Peer was always the first to spot or
develop a new trend, and in the 1930s he ventured abroad and found talented
Latin American songwriters and performers to expand his staple of artists,
while simultaneously establishing Southern Music branch offices around the
world. Peer’s Southern Music empire continued to grow in the rock ’n’ roll
era as artists such as Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly covered songs Southern
controlled. Peer died on 19 January 1960.

PEER-TO-PEER FILE SHARING. Peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing is a

type of software application that allows users to distribute and share files
with one or more different computer users running the same software pro-
gram. It burst onto the scene with the arrival of Napster in 1999, a software
program developed by then-college student Shawn Fanning to share music
 PERFORMING RIGHTS SOCIETY (PRS) • 221
with friends on and off campus. Such file sharing was an infringement on the
rights of the record labels and music publishers responsible for the songs
being traded over Napster. After Napster was shut down by court order in
2001, P2P software continued to emerge, with Gnutella, Limewire, and many
others providing the same functionality as Napster. When P2P services are
used to share public domain, freeware, or other non-copyright-controlled
content, they provide a completely legal and very efficient means of file
management and distribution.

PERFORMANCE RIGHTS. Section 106(4) of the Copyright Act provides

the copyright owner the exclusive right to perform the copyrighted work
publicly. This includes musical, motion picture, and other audiovisual works,
but does not include sound recordings. In 1995, the Digital Performance
Right in Sound Recording Act provided copyright holders with the exclu-
sive right to also control public performances via digital audio transmissions
such as satellite radio and webcasts.

PERFORMING RIGHTS ORGANIZATION (PRO). See PERFORM-

ING RIGHTS SOCIETY (PRS).

PERFORMING RIGHTS SOCIETY (PRS). The role of a performing

rights society is to represent songwriters and music publishers to collect
licensing fees due and payable for the use or performance of musical works
that are copyright controlled. In the United States, there are three performing
rights societies, the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Pub-
lishers (ASCAP), Broadcast Music Inc. (BMI), and the Society of Euro-
pean Stage Authors and Composers (SESAC). America is the exception to
the rule that in most other nations there is a single performing rights society,
usually affiliated with the government.
In the United States, performing rights societies have both publisher and
songwriter members. Importantly, the societies are required by law to pay
songwriters’ royalty shares directly to the writers, bypassing the publishers
with whom the songwriters are affiliated. Performing rights societies in non-
U.S. territories have reciprocal rights with their peer organizations in other
territories in order to facilitate payments for music use in those respective
territories. For example, ASCAP (or one of the other U.S. PRSs) will enter
into a reciprocal arrangement with the Japanese performing rights society to
help ASCAP collect royalties due for ASCAP member music uses in Japan.
ASCAP provides the same service for the Japanese performing rights soci-
ety’s members when their music is performed in the United States.
222 • PERSONAL MANAGER
PRSs issue licenses to television and radio broadcasters, concert venues,
restaurants, bars, nightclubs, airplanes, colleges, amusement parks, and any
other place that publicly plays copyrighted music. Licenses from TV and
radio generate the majority of PRS revenue, estimated collectively at nearly
$2 billion in 2015. There are two main types of licenses: blanket licenses
and per-program licenses. Blanket licenses grant the licensee unlimited ac-
cess to the entire PRS’s catalog of works. Per-program licenses are typically
used by all-talk radio or news stations in which music is seldom or only
periodically played. Each PRS has its own way of determining the prices of
its licenses. For instance, the fees may be determined on a percentage of the
licensee’s annual gross revenue or number of subscribers or based on a
venue’s seating capacity and number of events.
PRSs monitor public performances in a variety of ways, some of which
include sampling hours of recorded tapes and broadcasts, using pattern rec-
ognition software to identify registered works in a database, and examining
station logs or cue sheets of performed works.
PRSs periodically pay out royalties to members based on the popularity
and usage of their members’ works. ASCAP and BMI retain a small portion
of their respective revenues to cover administrative expenses, while for-
profit SESAC is a privately held firm and does not report its earnings or
profits.
Due to the monopolistic opportunities afforded PRSs in controlling what
music can be licensed for broadcast over the public airwaves, ASCAP and
BMI have operated for years under strict federal guidelines prescribed by
consent decrees that limit how much latitude each PRS has over the rates it
charges on behalf of its members. These decrees, formulated prior to the
internet age, are viewed by many in the music industry as being prejudicial
against songwriters and publishers. As a result, there has been ongoing dis-
cussion to amend or dissolve the decrees, but so far no action has been taken.

PERSONAL MANAGER. The personal manager is the primary architect of

the promotional, marketing, touring, and other money-making aspects of an
artist’s career. The personal manager is often viewed as analogous to a head
coach on a professional sports team—they hire, direct, and lead other manag-
ers working to meet the objectives set out by the artist and her personal
manager. Personal managers are often some of the most powerful figures in
the music industry, as they control access to and information about popular
artists. For their efforts, personal managers generally earn 15 to 25 percent of
the artist’s gross earnings, and while an artist may be under contract to only
one personal manager, the personal manager may direct the careers of multi-
ple artists. As a result, successful personal managers are some of the highest
compensated professionals in the music and entertainment industry. Personal
 PETTY, TOM (1952–2017) • 223
managers have a fiduciary responsibility to the artists they represent to pro-
vide advice and take actions that will not materially harm the artist or his
reputation.
See also BUSINESS MANAGER; MUSIC MANAGERS FORUM.

PETTY, TOM (1952–2017). Thomas Earl “Tom” Petty was a rock singer,
guitarist, and songwriter best known for leading his band, Tom Petty and the
Heartbreakers, for more than four decades of recording and touring success.
Petty was born on 20 October 1952 in Gainesville, Florida. Like many of his
generation, the young Petty was galvanized by the 1964 appearance of the
Beatles on The Ed Sullivan Show, leading him to want to form a rock band.
He started a group called Mudcrutch in 1970 that included a number of
musicians with whom Petty would collaborate for most of his career, specifi-
cally Mike Campbell and Benmont Tench. The band relocated to Los An-
geles in 1974 and released one single, which was not a commercial success.
Mudcrutch disbanded in 1975, but Petty, along with Campbell and Tench,
formed the basis of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers in 1976. The group’s
1976 eponymous debut album enjoyed little success at first, but after gaining
significant airplay in the UK it finally appeared on the U.S. charts more than
a year after its release. The band’s distinctive rock sound drew on a number
of influences, including folk rock, country, early rock ’n’ roll, and the then
current trend of new wave. Petty’s own unique, somewhat nasally vocals
were featured over the largely guitar-driven arrangements that became the
Heartbreakers’ forte. As a songwriter, Petty consistently developed catchy,
memorable hooks that embedded themselves in the listener’s consciousness,
while retaining the edgy, outsider point of view he so often took as the
protagonist in memorable hit songs such as “I Won’t Back Down,” “Refu-
gee,” and “Breakdown.”
Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers released 13 studio albums, the most
popular of which was their 1979 effort, Damn the Torpedoes, which earned
triple Platinum sales and was produced by Jimmy Iovine. Petty also re-
leased three so-called solo albums, although they often featured significant
musical contributions from members of the Heartbreakers. Of these, 1989’s
Full Moon Fever broke Petty out to a much wider audience, crossing over to
reach not only rock but also popular and alternative listeners. This album in
particular drew heavily on the folk rock sound popularized in the 1960s by
the Byrds, with Petty going so far as to perform a note-for-note cover of one
of that group’s 1965 hits, “I’ll Feel a Whole Lot Better.” It would become the
best-selling album of Petty’s career, earning five-times Platinum sales. An-
other aspect of Petty’s career was the all-star group he joined called the
Traveling Wilburys with Bob Dylan, Jeff Lynne, George Harrison, and Roy
Orbison. The group released two albums that garnered both critical and com-
mercial success.
224 • PHONOGRAMS CONVENTION
Petty was an outspoken artist and in the late 1970s famously challenged
his record company over the terms of his contract, which he felt were unfair.
He made an effective case to the label and was able to renegotiate better
terms, something that artists were seldom able to do in that era. Tom Petty
and the Heartbreakers were one of the most consistent concert draws
throughout its career, selling out shows whether or not the straightforward
rock sound that the band offered was then in vogue with the public. Petty lent
his celebrity to a number of charitable causes, such as Live Aid, Farm Aid,
and Musicians United for Safe Energy (MUSE). As a solo artist and as leader
of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, Petty collectively sold an estimated 35
million records worldwide and earned four Grammy Awards. Tom Petty
passed away from natural causes on 2 October 2017 in Santa Monica, Cali-
fornia.

PHONOGRAMS CONVENTION. The Phonograms Convention, adopted

in Geneva in 1971 and ratified by the United States in 1974, is an internation-
al treaty designed to protect against piracy. All countries that sign the treaty
agree to protect each other against making, importing, and distributing unau-
thorized copies of a copyrighted work without the copyright holder’s con-
sent. This treaty pertains to all “phonograms,” which is defined as any fixa-
tion of sound regardless of the form. This convention is administered by the
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), International Labour
Organization (ILO), and the United National Educational, Scientific and Cul-
tural Organization (UNESCO).

PHONOGRAPH. Thomas Edison invented the phonograph in 1877. The

invention of the phonograph made the reproduction of sound possible. The
phonograph was originally invented for business clients to facilitate the re-
cording and playback of spoken messages, but as the technology improved
and demand increased for music recordings, a new industry was formed.
Emile Berliner of Germany invented his own version using a flat disc rather
than a cylinder in 1890 that could be mass-produced for commercial pur-
poses and called it the gramophone. It should be noted that in the early years
of the record industry, from approximately 1890 to 1930, the terms “phono-
graph,” “gramophone,” and “graphophone” were used interchangeably by
the public to refer to cylinder- or disc-based playback systems for the home
or radio station.
Phonographs allowed consumers to enjoy music recordings within their
homes and paved the way for radio and television to become important parts
of entertainment within the home during the 20th century. Recorded sound
defined popular music and determined how different styles of music would
be categorized.
 PITTMAN, ROBERT • 225
The phonograph was supplanted by the long-playing record (LP) in the
1950s.

PHONOGRAPH CYLINDER. The phonograph cylinder was a recording

mechanism developed and patented in 1877 by Thomas Edison. A hollow
cylinder covered with aluminum foil was indented on its surface to create the
recordings. It led to the first commercial device for recording and reproduc-
ing sound. Mass production of cylinders began in 1904 and ended in 1924 in
favor of discs, which had become the dominant technology prior to World
War I.

PHONORECORD. Any form of audio reproduction medium is described in

copyright law as a phonorecord. Thus, a CD, DVD, tape cassette, or any
other technology is each viewed as a form of phonorecord.

PIANO ROLLS. A piano roll is a roll of paper that is perforated and cut to
encode music. Developed in the 1890s, the roll is played by a mechanical
player, also known as a player piano or pianola. The popularity of player
pianos and piano rolls helped foster an industry focused on supplying new
rolls for consumers to play. The industry peaked in the mid-1920s, declining
as advancements in recording technology made higher-fidelity recordings
commonplace and more affordable.
Piano rolls were the subject of a major copyright case, White-Smith Music
Publishing Company v. Apollo Company. The 1908 Supreme Court decision
ruled that composers did not have to be paid royalties for the manufacturing
of music rolls because the piano rolls were not copies of copyrighted sheet
music. Soon after, the landmark Copyright Act of 1909 reversed this deci-
sion and initiated the first compulsory mechanical license that guaranteed
composers would be compensated when their music was used to create piano
rolls.

PIANOLA. See PLAYER PIANO.

PITTMAN, ROBERT. Robert Warren “Bob” Pittman was born on 28 De-

cember 1953 in Jackson, Mississippi. Pittman is widely regarded as an inno-
vative and experienced entertainment executive. He is best known as one of
the founders of MTV. By the age of 15, Pittman was working as a radio
announcer and quickly developed his abilities as a savvy programmer. By 23,
he was programming WNBC-New York, NBC’s premiere radio station. In
1978, he cohosted and produced one of the first music video shows, allowing
him to measure the impact of music videos on his audience prior to the
conceptualization of MTV. Pittman and the team that founded MTV were
226 • PLATINUM CERTIFICATION
some of the first media executives to understand, measure, and profit from
the use of psychographic data on the viewing audience. The unmatched
popularity of MTV made it the first profitable basic cable channel in history.
He helped launch or rebrand the VH-1, Nickelodeon, and Nick at Nite chan-
nels, all of which succeeded. After leaving MTV, he spent time in senior
roles for Time Warner, AOL, Century 21 Real Estate, Six Flags Theme Park,
and Quantum Media. In 2010, he joined Clear Channel Media in the role of
chairman and led the company’s 2014 transition to the iHeartRadio brand,
which now encompasses terrestrial radio, internet radio, and live music
festivals.

PLATINUM CERTIFICATION. Platinum certification designates the sell-

ing of more than one million copies of a recorded single or album. In 1976,
the Recording Industry Association of America inaugurated a new certifi-
cation level for sales of one million or more albums or singles, replacing the
old standard, which was adhered to from 1958 to 1976 and awarded a Gold
record to recordings selling one million. Gold records post-1976 are now
awarded for the sale of 500,000 or more records.
See also DIAMOND CERTIFICATION.

PLAYER PIANO. A player piano, also known as a pianola, is an automatic

instrument that includes a piano and a self-playing mechanism. The self-
playing mechanism typically uses a piano roll with perforated holes to deter-
mine what notes to play. There are many different kinds of player pianos
with different features, capabilities, and mechanisms.
Modern player pianos were developed and introduced to the consumer
market in the late 1890s. Melville Clark, a piano designer, developed a
standardized roll size that all manufactures adopted by 1908 to allow interop-
erability between player piano brands.
In 1912, the marking piano was invented, which allowed manufacturers to
create a master piano roll as the pianist performed a piece of music. This
made workers who hand-punched holes into master rolls obsolete.
Player pianos achieved the greatest popularity in the 1920s, with sales
slowing dramatically by the 1950s. Player pianos had a revival in the 1970s,
with acoustic pianos furnished with features like digital cassette drives or
computers, and continue to be a segment of today’s keyboard industry, find-
ing use in piano bars, public spaces, and family homes that enjoy the sound
of piano music.

PLAYLIST. The term “playlist” refers to a particular collection of songs

that have been selected with the intent to be played back, performed, or
broadcast in a certain order. The term was used in the latter part of the 20th
 PODCASTER • 227
century to refer to radio playlists that may have been themed or topical or
that profiled a particular artist or genre of music. Conversely, the words “set
list” are commonly used by bands and performers when referring to the list
of songs for a particular live performance. With the advent of the iTunes
software in 2001, consumers gained the ability to create their own custo-
mized playlists for tracks that they owned. However, with the advent of
music streaming services, the term has taken on added significance. This is
due to the fact that new music is frequently discovered by listeners by em-
bedding a less well-known artist into a playlist featuring more well-known
artists. With today’s nearly limitless cloud-based music libraries available to
consumers with subscriptions to music streaming services such as Spotify
and Apple Music, the art and science of curating playlists to meaningfully
engage listeners has been elevated to a critical function in the music industry
as consumers increasingly move to an access rather than an ownership model
of listening to music.

PODCAST. A podcast is an episodic series of digital media that can be

automatically downloaded to a subscriber’s computer or media player. Pod-
casts can be created and shared by computer users with little or no media or
broadcasting experience. As part of the democratization resulting from the
internet, early podcasts, such as Adam Curry’s 2004 series Daily Source
Code, showed the potential for media creation and appreciation outside of
mainstream broadcast radio and television networks. In 2005, Apple added
podcast support to iTunes software, and simultaneously a range of other
easy-to-use podcast subscription software became available. Similar to the
offerings of cable television and satellite radio, the range of topics covered
across the realm of podcasting is remarkably diverse. In 2014, the documen-
tary-style crime podcast Serial debuted as an offshoot of the public radio
program This American Life. By winter 2016, it was reportedly downloaded
more than 80 million times, and sponsors signed on to support the show.
Today, there continues to be a renaissance of podcast programming available
covering nearly every phase of human endeavor and interest.

PODCASTER. Podcasts are a form of free serialized media that are distrib-
uted via the internet most often by listeners opting in to receive the latest
installments automatically for listening back on a delayed basis on a personal
computer or portable media player. The term itself is a mashup of sorts
referring to the Apple iPod, which became the most popular portable MP3
player in the early 2000s, and the concept of broadcasting. One of the first
podcasters to gain a large audience was former MTV veejay Adam Curry,
228 • POLLSTAR
who in 2004 began a series titled Daily Source Code, which demonstrated the
feasibility of automating and delivering audio content to listeners through
software that would eventually become known as a podcatcher.
Podcasting evolved slowly, but in late 2014 a 12-part podcast dubbed
Serial became a front-page news story, becoming the fastest podcast to ever
reach five million downloads according to Apple Computer. Each episode
was downloaded an average of 3.4 million times and points the way toward
the growth potential for podcasters as the increase in mobile phones makes
taking podcasts along wherever consumers go in their daily lives more prac-
tical. With this growth, advertisers have begun to view the listening audi-
ences being aggregated by popular podcasters as justifying underwriting such
shows. Edison Research reported in March 2016 that 21 percent of
Americans had listened to a podcast in the previous month, representing a
total podcasting audience of 57 million listeners.

POLLSTAR. Pollstar is a trade publication focused on the concert industry.

Pollstar was originally founded in 1981 in Fresno, California. The weekly
magazine is a member of the Associated Press. In addition to the print maga-
zine, Pollstar also has a website aimed at live music consumers. Pollstar
generates its information from a variety of music industry professionals,
including concert promoters, agents, and personal managers.
In 2007, Pollstar introduced a subscription site called PollstarPro. Pollstar-
Pro is considered an important resource that contains searchable information
on box office sales, business analyses, artist profiles, artist touring itineraries,
and relevant business news.

PPD. See PUBLISHED PRICE TO DEALERS (PPD).

PRESLEY, ELVIS (1935–1977). Elvis Aron Presley was an American per-

former and songwriter, often referred to as “The King,” in popular culture.
He was the most successful artist to emerged from the 1950s rock ’n’ roll
explosion and exerted a tremendous influence on music, fashion, and popular
culture. Born on 8 January 1935 in Tupelo, Mississippi, Presley grew up
surrounded by African American culture and by the age of 12 had performed
publicly, accompanying himself on guitar. He attended high school in Mem-
phis, Tennessee, after his family moved there and, by the time of his gradua-
tion, had declared music as his calling. He made some seminal early record-
ings under the direction of Sam Phillips at Sun Records, eventually signing a
record contract with Sun that led to a series of recordings with a fresh new
sound that blended elements of country music and rhythm and blues. As the
recordings caught the attention of radio programmers in the South, listeners
were intrigued, since Presley used many African American vocal manner-
 PRESSING AND DISTRIBUTION DEAL (P&D DEAL) • 229
isms in his delivery. “Was he white or black?” they wondered. As attention
grew, Col. Tom Parker became involved in managing the young singer and
soon engineered the purchase of his Sun contract by RCA Records for the
then unheard of sum of $35,000. Presley spent the rest of his career recording
for RCA and managed by Parker. From 1956 to 1963, Presley would rack up
an impressive number of hit records while furthering his popularity with
frequent television and film appearances, especially in movies that were
designed as starring vehicles for him. His first RCA extended play, Heart-
break Hotel (1956), achieved the unprecedented feat of reaching the top five
on the pop, rhythm and blues, and country charts simultaneously, showing
his tremendous crossover appeal. He continued with a string of hit records
and movies, interrupted by his military service from 1958 to 1960. However,
as a by-product of the British Invasion acts dominating the pop charts from
1963 to 1965, Presley was eclipsed. He was able to mount a comeback,
although not to the same level of chart dominance, in the period 1968–1972,
once again recording songs that showed he had matured as an artist beyond
the matinee idol of the 1950s. The last five years of his life were marked by
occasional erratic performances, in retrospect likely due to his dependence
on drugs. He passed away on 16 August 1977 at his estate in Memphis,
Tennessee, as a result of an overreliance on drugs. After his death, manager
Parker continued to market Presley’s music and image, even helping to de-
velop the first celebrity tourist destination at Presley’s Graceland estate in
Memphis. All in all, the Recording Industry Association of America
awarded Presley 110 Gold, Platinum, or multi-Platinum albums or singles
for his body of work, the most in history. Due in part to the lack of verifiable
sales data from the pre-SoundScan era when Elvis was most successful, a
total of 212 million record sales can be documented publicly today. Howev-
er, RCA Records has claimed that Presley sold in excess of one billion
records worldwide (with 600 million estimated to have been sold domestical-
ly), with sales continuing steadily after his death. Regardless of which sales
data is referenced, Elvis Presley was certainly one of the most successful
recording artists of all time.

PRESSING AND DISTRIBUTION DEAL (P&D DEAL). A pressing and

distribution deal is a type of distribution agreement in which the artist or their
production company will invest all the necessary funds to record and market
a new album while entering into an agreement with a distribution company to
handle the pressing, sale, and revenue collection from sales of that record.
Depending on the respective strengths of each of the parties, as well as other
considerations, there may be some variations on the standard scope of ser-
vices that the label may provide. It’s important to note that in a traditional P&
D agreement, the burden of marketing the record and getting attention for its
release both within the industry and among the general public is the respon-
230 • PRINCE (1958–2016)
sibility of the artist, not the label that is distributing the record. For their
services, the distribution company will normally keep approximately 25 per-
cent of the wholesale price for which the record is sold.
See also LABEL SERVICES DEAL.

PRINCE (1958–2016). Prince Rogers Nelson was born on 7 June 1958 in

Minneapolis, Minnesota, and was an American songwriter, performer, re-
cording artist, and entrepreneur. He is known not only for his substantial
body of innovative musical works but as a leading advocate for artist’s rights,
often clashing with the industry’s elite power brokers and record labels with
whom he feuded over his own rights.
Born into a musical family in Minneapolis, Minnesota, by the age of seven
Prince reportedly had written his first original song. While in school, he
played three sports and excelled at music. At the age of 18, he signed a
record contract with Warner Brothers, who funded his album For You
(1978), on which Prince played all 27 instruments himself while composing
all of the songs. From the outset, Prince apparently realized the value in his
songs and was able to negotiate publishing ownership in his songs as well as
total creative control for his early albums. While his debut was moderately
successful, his succeeding releases all dramatically grew in popularity, lead-
ing up to the blockbuster success of 1984’s Purple Rain album and compan-
ion motion picture.
Prince’s impact on popular culture at that time was comparable to that of
Jimi Hendrix a generation earlier. Similar to Hendrix, Prince also drew on
musical traditions of funk, rock, soul, psychedelia, R&B, and new wave to
create a fresh, new sound that was uniquely his own. He also injected a high
degree of sexuality into his records and performances, although he was re-
ported to be somewhat shy in his private life. He built a musical redoubt with
some of his profits dubbed Paisley Park Studios in Minneapolis, which
would remain his headquarters for his entire career. He also developed as a
fashion icon, known for his often-outlandish wardrobe, makeup, staging, and
custom-built musical instruments.
From the 1990s on, Prince battled against his record companies via law-
suits to regain control of his catalog, name, image, and likeness, at one time
going so far as to appear publicly with the word “slave” written on his face to
dramatize the fact that he did not have control of the use of his own name in
association with his career. From 2007 on, he also frequently fought to have
his music removed from internet sites, which he believed unfairly compen-
sated artists and songwriters. His career output included 48 albums and four
motion pictures. He sold more than 100 million albums worldwide with six
Platinum albums and three Platinum singles, confirming him as one of the
most celebrated artists in American popular music. In the process, he was
 PRODUCER’S ROYALTY • 231
awarded an Oscar, seven Grammys, and a Golden Globe for his achieve-
ments. On 21 April 2016, Prince died at his compound near Minneapolis due
to an overdose of prescription pain medication.

PRINT MUSIC STORE. A specialty music products retailer that carries

printed music, also referred to as sheet music. Print music retailers cater to
the needs of music educators, church music and choral directors, and others.
With the increased availability of sheet music that is downloadable from the
internet, print music retailers must increasingly rely on building and main-
taining personal relationships with their customer base. The National Asso-
ciation of Music Merchandisers’ 2015 Global Music Report cites U.S. print
music retail sales at $513 million.

PRO RATA. Any time a payment, such as artist royalties, are required to
be paid over a set time period in equal amounts, such payments are said to be
made on a “pro rata basis.” The advantage to the artist and manager is that by
stipulating pro rata payments, a predictable cash flow is more readily attain-
able.

PRODUCER. See RECORD PRODUCER.

PRODUCER’S ADVANCE. In order to secure the services of an experi-

enced record producer, the artist will normally offer them an advance on
their future royalties. Such advances are a lump sum payment that the pro-
ducer will receive either before the recording begins or in portions through-
out the recording of the new album. Most producers are paid a percentage of
overall record sales at a rate that is negotiated prior to the commencement of
recording. In many cases, the artist is not in a financial position to pay the
producer’s advance, so the record label will pay that sum and add it to the
amount of money that is recoupable from the artist’s royalties.
See also RECORD ONE ROYALTIES.

PRODUCER’S ROYALTY. The producer royalty is paid on a per-unit-sold

basis and is an obligation that the artist assumes when hiring a producer for
their record. The producer royalty amount, generally in the range of 3 to 5
percent of published price to dealers, will be lumped in with the overall
artist royalty rate for this reason. Practically speaking, other than a few
superstars, artists will not have the necessary cash flow to pay producer
royalties as they come due, and as a result, the artist’s record label will often
pay the producer royalties on behalf of the artist and add those producer
royalty payments to the sum of money that will be recouped from the artist’s
royalties on that album.
232 • PRODUCTION ASSISTANT
PRODUCTION ASSISTANT. A production assistant is a person engaged
in an administrative support role for a music producer, production manager,
venue manager, or other professional involved in some aspect of record,
music, concert, or media production. They may also be referred to as a
production coordinator.

PRODUCTION COORDINATOR. See PRODUCTION ASSISTANT.

PRODUCTION MANAGER. While the tour manager works on behalf of

the artist to ensure that all aspects of the tour are running smoothly, the
production manager is in charge of seeing that each detail of the setup,
performance, and teardown (also referred to as striking the set) for a particu-
lar performance is completed safely, on time, and within the allotted budget.
The production manager supervises anyone working on elements that will be
used as part of the actual performance. As a result, they work closely with
on-site labor, technicians, riggers, and lighting, video, and sound technolo-
gists to ensure that all aspects of preparing, performing, and striking go
smoothly. In theater arts, this person is normally referred to as a stage man-
ager.

PROGRAM DIRECTOR (PD). The program director is responsible for the

content across all of a station’s various programs and features. They work
closely with on-air talent and design promotions that highlight the station’s
upcoming programming. Depending on the overall staffing level at a radio
station, the program director may also take on creative production and help-
ing to develop and sustain the image of the station. If the station does not
have a separate music director, then the program director is also responsible
for selecting which songs will be tested and added to the station’s playlist.
Program directors often start out as DJs.

PROMOS. See PROMOTIONAL COPIES.

PROMOTER. The promoter is the person or business entity that has

contracted with an artist or performer, most often through that performer’s
agent, to book the artist to present a live concert performance at a venue. The
promoter assumes the risk for assessing the market potential of any given
artist to perform in a city or town and then putting together an offer to the
agent that will be most likely to result in a profitable, well-attended concert.
The job of the concert promoter is multidimensional and requires an excel-
lent working knowledge of all aspects of event production, marketing, logis-
tics, security, and effective communication skills with all parties to the con-
cert presentation. In the 21st century, two large vertically integrated mega-
 PSY • 233
promoters have evolved, Live Nation Entertainment and AEG Live. Thou-
sands of smaller regional and local promoters continue to thrive based on
their ability to successfully predict market interest for particular artists in
their region.

PROMOTIONAL COPIES. Often referred to as promos, promotional cop-

ies are copies of an album that are earmarked to be given away to key
stakeholders such as music reviewers, radio programmers, booking agents,
talent buyers, or other intermediaries who may be able to recommend the
artist and their music to consumers or to others in the industry. Promo copies
are usually marked in such a way—for instance, by defacing the bar code—
that they may not be offered for retail sale as a new record. Promo copies are
not included in the sales totals that generate artist royalties or chart posi-
tion.

PROMOTIONS MANAGER. Working with radio station management,

sales, and programming, the promotions manager develops activities, events,
and opportunities to raise awareness, visibility, and new listeners for the
station. They must develop an accurate and detailed understanding of who
the station’s audience is made up of. Typical promotions activities may in-
clude live appearances by a DJ at a local merchant to encourage listeners to
stop by, helping raise money for a good cause, or developing a contest to win
a deluxe vacation package to engage their audience and ensure more active
listener participation. Promotion managers must also utilize the various on-
line platforms, including social media, that are available to extend the sta-
tion’s reach beyond the airwaves.

PSY. Psy, born Park Jae-Sang on 31 December 1977 in Seoul, South Korea,
is a popular K-Pop singer, songwriter, and producer, best known for his
groundbreaking single “Gangnam Style,” which became the first YouTube
music video to garner more than one billion views. After attending school in
Seoul, in 1996 Psy went to America to study business but became enamored
with studying music instead and soon dropped out of school, returned to
Korea, and pursued a career in music. He released his first album, Psy from
the Psycho World!, in 2001, a hip hop–influenced set of songs that drew
attention in part due to his overall appearance and quirky dance moves. Psy
did not fit the traditional K-Pop visual blueprint of the good-looking, stylish
young men and women who make up nearly all of the K-Pop bands. His
career evolved over the course of five more albums from 2002 to 2012,
growing a substantial fan base in Korea and Japan and signing with K-Pop
entertainment entity YG Entertainment in 2010. “Gangnam Style” was a
single from his sixth album, and due to the humorous music video released
234 • PUBLIC DOMAIN
on 15 July 2012 to promote the single, both the song and the artist became
global viral video sensations. By December, the video had accumulated more
than one billion views, owing part of its global success to the fact that a
number of high-profile celebrities and artists with large social media follow-
ings had endorsed the video by posting it on their social media accounts. Due
to the song’s global reach, it increased interest and awareness in K-Pop
music in territories such as the United States and Europe.

PUBLIC DOMAIN. See COPYRIGHT.

PUBLICIST. A publicist is engaged to shape the publicity and public narra-

tive around a musician, band, or performing artist. Publicists work closely
with the personal manager to help identify, refine, and focus the intended
image that the artist and manager wish to convey to the public. The publicist
will then work with various members of the artist’s team of advisors to create
a media kit, which may include artist biography, interviews, photos, as well
as recent news releases pertaining to activities such as tours, album releases,
public appearances, endorsements, and so on. Publicists also work to guide
or control negative publicity in the event of unforeseen events, a process
often referred to as “spin control.” While publicists may be staff members of
a record label or other music business firm, many leading music publicists
work independently as consultants, for short-term assignments such as an
album release, or longer term, charging a retainer for ongoing, open-ended
public relations counsel.

PUBLISHED PRICE TO DEALERS (PPD). The published price to deal-

ers is the predetermined wholesale price that an album is offered for sale to
distributors is referred to as the published price to distributors. This whole-
sale selling price is most commonly used as the basis for royalty calculations,
not the suggested retail list price.

PUBLISHED PRICE TO DISTRIBUTORS. See PUBLISHED PRICE TO

DEALERS (PPD).

PUNK ROCK. Punk rock, often shortened to simply punk, is a genre of

popular music that developed in the 1970s, primarily in the United States and
United Kingdom, as a reaction to the highly formulaic, staged, and mani-
cured rock stars of the era. Characterized by both its creators and its fans as
loud, angry, and aggressive, punk developed as a subculture that celebrated
being different than everything that was currently viewed as acceptable in
mainstream society. In the United States, bands such as the Ramones, Televi-
sion, and the New York Dolls were some of the first to embrace the sounds,
 PUNK ROCK • 235
while in the UK, the Sex Pistols, the Clash, and the Damned did their best to
provoke mistrust and shock within the establishment. Much more than just
music, punk ignited a social movement that would find traction with hun-
dreds of thousands of youth around the world, helping them to feel akin to
fellow punks who didn’t see a ready place for their opinions and felt disaffec-
tion toward the mainstream culture of the times. Punks developed their own
international touring network, largely without any involvement by traditional
music industry agents, clubs, or promoters.
Fashion was one of punk’s defining elements, which including body pierc-
ings, tattoos, and even the appropriation of historically abhorrent images
such as the swastika to provoke strong reaction. Another of the tenets of punk
was the taking charge of making, recording, distributing, and promoting
one’s music as a necessary act to combat the sameness of popular culture and
the corruption represented by the corporate music business. This do-it-your-
self (DIY) mentality would eventually give rise to alternate streams of
counterculture, such as DIY punk subgenre variants including hardcore,
straightedge, and speed metal.
 R
RACE RECORD (RACE MUSIC). The terms “race record” or “race mu-
sic” were used between 1921 and 1942 for recordings made by and for
African Americans, which was both a reflection of society’s segregation by
race and a way to generate audiences among African American consumers.
Okeh Records was the first company to market a race series, and other
companies such as Paramount, Columbia, and Victor followed suit, focusing
on blues, jazz, and gospel songs.
Race records were more profitable in comparison to recordings by white
artists because, in most cases, black artists were paid less and often taken
advantage of by the recording companies, which were usually white owned.
Black Swan Records was the exception, being the first African
American–owned label, and between 1921 and 1923 it released 180 songs by
the most prominent black musical performers of the day.
The production of race records waned concurrent with World War II due
to the government rationing of shellac and the American Federation of
Musicians’ ban on recording. In 1947, a new term to describe what had been
race music, rhythm and blues, was first used in Billboard.

RACK JOBBER. A rack jobber is a record distributor that leases space in a

high-traffic retail environment, such as a supermarket, big box store, or con-
venience store, and sets up and stocks a retail display with records. They pay
a monthly lease for the space and keep the majority of the profits from the
sale of any records.

RADIO. See SATELLITE RADIO; STREAMING RADIO; TERRESTRI-

AL RADIO; TOP 40 RADIO.

RADIOHEAD. English rock band Radiohead formed in 1985 while its

members were attending school together in Oxfordshire. The band’s current
nine-album catalog has garnered a wide range of responses from both fans
and the press, ranging from awe and adulation to confusion and distaste for
the band’s sometimes complex, modern sounds and rock, pop, electronic, and

237
238 • RAGTIME
garage rock elements that often stray from current pop music conventions.
Regardless, the group established itself as one of the most well-known bands
between 1990 and 2016.
In the context of the music industry, Radiohead signed a typical 20th-
century recording contract with EMI Records in 1991, which was completed
with the 2003 release of their sixth album, Hail to the Thief. The band’s
singer and front man, Thom Yorke, has been an outspoken critic of the
traditional relationship between artists and record labels, and the band and
its managers turned the industry upside down by releasing their first post-
EMI album, In Rainbows, in 2007 via their website, the first artist of such
stature to embrace a pay-what-you-want model. This move sparked contro-
versy and debate worldwide as to what the future fortunes of the record
business might look like. Even though fans could opt to download the album
for free, it was released as a physical compact disc in early 2008 in the
United States and went on to sell more than three million copies. The band
has continued to extend the promotion and distribution options used for their
music, while voicing concerns about the viability of the revenue side for
artists to have successful careers if they are to be supported mainly via the
fast-growing media music streaming marketplace.

RAGTIME. Ragtime is a syncopated style of music that came into promi-

nence in the early 20th century. Ragtime pieces were typically composed by
African Americans. One of the most popular ragtime composers was Scott
Joplin, known as the “King of Ragtime.” His “Maple Leaf Rag” was rag-
time’s first hit and became the model for other ragtime compositions.
Since ragtime music was composed and not improvised, it could be pre-
cisely notated, printed, and sold. Sales for printed ragtime music were lucra-
tive and secured a place alongside the music of European composers.
While ragtime was associated with African American people, the compos-
ers themselves had limited control over how it was sold by music publishers.
Eventually, ragtime became a catchall phrase for any new, lively music.

RAP. Rap is a genre of music that came to prominence among African

American audiences in the late 1970s and featured African American vocal-
ists performing semispoken rhymes over a rhythmic backing track. Cultural-
ly, rap harkens back to long-standing African American traditions of spoken
word performance, such as dozens or griots. Rappers usually performed over
background music performed by a turntablist or DJ, who often used samples
or the most rhythmic portions of obscure records to create an entirely new
rhythmic form of music when combined with the rapper’s words.
 RCA VICTOR • 239
Rap was a part of the larger hip hop culture, which included graffiti art
and break dancing. It started in New York City as early as 1973, when DJ
Kool Herc drew large audiences to parties around the city. Eventually, Herc
hired Coke La Rock to improvise rhymes and help entertain and control the
crowds he attracted. By 1979, when the independently released single “Rap-
per’s Delight” became a hit, rap music and its many variants had become an
established part of African American urban culture and would go on to
become an integral part of the nation’s mainstream popular culture in the
ensuing decades.

RAPINO, MICHAEL. Michael Rapino was born in 1956 in Thunder Bay,

Canada. From the age of 20, when he stood backstage and marveled at the
audience reaction at the first concert he ever booked with guitarist Jeff Heal-
ey, Rapino set his sights on providing concertgoers with the best possible live
music experience. After completing college with a degree in business, he
went to work for Labatt Breweries, taking on sports and entertainment mar-
keting responsibilities for 10 years, which included partnerships with Major
League Baseball and the National Basketball Association. He then joined
Canada’s second largest concert promotion company, Core Audience Enter-
tainment, as a partner. In 2000, Core was acquired by SFX Entertainment;
however, almost immediately, SFX was sold to media giant Clear Channel in
a $4.4 billion deal. Rapino’s talents were noticed at his new firm, and he
scaled the ranks at Clear Channel. In 2001, he became CEO of the European
Division; in 2003, he was promoted to CEO of the International Division;
and in 2005, he became CEO and president of Live Nation Entertainment.
Known for his fan-centered approach, he has led Live Nation’s expansion
and investments into the festival segment, as well as partnering with some of
the most successful tours in recent years, including Luke Bryan, Jay-Z, U2,
One Direction, and Taylor Swift.

RATABLE LIQUIDATION. It is in the best interests of the artist to secure

a provision in their recording contract that stipulates that as the reserve
withholding sums are due and liquidated (meaning paid to the artist) that it is
done using a ratable method, meaning payments are made over a predeter-
mined time in equal amounts. Unless this is agreed to in advance, a record
label may further delay reserve liquidation until the last possible period cov-
ered under the contract.

RCA VICTOR. Victor Records was originally founded as the Consolidated

Talking Machine Co. in 1900, and after various name changes the company
became Victor Talking Machine Co. Eldridge R. Johnson was the founder,
with Emile Berliner, who invented the gramophone disc, was involved as a
240 • RCA VICTOR
principal stockholder. Victor’s iconic symbol was the image of a dog, named
“Nipper,” looking into the horn of a gramophone, listening for the sound of
“his master’s voice,” which became a Victor slogan from 1890 to the 1950s.
Like their main competitor, Columbia, they manufactured phonograph
players and records for much of their early history.
Victor’s record production closely followed the taste of music consumers.
It began mostly with popular songs but also released operatic recordings in
order to build its reputation with the classical music audience. In the early
1920s, Victor focused on jazz, including Duke Ellington and Paul White-
man, and blues followed soon after in the late 1920s.
In 1926, Johnson sold the company to a group of bankers, who resold it to
the Radio Corporation of American in 1929. Because RCA was so successful
in the radio industry, the company was able to successfully survive the Great
Depression, whereas many other labels did not.
RCA Victor continued to thrive in the 1930s with big band swing and in
the 1940s with a variety of vocalists. In the mid-1950s, Victor launched
several subsidiary labels. Victor found success with teen idol Elvis Presley,
but noticeably, he was the only rock ’n’ roll artist RCA successfully mar-
keted; instead, the label stuck with tried-and-true releases such as film
soundtracks and more traditional popular crooners. RCA had invested early
in country music, establishing its famed Studio B on Nashville’s Music
Row, and had numerous country hits with artists such as Porter Wagner,
Ronnie Milsap, Alabama, Chet Atkins, and Dolly Parton. From the 1970s on,
the label refocused on popular, top 40 music and had success with artists
including Hall & Oates, John Denver, and Kenny Rogers.
In 1986, RCA Victor was acquired by Bertelsmann, a German conglomer-
ate, that reorganized the label based on repertory and renamed the company
Bertelsmann Music Group (BMG). During this time, RCA Victor had major
financial troubles and was operating at a deficit but was able to quickly turn
it around by dramatically cutting its roster and focusing on developing artists.
In addition, two soundtrack albums for the film Dirty Dancing combined to
sell more than 20 million units, helping restore the label to solvency.
In the 1990s, RCA Victor found success with artists such as the Dave
Matthews Band, Christina Aguilera, Foo Fighters, and NSYNC. They also
continued to forge distribution agreements with hip hop labels, a strategy
that had started in the 1980s, helping the label to capitalize on the growing
phenomenon with minimum investment.
In 2008, Sony acquired 50 percent of BMG, and the BMG Label Group
merged with Jive Label Group to create the RCA/Jive Label Group. RCA
continued to have success with Christina Aguilera, Justin Timberlake, Ke-
sha, and Pitbull. RCA Records is now a stand-alone subsidiary of Sony
Music Entertainment.
 RECORD LABELS • 241
RECORD. In record contract language, any form of sound recording that
may be transmitted, sold, or shared is viewed as a “record.” So any compact
disc, vinyl long-playing record or single, digital download, music video,
or compact cassette tape is viewed as a record in the context of a recording
contract.
See also PHONORECORD.

RECORD CONTRACT. Any type of agreement between a recording artist

and a record label with the intention of recording and releasing music to the
listening public. During the 20th century, with the rise of the recorded music
industry, record contracts have become increasingly more complex as the
ways and means of making and promoting popular music have expanded.
While a record contract is generally drafted by the record label or its legal
counsel and provided to the artist for their review, the negotiating process
often involves multiple revisions and amendments before both parties are in
agreement. An artist should always obtain independent legal review and
advice before signing any record contract.

RECORD LABELS. A record label is a company that issues and distributes

recordings for a specific artist or musical group. Companies may have multi-
ple labels that they use for branding purposes. The record label also manages
the production, manufacturing, marketing, promotion, and copyright en-
forcement for the recording.
The original term “record label” comes from the label affixed to a vinyl
record that displays information about the record, including the name of the
record company. In the 1920s, most record labels, such as Okeh, Ajax, and
Paramount, focused on a niche market such as hillbilly, jazz, race, or classi-
cal.
In the 1970s and 1980s, all of the major record labels were consolidated
under large multinational companies who saw the record industry’s profit-
able operations and wished to participate. Independent record labels have
always been a part of the music industry and have had a number of boom
periods, such as the 1950s with the advent of rock ’n’ roll and the 1990s as
technology and the internet made it easier for artists and small companies to
produce and distribute albums profitably. While independent labels do not
have the same resources as major labels, they are often more artist-centric
and are willing to gamble on new, commercially unproven styles of music,
such as hip hop or grunge, both of which first developed on independent
labels.
Since 2012, the three major record labels are Universal Music Group,
Sony Music Entertainment, and Warner Music Group.
242 • RECORD ONE ROYALTIES
RECORD ONE ROYALTIES. A term used to denote the practice of pay-
ing a producer royalty on 100 percent of records sold, all the way back to
record one (the very first record sold). This differs from how artist royalties
are calculated and paid. Record one royalty arrangements provide that the
producer is paid on every record sold, once the record has recouped its
recording costs, whereas the artist’s own royalties are calculated to start
accruing after all recording costs have been recouped. Any producer ad-
vance that was provided is deducted from the producer royalties that accrue
after a record has been released.

RECORD PRODUCER. The record producer is responsible for assisting

and guiding the recording artist in the record-making process. He or she
helps the recording artist shape the overall sound of a recording to achieve
the artist’s vision. The record producer combines a strong sense of aesthetics
with a practical understanding of the business of making and releasing sound
recordings. The record-making process is generally divided into three dis-
crete time periods: preproduction, production, and postproduction. During
preproduction, the producer advises and assists the artist with song prepara-
tion, selection, and rehearsals with musicians, as well as choosing a studio
and establishing a budget. Once the producer and artist agree that the materi-
al is ready for recording, the production phase commences, during which
time all musicians and singers will be scheduled by the producer to come to
the recording studio and perform their parts. Once the artist and producer
agree that all necessary parts have been recorded, the postproduction phase
of the project starts, during which the producer will supervise and approve,
along with the artist, the sound mixing that will result in the final master
recordings being sent to the record label for review and approval. During
this phase, the producer will also finalize all necessary documentation,
contracts, payments, permissions, or other paperwork to ensure that the
record that results is available for the artist and record label to legally and
fully promote. Often, a producer will hire a production assistant to help
with keeping track of scheduling sessions, necessary paperwork and
contracts, logistics such as equipment rentals, union paperwork, music deliv-
ery to the label, and day-to-day details necessary to keeping a recording
project on schedule. Established producers normally receive a royalty on
every phonorecord sold or master recording licensed.
See also ARTIST ROYALTY; PRODUCER’S ADVANCE; PRODUC-
ER’S ROYALTY; RECORD ONE ROYALTIES.

RECORDING ACADEMY. Founded in 1957 as the National Academy of

Recording Arts and Sciences (NARAS), this 14,000-member association rep-
resents the interests of music creatives throughout the recording industry. It
 RECORDING ENGINEER (SOUND ENGINEER) • 243
is comprised primarily of record company executives and managers, produc-
ers, sound engineers, artists, visual media designers or producers, and other
professionals affiliated with the recording industry. Each year the academy’s
voting members help determine which records and artists will be awarded
Grammy Awards. Nonvoting membership is offered to industry profession-
als without the required record credits to serve as a voting member or to
students.
While perhaps the highest-profile aspect of the Recording Academy’s an-
nual work at the star-studded Grammy Awards telecast, the organization also
advocates for artists’ rights with lawmakers and has a charitable arm, the
MusiCares Foundation, which raises money to help aid musicians in crisis
needing medical or financial assistance. The association has 12 regional
chapter offices to serve its membership and has two specialized member
groups under the academy’s umbrella: Grammy U, a membership classifica-
tion for students interested in a career in the recording industry, and the
Producers and Engineers Wing, made up of sound recording professional
members, allowing them to focus on issues specific to their craft.
In 1997, a separate Latin Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences, often
using the acronym LARAS, was established under the umbrella of the Re-
cording Academy to recognize the achievements of Spanish- and Portuguese-
language recording artists and their respective record labels. Since 2000, a
separate Latin Grammy Award process and telecast has been in place, along
with a separate board of trustees to govern LARAS.

RECORDING ARTIST. See ARTIST.

RECORDING COSTS. The money that will be spent in the recording of a

new album is referred to as recording costs. This sum not only refers to any
studio time that is purchased but may also include such line items as studio
musicians, arrangers, equipment rentals or purchases, housing or transporta-
tion, food and hospitality, and more—all that is directly tied to the recording
of a new album. Record labels will often maintain control of the recording
monies that have been budgeted and make direct payments for invoices that
are approved by the record producer during the record-making process.

RECORDING ENGINEER (SOUND ENGINEER). A technician who is

responsible for capturing and manipulating sound that is intended to be re-
produced at a later time. Recording engineers must have a good understand-
ing of sound and its properties, various types of microphones, recording
equipment (both hardware and software), computers and their respective
peripheral devices, and the various ways that sound recordings are distrib-
uted either as a finished product (music recordings) or as part of another
244 • RECORDING INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA (RIAA)
product, such as a film, video game, mobile device, or advertisement. Vari-
ous industry segments may have specific skills and competencies required
for recording engineers in that field; for instance, postproduction sound en-
gineers, video game sound engineer, live sound engineer, and so on. De-
pending on the complexity of the project or number of musicians involved,
an assistant engineer may serve in a support role for the recording engineer,
responsible for equipment setup and takedown, session documentation, trou-
bleshooting of minor issues, and helping to ensure that time and talent are
used efficiently throughout the recording session.

RECORDING INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA (RIAA).

The Recording Industry Association of America is a trade group that repre-
sents a majority of the major and minor record labels in North and South
America. The RIAA was founded in 1952 in order to oversee problems with
copyright fees. The RIAA’s current mission is to lobby the government,
collect industry statistics, and represent the interests of the industry to consu-
mers. Much of the RIAA’s work involves protecting the intellectual property
and First Amendment rights of its members by finding ways to mitigate
piracy. The RIAA spends millions of dollars each year lobbying in the Unit-
ed States.

RECORDING STUDIO MANAGER. The person normally in charge of

the daily operations of a sound recording facility. Responsibilities often in-
clude monitoring and analysis of studio revenue, expenses, and bookings.
They are often involved in the marketing and sales efforts to ensure that the
studio is booked and operating as efficiently as possible. As the primary
liaison between the studio’s technicians and its clients, they should have
outstanding interpersonal and problem-solving skills and be a good judge of
character and human nature.

RECOUPMENT. Recoupment is the process whereby a record label re-

tains an artist’s royalties from record sales to pay back the various record
production and marketing costs associated with the creation of a new album.
Funds that were provided to benefit the artist such as recording costs, pro-
ducer advance, artist advance, independent radio promotion, tour support,
and the like are normally all costs that the record label will recoup before the
artist receives their first actual royalty check.
See also ADVANCE; ALL-IN; CROSS-COLLATERALIZATION.
 REMIXING ENGINEER • 245
REEL-TO-REEL. A synonym used to describe magnetic tape playback
recording and playback systems that rely on a pair of reels, one for supply
and the other for take up, while the tape is in motion. Analog reel-to-reel tape
was used briefly as a consumer release format in the 1960s.
See also MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDING.

REINAGLE, ALEXANDER (1756–1809). Alexander Reinagle was an

English-born American composer. He was a pianist, teacher, and theater
musician. Reinagle was born in England, and his father, Joseph Reinagle,
was a trumpet player. By 1778, he was teaching the harpsichord and pub-
lished music aimed at beginning keyboardists.
Reinagle moved to New York in 1786, where he performed and taught
lessons. He moved to Philadelphia, where he revitalized the musical life of
the city by performing Haydn, Mozart, as well as his own compositions. He
became an in-demand teacher for the upper class; in fact, George Washing-
ton was one of Reinagle’s admirers. He taught piano to Washington’s step-
granddaughter and composed Monody on the Death of George Washington
when Washington died.
While teaching in Philadelphia, he continued to compose and publish mu-
sic that could be used for piano instruction. Most notable out of all his
published works were his four piano sonatas, composed in Philadelphia and
published around 1790.
Beginning in 1790 or 1791, Reinagle joined the New Company, a theater
group that operated in Philadelphia and Baltimore. The theater company
focused on spoken-word and musical works. Reinagle’s role with the compa-
ny included composing and arranging music for hundreds of performances.
Most of Reinagle’s music for the theater company was destroyed in a fire at
the Philadelphia New Theatre in April 1820.

REMIX. An altered version of a previously released recording that is

adapted to suit an audience or market segment different than the one for
which it was created. Most often, this will be to create a new dance mix of a
successful pop song.
See also REMIXING ENGINEER.

REMIXING ENGINEER. Remixers take an existing master recording

and modify or adapt it, often to appeal to an audience or market segment
different from the one for which it was created. Typically, this will involve
adding or enhancing the drum parts, adding or changing the original vocal
parts, and speeding up the song to a tempo better suited to club play.
See also REMIX.
246 • REPLAY
REPLAY. If an artist wishes to use a sample from an existing song but
would like to only have to secure and pay for permission from the song’s
publisher, they can go into the recording studio and create a replay. A replay
is a newly created recording that duplicates as closely as possible the original
notes and sound of the original recorded performance for use in a new work.
By not using the original master recording, no permission is needed from
the master rights holder, usually the label that released the original recording.

RE-RECORDING RESTRICTIONS. Typical record contracts routinely

require artists to confirm limitations on their ability to re-record songs that
are included on record albums that are released to limit the opportunities for
consumers to purchase a different recording of the same song from a compet-
ing label or music company. These restrictions often have a term limit,
which is negotiated as a part of the original recording contract.

RESERVE CLAUSE. The portion of a recording contract that details how

monies will be withheld to cover any potential returns of unsold recordings
by the artist.

RESERVES. This term refers to prospective artist royalties that are tied to
anticipated sales of records that have been shipped to distributors and retail-
ers. Until the actual sales are confirmed by the record label, a portion of the
artist’s royalties is held in reserve to cover any potential returns of unsold
copies of the record.
See also RESERVE CLAUSE; RETURN PRIVILEGE.

REST OF WORLD (ROW). The United States remains the largest market
for recorded music, followed by these major territories: Japan, Canada, Ger-
many, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Holland, and Australia. Depending
on the artist and deal, some other western European territories may also be
considered major markets. All other territories are put into a catchall catego-
ry in record contracts referred to as “rest of world,” or ROW. The categor-
ization of these territories has ramifications for the artist royalties that will
be paid out for sales in the various territories. U.S. sales result in the highest
royalty rate payable, while Canada and the remaining “major” territories
have a slightly reduced artist royalty rate calculation. Sales in territories
designated as ROW result in substantially lowered artist royalties, in the
range of 50–66 percent of the U.S. rate.

RETURN PRIVILEGE. Return privilege is a convention in the recorded

music industry that stipulates music distributors and retailers may return any
unsold records for a full refund in the event that consumers are not purchas-
 RIDER • 247
ing the record. Similar to the book retailing industry, the idea is to protect
retailers from being stuck with unsalable merchandise and to afford them
confidence in ordering plenty of inventory on what the record label hopes
will be their next hit record. In order to account for the prospective return
privilege, record contracts include provisions to withhold prospective roy-
alties for record sales until the label is able to confirm sell through of the
records through its various retail channels. This is normally referred to as the
reserve against returns clause. This greatly complicates record keeping and
reporting of artist royalties. As long as physical copies of records are sold
through retail channels, there will likely be some sort of return provisions in
the agreements that a record label makes with artists and their retail channel
partners. Digital download sales are not returnable and, as such, logically
should not be subject to any type of reserve withholding.

REUSE FEES. When a recording that was made for one medium is reused
for a different medium, reuse fees apply. For example, if a popular song
made for a music album is reused in a motion picture, the film company will
have to pay reuse fees in proportion to how many performers were on the
original track. Reuse fees, also sometimes referred to as new use fees, are
paid to the original musicians who performed on the initial recording.

RHAPSODY. Rhapsody was the first interactive subscription-based U.S.

music streaming service, launching in December 2001. At their launch, they
primarily featured music from independent record labels as well as a large
inventory of classical recordings. Over the next two years, they secured
rights to add the music from all the major labels, thereby offering a compre-
hensive listening library comprising millions of tracks. In 2003, tech compa-
ny Real Networks acquired Rhapsody, which continued to operate with sup-
port from Real Networks. In 2010, Rhapsody’s executive team split the com-
pany off from Real Networks and began a collaboration with MTV Net-
works. In 2011, Rhapsody purchased the remains of Napster and over the
next five years merged the two brands into one music streaming company,
Rhapsody International. At the end of 2015, the firm reported 3.5 million
paid subscribers. In July 2016, the Rhapsody brand identity was replaced
worldwide with the Napster brand and its well-known feline logo.

RIAA. See RECORDING INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA

(RIAA).

RIDER. A rider is a document that usually accompanies a performance

contract in which the artist specifies both the technical and nontechnical
requirements that the promoter or talent buyer must provide in order to
248 • RIFF
fulfill the contract terms. The technical part of the rider will detail specific
types of staging, sound equipment, backline instruments and amplification,
staging components, power, or other technical requirements for the artist and
their crew to successfully mount their show. The nontechnical portions of the
rider will detail aspects such as dressing rooms, backstage amenities and
food/beverage requirements, office and communication needs for the tour
manager and other key staff, security, transportation, and any local staff
members such as runners or drivers that may be required. Since the promoter
must bear the cost of providing all items in the rider, the specifics may be
subject to some negotiation.

RIFF. An idiomatic term used to describe a repeatable musical figure, often

one that is memorable to the average listener. An example would be the first
three guitar notes of the Deep Purple classic rock song “Smoke on the Wa-
ter.” The term was used in the mid-20th century by jazz musicians with
continued usage up through today in various genres and styles of popular
music. Musicians will often refer to any short musical idea using this term.
See also LICK; MOTIF.

ROAD MANAGER. The road manager is in charge of supervising all as-

pects of a tour by an artist or band and works closely with the artist’s person-
al manager to ensure smooth daily operation once a tour is commenced. The
road manager for a young band making a regional tour in a van with an
equipment trailer may also handle multiple roles, such as running the sound-
board and taking care of the financial settlement with the club owner after
each gig. Conversely, for a major international superstar, the road manager
becomes much more of a chief operating officer for the tour and supervises a
touring staff of as many as 200 professionals, including a range of lower-
level managers who specialize in each specific area of the tour’s operation.
The road manager will also liaison with each stop’s on-site technical, labor,
and security managers. The road manager often acts as a surrogate for the
artist’s personal manager when the personal manager is not also traveling
with the tour.
While the terms “road manager” and “tour manager” have been somewhat
interchangeable, a road manager is generally hired to work with a band
touring the club or ballroom circuit, whereas the term “tour manager” is most
often applied to those managers working with an artist that is part of a tour
performing at theaters, arenas, or stadiums.

ROADIE. A support person who is responsible for the setup, operation, and
basic maintenance of one or more types of musical instruments or perfor-
mance equipment used in live shows by an artist or band. While a band
 ROCK ’N’ ROLL • 249
starting out may have only one roadie who handles all of their stage and
performance equipment, a major touring act will have individual crew mem-
bers serving respectively as guitar technician, drum technician, keyboard
technician, computer technician, and so on.

ROCK AND ROLL HALL OF FAME (AND MUSEUM). The Rock and
Roll Hall of Fame and Museum was established in 1983 by Ahmet Ertegun
(cofounder of Atlantic Records), Sarah Evans (editor of Rolling Stone),
Jann Wenner (publisher of Rolling Stone), attorney Allen Grubman, and
record executives Bob Krasnow, Seymour Stein, and Noreen Woods. It was
first founded as the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Foundation with the purpose
of creating a museum and a hall of fame.
Cleveland won the bid for the museum’s location. With I. M. Pei as the
architect, the museum opened in 1995 and is one of the city’s most iconic
buildings. The museum boasts of having more than 10 million visitors since
its opening, and 500,000 in 2015 alone.
The museum features interactive exhibits that contain musical instruments,
clothing and props from performances, posters, photographs, correspon-
dence, album art, drafts of song lyrics, and more. In addition, the facility
contains a research library and archives, offers educational programming,
and hosts conferences.
The foundation began inducting honorees into the hall of fame in 1986.
Artists, including performers and composers, are eligible for induction into
the hall of fame 25 years after the release of their first recording. The artist
must demonstrate having had an important impact on rock ’n’ roll. The
foundation has a nominating committee that selects the nominees. Ballots are
sent to hundreds of historians, music industry professionals, and artists for
voting. The top five performers with the most votes are inducted for that
year.
The foundation has received a lot of criticism for who is and who is not
nominated and inducted into the hall of fame. Some accuse the nominating
committee of lacking transparency in process and selecting nominees based
on personal preference and backstage lobbying. In addition, women are
underrepresented, and some rock pioneers have not yet been inducted.
See also MUSIC ARCHIVIST.

ROCK ’N’ ROLL. Rock ’n’ roll, alternately referred to as rock and roll,
rock & roll, or truncated to simply rock, is a genre of music that originated
and evolved in America during the late 1940s into the 1950s. The earliest
forms were based on a variety of earlier popular music styles, particularly
blues, honky-tonk, rhythm and blues, country, and some forms of jazz.
While there has been much debate about the origin of the term itself, the
250 • ROGERS, ROY (1911–1998)
music is readily defined by its insistence on a strong backbeat (beats two and
four when counting in 4/4 time) most often denoted by the snare drum, a
danceable rhythm, and the popularity with which youth of that era imbued it,
eclipsing earlier styles of popular music by a wide margin. Early rock ’n’ roll
songs were often performed using one or two guitars, a bass guitar or string
bass, and drums. Archetypal examples of early rock ’n’ roll include the
music of Buddy Holly, Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, and Elvis Presley’s
earliest recordings for Sun Records.
See also FREED, ALAN (1921–1965); THARPE, SISTER ROSETTA
(1915–1973).

ROGERS, ROY (1911–1998). Roy Rogers was an actor, singer, and guitar-
ist who earned the nickname “King of the Cowboys” during the heyday of
singing cowboys in 1940s Hollywood. Born Leonard Sly on 5 November
1911 in Cincinnati, Ohio, he and his family moved to California during the
Great Depression, and the young guitarist and vocalist soon helped to found
the Sons of the Pioneers, the most successful western singing group of the
day. Simultaneously, he auditioned for a role in a singing cowboy movie, and
although he did not win the role, he impressed the studio enough to later earn
a callback. Interestingly, Rogers’s first starring role was in 1938’s Under
Western Stars, a role written for Gene Autry, but as Autry had gone on
strike over wages, the part went to the upstart Rogers. Rogers eventually was
signed to a long-term contract with Republic Pictures, for whom he appeared
in eight formulaic films a year, eventually costarring with his real-life wife
and partner, Dale Evans, after they were married in 1947. In addition, he had
a national radio show that ran for nine years, and he made frequent live
appearances.
With the advent of television in the early 1950s, Rogers broke away from
the Hollywood studio system and launched one of the first successful televi-
sion series, The Roy Rogers Show. The half-hour show aired for six seasons,
resulting in 100 episodes, perfect for later syndication. The high profile of
Rogers and Evans led to a wide range of profitable merchandising opportu-
nities for toys and costumes aimed at young viewers of both genders. This
was only possible because, unlike most movie stars of the day, Rogers had
the foresight to secure ownership and marketing rights to his name and
likeness in 1940 when he renegotiated his contract with Republic Pictures.
Although the popularity of the duo faded by the mid-1950s, Rogers and
Evans stayed active as recording artists and made frequent guest appearances
on television and in person throughout the 1960s. He also resumed perform-
ing occasionally with the Sons of the Pioneers. Rogers passed away on 6 July
1998 in Apple Valley, California.
 ROLLING STONES, THE • 251
ROLLING STONE. Rolling Stone is an online publication and biweekly
print magazine that focuses on rock music and popular culture. The publica-
tion was founded in San Francisco, California, in 1967 by publisher Jann
Wenner and music critic Ralph Gleason. In addition to covering music, the
magazine is known for its edgy and sometimes controversial coverage of
current events, culture, and politics.
In his first column in Rolling Stone, Wenner stated the mission he saw the
new publication fulfilling when he wrote, “Rolling Stone is not just about
music, but also about the things and attitudes that the music embraces.” He
went on to explain that the magazine’s title referenced the term used through-
out popular music, including Muddy Waters’s blues song “Rollin’ Stone,”
the archetypal 1960s rock band the Rolling Stones, and Bob Dylan’s 1960s
anthem “Like a Rolling Stone.”
At first, the magazine focused on the counterculture of the times. In the
1970s, it made its way into politics with the famous work Fear and Loathing
in Las Vegas by Hunter S. Thompson, a gonzo journalist who popularized
that term. Several other prominent writers launched their career with Rolling
Stone, including Lester Bangs, Greil Marcus, and Cameron Crowe.
In 1977, the magazine moved to New York City. During the 1980s, even
though music was the main focus, it became more of a general entertainment
magazine. In the 1990s, Rolling Stone tried to tailor its content to teenagers.
It later abandoned this and returned to covering a mix of content, with a
renewed emphasis on music, pop culture, and politics.

ROLLING STONES, THE. The Rolling Stones are a British rock ’n’ roll
band that rose to prominence in the 1960s as part of the British Invasion and
have gone on to become one of the most commercially and artistically suc-
cessful pop groups in history. The group was inspired by American blues
artists, notably taking their name from a Muddy Waters song title. After a
few early gigs in late 1962, the band’s lineup was solidified, being made up
of Mick Jagger (b. 1943), Keith Richards (b. 1943), Brian Jones
(1942–1969), Bill Wyman (b. 1936), and Charlie Watts (b. 1941).
In March 1963, the band, usually referred to simply as the “Stones,”
undertook a residency at the Crawdaddy Club in London, where former
Beatles publicist Andrew Loog Oldham discovered them and signed on as
the band’s manager. Within a month, he had secured a recording contract
with Decca Records with very favorable terms, including ownership of their
master recordings, artistic control, and a much higher artist royalty rate
than was then the norm. The group proceeded to release three cover songs,
each of which rose higher up the charts than the previous single. The group
became well known throughout the UK, and Oldham decided to play up the
group’s “bad boy” image as a counter to the wholesomeness of the Beatles,
then the most popular group in the world, a strategy that worked very effec-
252 • ROLLING STONES, THE
tively. Based on their success in the UK, the band was booked on a tour of
the United States, which proved ill advised in that they were largely un-
known to U.S. audiences and during their appearance on television the
group’s unkempt look and casual clothing were mocked by the host as they
did not conform to the well-tailored and coiffed looks of the other British
groups. The Stones did, however, get to record for two days at the legendary
Chess Studios and meet their idol, Muddy Waters.
Oldham grew concerned that the band was relying on outside songs exclu-
sively for their records and so pressured members Richards and Jagger to
begin writing some of their own material. While they struggled at first, they
soon found their way and would go on to write a string of hit songs, includ-
ing “The Last Time,” “(I Can’t Get No) Satisfaction,” and “Get Off My
Cloud,” all in 1965, with “Satisfaction” topping the U.S. charts for four
consecutive weeks that year and establishing the group as international stars
of the first order. The band continued to develop their songwriting and music
production savvy, going on to release a series of four critically acclaimed
albums from 1968 to 1972, including Beggars Banquet (1968), Let It Bleed
(1969), Sticky Fingers (1971), and Exile on Main Street (1972). Each also
achieved Platinum status in the U.S. market. At the same time, the group
developed a sharp business sense, benefiting from early control of their mas-
ter recordings.
The Rolling Stones were one of the first rock groups to recognize the
power of visual art in quickly gaining the attention of the audience, which
today is commonly referred to as branding. The group’s so-called Hot Lips
logo has been a constant of their image since it first appeared on the Sticky
Fingers album cover. Drawing on various genres of American popular mu-
sic, including blues, country, honky-tonk, and soul, the Rolling Stones creat-
ed a repertoire that has since formed the basis for their substantial longevity
on both the airwaves and as one of the most successful touring acts of all
time. Their 25 studio albums along with the almost military precision of their
extensive world tours, which began in the mid-1970s, have placed the band
at the forefront of the popular music industry as arguably the most durable
and reliable money-making act of all time. Billboard estimated the group’s
1990–2013 concert earnings at $1.5 billion, playing 538 concerts for nearly
20 million fans. Their 2012 tour was billed as the 50 & Counting . . . Tour to
celebrate remaining together and viable as a band for five decades. After
Jones’s untimely death in 1969, the core members remained unchanged until
1992, when bassist Bill Wyman retired. The remaining members, Jagger,
Richards, Watts, and replacement guitarist Ron Wood (1975–present), con-
tinue to record and tour today, supported by a variety of backup musicians.
The group has sold an estimated 97 million records globally over the course
of their lengthy career.
 RUBIN, FREDRICK JAY “RICK” • 253
ROYALTIES. See ARTIST ROYALTY.

RUBIN, FREDRICK JAY “RICK”. Rick Rubin was born on 10 March

1953 in Long Beach, New York. He is best known as cofounder of Def Jam
Recordings and as a music producer and music executive. He is the founder
of American Recordings and former copresident of Columbia Records. Ru-
bin was drawn to music while attending Lido Beach High School and formed
a punk band called the Pricks. While the band didn’t last long, it confirmed
Rubin’s passion for music, and he went on to form Hose, a hardcore punk
band that released one record and toured in the early 1980s. During this time,
he met a number of artists who also managed their own independent record
labels. While attending New York University, Rubin released a Hose single
in 1982 and also became interested in the emerging hip hop scene in New
York. Soon he partnered with Russell Simmons and began releasing a string
of hits, including records from LL Cool J and the Beastie Boys. Rubin
became successful as a producer, helping Run-DMC become one of the most
visible and successful hip hop groups in the 1980s. By 1988, Def Jam Re-
cordings had grown substantially, and Rubin sold his shares to Simmons and
moved to California, where he started, first, Def American Records, renam-
ing it in 1993 American Recordings. While Rubin remained active as a hip
hop producer, he began producing heavy metal records, most notably for
Slayer. In 1994, Rubin began producing a series of records with Johnny
Cash that would become signature works revitalizing his career and further-
ing Cash’s legacy as one of America’s great artists. Rubin maintained a 20-
year production relationship with the Red Hot Chili Peppers that resulted in
their biggest hits. He’s moved into producing nearly every other genre of
music, including pop, country, metal, Latin, and Hindi music. From 2007 to
2012, he was copresident of Columbia Records, returning to run American
Recordings after stepping down from Columbia.
 S
SAFE HARBOR PROVISION. The Safe Harbor Provisions are two sec-
tions (Sec. 512) of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 (DMCA)
that protect service providers, typically internet and online service providers
(usually referred to as ISPs), from being assessed monetary damages due to
copyright infringement and piracy activities by users and other online third
parties using their services. In order to benefit from these provisions, ISPs
must adhere to conditions set forth in Section 512, including notice and
takedown procedures, which allow copyright holders to quickly request that
ISPs take down infringing content. Under Section 512, users are also able to
challenge takedowns they consider unjust. While the DMCA was originally
intended to keep the internet free and open, an increasing number of voices
have argued that its original provisions are outdated as the pace of technolo-
gy innovation continues to accelerate, challenging rights holders through
hundreds of new online services and technologies. The music industry argues
that the act and its Safe Harbor Provisions have transferred the responsibility
of finding and notifying copyright infringers to the copyright holders. This is
a mountainous task, and dozens of firms have been created just to scan do-it-
youself online content aggregators such as YouTube and Tumblr for in-
fringements. The music industry is now arguing that providers should be
responsible for detecting and taking down copyright infringements on their
sites. Lobbying continues by both the music industry and their counterparts
in the tech world to revise or adapt Safe Harbor Provisions to be more
effective, while still maintaining an open internet.

SAG-AFTRA. See SCREEN ACTORS GUILD–AMERICAN FEDERA-

TION OF TELEVISION AND RADIO ARTISTS (SAG-AFTRA).

SAMPLE LICENSE. In order to legally use a sample from an existing

recording in a new musical work, both the composition’s rights holder and
the master recording rights holder must grant permission. Sample license
rates are negotiated based on the length of the sample and its relative impor-
tance to the new musical work. Sometimes, if the sample use is deemed

255
256 • SAMPLING
substantial, the creator of the new musical work may have to assign a portion
of the new work’s ownership to the composer of the original work. As an
example, Coolio’s song “Gangsta’s Paradise” (1995) embodied such a signif-
icant part of Stevie Wonder’s “Part Time Paradise” (1976) that Wonder was
granted an ownership share in the Coolio song.

SAMPLING. In the late 1980s, technology was developed that allowed

musicians to record a portion of an existing master recording and then to
manipulate and incorporate that original portion of a sound recording into a
new musical work. The unit that was used to do this was called a “sampler,”
and the process became known as sampling. Under the U.S. Copyright
Code, the use of a sample requires the permission of both the underlying
song composition rights holder and the master rights holder. In most cases,
for commercially released recordings, a music publisher would grant the
composition sample license and a record label would grant the master sam-
ple license.
See also REPLAY.

SAN FRANCISCO TAPE MUSIC CENTER. The San Francisco Tape

Music Center was a nonprofit composer’s collective that was established in
the early 1960s in San Francisco by Ramon Sender, Pauline Oliveros, and
Morton Subotnick. The center offered concerts, light shows, poetry readings,
and ways for people to learn about using tape as a music medium. The San
Francisco Tape Music Center was also a place for technological advance-
ments and experimentation. Terry Riley premiered his piece In C at the
center in 1964.
In 1966, the center moved to Mills College in Oakland, California, under
the direction of Oliveros in order to qualify for a grant from the Rockefeller
Foundation. It was renamed the Mills Tape Music Center. Today it is known
as the Center for Contemporary Music and remains at Mills College.

SANTANA, CARLOS. Carlos Santana is a Mexican American guitarist,

songwriter, and bandleader who rose to fame in the late 1960s as the leader
of the Latin-inspired rock group Santana. Santana was born on 20 July 1947
in Jalisco, Mexico, the son of a mariachi musician. He learned to play violin
and guitar at an early age. Eventually, his family moved to San Francisco,
California, where he continued to play music, often busking in San Francis-
co’s largely Latino Mission District and continuing to attend school. He
graduated from high school in 1965 and by 1966 had formed his first group
as a leader, the Santana Blues Band, which quickly gained attention locally,
due in large part to its reliance on Afro-Cuban and Latin musical influences
and the inclusion of congas, timbales, and other Latin percussion, which
 SANTANA, CARLOS • 257
provided an excellent rhythmic foundation for Santana’s own instantly rec-
ognizable soaring guitar lines. The band was soon headlining local clubs, and
rock promoter Bill Graham heard the group and helped them become more
established.
In 1969, Columbia Records signed the group and shortened their name to
simply Santana. Graham, who recognized the group’s potential, arranged to
have them added to the lineup for the 1969 Woodstock Festival, where they
were one of the breakout new artists introduced to the massive audience
there. When the documentary film Woodstock was released the following
year, Santana’s dynamic 11-minute performance of their instrumental “Soul
Sacrifice” thrust the energetic band and their charismatic leader more promi-
nently onto the world stage.
The group’s 1969 eponymous first album for Columbia, released the same
month as Woodstock, contained a cover version of the song “Evil Ways,”
which became the group’s first hit single, helping propel the album to num-
ber four on the Billboard “Top 100.” The group’s 1970 follow up, Abraxas,
eclipsed the success of their debut release, going on to spend six weeks as the
number one record on the pop charts, fueled by cover versions of the Latin
classic “Oyo Como Va” and Fleetwood Mac’s “Black Magic Woman/Gypsy
Queen.” The album would go on to spend a total of 88 weeks on the charts
and sell more than four-times Platinum. Although the makeup of the group
would change somewhat, Santana III (1971) sold two million copies and
further established the group and its leader as a reliable hit maker.
Over his lengthy career, Carlos Santana has released 24 studio albums,
seven live albums, and 23 compilation albums. Although he initially came to
prominence playing a Latin-infused version of rock music, by 1972’s Cara-
vanserai album Santana had moved into a more jazz-fusion-inspired direc-
tion, soon collaborating with jazz guitarist John McLaughlin and the group
he led, the Mahavishnu Orchestra, as well as jazz keyboardist Alice Coltrane.
Bill Graham eventually took over management of Santana and helped him
obtain legal ownership of the band name Santana. Taking advice from Gra-
ham, Santana continued to release albums that explored his jazz fusion inter-
ests while retaining enough of the street-smart, percussion-driven Latin
sound on his own version of cover songs, such as the Zombies’ “She’s Not
There,” to remain radio friendly. From 1972 to 1981, Santana released a
series of eight albums, all of which earned either Gold or Platinum sales
status in the United States.
However, from 1984 to 1998, Santana’s records did not sell well, and he
supported himself largely through touring and royalties from reissue albums
featuring his earlier hits. At one point, he was without a record contract
when he was contacted by Clive Davis, the man who originally signed Santa-
na to Columbia, who advised Santana to make an album featuring younger
collaborators from the top groups of the late 1990s. The resulting album,
258 • SATELLITE RADIO
released on the Davis-helmed Arista Records, was dubbed Supernatural
(1999) and was an unqualified smash hit, earning the veteran performer eight
Grammy Awards and selling more than 15 million copies. Taking advan-
tage of the tremendous comeback success, 2002’s follow-up release, Sha-
man, repeated the formula used on Supernatural with a new cast of collabo-
rators and sold double Platinum and featured two top 10 singles. Even more
importantly, the then 53-year-old guitarist and bandleader was introduced to
an entirely new generation of fans, who soon discovered his extensive back
catalog of recordings. Over the course of his career, he has sold more than 61
million records worldwide.
While the frequency and chart success of Santana’s recordings has dimin-
ished since the breakout success of Supernatural, Santana continues to per-
form on occasion and has led a number of reunions of the various incarna-
tions of his bands to strong support from his fans. He also cofounded the
Milagro Foundation in 1998 with his first wife, Deborah King, which pro-
vides financial support for underserved children, helping to address deficien-
cies in the areas of education, health, and the arts.

SATELLITE RADIO. Satellite radio relies on a satellite in Earth’s orbit to

transmit radio signals to listeners equipped with a specialized radio receiving
unit at home or in a vehicle. Unlike terrestrial radio, which has a relatively
limited geographic range, satellite radio signals can be picked up anywhere
in the United States and were designed for travelers so they could listen to
their preferred stations across the nation. Satellite radio is a subscription
service that is largely commercial-free and offers a much broader range of
programming than commercial terrestrial radio. In 2001–2002, two United
States satellite radio companies launched their services as competitors: Sirius
Satellite Radio and XM Satellite Radio. After five years of competition, the
companies petitioned the FCC for the right to merge, which was granted in
2008. The reorganized company is known as Sirius XM Radio and as of the
end of 2015 reported nearly 30 million U.S. subscribers.

SCALPER. A person or entity that engages in the purchase and resale of

concert or event tickets as a speculator, in the hopes of reselling the tickets
for a monetary amount greater than the original ticket’s face value.
See also SECONDARY MARKET; STUBHUB; TICKETMASTER.

SCHOOL MUSIC STORE. A school music store (also known as a band

and orchestra store) is a type of music products retail store that sells, rents,
and services a full range of beginning, intermediate, and professional musical
instruments that cater to school music programs. School music stores must
work with public and private music teachers, and in the case of public
 SECURE DIGITAL MUSIC INITIATIVE (SDMI) • 259
schools, purchasing departments, to fulfill their needs, often through a com-
petitive bidding process for major purchases. Equally important to the sales
of instruments to schools is the maintenance and upkeep of a school’s inven-
tory of musical instruments. To meet that need, most school music stores
have a well-trained instrument repair person on staff. School music stores
must be attuned to the school calendar, and each year many prepare a full
complement of rental instruments for students just starting to learn a musical
instrument. The National Association of Music Merchandisers’ 2015 Glo-
bal Music Report cites the total of wind and string instrument sales at $660
million.

SCORE. The notated version of a musical work, available on paper or on a

computer, that affords a musician or ensemble with the music to perform that
work. The term “score” is most often applied to music composed for the
concert hall, films, television, video games, or other visual media. There will
usually be individual parts for each instrument, for instance, first violin,
bassoon, or timpani, as well as a conductor’s score, which condenses all of
the individual parts from the score into one document.
See also UNDERSCORE.

SCREEN ACTORS GUILD–AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TELE-

VISION AND RADIO ARTISTS (SAG-AFTRA). The Screen Actors
Guild and the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists
merged in 2012 and now represent the great majority of vocalists and actors
who perform on broadcast, recorded, and internet media.
See also ACTORS’ EQUITY ASSOCIATION; AMERICAN FEDERA-
TION OF MUSICIANS (AFM).

SECONDARY MARKET. A term used to denote the marketplace for the

reselling of concert and event tickets by a reseller other than the original
issuer of the ticket. Sometimes referred to as scalping, the practice has
grown dramatically in the internet era as sophisticated programs allow ticket
resellers to secure many desirable tickets when first offered and then to resell
them at a profit to consumers. In practice, the performers see none of the
additional sales price when tickets are resold above the face value.

SECURE DIGITAL MUSIC INITIATIVE (SDMI). The Secured Digital

Music Initiative was a joint effort that commenced in 1998 among more than
200 companies representing the recording industry, ISPs, and the computer
industry to develop a reliable way to secure copyright-protected sound re-
cordings from unauthorized copying and distribution. Such a process is re-
ferred to as digital rights management (DRM). Led by Dr. Leonardo Chia-
260 • SEGOVIA, ANDRÉS (1893–1987)
riglione, the international efforts convened a number of conferences and a
great deal of research that led to the development of various software-based
solutions to the problem of how to protect these music files. In brief, the
concept was that the copyright holder would add a newly developed type of
encryption, in the form of a watermark or digital fingerprint, to each sound
recording. In the case of most popular music, this would be done by the
record label releasing the recordings. Once a DRM-coded piece of music
was released, this DRM-encrypted watermark would prevent it from being
played back on SDMI-compliant playback devices, such as MP3 players
being developed. Once a system had been developed and tested, the SDMI
wrote an open letter to the tech community inviting them to attempt to defeat
the encryption scheme while still allowing the music to play back. A team of
computer scientists from Princeton University defeated the DRM and eventu-
ally published their findings in an academic paper, proving that the DRM that
had been developed could readily be defeated. The SDMI ceased operations
as a group in 2001.
See also NAPSTER.

SEGOVIA, ANDRÉS (1893–1987). Andrés Segovia Torres was born on 21

February 1893 in Linares, Jaen, Spain. Segovia was arguably the most well-
known and celebrated classical guitarist in the world. His greatest contribu-
tion to 20th-century music was helping to elevate the guitar from its place as
largely a parlor instrument to a more respected position as a serious concert
hall instrument capable of matching the breadth and subtlety of expression of
any of the other stringed instruments. Segovia made his first public perfor-
mance in Granada at the age of 16. Although discouraged by his family from
pursuing a life as a musician, Segovia continued to study and perform,
branching out to concertize in Paris in 1915, then to undertake a successful
South American tour in 1919. Over the next two decades, technological
developments in radio broadcasting and recording helped to broaden the
appeal of the classical guitar, and Segovia was poised to benefit from in-
creased public interest in the guitar and its repertoire.
Beginning with his early recordings in 1927, Segovia would go on to
record a wide variety of repertoire, from contemporary works, many of
which were written for him, to his own transcriptions of earlier pieces, for
instance, by J. S. Bach and Isaac Albéniz. Segovia broke from previous
traditions with regard to his guitar technique. He plucked the strings with a
combination of fingertips and fingernails, which allowed him to create a
broader pallet of tonal colors and dynamics than earlier guitarists. In addition
to the numerous arrangements and transcriptions he made that are still played
today, he left a legacy of more than 200 albums of his various performances.
Segovia’s impact on future generations of classical guitarists was comparable
to his other milestone achievements. He viewed teaching as a vital part of his
 SESAC • 261
work and gave regular instruction and master classes to hundreds of guitar-
ists in Spain throughout his career, many of whom would go on to have
celebrated careers themselves. Segovia died on 2 June 1987 in Madrid.

SELENA (1971–1995). Selena Quintanilla was a Mexican American singer

and was known as the “Queen of Tejano Music.” At the age of eight, she
sang with a group founded by her father—Selena y Los Dinos. In 1993, she
released Selena Live, which earned her a Grammy for best Mexican
American album. The following year, her album Amor prohibo went multi-
Platinum and earned her a Grammy nomination. In addition to her singing,
Selena was also known for her sense of fashion, which included revealing
clothes, making her a sex icon. After her fan club president, Yolanda Salivar,
was fired for embezzling money from Selena, Salivar shot and killed Selena.
A few months following her death, her album Dreaming of You was released
and debuted at number one on the Billboard charts. The album included “I
Could Fall in Love” and “Dreaming of You.” A film about her career, star-
ring Jenner Lopez as Selena, was released in 1997.

SELF-CONTAINED ACT. This term is used to refer to an artist or musical

group that writes and performs its own musical repertoire. The Beatles are
generally acknowledged as the first internationally successful self-contained
act in that from the mid-1960s they wrote and recorded their own composi-
tions, earning significant income from the sales of the recordings as well as
the public performance of their music on radio and television and as cover
versions by other artists. It has been estimated that the Beatles song “Yester-
day” has been and continues to be one of the most performed songs in the
history of popular music.

SERVICE MARK. A service mark is used to register and protect the name
of a musical ensemble, other organization name, or even a slogan. Simply
using the name publicly and having that name associated with one’s service
or ensemble in the mind of the public creates a service mark. However, most
personal managers and record labels will counsel music groups to register
the name, as doing so serves to notify potential competitors considering the
same or a similar name that it has been taken.

SESAC. SESAC is the second oldest performing rights society and was
founded in 1930. The acronym originally stood for the Society of European
Stage Authors and Composers, but from 1940 on it has simply been known
as SESAC. SESAC is a for-profit corporation, and membership is by invita-
tion only. Limiting the size of its member base to a fraction of the members
of the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers and
262 • SEVEN-YEAR RULE
Broadcast Music Inc. has helped SESAC remain nimble and innovate a
number of technological advances in music usage tracking systems to effi-
ciently monetize its members’ music use.

SEVEN-YEAR RULE. In California, Statute 2855 states that no personal

services contract is enforceable beyond a term of seven years from its execu-
tion. This may become a point of contention between artists or other per-
formers and record labels who secure the artists to perform under the terms
of a record contract. The statute is sometimes used in an effort to break a
contract that will extend beyond the seven-year limit, or in order to secure
more favorable terms in contract renegotiations. Recording contracts rarely
tie the length of time they will be in effect to the calendar; rather, they most
often require certain periods of time between succeeding records. Some
record contracts may in fact extend up to two decades in duration. This
assumes an artist delivers a new album every two or three years, and the
contract in question might allow for the label to require up to seven albums if
the record label were to exercise all of its options.

SGT. PEPPER’S LONELY HEARTS CLUB BAND. This 1967 album re-
leased by the Beatles is largely regarded as the first concept album that was a
worldwide best seller, with the band using musical and visual elements to tell
stories about a fictional brass band of the same name. Importantly, it marked
a milestone in popular music as the songs that composed the album were
conceived and created solely as a record, with no intention of performance
before a live audience. With the help of producer George Martin, the group,
along with the Beach Boys, became one of the first to view the recording
studio as a musical instrument in its own right. There is extensive documen-
tation and scholarship on the making of the album, which affords a fascinat-
ing look at the innovative techniques and ideas employed to create a classic
work of art. The album cover is also regarded as artwork equal to the music
and serves as an exemplar of that period’s renaissance in album graphic
design.

SHAKUR, TUPAC (2PAC) (1971–1996). Tupac Shakur was born Lesane

Parish Crooks on 16 June 1971 in Harlem, New York. He was a successful
and controversial hip hop artist and actor whose tragic death spawned con-
spiracy theories and increased his notoriety within the music industry. His
career arc represents a textbook example of a talented artist who suffered
without the influence of a capable personal manager throughout his short
life.
 SHEET MUSIC • 263
Shakur was the son of Black Panther members who separated before his
birth. At the age of 17, his family moved to Marin County, California. He
began his musical career with Digital Underground, an Oakland-based rap
group, and he appeared as a rapper on two of their releases.
Shakur’s first solo album, 2pacalypse Now, was released in 1991 and
reached the R&B top 30. Despite its success, the album was highly criticized
for its explicit lyrics describing drug use, police brutality, and racism. At the
same time, he was revered by young people for addressing the injustices
found in the black community and for pointing to education and self-im-
provement as ways out of poverty.
His second album, 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z., was released in 1993 and contained
the hit singles “Keep Ya Head Up” and “I Get Around.” The album would
gain critical and commercial success, going on to achieve Platinum status.
During this time, Tupac also acted in featured films: Juice (1992), Poetic
Justice (1993), and Above the Rim (1994). While Shakur’s career was taking
off, he had several run-ins with the law. In two separate incidents in 1993, he
was accused of assaulting a director and shooting two off-duty police officers
in Atlanta. He was found guilty of sexual assault in 1994 and was sentenced
to eight months in prison.
As his fame grew, he became the figurehead for the West Coast versus
East Coast hip hop feud. When he was shot in the lobby of a New York City
recording studio in 1994, he accused the Notorious B.I.G., Sean “Puffy”
Combs, and others of orchestrating the shooting.
After his incarceration, Shakur released the album All Eyez on Me (1996).
It debuted as number one and is considered one of the most important rap
albums of the 1990s.
In September 1996, Shakur was in Las Vegas to watch a fight and was the
victim of a drive-by shooting. He passed away from his wounds six days later
on 13 September 1996, and the case was never solved. His catalog contains
four albums released during his life along with seven more posthumously
released, including Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory (released under the
alias Makaveli in 1996), Until the End of Time (2001), and Better Dayz
(2002). With total sales of more than 51 million albums worldwide, Shakur
remains one of the most talented and celebrated rappers in popular music
history.

SHEET MUSIC. A written representation of a particular song that is made

available for sale to the public in a print or electronic version is referred to as
sheet music. During the second half of the 19th century, music publishers
prospered by publishing the most popular songs for sale to the general public.
After purchasing sheet music, often at the local general goods store, families
would gather around the piano and perform the song. In the era before re-
cordings became popular, sheet music was the primary means of disseminat-
264 • SIDE
ing new music. Music publishers adapted to the changes in the music indus-
try, publishing sheet music for the latest popular songs throughout the 20th
century and up until today. Collections of songs in sheet music form are
known as folios.

SIDE. See TRACK.

SIDEMAN. A sideman is a musician who performs in a subordinate or

backing role on a recording for a featured artist. The practice is common for
many established artists to make a guest appearance on another artist’s re-
cording in a sideman capacity. Record companies generally encourage such
appearances but request that they grant prior permission and that the sideman
receive an appropriate credit in the record’s liner notes, including the record
label the artist is under contract with—for example, “Guitar solo—Joe
Smith, Courtesy of Atlantic Records.”
See also JOINT RECORDING.

SIMMONS, RUSSELL. Russell Wendell Simmons is a music executive,

author, activist, and entrepreneur best known for founding Rush Communi-
cations and cofounding seminal hip hop label Def Jam Recordings. He was
born on 4 October 1957 in Queens, New York. He attended Harlem’s City
College of New York briefly, where in 1975 he was introduced to hip hop
culture and soon became involved in promoting DJ parties around New York
City while managing a young rapper named Kurtis Blow. He helped his
younger brother put together Run-DMC and in 1983 joined Rick Rubin to
cofound Def Jam Recordings, one of the first independent record labels to
recognize the market potential for hip hop music and culture. Early success
with LL Cool J and the Beastie Boys fueled the company’s growth.
Simmons started Rush Communications, which today is a diversified com-
pany with 10 divisions and three nonprofits under its umbrella. In addition to
his music companies, Simmons has been involved in book publishing and
film and television production, including his acclaimed Def Comedy Jam and
Def Poetry Jam in partnership with HBO. Simmons is an outspoken advocate
for human rights and is politically active. He has been the chairman of the
Foundation for Ethnic Understanding and was Goodwill Ambassador to the
United Nations to honor the victims of slavery and the transatlantic slave
trade. He has written several books recounting his experiences in the music
industry and also his personal philosophy.
In 2017, Simmons was accused by a number of women of assault, sexual
harassment, and rape since the 1980s. While Simmons denies the allegations,
he announced that he would be stepping down from his media companies.
 SINATRA, FRANK (1915–1998) • 265
SINATRA, FRANK (1915–1998). Francis Albert “Frank” Sinatra was an
American singer, actor, and entrepreneur best known as a vocalist whose
career spanned from the big band era to the internet age. Born on 12 Decem-
ber 1915 in Hoboken, New Jersey, the son of Italian immigrants, he never
had formal musical training, instead relying on a gifted musical ear to learn
how to sing, being partly influenced by Italian opera arias.
He first attained notoriety when bandleader Harry James recruited him as
featured vocalist in 1939, and soon after he accepted a similar role with the
even more popular Tommy Dorsey band. Sinatra became extremely well
known as a result of the ensuing radio and recording appearances, so that by
the time he left Dorsey’s band in 1942, Sinatra was one of the most popular
artists in America, signing with Columbia Records in 1943.
Sinatra’s most ardent fans, overwhelmingly teenage girls, became ob-
sessed with him, and as a result he played an eight-week sold-out engage-
ment in 1942 at New York City’s Paramount Theater. Called “Bobbysoxers”
for the neat socks that were then in fashion, these fans followed every one of
Sinatra’s moves, lined up to catch a glimpse of him, and founded more than
1,000 Sinatra fan clubs. A follow-up appearance at the same hall in October
1944 resulted in what was referred to as the “Columbus Day Riot,” since
after the first concert concluded, only a handful of the audience would leave
the hall, leading to the 35,000 fans outside the theater becoming angry, as
many that held tickets to later performances that day were unable to gain
entry.
His 1946 Columbia debut album, The Voice of Frank Sinatra, was a great
commercial success, hitting number one on the charts. With one of the most
powerful record labels backing him, Sinatra was soon selling an estimated
10 million records per year, an unprecedented feat. However, the nearly
nonstop schedule of recording sessions, radio broadcasts, and live concerts
had him singing as many as 100 songs per day, leading to a strain on his
voice. Adding to his troubles, by 1950 his popularity had waned, he suffered
financial difficulties, his publicist who had carefully crafted his shy and
sensitive image so appealing to teens died, and Sinatra went through a very
public divorce. With record and ticket sales declining, critics believed that
Sinatra’s career had peaked by 1951 and generally wrote him off.
With a critically acclaimed supporting role in the 1953 motion picture
From Here to Eternity, Sinatra mounted a dramatic career comeback. He
signed a new record contract with Capitol Records. His voice was fully
recovered, and with a more reasonable performance schedule, Sinatra went
on to record a string of albums for Capitol between 1953 and 1960 that
topped the charts and demonstrated his exceptional vocal talents, largely by
his interpretations of what is referred to as the Great American Songbook. It
266 • SINGER-SONGWRITER
was during this time that Sinatra also became a regular performer at Las
Vegas casinos, where he would continue to be a top draw for more than three
decades. He also took an ownership interest in some of the casinos.
In 1960, Sinatra left Capitol and founded his own record label, Reprise,
which let him take more substantial control of his musical works and retain a
greater share of the earnings. Sinatra invited fellow artists such as Dean
Martin and Sammy Davis Jr. to record for Reprise by offering them complete
creative control and ownership reversion of the music publishing after a
certain time period. Unfortunately, the label was not profitable, so by 1963
Sinatra sold a majority stake to Warner, although he retained a significant
share.
Aside from a short, self-described retirement from 1970 to 1973, Sinatra
continued to release albums and appear in movies throughout the 1960s to
1980s. By the 1980s, he was able to turn down all but the most lucrative
engagements. He signed multi-million-dollar mega-deals with casinos,
broadcasters, and foreign concert promoters. Sinatra remained active into the
1990s, with the commercially and critically acclaimed Duets (1993) album,
on which Sinatra performed duets with then current pop singers, selling more
than three million units. He gave his final public concerts on 19–20 Decem-
ber 1994 in Japan. In declining health during his final years, Sinatra died in
Los Angeles on 14 May 1998.
Frank Sinatra’s long and productive career places him among the most
successful artists and entertainers in American music industry history. He
was the first musician to incite mass hysteria in his young female audience
members, presaging the frenzy that would mark the careers of Elvis Presley
and the Beatles in ensuing decades. Sinatra is one of the best-selling record-
ing artists of all time, having sold more than 150 million records, appearing
in more than 50 motion pictures, winning on Oscar for his role in From Here
to Eternity, and donating a substantial portion of his performance fees later in
his career to a variety of charities.

SINGER-SONGWRITER. A term that came into use in the 1960s to refer

to musicians who wrote and performed their own original music. Exem-
plified by artists of that time such as Bob Dylan, James Taylor, and Carole
King, singer-songwriters made popular their own compositions and demon-
strated that their earning potential was much greater than that of a performer
who did not write their own songs.
See also SONGWRITER.

SINGLE. The song selected by an artist or record label as the featured

track to debut a new album or collection of songs. A great deal of time,
thought, and research goes into testing songs in the hope of identifying the
 SMITH, MAMIE (1883–1946) • 267
one that will best connect with the listening public. In the era of music
downloads and streaming, singles have become even more crucial to break-
ing a new artist, as the number of music consumers purchasing or listening to
complete albums continues to decline.

SMITH, BESSIE (1894–1937). Bessie Smith was a blues, jazz, and vaude-
ville singer who was born on 15 April 1894 in Chattanooga, Tennessee, into
an impoverished African American family. By the time Bessie was nine,
both her parents were dead and her oldest sister had taken over the house-
hold. Bessie and her older brother began busking on street corners to help
support the family, and by the age of 12 Bessie was invited to join a traveling
vaudeville troupe that featured well-known singer Ma Rainey. While she
initially found employment as a dancer and chorus girl, her vocal abilities
were soon recognized, and in 1923 she signed a recording contract with
Columbia Records. Her first recording, “Downhearted Blues,” became a
tremendous hit, establishing her as the most successful African American
recording artist of the day. Over the next five years, she released a string of
hit records that led to her nickname, “Empress of the Blues.” Her powerful
contralto voice, earthy blue-note inflections, and ability to get the most out of
the emotionally rich blues idiom established her as a model that future sing-
ers from Billie Holiday to Janis Joplin would emulate in varying degrees.
By the end of 1929, Smith’s career was adversely affected by her own
reliance on alcohol, the demise of the vaudeville circuit with the advent of
talking pictures, and the economic devastation caused by the Great Depres-
sion. One of her 1929 performances, of the W. C. Handy song “St. Louis
Blues,” survives as a two-reel film and serves as a reminder of her dynamic
vocal abilities. Smith made 160 recordings for Columbia, many of which
featured the best accompanists of the day, such as Louis Armstrong, Fletch-
er Henderson, and James P. Johnson. Her last recordings from 1933 exhibit a
much rougher voice and did not achieve the same level of success as her
earlier records. She maintained a steady touring schedule even after her
recording career had faded and tragically she was killed in an automobile
accident on 26 September 1937 near Clarksdale, Mississippi.

SMITH, MAMIE (1883–1946). Mamie Smith (née Robinson) was an

African American vaudeville and jazz singer best known for her million-
selling recording of the song “Crazy Blues” on Okeh Records. She was
reportedly born in Cincinnati, Ohio, on 26 May 1883, although her exact
birth records are not available. Smith developed her talents at a very early
age and by 10 had left home to go on the road as a dancer and performer,
which continued through her teenage years. In 1913, she moved to New York
City and married. She soon became better known as a jazz singer, notably in
268 • SOCIAL MEDIA MANAGER
the burgeoning clubs of Harlem, in the years 1913–1920. “Crazy Blues” was
released on Okeh Records in 1920 and started selling at a notable clip,
reportedly notching sales of 75,000 within a month of its release. It would go
on to sell more than a million copies within a year of its release.
While Smith is believed to be the first African American female performer
to sing on a commercial record release—an Okeh Records track named “That
Thing Called Love,” released just before “Crazy Blues”—it was the runaway
sales success of the latter record that gave Smith one of the first bonafide
smash hits of the early recording industry. It also ushered in a period of
greater activity recording female black blues singers, including Bessie
Smith, as well as the formation of specific marketing tactics by Okeh and the
other major record labels to produce and market records made by African
American artists, as so-called race records, to the African American record-
buying public. Smith remained active performing and appearing in motion
pictures throughout her life and passed away in Staten Island, New York, on
16 September 1946.

SOCIAL MEDIA MANAGER. A marketing and communications special-

ist who is hired to help create viable strategies for artists, bands, or perform-
ing artists, allowing the artist to engage in a relevant and meaningful di-
alogue with their fans through the use of various social media platforms. As
the centrality of social media in the discovery of new music continues to
increase, music companies, as well as artists and managers, now rely on
experienced social media managers to help shape the direction that social
media campaigns will utilize in building and sustaining a fan base.

SONG DOCTOR. A common industry term for an experienced songwriter

who may be called on to revise, edit, distill, or otherwise adapt an existing
song in order to make the song more likely to reach the charts. Depending on
how significant the changes are that result from a song doctor’s efforts, he or
she may have a reasonable claim to a portion of authorship in the revised
musical work, unless they were contracted under terms that preclude any
such authorship claim for their contributions.
See also GHOSTWRITER.

SONG PLUGGER. A person working for a music publisher who repre-

sents songs that the publisher has under contract in order to place them with
well-known artists, producers, film directors, and so on. Such placements
then result in revenue for the publisher as well as the songwriters who wrote
the songs. In the early 20th century, song pluggers would frequent vaudeville
houses to pitch the latest Tin Pan Alley songs to popular performers, offer-
ing inducements ranging from free beer to a share of publishing earnings if
 SONGWRITER’S SHARE • 269
they would endorse and feature a song prominently in their shows. Today,
song pluggers make the rounds of record label artist and repertoire of-
fices, music producers, and artist managers to pitch new songs that they
believe fit the style and genre of a particular artist.

SONGWRITER. A term that commonly references a musician who creates

popular songs intended for performance or recording. Songwriters may com-
pose music and lyrics or write music and collaborate with a lyricist to com-
plete their works. The advent of the modern music publishing industry in the
late 19th century, followed by the Copyright Act of 1909, helped formalize
the ways that songwriters could earn a living through the dissemination of
their works. The formation of American Society of Composers, Authors,
and Publishers in 1914 and Broadcast Music Inc. in 1939 further benefited
songwriters as the growth of radio and television broadcasting widened the
income streams for songwriters who penned popular songs.
See also SELF-CONTAINED ACT; SINGER-SONGWRITER.

SONGWRITERS GUILD OF AMERICA. The Songwriters Guild of

America (SGA) was formed in 1931 as the Songwriters Protective Associa-
tion. In the 1980s, it became known as the Songwriters Guild of America
after being called the American Guild of Authors and Composers (AGAC)
for a number of years.
SGA’s mission is to help its members protect their copyrights and royalty
rates. SGA offers a standard songwriter contract form that significantly
favors the rights of the songwriter and can be used as a negotiating document
with publishers. Other services include reviewing contracts, evaluating
songs, collecting royalties, maintaining the Songwriters Guild Foundation,
and lobbying on behalf of its members.
SGA was a major advocate of the passage of the Copyright Act of 1976,
which allowed for copyrights to be divisible.

SONGWRITER’S SHARE. A term used to describe the portion of licens-

ing revenues that will be remitted to the songwriter upon payment by a
licensee for use of that songwriter’s composition. In many cases, music
publishers and songwriters split the revenues equally, although this is not
always the case. If there is more than one songwriter involved in the creation
of a particular work, they may split the songwriter’s share equally unless a
previous agreement exists stipulating that the writers’ shares are not equal.
Having multiple songwriters on a particular work is very common in today’s
popular music business.
See also COMPOSER SHARE.
270 • SONY BETAMAX CASE
SONY BETAMAX CASE. In 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that
copyright holders could not limit technology companies from developing
new technologies that might afford some users the ability to infringe on
existing copyrights with regard to entertainment and media products such as
music and movies. The suit brought by Universal City Studios against Sony
Corporation of America to stop the distribution of the Betamax home video
tape recording system sought to require new technology companies to first
seek the approval of copyright owners before releasing any such new tech-
nologies. In the landmark decision, the court found that while the Betamax
system might afford some users the ability to make unauthorized copies of
movies, so long as the technology is capable of substantial noninfringing
uses it is judged as allowable under fair use provisions of copyright law.
This interpretation has allowed for the development of many more genera-
tions of media devices, from the CD burner to time-shifting digital video
recorders to portable music devices such as the iPod.

SONY MUSIC ENTERTAINMENT (SME). Before entering the recording

industry in 1968 though a Japanese-based joint venture label with CBS
Records, Sony was a successful manufacturer of electronic consumer prod-
ucts with a history of innovation, including the development of the first
pocket transistor radio. CBS/Sony Records proved a good pairing, becoming
the largest record company in Japan. The company became Sony Music
Entertainment after Sony purchased the assets of CBS Records and its affili-
ates for $2 billion in 1987. As a result, much of the history of the label was
made under the Columbia and then CBS names. Per the terms of the pur-
chase agreement, in 1991 the umbrella organization was renamed Sony Mu-
sic Entertainment, although it is most commonly referred to as Sony Music
within the industry. Sony is one of the remaining three major labels today,
with diversified music holdings around the world, including the assets of a
number of former major labels.

SOUND DESIGNER. The sound designer uses sound effects, samples,

synthesizers, or other sound elements to create a sonic collage that is most
often a supporting element for visual media such as film, television, video
games, stage plays, musical theater, or opera. Sound designers may work as
part of a live performance or add their soundscape to a media recording.
Musical training is helpful for sound designers in order to apply the same
music composition practice of alternating between tension and release, as
well as understanding various instrument timbres and ranges. Sound design-
ers today have a variety of computerized systems to help them manipulate
sound in order to achieve their artistic vision. Walter Murch is often referred
 SOUNDIES • 271
to as the first modern-day sound designer for his groundbreaking work on the
film Apocalypse Now (1979) and other films he provided sound services for
in the 1970s.

SOUND ENGINEER. A general term used to refer to many different types

of specific jobs that pertain to the recording, analysis, manipulation, amplifi-
cation, or modification of sound.
See also FRONT OF HOUSE SOUND ENGINEER (FOH ENGINEER,
FOH MIXER); MASTERING ENGINEER; MIXING ENGINEER; MONI-
TOR ENGINEER; RECORDING ENGINEER (SOUND ENGINEER).

SOUNDCLOUD. SoundCloud is an internet-based music distribution ser-

vice that allows anyone to upload and share music freely. It was founded in
2007 and publicly released in 2009 by two Swedish musicians, Alexander
Ljung and Eric Wahlforss. While initially conceived as a collaboration plat-
form for professionals, the founders realized the potential for SoundCloud to
become a global music and audio sharing platform and have developed the
program to the point where in 2017 SoundCloud has more than 150 million
global users.

SOUNDEXCHANGE. Created in 2000, SoundExchange is the sole per-

forming rights society (PRS) in the United States designated to collect and
distribute royalties to copyright owners generated from digital perfor-
mances. SoundExchange originated as an unincorporated division of the Re-
cording Industry Association of America and in 2003 became an indepen-
dent nonprofit PRS, specializing in digital-only rights and royalty adminis-
tration.
SoundExchange collects royalties from digital services including satellite
radio, internet radio, and cable television. By U.S. law, SoundExchange is
required to split the royalties, with 50 percent going to copyright owners and
50 percent going to artists. Of the 50 percent that goes to artists, 45 percent of
that goes to featured artists and 5 percent to nonfeatured artists, such as
backup musicians and session players.

SOUNDIES. Soundies were an early form of visual music delivery, a pre-

cursor of sorts to MTV, that became very popular from 1940 to 1946. Using
16-millimeter film projected in a specially designed self-contained, coin-
operated kiosk called a Panoram, patrons of bars, restaurants, nightclubs,
game arcades, factory lounges, and other public places could be entertained
by a loop of up to eight songs for 10 cents. Soundies have been preserved as
an important part of the music industry as they often included rare perfor-
mances by artists such as Louis Armstrong, Louis Jordan, Dorothy Dan-
272 • SOUNDSCAN
dridge, and many others, including up-and-coming actors. Notably, the eight
song loops often mixed up musical genres from classical to swing, interpolat-
ing comedy routines with appeals for war bonds or even cheesecake footage
of swimsuit models to appeal to soldiers on leave.

SOUNDSCAN. The SoundScan system began life in 1991 as the first widely
accepted means to quantify actual sales of records and other forms of physi-
cal media. Prior to its inception, record companies used an honor system to
report sales data, which influenced airplay, charts, and awarding of Gold
and Platinum certifications for records with significant sales. The system
uses a scanner to read the UPC bar code found on records and reports each
sale to a central database, maintained by the Nielsen company. Music indus-
try firms purchase a SoundScan subscription that affords them weekly re-
ports on sales of all records and music videos. Anyone selling a record or
music video with a unique bar code or International Sound Recording
Code may register with SoundScan to measure sales. Since its inception,
SoundScan data was a vital source of information for labels, managers, con-
cert promoters, and broadcasters to understand buying trends of U.S. consu-
mers and capitalize on emerging opportunities. The service began incorporat-
ing digital download sales data in 2003 and online streaming in 2014. To-
day, Nielsen SoundScan, as it is now known, still provides valuable informa-
tion for artists who rely on sales of physical media and includes data from the
United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Japan in its system.

SOUNDTRACK RECORDING. Motion picture companies will often at-

tempt to secure the services of a popular recording artist to write or perform a
song to be identified with an upcoming motion picture. In such cases, the
motion picture company will work with the artist’s manager to secure per-
mission for the artist to perform and record new music for the film, as an
exception to the artist’s existing exclusivity clause in their recording
contract. The record label to which the artist is signed will attempt to
negotiate some type of income or return for the use of their talent, which may
take the form of a related soundtrack album release or other tie-in.

SOUSA, JOHN PHILIP (1854–1932). John Philip Sousa was a composer,

musician, and bandleader who after leading the U.S. Marine Band from 1880
to 1892 formed his own concert band and began touring the nation and the
world for nearly 40 years, bringing rousing wind band music and marches to
communities far and wide via the more than 15,000 concerts the Sousa Band
performed. The band inspired thousands of young musicians to take up an
 SPECTOR, PHIL • 273
instrument. Sousa’s 300 musical composition, 136 of which were marches,
led to his being dubbed the “March King,” arguably making him one of the
world’s most recognized and financially successful musicians of the era.

SPEC DEAL. A type of recording agreement whereby a producer will

underwrite all necessary costs to create a new recording with an artist in
order to shop the finished recording to a third party such as a record label. In
exchange for advancing the funds and expertise to create the new recording,
the artist agrees to give the producer a share in any monies that accrue to the
artist if such a deal is secured. Spec deals should always be documented and
agreed to in writing by both parties to avoid later disputes.
See also STEP DEAL.

SPECIALTY MUSIC PRODUCTS STORE. This is a music product re-

tailer that specializes in a specific type of instrument or instrument family,
such as drums and percussion, or acoustic stringed instruments, including
guitars, mandolins, banjos, dulcimers, ukuleles, and the like. In contrast to
other types of music products retailers, specialty retailers will have a much
greater assortment of product inventory and may also stock and sell collect-
ible instruments, such as vintage guitars or drum sets, which have a greater
value than new instruments.
See also PRINT MUSIC STORE; SCHOOL MUSIC STORE.

SPECIALTY RECORDS. Specialty Records was an American record la-

bel founded by Art Rupe in 1945. The company was known for gospel,
rhythm and blues, and early rock ’n’ roll. Little Richard proved to be one of
Specialty’s most successful artists. Other artists who recorded under Special-
ty include Sam Cooke, John Lee Hooker, and Wynona Carr. Rupe gradually
phased the label out in the late 1950s, but it was revived in the 1980s by
Rupe’s daughter, who sold the label to Fantasy Records in 1991.

SPECTOR, PHIL. Harvey Phillip Spector is an influential music producer

and songwriter born on 26 December 1940 in Bronx, New York. He relocat-
ed to Los Angeles as a teenager with his family after the death of his father.
In 1958, while still in high school, he wrote a song that became his first hit
record, “To Know Him Is to Love Him,” which he recorded with two of his
classmates under the name the Teddy Bears. The track spent three weeks at
number one. Importantly, while still in high school, Spector was mentored by
Gold Star Studios owner Stan Ross to develop Spector’s uniquely dense
production style, which came to be known as his “Wall of Sound.” It featured
large numbers of studio musicians, most often the informal Los Angeles
274 • SPOTIFY
collective of studio musicians known as the Wrecking Crew, playing togeth-
er to create a heavily layered, symphonic sound drenched in reverberation
effects to simulate a cathedral-like setting for the recorded performance.
Spector cofounded Phillies Records in 1961, and it was under the Phillies
label that Spector would produce a string of hits, including the iconic top 10
tracks “He’s a Rebel” and “Da Doo Ron Ron” by the Crystals (1962), “Be
My Baby” and “Then He Kissed Me” by the Ronettes (1963), and “You’ve
Lost That Lovin’ Feeling” by the Righteous Brothers (1965). In 1970, Spec-
tor began an affiliation with former members of the Beatles, producing such
hits as “Instant Karma” (1970), “Power to the People” and “Imagine” (1971)
for John Lennon and “My Sweet Lord” (1970) and “What Is Life” (1971) for
George Harrison. Spector was also invited by Harrison and Lennon to com-
plete the unfinished album project dubbed the “Get Back” recording ses-
sions, which resulted in the commercial smash hit album Let It Be, released
more than a year after the Beatles no longer existed as a group and featuring
two number one tracks, “Let It Be” and “The Long and Winding Road.”
In the ensuing years, Spector became a reclusive figure, although artists
ranging from Leonard Cohen to the Ramones sought him out to produce
albums. By 1983, some of the business practices Spector had employed
taking advantage of artists’ meager understanding of contracts were shown in
a harsh light and resulted in a $3 million settlement Spector was forced to
pay to his ex-wife, Ronnie Spector, and the other members of the Ronettes
for unpaid royalties due to the group under the terms of their original
contract.
In 2003, a woman named Lana Clarkson was found shot to death in Spec-
tor’s Hollywood mansion, and in a 2009 trial he was found guilty of her
murder. Spector’s legacy is that he was the first true auteur music producer,
taking control of all aspects of the creative production from talent scouting to
song selection, writing the arrangements, and supervising the recording, mix-
ing, and editing process, and in many cases owning the master recordings
for the dozens of hits he helped create.

SPOTIFY. Spotify is a music streaming service that was founded in Stock-

holm Sweden by Daniel Ek and Martin Lorentzen in 2006. Spotify offers a
free, ad-supported tier as well as a premium subscription tier, both of which
allow the listener to select the music they wish to hear, with ads being
regularly heard on the free version. Spotify was one of the first music stream-
ing services to gain the support of the major record labels, allowing it
access to the labels’ massive music catalogs. Since launching in the United
States in 2011, Spotify has registered steady growth to the point where it
currently rivals Pandora in number of users. Founder Daniel Ek has fre-
quently stated that he believes that offering a free level is the best way to
 SPRINGSTEEN, BRUCE • 275
encourage music fans to adopt the paid subscription version, which has fre-
quently put him at odds with some artists and rights holders who believe ad-
supported music usage does not compensate artists fairly.
See also PANDORA RADIO; SOUNDCLOUD; YOUTUBE.

SPRINGSTEEN, BRUCE. Bruce Frederick Joseph Springsteen was born

on 24 September 1949 in Long Branch, New Jersey. He is a sing-
er–songwriter, performer, and recording artist and has accumulated interna-
tional sales of more than 120 million albums, in part due to his legendary
concert performances, some of which extend to nearly four hours and com-
bine the fervor of a gospel revival with the hard-charging sounds of his
storied E Street Band.
He grew up in a small town on the Jersey Shore and used music as his
solace since he didn’t fit easily into any of the schools he attended. By the
age of 16, he was fronting a local band, beginning a musical odyssey that
would play out over the next seven years until he came to the attention of
Columbia’s John Hammond, who signed him to the label. His first two
albums impressed critics but resulted in poor sales. While Springsteen con-
tinued to play to his growing legions of fans, Columbia pressed him for a hit
album. That effort, taking 14 months to complete, was 1975’s Born to Run,
which peaked at number three on Billboard and began Springsteen’s run as
one of the most reliable hit makers to also maintain his street credibility with
multiple generations of fans. After Born to Run, he released two more al-
bums before 1984’s Born in the U.S.A. cemented his place as one of the most
prolific songwriters, performers, and socially conscious musicians in
American popular music.
Since the late 1970s, he has been an active participant in the political and
social discourse, often aligning himself with working-class, impoverished, or
downtrodden segments of society. These forays sometimes resulted in con-
troversy, such as after the release of his song “American Skin (41 Bullets),”
which decried the senseless shooting of an unarmed immigrant man by New
York City police and led to police boycotts of his shows. Springsteen helped
the nation to make sense of the tragedy of the 9/11 attacks with his thoughtful
and inspiring album The Rising. Throughout the new millennium, Spring-
steen has continued to tour and record notable albums, including specialized
projects such as We Shall Overcome: The Seeger Sessions (2006), which
introduced a whole new generation of listeners to the politically charged folk
music of the 1950s that sought to counter the pervasive fears gripping the
nation at the height of the cold war.
Springsteen is seen today as one of the most gifted poets, composers, and
voices for the conscience of the American people, whose messages resonate
deeply with his listeners around the world in an increasingly complex and
violent world. He has sold more than 100 million records over the course of
276 • STAGE MANAGER
his career. Springsteen has been awarded on Oscar for his moving theme
song to the film Philadelphia, as well as 20 Grammy Awards, two Golden
Globes, and numerous other accolades.

STAGE MANAGER. See PRODUCTION MANAGER.

STAGE TECHNICIAN. See ROADIE.

STATUTORY RATE. The rate set by the U.S. Congress and administered
by the Copyright Office for the use of a song in any type of audio recording.
The statutory rate is the rate that is paid by a licensee to secure a mechanical
reproduction license from the rights holder, alternately known as the licen-
sor. The Copyright Royalty Board from time to time reviews the current
statutory rate for such compulsory mechanical licenses and may revise it
when the board determines an increase is justified. At the time of this writ-
ing, the current U.S. statutory rate for a song of five minutes or less is .091,
or .0175 per minute for songs exceeding five minutes in duration. Important-
ly, the current statutory rate is used as the basis for negotiating reduced rates
for music uses via a direct license. When such a reduced rate is referred to, it
may be described as being “50 percent of rate,” meaning the offer is for one-
half of the current statutory rate for the mechanical license in question.

STEIN, SEYMOUR. Seymour Stein was born in Brooklyn, New York, on

18 April 1942. He is a music entrepreneur and cofounder of Sire Records,
best known for bringing a wide range of new wave, punk rock, and popular
artists to the listening public. He worked as an intern at King Records in
Cincinnati and cofounded Sire in 1966 with record producer Richard Got-
tehrer and released albums by blues and progressive artists. In 1975, the label
rose to international prominence as Stein initiated a series of artist signings
that would change the shape of American popular music. Sire introduced the
Ramones, the Talking Heads, the Pretenders, Madonna, Ice-T, and UK art-
ists including the Smiths, Depeche Mode, Echo & the Bunnymen, and the
Cure. Along the way, he earned a reputation as an executive who always put
the music ahead of commercial concerns. Stein is still active today as chair-
man and president of Sire, which is a division of Warner Music Group.

STEP DEAL. A term used to describe progress payments made to compos-

ers or songwriters that are commonly used by film, television, and advertis-
ing companies to reduce risk. For example, in a typical step deal, a composer
or songwriter is contacted and asked to create an informal demo recording
of some new music for a scene in a film. The composer may be offered a
small demo fee, which is less than the fee they would normally earn for the
 STREET DATE • 277
completed project. When the composer delivers the demo version, the film
company may decide to say “no” to the demo recording, in which case the
composer keeps the demo fee and moves on, or the film company may ask
the composer to revise the piece and provide an additional payment for them
to continue. Once the final music is delivered and approved, the remainder of
the fee is paid to the composer.
See also SPEC DEAL.

STREAMING EQUIVALENT ALBUM. Similar to the track equivalent

album calculation, the streaming equivalent album (SEA) designation repre-
sents 1,500 on-demand song streams from a particular album as being equiv-
alent to the sale of one album.
See also BUZZANGLE MUSIC; MUSIC STREAMING.

STREAMING MEDIA. Any form of internet-deliverable media such as

music, podcasts, television, film or other video, and interactive games.
Streaming media allows consumers to access content from their mobile de-
vices, desktop or laptop computer, or internet-connected home entertainment
system. Streaming media represents an “access” model of rights administra-
tion, in that consumers do not actually purchase or receive any type of own-
ership in the streamed content.

STREAMING MUSIC. See MUSIC STREAMING.

STREAMING RADIO. Also known as internet radio, streaming radio is a

platform that transmits digital audio content via the internet. Streaming radio
services provide listeners with continuous content that usually cannot be
paused, rewound, or replayed. Some streaming radio stations offer the same
formats as traditional broadcast radio stations, including music, news, sports,
and talk. iHeartRadio, Slacker, and Pandora are popular streaming radio
platforms.
See also SATELLITE RADIO; WEBCASTER.

STREET DATE. The street date refers to the actual on-sale date when fans
will be able to purchase a new recording by a particular artist. Inside the
industry, the street date is generally set at least six months prior, to afford the
artist’s personal manager, record label, distributors, and other channel
partners to do prerelease marketing and promotion and build demand for the
new recording. With the rise of internet music distribution and marketing, in
2015 the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry helped
to initiate the consistent use of Friday as the day of the week preferred as the
street date for all new releases.
278 • STUBHUB
STUBHUB. StubHub is an online secondary ticket exchange owned by
eBay. It provides a venue for buyers and sellers of tickets for a variety
events, such as sports events, concerts, theater, and other live entertainment.
Founded in 2000 by Eric Baker and Jeff Fluhr in San Francisco, California,
StubHub initially focused on sports events and negotiated a deal with the
Seattle Mariners in 2001. It is currently one of the largest ticket-selling
platforms in the United States.
eBay purchased StubHub in January 2007, and a year later the company
announced that it had seen tremendous growth in music, which became a
priority.
StubHub has come under scrutiny for the additional fees added on to ticket
purchases, which include 10 percent of the purchase price, shipping and
handling charges, and a seller fee. StubHub typically earns 30–35 percent of
the purchase price of each ticket sold.
See also SECONDARY MARKET; TICKETMASTER.

STUDIO MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN. The art and science of sound

recording requires the use of a wide array of analog, digital, and computer
devices, all of which require various types of maintenance, repair, and re-
placement. The sound maintenance technician is responsible for ensuring
that the necessary equipment is ready when needed and in proper working
condition to satisfy the needs of the clients working at the studio. Generally,
background and interest in electronics, computer science, and sound record-
ing and manipulation are characteristics of a successful studio maintenance
technician.

SUBPUBLISHERS. Publishers will often rely on agreements with foreign

publishers who will act as their surrogate in particular territories to track uses
and collect and pay royalties for the primary publishers’ artists’ music usage
in select territories. While a few of the very largest music publishers have a
number of offices around the world in major territories, the majority of
publishers rely on subpublishing agreements with their peers in foreign coun-
tries to account for and pay foreign publishing monies.

SUGGESTED RETAIL LIST PRICE (SRLP). The suggested retail list

price is the price point recommended by the manufacturer; however, retailers
are free to determine their own selling price for records, subject to what, if
any, agreements have been made between the manufacturer, wholesalers, and
retailer.
 SWIFT, TAYLOR • 279
SUN RECORDS. Sun Records is an independent record label founded in
Memphis, Tennessee, in 1952 by Sam Phillips. Phillips scouted regional
talent and recorded promising artists in his storefront studio. It was there that
Phillips paired a 19-year-old Elvis Presley with country musicians Bill
Black and Scotty Burnette to make music history. Phillips’s ear for talent was
excellent, as other artists who were discovered or recorded on the label
included Johnny Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins, Rufus Thomas, Roy
Orbison, Conway Twitty, Little Milton, Barbara Pittman, and many others.
See also PARKER, TOM (1909–1997).

SUPER FAN. A super fan is one who feels a deep, personalized connection
to the artist. They act as a champion and tell their friends about the artist, and
they take multiple opportunities to engage in supporting the artist and the
artist’s musical and other endeavors. Super fans often join an artist’s fan club
or street team and may also aggregate other committed fans for events such
as concerts, listening parties, or other opportunities to celebrate and discuss
the artist and their music.
See also FAN ENGAGEMENT.

SUPERSTAR. This term is used to describe major artists and bands that
have a large, worldwide audience and that have a sustained substantial track
record of hit recordings, sold-out tours, major endorsements, and often multi-
ple affiliated business entities associated with their brand. There is not a
specific dividing line between superstars and midlevel artists, although the
traditional plateau of selling one million records is still used by some in the
music industry to consider whether an artist is nearing superstar status.

SWIFT, TAYLOR. Singer–songwriter Taylor Swift was born in 1989 in

Reading, Pennsylvania. She showed talent at a young age, and when she was
12 her family moved to Nashville in hopes of securing her a recording
contract. Soon after she was offered a deal with RCA.
Swift’s self-titled album was released in 2006 and reached number one on
the Billboard Top Country Albums chart. As a result of the single “Tim
McGraw,” a tribute to the country singer, she was offered a position as an
opening act on McGraw and Faith Hill’s 2007 tour.
Her next two albums, Fearless (2009) and Speak Now (2010), both re-
ceived critical acclaim. The 2012 album Red demonstrated a shift from the
country genre to pop and sold over one million copies in its first week. That
shift was solidified in 2014 when she released 1989 with similar selling
success as Red and earned a Grammy for Best Album.
280 • SYNCHRONIZATION LICENSE (SYNC LICENSE)
Swift often writes her own songs, many of which are inspired by her life
experiences and previous romantic relationships. Due to these elements,
Swift has developed a tremendous number of loyal fans who relate to her
songs and the struggles as a young, single woman, keeping tabs on her life
through the artist’s numerous social media forays. The level and depth of her
fans’ engagement ensures a healthy reception for each successive project.
For both the Red and 1989 albums, Swift notably did not allow her music
to be streamed on services such as Spotify and Pandora, both as a way to
protest the services and to encourage more album sales. She has also fre-
quently partnered with big box retailers, including Target, to offer limited-
time special editions of her albums before they are available elsewhere,
which has boosted her profits considerably. Overall, Swift has sold more
than 181 million records globally throughout her career.

SYNCHRONIZATION LICENSE (SYNC LICENSE). A synchronization

license is the license required to use music in timed synchronization with any
visual media, including motion pictures, television, DVDs, cable television,
video commercials, video games, and streaming video uses including You-
Tube. Rates to grant sync licenses are negotiated on a case-by-case basis,
although there are generally accepted fee ranges for each type of sync li-
cense. As a rule of thumb, the longer the term of use and the bigger the
audience, the greater the sync fees will be.
See also MECHANICAL LICENSE.

SYNERGY. Synergy, also sometimes referred to as cross-media market-

ing, is the intentional connection between two or more forms of media used
to promote a single program, such as a motion picture or video game. One
example is the timed release of the soundtrack album for the 1977 motion
picture Saturday Night Fever, which preceded the movie by four weeks to
help stimulate advance interest in the movie. Another is the motion picture
Shrek (2001), which utilized a soundtrack album, Shrek-themed toys distrib-
uted through fast food chains, as well as a read-along storybook, all to sup-
port the release of the motion picture. While each of the other elements such
as toys, books, and soundtrack recordings generate some form of revenue,
the overarching strategy is to boost awareness and attendance at the theatrical
showing of the movie during its initial release period.
 T
TANGIBLE MEDIUM. This term is used to refer to any fixed medium that
may be used to document an original work for the purpose of copyright.
Examples include an audio recording, lyric sheet, lead sheet, chord chart,
photograph, or notes.

TALENT AGENT. See AGENT

TECHNICALLY SATISFACTORY. A term found in many record

contracts that refers to the record label’s ability to review master record-
ings submitted by the artist or producer and for the label to reach a decision
as to whether or not the submission is well recorded and technically compar-
able to other commercial master recordings that have been successful. The
purpose of this clause is to protect the record label from receiving a master
recording that has been poorly recorded, is distorted, or is at such an ex-
tremely low volume level so as to be unlikely to receive airplay or be pur-
chased by music consumers.

TELECOMMUNICATIONS ACT OF 1996. The Telecommunications

Act of 1996 was the first major legislative change regarding telecommunica-
tions (including telephones, cable television, video broadcast services, and
telecommunication services provided to schools) since the original Commu-
nications Act of 1934. It was a bipartisan reaction to the belief that service
providers should not be limited by outdated regulations. It was intended to
stimulate competition while still ensuring that the public had access to tele-
communication services and a reasonable price through the act’s so-called
“universal service” provisions. This would be accomplished by connecting
all schools, libraries, and hospitals to the internet by the year 2000. The
legislation also offered families more control over the type of programming
coming into their homes through the use of “V-chip” technology.
Despite the newly added regulations regarding universal service, most
communication sectors were deregulated, including terrestrial radio. This
allowed for a consolidation of local stations into newly formed mega-owner-

281
282 • TERM
ship groups such as Clear Channel Communications, diminishing the diver-
sity in playlists and music programming because the same parent company
could program hundreds of stations from one central office. Additionally, in
the wake of the act the number of radio stations slowly grew while the
number of station owners dramatically decreased. However, as a reaction to
this lack of diversity, many remaining locally owned stations that are not part
of the mega-ownership groups have shifted to a more local focus, including
airing more local news and music, in part as a reaction to the homogenized,
one-size-fits-all programming that has resulted from radio’s deregulation.

TERM. This refers to the length of time that an agreement, such as a man-
agement contract, will be in force. While many music industry agreements
specify a finite term using a calendar as the basis, such as “three years from
the date of this agreement’s execution,” there are some music industry
contracts that use other methods to define the term. One example is some
record contracts, which provide the record label with the option of delay-
ing certain actions such as beginning or releasing a future album if the label
believes it will serve their best interests.
See also ALBUM CYCLE; SEVEN-YEAR RULE.

TERMINATION RIGHTS. As a part of the changes made by Congress

embodied in the Copyright Act of 1976, songwriters and composers have
the option of exercising their right of termination. Practically speaking, if
after transferring control in an original work to another person or entity the
author believes they can benefit by getting copyright control back, they may
send written notice of the intention to terminate the original copyright trans-
fer 35 years after the original transfer. It’s important to note that any works
created under a work-for-hire agreement is not subject to termination rights.
Songwriters that may have sold a song to a publisher and recording artists
whose master sound recordings have been controlled by record labels are
two practical examples of music creatives that might exercise their termina-
tion rights, especially if they believe they could be earning more money
through the works in question than under the terms of the previous sale or
contract terms.

TERRESTRIAL RADIO. A term used to define radio stations that use pre-
internet technology such as a radio transmitter to send their broadcast signal
to listeners over the public airwaves. Terrestrial radio broadcasts are free to
the listeners, with the stations being funded by the sales of advertisements in
the case of commercial radio or underwriters in the case of noncommercial
radio. Today, the majority of terrestrial radio listeners use a car radio to listen
 THARPE, SISTER ROSETTA (1915–1973) • 283
to terrestrial radio broadcasts, while at the same time the advent of the inter-
net and satellite technology have afforded listeners new and different ways
to listen to radio programming.
The first commercially licensed radio station was KDKA in Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, which went on the air on 2 November 1920. Early radio was
broadcast and received using amplitude modulation, leading to the term “AM
radio.” From the 1920s to the 1950s, AM radio became the dominant form of
popular media, bringing concerts, variety shows, comedy, drama, the latest
hit parade, and news into homes from coast to coast. In the 1960s, a second
band of radio broadcasting gained popular acceptance, frequency modulation
or FM radio, which led to an explosion of new music programming that went
beyond the previous top 40 model. In addition to home radio receivers,
automobiles offered a captive audience to radio broadcasters, and drivers
became a key audience segment of the burgeoning terrestrial radio industry.
The National Association of Broadcasters (NAB), founded in 1922, is the
trade group that advocates on the behalf of terrestrial radio broadcasters.
One of the unique features of American terrestrial radio is that broadcast-
ers are exempt from paying public performance royalties to artists and
record labels, unlike nearly all other nations. As sales of recorded music has
declined in the 21st century, this has led artists, record labels, and other rights
holders to lobby Congress for this exemption to be eliminated. The NAB has
so far successfully fought off all efforts to institute a public performance
royalty for artists and record labels.

TERRITORY. A term often used to describe a foreign country or region in

discussions and written agreements pertaining to the distribution, broadcast,
and sale of music.

THARPE, SISTER ROSETTA (1915–1973). Sister Rosetta Tharpe was a

singer, songwriter, and guitarist of both gospel and popular song who rose to
prominence by deftly blending both genres to great effect. She was one of the
first African American artists to successfully cross over from gospel to pop
music, years before Ray Charles. Rosetta was born on 20 March 1915 in
Cotton Plant, Arkansas, and her mother was a devout woman very involved
in music performance at church. As a result, Rosetta grew up steeped in the
culture of gospel music, which she embraced from the time she started per-
forming at the age of four. In the 1920s, the family relocated to Chicago,
where Rosetta soon also began to hear secular music that widened her influ-
ences beyond the church hall. She moved to New York City in 1934, where
she began singing with the band of Lucky Millinder and further expanded her
audience when she signed with Decca Records in 1938. That same year she
was one of the featured performers in John Hammond’s Carnegie Hall
284 • THOMAS, THEODORE (1835–1905)
“Spirituals to Swing” concert. Soon after that she was performing at Café
Society, New York City’s first integrated nightclub, where the latest jazz and
blues musicians were regularly featured.
Her first releases on Decca, including “Rock Me” (1938) and “This Train”
(1939), were instant hits, crossing over from the gospel to the R&B charts.
Due to her use of distorted guitar and her instantly recognizable soulful vocal
style, Sister Rosetta Tharpe is recognized as one of the first artists to innovate
a totally new sound in popular music that would evolve after World War II
into rock ’n’ roll. While some portion of her original gospel audience found
her move to blues and popular music distasteful, Tharpe retained enough
support in the gospel community to support herself. She continued perform-
ing both in the United States and United Kingdom until health issues forced
her to reduce touring in 1970. Still, she remained active in recording. She
passed away in Philadelphia on 9 October 1973 on the eve of a planned
recording session.

THOMAS, THEODORE (1835–1905). Theodore Thomas was a violinist

and prominent American conductor in the 19th century. Born in Germany,
he immigrated with his family to the United States in 1845. A precursor to
Leonard Bernstein, he was not only a talented conductor who popularized
the music of European masters but also a successful business manager due
to his ticket-selling schemes and ability to program special “pops” and chil-
dren’s programs. He led his orchestras on tours of the United States and
Canada, which led to critical and popular acclaim. Throughout Thomas’s
prolific career, he had many successes and many financial failures. Thomas
was the conductor of the New York Philharmonic (1877–1878), the
American Opera Company (1886), and the Brooklyn Philharmonic Society
(1862–1891), and he was the music director of the Cincinnati College of
Music (1878–1879). In 1891, Thomas became the founder and the first musi-
cal director of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra (CSO). He worked with the
CSO until his death in 1905.

THREE TENORS. The Three Tenors were an internationally successful

operatic vocal ensemble made up of Spaniards Plácido Domingo (b. 1941)
and José Carreras (b. 1946) and Italian Luciano Pavarotti (1935–2007). Each
had become an established opera star in his own right before the trio gave
their first joint performance on 7 July 1990 in Rome at the ancient Roman
Baths of Caracalla on the eve of the soccer World Cup final match. A record-
ing made at that concert went on to become one of the best-selling classical
records in history, selling triple Platinum in the United States while earning
additional Platinum or multi-Platinum sales in the UK, Brazil, Canada, Ger-
many, and Austria. The trio would repeat their concerts at each of the suc-
 TICKETMASTER • 285
ceeding World Cup events in 1994 (Los Angeles), 1998 (Paris), and 2002
(Yokohama), with their 1994 performance garnering a reported 1.3 billion
viewers for the live telecast.
Interspersed with these mega-event-based performances, the trio went on
tour in 1996–1997 and 1999–2000, which also proved to be very successful
financially. Interestingly, the Three Tenors agreed to perform at the initial
concert in Rome for a much smaller fee than normal for their services. They
then donated their respective fees to a charity and agreed to take no royalty
share in the subsequent recordings. With the runaway success of the audio
and video recordings of that first concert earning millions of dollars, the trio
later negotiated a more traditional joint recording royalty agreement for the
rest of the albums and videos they made together.

THRILLER. Michael Jackson’s album Thriller is the all-time best-selling

album worldwide. The album was released on 30 November 1982. It spent
37 weeks at number one on the Billboard album chart. It was the first album
in history to spend its first 80 weeks in the top 10, and in 2015 it was the first
album to be certified 30 times multi-Platinum for U.S. sales, which signifies
more than 30 million sales. The album won a record eight Grammys with 12
nominations.
Quincy Jones and Michael Jackson coproduced the album, which in-
cluded singles like “Beat It,” “The Girl Is Mine,” and “Billie Jean.” The
album transcended genres, which allowed it to appeal to multiple audiences.
The success of the album can also be attributed to the popular cinematic
music videos of the album’s singles, which helped to break down MTV’s
unspoken racial barrier, paving the way for more black artists to get airtime
on the network.

TICKETMASTER. Ticketmaster is a U.S.-based live event ticketing ser-

vice that is the dominant provider of ticketing services, marketing, and event
coordination in the United States. They serve as a middleman between the
concert promoter or sports team and the fan seeking to purchase a ticket.
Founded in 1976, the company grew to hold a near monopoly on major
music and sporting events, in part by entering into long-term exclusive agree-
ments with hundreds of key venues, effectively prohibiting competition in
the ticketing services marketplace. Over time, ticket buyers have faced a
spiraling increase in the so-called service charges that can be added on to the
price of admission to a particular event. These may include a service charge,
facility fee, processing charge, or convenience, shipping, or will-call fee. In
some extreme cases, the service charges may add up to 50 percent of the face
value of the ticket. Due to their data-capture ability with respect to ticket
buyers, Ticketmaster can provide extensive marketing and targeting informa-
286 • TIDAL
tion to help event promoters better market and promote their concerts or
sports events. In 2010, Ticketmaster merged with Live Nation, forming one
of the largest live entertainment companies in the world.
See also STUBHUB

TIDAL. Tidal is a streaming music service owned by rap mogul Jay-Z. The
subscription-based company offers lossless audio and high-definition music
videos, as well as exclusive content, such as livestreams and ticket give-
aways. Tidal’s content is curated by so-called tastemakers to promote new
and emerging artists.
Tidal originated as an offshoot of WiMP, a Norwegian streaming music
service. It officially became known as Tidal in 2014. Jay-Z’s company, Pro-
ject Panther Bidco Ltd., bought Tidal in January 2015 for $56.2 million. The
service is now available to 52 countries across the world.
Beyoncé, Rihanna, Kanye West, Madonna, Alicia Keys, deadmau5, Nicki
Minaj, and several other big-name musicians are Tidal artist-owners. Some
of these artist-owners have partnered with the streaming service to release
exclusive content; for example, the Fenty by Rihanna runway show was
livestreamed for Tidal subscribers.
Under Jay-Z, Tidal has struggled in the streaming music arena as the result
of lawsuits and low subscriber counts. In 2017, wireless carrier Sprint bought
33 percent of the company with plans to offer exclusive content to Sprint
mobile customers.
See also MUSIC STREAMING.

TIME CODE. A longitudinal sequence of numeric codes that is recorded

onto any form of audio or visual media such as film, video tape, or studio
sound recordings, as a reference point to identify a specific point, such as a
video frame or sequence that has been recorded. Time code systems are used
throughout the professional film, audio, and video industries so that technical
staff may have an exact point of reference for all of the recordings made for a
particular project. Time code numbers are generally referenced in
HOURS:MINUTES:SECONDS:FRAMES, for example, 08:45:19:11. The
Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers is the body that has
standardized time code usage and practices to ensure interoperability be-
tween various types of time code and frame rates.

TIN PAN ALLEY. A term used to encapsulate the music industry in the late
19th and early 20th centuries. In particular, songwriting, music publishing,
and the distribution and sale of sheet music were the primary activities of the
men and women who made up Tin Pan Alley. The term also refers to a
specific area in New York City centered on West 28th Street between Fifth
 TLC • 287
and Sixth Avenues near Union Square in New York City, where many of the
major publishers of the day were located. While the exact origin of the term
is not definitively agreed upon, one popular argument suggests that the clam-
or from numerous pianos all playing at once as songwriters plied their trade
in the neighborhood’s many publishing houses resembled a great banging on
many tin pans.
The primary motivation for creating songs was to generate profits rather
than satisfy any high art aesthetic. Tin Pan Alley songwriters were a polyglot
of many ethnicities, including an assortment of Jews, African Americans,
Germans, and Irish. Tin Pan Alley’s association with Jews was sometimes
used to denigrate their businesses and their music, but it appears that it was
not their religious affiliation that made the publishers of Tin Pan Alley suc-
cessful but the fact that they were well assimilated into American society,
were fairly young (mid-20s), and had previous experience in sales. In their
first few decades, Tin Pan Alley publishers predominately focused on coon
songs, which were written in dialect with a dark-faced protagonist. Some
African American songwriters wrote songs for Tin Pan Alley publishers, but
they were often paid in cash rather than royalties. The rise of radio broadcast-
ing in the 1930s, which offered free music for listener’s enjoyment, started
the decline in the importance of Tin Pan Alley publishers. In the post–World
War II boom, the spectacular growth of television and record sales resulted in
the Tin Pan Alley publishers that had once been at the apex of the music
industry in America to no longer holding a dominant position.

TLC. TLC was one of the most successful female R&B groups of all time.
The members included Tionne “T-Boz” Watkins (b. 1970), Lisa “Left Eye”
Lopes (1971–2002), and Rozonda “Chilli” Thomas (b. 1971). The group was
formed in Atlanta in 1981 and signed with LaFace and released their first
album, Ooooooohhh . . . On the TLC Tip, in 1992. The album established
their playful, confident, fashionable style and contained hits including
“Baby-Baby-Baby” and “What About Your Friends.”
In 1994, Lopes, who had struggled with alcohol abuse since her teens, was
arrested for arson after burning down the mansion of her boyfriend, Andre
Rison. Rather than serving jail time, she was sentenced to probation and
entered an alcohol rehabilitation program. Nevertheless, TLC’s second al-
bum, CrazySexyCool, was very successful and showed a more mature but
still sensual side of the group. It won a Grammy for Best R&B Album and
contained the hit singles “Creep,” “Waterfalls,” and “Red Light Special.”
The album would go on to sell more than 11 million units in the United
States and 23 million globally.
Despite selling millions of records, TLC filed for bankruptcy in 1995 after
going over $3.5 million in debt. Some of their financial issues were due to
Lopes’s insurance payments following the arson charge for destroying her
288 • TOP 40 RADIO
boyfriend’s house. The group also accused their record label of not paying
out their share of royalties. The case was viewed as another in a series of
bankruptcy proceedings brought by successful artists against their record
labels in the 1990s, largely to obtain more favorable royalty terms than what
had been agreed to when the group was just starting out. The matter was
resolved with a confidential out-of-court settlement that was believed to have
awarded higher royalties to the hit-making trio and allowed them to continue
making their next album.
TLC released their third album, Fanmail, at the beginning of 1999. “No
Scrubs” and “Unpretty” were both hit singles from the album. The album
won the group another Grammy for Best R&B Album. Tensions growing
within the group rose as they were preparing to tour and fueled rumors that
the group might break up.
In 2001, the group went back to the studio to work on new material.
Meanwhile, Lopes was working on her own solo career. In April 2002, Lopes
was involved in a fatal car accident while traveling in Honduras. She died
from severe head trauma. Thomas and Watkins decided to complete the
album, 3D, and released it in November 2002. The group made what was
then billed as its final performance at a concert in New York in June 2003
with a video projection of Lopes, while the album, on which Lopes’s perfor-
mances on two songs were included, sold more than one million units.
While TLC officially had gone on hiatus, they made occasional appear-
ances on recordings or in person, sometimes with Lopes’s parts played back
from a recording and her image on a video wall behind the group. Remaining
members Watkins and Thomas decided to make a fifth album and ran a
successful crowdfunding initiative to raise the necessary funds. They also
embarked on a few limited-run tours that demonstrated the group’s continued
relevance to fans. While their legacy includes both the incongruity of one of
the most successful vocal groups using bankruptcy proceedings to rewrite
their contract, as well as the high-profile struggles of Lopes to cope with
alcohol and anger issues, the group’s legacy of selling more than 75 million
records worldwide makes them one of the most important groups of the
1990s.

TOP 40 RADIO. A radio programming format that features the most popu-
lar songs repeatedly to help ensure the maximum listening audience. The
goal is to keep listeners tuned in and gaining the greatest audience share,
which results in enhanced advertising revenues. It’s based on observations
made in the mid-20th century by radio programmers that people in restau-
rants would pay to hear the same songs over and over again on the jukebox
even though they had recently been played. As popular music evolved during
the second half of the 20th century, radio adapted new and various radio
formats to cater to specific market segments, but within each one would
 TOUR SUPPORT • 289
favor the most popular songs with repetitive airplay over introducing new
and lesser-known artists or songs. The term “top 40” is derived from the
popular music charts maintained by industry publications, such as Billboard,
which track and report weekly on airplay, sales, and other measures of a
song’s popularity.

TOP LINE. “Top line” refers to the creation of a melody and lyrics to go
over the top of a preexisting beat or instrumental backing track. With the
advent of popular computer-based composing programs, it has become com-
monplace for music composers and producers to create a beat and send it to
a variety of top line writers who compose and submit a melody and lyrics to
complete the song. Since only one top line will be chosen, this means that for
many top liners (the term used to refer to the melody/lyric composer) their
work may not be used on the final version of the song. Unlike the more
common songwriting practices of the 20th century, when one music compos-
er would often pair with a compatible lyricist for an ongoing series of musi-
cal collaborations spanning decades, such as Elton John and Bernie Taupin,
today’s use of top line composers has resulted in occasional confusion over
which involved party has a justifiable claim as a cowriter on tracks that use
the top liner method for creation. Successful top liners recommend clarifying
in advance with the music producer or beat maker what use may be pos-
sible/allowable for their contribution to any prospective collaboration to help
minimize potential future disputes pertaining to ownership shares.

TOP-LINE PRICE. See FULL-PRICE RECORD.

TOUR COORDINATOR. A tour coordinator is charged with planning the

detailed, hourly, day-to-day logistics for an entire tour in advance and seeing
that all aspects as envisioned are in fact feasible. If the tour coordinator’s
plans are executed properly, the intended outcome for the artist and their
respective managers should be achievable.

TOUR MANAGER. See ROAD MANAGER.

TOUR SUPPORT. An artist’s record label or other company may provide

the funds necessary to offset any financial losses incurred while an artist is
on tour as an attempt to help that artist build their fan base more quickly.
Since record labels view such an investment as risky and unsecured, the tour
support monies provided will be 100 percent recoupable from artist royal-
ties.
290 • TRACK
TRACK. The terms “track,” “side,” and “cut” are standard music industry
jargon referring to a single song that has been recorded, usually with the
intention of releasing it to the public. “Side” may also refer to either one or
the other side of a two-sided record, the A-side and the B-side, while “track”
and “cut” refer to a single song from an album.

TRACK EQUIVALENT ALBUM (TEA). Track equivalent album refers

to the practice of counting 10 paid downloads of a song, or 1,500 streams, as
being equal to the sale of one album by that particular artist. With the success
of the iTunes music store after 2003, the main market for buying records
moved from album-length CDs to single song purchases from online retailers
such as iTunes, Amazon, Google Play, or eMusic.
See also DIGITAL PHONORECORD DELIVERY (DPD).

TRADEMARK. A trademark is a recognizable slogan, expression, or sym-

bol that represents a product, service, or person. A trademark protects a
person, business, or other legal entity from others creating a likeness in order
to cause confusion or to harm a famous mark. Trademarks can be registered
though the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office and must be renewed every 10
years. Band names may not be protected by a trademark; instead, a service
mark must be registered to limit usage by others of the band’s name.

TRANSCRIPTION LICENSE. A type of license granted to use a piece of

music in an audio-only advertisement, such as a radio commercial.

TURNTABLIST. See DJ (TURNTABLIST).

TWAIN, SHANIA. Known for fusing rock, pop, and country, sing-
er–songwriter Shania Twain (b. 28 August 1965) is the best-selling female
artist in the history of country music and is one of the best-selling music
artists of all time. Twain grew up in Ontario, Canada, and performed at local
bars, radio and television stations, and community events. Her parents died in
a car cash when she was 21, and she took care of her younger siblings until
they were grown.
Twain signed with Mercury Nashville and released her first album in
1993. She met and fell in love with Robert John “Mutt” Lange, a music
producer who worked with AC/DC, Def Leppard, and others. The two
worked on her subsequent albums The Woman in Me (1995) and Come On
Over (1997). Both albums were very successful, with the former achieving
sales of more than 12 million U.S. copies and the latter exceeding 20 million.
 TWAIN, SHANIA • 291
Both albums clearly show the influence of Lange’s hard-rock aesthetic.
Twain’s music videos often include sexual imagery, which she was both
praised and criticized for.
Her success waned slightly with the release of her fourth album, Up
(2002), which debuted at number one and eventually would go on to sell
more than 11 million copies in the U.S. In 2010, she and her husband di-
vorced. Over the course of her career, Twain is estimated to have sold more
than 75 million records.
 U
U2. U2 is an Irish rock band formed in Dublin in 1976 and comprising Adam
Clayton (b. 13 March 1960), Larry Mullen Jr. (b. 31 October 1961), Bono (b.
Paul David Hewson on 10 May 1960), and the Edge (b. David Howell Evans
on 8 August 1961). Respected throughout the industry for both their artistic
and commercial success, U2 is known for their extended live performances
and for having sold more than 106 million albums worldwide over their
career, making them one of the most successful groups in history.
The group formed while the members were schoolmates in Dublin, pro-
gressing over time so that in 1980 they released their first album, Boy, on
Island Records. The group’s third album, War (1983), resulted in their first
UK number one, largely on the strength of the hit single “New Year’s Day.”
The group developed a reputation for powerhouse live concerts, with a sound
marked by the group’s propulsive rhythm section, the effects-laden melodic
guitar work of the Edge, and Bono’s passionate vocals. The group’s insis-
tence on addressing political and social issues further endeared them to fans
around the world as societal issues such as famine, intolerance, and human
rights were all front-page news. The group was one of the featured perform-
ers at the 1985 Live Aid concert for famine relief in Africa. Next, they joined
the 1986 Conspiracy of Hope Tour for Amnesty International to increase
awareness globally of human rights abuses. These two high-profile charity
projects helped U2 become one of the most recognized rock groups in the
world during the 1980s and set the stage for their next release.
In 1987, the group recorded a career-defining album, The Joshua Tree,
which would go on to become their best-selling release, attaining Platinum
status in the U.S. and charting more than 25 million units sold worldwide.
The album topped the charts in 20 countries and spent nine weeks atop the
U.S. charts. Following the album’s release, the group began to perform in
select stadiums when ticket demand justified the larger-scale venues. The
Joshua Tree Tour played to three million fans and grossed $40 million.
While the period 1988–1997 was marked by the release of four more
Platinum albums, Rattle and Hum (1988), Achtung Baby (1991), Zooropa
(1993), and Pop (1997), it was the massive and elaborate tours that the group

293
294 • U2
would mount in support of these albums that came to define the era of
stadium rock concerts better than any other group. For example, the
1992–1993 Zoo TV Tour featured an extensive stage set with large video
screens flashing seemingly random messages, many parodying popular cul-
ture and society’s reliance on television. Bono assumed different stage perso-
nas, including a televangelist and an outrageous egomaniac dubbed “The
Fly.” Fans responded well, and the North American leg of the tour earned
$67 million. In 1993, the group continued the tour in Europe, Australia, New
Zealand, and Japan, so that by its conclusion later that year, they had per-
formed for 5.3 million fans. The group’s succeeding tours each topped the
prior one as U2 continued to build their global audience through a combina-
tion of carefully timed releases, massive worldwide tours, and the group’s
sociopolitical activism, most often represented by Bono as the spokesperson
for charitable causes.
In 2008, the group signed a 12-year agreement with Live Nation Enter-
tainment for $100 million, affording Live Nation the exclusive rights to
promote their tours worldwide and handle merchandise, sponsorships, and
online activities for the band. The group and their management team then
decided to mount what can be described as the most ambitious tour to date
with the group’s U2 360 Tour, which began in January 2009 and continued
through July 2011. What made the effort significant was that the group
designed an in-the-round staging system that would allow them to perform in
the world’s largest stadiums at full capacity. To do so and still afford fans a
memorable concert experience, the largest stage set ever built, with a 164-
foot-tall four-footed futuristic structure dubbed “The Claw,” would stand
over the stage, supporting the sound, lighting, and video display systems. By
the conclusion of the 31-month-long U2 360 Tour, the group had once again
broken records, having sold 7.3 million tickets and grossed $736 million in
receipts.
With respect to their recordings, in the 21st century U2 released four more
albums, bringing their total to 13 studio albums. These included All That You
Can’t Leave Behind (2000), How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb (2004), No
Line on the Horizon (2009), and Songs of Innocence (2014). The first three
each achieved multi-Platinum worldwide sales; however, Songs of Inno-
cence, only sold 100,000 units in the United States. After such significant
sales on their 12 previous studio albums, the reason this album didn’t have as
much commercial success is that U2 partnered with Apple Computer to
release the album exclusively on 9 September 2014, before it would go on
sale in stores, as a free download to 500 million Apple users around the
world. Many in the music industry reacted angrily and suggested that this
further supported the perception among the public that music should be free
during a time when record sales were plummeting. Additionally, Apple had
not provided an opt-in feature for regular customers of its iTunes music
 UPSTREAMING • 295
store, so everyone simply found the new album downloaded to their music
library whether they wanted it or not. Still, the method of the album’s initial
release, similar to Radiohead’s 2007 release of In Rainbows, signified that
artists were ready to challenge traditional record distribution models. After
the dust had cleared, an estimated 33 million consumers did download Songs
of Innocence, while 81 million listened to it, according to Apple executives.
U2 continues to perform and record and has recently mounted a tour to
celebrate the 30th anniversary of the release of The Joshua Tree, which
features a live performance of the entire album by the band. More than 40
years after their inception, U2 still remains a vital force in the music industry,
having been recognized with a total of 22 Grammy Awards by their peers.

UNDERSCORE. The underscore generally refers to instrumental music that

is performed beneath the action or dialogue in a motion picture, television
show, or other visual media.

UNIVERSAL MUSIC GROUP (UMG). The Seagram’s Company, a Cana-

dian spirits manufacturer, purchased Music Corporation of America
(MCA) in 1990 and renamed it Universal Music Group in 1996. Seagram’s
purchased PolyGram in 1998, which made UMG the world’s largest record-
ing company. French conglomerate Vivendi acquired Seagram’s stake in
Universal Music and Universal Studios in 2000 for approximately $34 billion
in a deal that also included French media company Canal Plus.
UMG made several failed attempts at the online market with GetMusic,
pressplay, and Emusic.com from 2000 to 2001.
UMG acquired BMG Music Publishing in 2006, making it at that time the
world’s largest music publisher and creating Universal Music Publishing
Group. UMG expanded into the European market in 2007 with the acquisi-
tion of the V2 Music Group and the Latin American market in 2008 with the
purchase of Univision’s music assets.
UMG owns more than 20 record labels and the largest catalog of recorded
music in the world. Some of its most popular artists include Rihanna, Kanye
West, Mariah Carey, and Justin Bieber. In 2012, Universal acquired the
recording divisions of EMI Music for $1.9 billion, a move that was largely
seen as pivotal to ensuring that UMG would have adequate catalog and talent
to continue to be profitable as the recording industry became focused on
streaming.

UPSTREAMING. Upstreaming is a strategy used by smaller record labels

and production companies to discover and develop a new artist to the level
where a major record label will find it attractive to sign that artist to a
contract with the goal of realizing a major national or international star. The
296 • UPSTREAMING
practice is common and offers a great prospective benefit to both parties to
such an agreement. The major label reduces its risks greatly, as the artist has
already proven they can build a measurable audience, which for most new
artists is the most difficult aspect of music career building. The smaller
record label or production company will have included the option for them to
sell the existing contract with the artist to a third party in their original
agreement, thereby ensuring a substantial payday for doing the all-important
talent and audience development work needed to be an attractive signing
option for a major label. In some cases, the original production company may
retain some creative control over the artist’s recording future, while in oth-
ers they no longer have any formal business relationship with the artist.
 V
VEEJAY. The on-screen talent or host of a television show featuring music
videos. The term was popularized in the 1980s concurrent with the rise of
MTV as an arbiter of youth and popular culture. The term may also be
shortened to “VJ.”

VENUE MANAGER. See HALL MANAGER.

VEVO. Vevo is a U.S.-based video hosting service that provides a platform

for ad-supported music videos to be shared with music consumers around
the world. The company was founded by Universal Music’s Doug Morris
in partnership with Google’s Eric Schmidt. By the time of its launch in 2009,
Sony Music had joined the company, providing two of the three major
record labels’ music video assets. In 2016, Warner Music added its music
video catalog to the Vevo service. Revenue is generated by three main fea-
tures: advertisers who pay to associate their ad with a particular song, a
merchandise store, and referral links to purchase the music from each video
viewed through iTunes or Amazon Music. Within weeks of its launch, Vevo
became the number one music video destination on the internet according to
comScore. Due to licensing issues in various foreign territories, Vevo is not
available in all countries, although it has been working to widen the number
of countries where it can be accessed.

VH-1. VH-1 was launched on 1 January 1985 and is part of Viacom Media
Network, owner of MTV. VH-1, short for Video Hits One, was aimed at an
older demographic than the teens that were drawn to MTV’s programming.
Featuring a more mellow mix of music than MTV, VH-1 quickly gained a
following among the 18- to 35-year-old age group by featuring more pop
than rock music videos with a sprinkling of jazz and R&B, which at the time
was referred to as urban contemporary. Similar to MTV, VH-1 relied on
veejays, on-air hosts who were knowledgeable about music and had a style
that matched the intended audience, announcing each video and sharing the
latest music news.

297
298 • VICTOR
In the 1990s, the network created a range of original programming that
gave the public more intimate backstage profiles of music stars, both the
towering success stories and the shocking failures, which drew substantial
audiences. These programs included VH-1 Storytellers, Behind the Music,
and Legends, all of which have continued to be rebroadcast in subsequent
years. Additionally, they funded a series of 12 feature-length motion pictures
under the moniker Movies That Rock, using as a basis stories drawn from the
lives of actual musicians to reimagine and fictionalize episodes from their
lives.
In 1997, the VH-1 Save the Music Foundation was formed, which is a
501c3 nonprofit subsidiary that since its founding has raised more than $48
million dollars to provide musical instruments to more than 1,800 schools
across America. The foundation also helps to advocate nationally for music
education as part of every well-rounded student’s development. In the 2000s,
VH-1 added reality television to its programming, in part to appeal to a
younger audience and to keep pace with the fast-moving pop culture land-
scape.

VICTOR. See RCA VICTOR.

VJ. See VEEJAY.

VOLUNTARY LICENSE. See DIRECT LICENSE.

 W
WALKMAN. The Walkman, manufactured by Sony, was one of the first
portable audio devices. It was a compact cassette player powered by two
AA batteries and included a pair of headphones that allowed private listen-
ing. The Walkman completely changed the way consumers listened to and
experienced music. It was released in 1979 in Japan and sold out within the
first three months. The Walkman was introduced to the United States in 1980
and was a huge success. The aerobics and jogging trends then popular also
furthered the adoption of the Walkman since people used it for entertainment
and motivation while exercising. Even though the Walkman transitioned
along with the changes in formats, such as compact discs, MiniDiscs, MP3s,
and streaming music, the name continues to be associated with the original
cassette player.

WARNER MUSIC GROUP. Warner Music Group is one of the three ma-
jor record labels and the only one that is American based. It is a true
multinational media company with offices in 50 countries and more than
3,500 employees worldwide.
Warner Bros. began as a film company in 1923. In 1929, company founder
Jack Warner founded Music Publishers Holding Company, an in-house pub-
lishing and music rights group, to secure music copyrights and thereby
control the costs to acquire music for his motion pictures. In 1930, Warner
Bros. briefly entered the recording industry with the purchase of Brunswick-
Balke-Callender, a recording company in Iowa. The following year, the com-
pany sold Brunswick-Balke-Callender. In 1958, Warner Bros. formed its
own recording company and label and focused on jazz artists, including Paul
Desmond and Chico Hamilton. The company expanded into popular music
soon after and acquired the Reprise label in 1963, Atlantic in 1967, and
Elektra in 1970 and formed Warner-Elektra-Atlantic (WEA). Just before the
Elektra purchase in 1969, Warner Bros. record operations were purchased by
Kinney National Company, led by Steve Ross. Ross would go on to lead

299
300 • WARNER MUSIC GROUP
Warner through one of its most productive periods until his death in 1992,
reorganizing the various arms of the company under the umbrella name
Warner Communications.
A great deal of the label’s success may be attributed to the contributions
made by the Atlantic executive team, including Jerry Wexler and Ahmet
Ertegun, who brought a rich catalog of rhythm and blues hits to the company
and in 1969 began signing the most popular UK acts of the time, which
further increased the company’s sales. They helped lead the ATCO Records
subsidiary into new genres, including hard rock, heavy metal, and art rock,
and continued to record and release records by innovative jazz artists. Some
of the most popular WEA artists of the 1970s and 1980s included the Rolling
Stones, Led Zeppelin, Fleetwood Mac, Madonna, the Eagles, and Prince,
to name a few. Jazz artists included Herbie Hancock, Al Jarreau, Chick
Corea, Miles Davis, Bob James, and George Benson. Throughout this period,
the company also continued to forge strategic partnerships with other labels
and record distributors around the world, furthering their sales.
In 1987, WEA acquired Chappell Music Publishing and combined it with
their own in-house group to form Warner/Chappell Music, one of the largest
music publishers in the world. Time Inc. acquired WEA to form Time-
Warner in 1989. By the early 1990s, Time-Warner was the largest music
company in the world, with multibillion-dollar revenues and an estimated
worth of more than $20 billion. However, it seemed the company had be-
come focused on growth as a priority and went on to merge with then internet
leader America Online (AOL) in 2000, a move that shocked many in the
music industry due to upstart AOL’s rapid ascent to prominence. The new
company, dubbed AOL Time Warner, continued to make acquisitions; how-
ever, the precipitous downturn for internet-focused companies that occurred
shortly after the merger weakened AOL to the point that their debt load was
onerous, and as a result, the decision was made to sell off Warner Music in
2004 to Edgar Bronfman and an investment group.
Under new leadership, Warner divested itself of some divisions, including
Warner Brothers Publications, the arm that published sheet music, and fur-
ther embraced digital music distribution by licensing its music to new distrib-
utors such as Spotify and Google Play. By 2008, it was reported the Warner
subsidiary Atlantic was the first record label to earn more than half of its
U.S. revenue online. In August 2011, Warner Music Group was purchased by
Len Blavatnik’s Access Industries for $3.3 billion, and the company was
taken private. Today, the Warner Music Group is home to a wide range of
record labels and music-related companies, most notably Warner/Chappell
Music, its publishing arm.
 WEIN, GEORGE • 301
WARPED TOUR. The Warped Tour was the longest continuously running
music festival in North America during its 24-year run (1995–2018). It was
noted for its role in helping to break dozens of new bands in a variety of
genres and introduce them to a broader audience. The touring festival played
to an estimated audience of more than 12 million fans over its lifetime. In
1996, Vans shoe and clothing company joined with founder Kevin Lyman
as the naming sponsor, after which time it was named the Vans Warped
Tour. From its inception, the festival has always had a philanthropic focus,
with a portion of the sale price of every ticket being donated to charity, as
well as providing many nonprofit organizations with booth space at each stop
on the tour to help them attract additional support for their causes.

WEBCASTER. A person or entity that utilizes the internet to make avail-

able a program of live music or information for multiple listeners. The term
“webcasting” refers to noninteractive streamed linear media or events. Web-
casters vary greatly, from terrestrial radio stations that make their terrestrial
signal available simultaneously over the internet to small community-based
noncommercial webcasters with a limited local audience. Commercial web-
casters are bound by copyright regulations as to their royalty obligations for
using copyright-protected music in their webcasts. Likewise, performing
rights societies offer webcasting-specific licenses to allow for the use of
their members’ songs in webcasts. Today, virtually all major radio and tele-
vision broadcasters offer a webcast of their output for viewing on the inter-
net.

WEIN, GEORGE. George (Theodore) Wein, born on 3 October 1925, is an

American pianist and vocalist who became an established concert promoter
and founder of numerous jazz festivals, most notably the Newport Jazz Festi-
val in 1954, the longest continuously running jazz festival in the nation. He
began his life in music as a performer, studying piano in his hometown of
Boston, quickly rising to lead a 13-piece band as a teenager, regularly play-
ing clubs around the city. His entrepreneurial instincts were evidenced early,
as right after his graduation from college in 1950 he opened his first club,
Storyville, and began booking talent for a second nightspot, the Savoy. A few
months later, he had started his own Storyville record label. He went on to
perform with a number of established jazz artists, including Sidney Bechet,
Bobby Hackett, and Ruby Braff, among others.
In 1954, Wein founded the Newport Jazz Festival with financial backing
from the Lorillard family. He continued to perform and record while running
the festival and leading a touring group dubbed the Newport Festival All-
Stars, which featured some of the biggest names in jazz. In the 1960s, Wein
founded Festival Productions, headquartered in New York City, to manage
302 • WENNER, JANN
the numerous festivals around the world that he would eventually present,
including the JVC Jazz Festival, Grande Parade du Jazz (Nice, France),
Newport Folk Festival (founded in 1959 as a complement to the Newport
Jazz Festival), New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Festival, and Playboy Jazz
Festival.
George Wein was the first promoter to secure corporate sponsorship for
music festivals. He leveraged both the Newport Jazz Festival moniker and
the JVC Jazz Festival identity to create similar events in Japan, Poland, Paris,
and U.S. cities such as New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago over the years.
Wein remains active today, although in 1998 he sold a majority stake in
Festival Productions to BET (Black Entertainment Television).

WENNER, JANN. See ROLLING STONE.

WEXLER, JERRY (1917–2008). Record producer Gerald “Jerry” Wexler

was born on 10 January 1917 in Bronx, New York, and graduated from high
school at the age of 15 before attending college, first at City College of New
York and then at Kansas State University. He dropped out of both schools
after completing some credits and served in the U.S. Army during World
War II. After the war, he earned a degree in journalism from Kansas State
and moved back to New York, where he was hired by Billboard magazine as
a reporter, writer, and editor. It was during this time that he coined the term
“rhythm and blues” to supplant the pejorative term “race records,” which
had been used to describe African American–created music for decades in
the music industry.
In 1953, Wexler joined Atlantic Records, helping Ahmet Ertegun build
the independent record label into one of the most successful record labels
of the time. Wexler’s knowledge of the charts and popular music trends
helped the label sign artists such as Ray Charles, Ruth Brown, and the
Drifters, each of whom had multiple best-selling hits during Wexler’s tenure.
During the 1960s, Wexler produced historic recordings with Aretha Frank-
lin and Wilson Pickett, helping Atlantic become one of the key labels to
foster the growth of soul music in America. Part of the secret to his success
was his reliance on a small, tight-knit group of session musicians located in
Muscle Shoals Sound Studio (Alabama) and the resident Muscle Shoals
Rhythm Section to play the backing tracks on many of the hit records he
produced. In the late 1960s, Wexler advocated for Atlantic to jump into rock
music, helping to sign a host of artists, including Led Zeppelin, Crosby, Stills
& Nash, and Yes. In 1975, Wexler left Atlantic to join Warner Brothers
Records, where he produced artists such as George Michael and Bob Dylan.
He retired from the music industry in the late 1990s and passed away on 15
August 2008 at his retirement home in Sarasota, Florida.
 WONDER, STEVIE • 303
WIPO. See WORLD INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANIZATION
(WIPO).

WONDER, STEVIE. Born Steveland Hardaway Judkins in Saginaw, Mich-

igan, in 1950, Stevie Wonder is a singer, songwriter, producer, and multi-
instrumentalist who helped define the sound of the 1960s and 1970s. After
becoming blind as an infant, he poured his energy into music, becoming a
child prodigy, and at the age of 10 he was discovered by Motown Records
founder Berry Gordy. Wonder’s first number one hit for Motown was a live
recording of the song “Fingertips, Pt. 2” in 1963, when he was billed by the
label as Little Stevie Wonder to emphasize his youth. Wonder played piano,
drums, organ, and harmonica, an instrument that became part of his signature
sound over the years. His next hit, “Uptight” (1966), began a string of top 10
dance-oriented hits that cemented Wonder’s place in pop music history.
From the outset of his career, Wonder either wrote or cowrote most of his
repertoire. He spent significant time with Motown’s talented studio band, the
Funk Brothers, further developing his musical sensibilities and his increas-
ingly sophisticated ear. By the time he turned 21 in 1971, Wonder had
emerged as one of the most original songwriters and vocal stylists in popular
music. When it was time for him to renew his contract with Motown as an
adult, he refused to do so unless he could gain greater autonomy in creating
his music and owning his own publishing rights and a substantially higher
royalty rate than other Motown artists were receiving. After a stalemate,
Gordy agreed to the new terms, making Stevie Wonder one of the few artists
at that time to gain control of his own music. Wonder had been recording
throughout the contract dispute and in 1972 released two new albums, Music
of My Mind and Talking Book, both of which were conceived with a central
theme and addressed social and personal subjects that went beyond the tradi-
tional Motown romantic formulae that his earlier hits had largely embraced.
They marked the beginning of a period of musical exploration for Wonder
from 1971 to 1976, in which he pushed himself to blend aspects of soul,
blues, jazz, funk, and pop into his own new sound. Notably, Wonder often
played nearly all of the instruments and even performed his own background
vocals. He also began to experiment with the synthesizer, creating a wide
range of timbres and textures that further set his music apart from other
typical pop songs. “You Are the Sunshine of My Life” and “Superstition”
from Talking Book both hit number one and became standards played by
nearly every local band around the world. His next album, Innervisions, was
a commercial and critical success, garnering Wonder the Album of the Year
Grammy Award, becoming the first African American to win the coveted
award.
304 • WOODSTOCK MUSIC AND ART FAIR
Throughout his career, Wonder would go on to win a total of 25 Grammy
Awards, including three Album of the Year Awards. He continued to create
new music and became a frequent collaborator with a range of artists, from
Michael Jackson and Paul McCartney to Andrea Bocelli and Snoop Dogg.
Wonder has always been a passionate advocate for social justice issues,
writing a song, “Birthday,” to galvanize national support for the declaration
of Dr. Martin Luther King’s birthday as a national holiday, which was estab-
lished six years later. He was a vocal opponent of apartheid and contributed
his voice in support of AIDS charities, homelessness, and other causes. Won-
der continues to record, perform, and release new music from his base of
operations in Los Angeles at Wonderland Studios. Wonder has sold an esti-
mated 34 million records over the course of his career.

WOODSTOCK MUSIC AND ART FAIR. Also known as the Woodstock

Festival or Woodstock, the Woodstock Music Festival was held on a farm in
Bethel, New York (southwest of the town of Woodstock, New York), from
14 to 18 August 1969. Woodstock is considered a pivotal moment in
American popular music history and in the development of the countercul-
ture generation.
The event organizers advertised the festival as “3 Days of Peace & Mu-
sic.” Before the event, about 186,000 tickets were sold and a total of 200,000
festival attendees were expected; however, people showed up in droves, and
the promoters, who were unprepared to handle the crowds, made the deci-
sion to open the concert to everyone for free.
Performers included Creedence Clearwater Revival, Janis Joplin, Joan
Baez, Santana, Joe Cocker, Arlo Guthrie, Jefferson Airplane, the Who, the
Grateful Dead, Ravi Shankar, and Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young. Many of
the performances were anti–Vietnam War protests, including Jimi Hen-
drix’s, which included his iconic rendition of the national anthem played on
electric guitar.
Woodstock has been described as both a magical and a chaotic four-day
festival. Despite the audience size of about 500,000 people, the rain that
turned the ground to mud, and the lack of adequate restrooms and medical
supplies, the event was, for the most part, peaceful. The spirit of the festival
was unity and love, and this message resonated throughout the nation.
A documentary about the festival, entitled Woodstock, was released in
1970 by Warner Brothers. The film won the Academy Award for Best
Documentary. The profits made from the film helped the event organizers
recoup their losses from the costs of the event itself.
 WORLD INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANIZATION (WIPO) • 305
WORK FOR HIRE. If a new work is created under the following condi-
tions, it may qualify as a work for hire, in which case the person or entity
commissioning the new work may legally become the author of the new
work, accruing all the rights accorded to any copyright owner. To qualify as
a work for hire, generally three conditions must be met: (1) the work must
have been commissioned by a person or entity; (2) a written agreement must
be approved by both parties documenting that the new work will be a work
for hire; and (3) it must be created to become part of a motion picture or other
audiovisual work, a collection, a compilation, a translation of a foreign work,
or a supplement to an existing work. In some cases, employees of companies
who create new works under the scope of their regular employment may also
fall into this category, but this rarely applies in the music industry as com-
posers and songwriters generally have wide latitude in their creative pro-
cesses without direct supervision of the work during its creation.

WORLD INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANIZATION (WIPO).

The World Intellectual Property Organization is an agency of the United
Nations and includes 188 member states. Founded in 1967, WIPO seeks to
lead an international intellectual property system that is effective and pro-
motes creativity and innovation.
WIPO administers several international treaties regarding intellectual
property, including the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Producers
and Phonograms and the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty.
 Y
YOUR HIT PARADE. Your Hit Parade, which debuted in 1935, was the
first radio hit countdown show and the predecessor to what is known today as
the Top 40 charts. The show aired every Saturday night and was sponsored
by Lucky Strike cigarettes. In 1950, it was transitioned to television but still
simulcast on radio until 1959, paving the way for shows like American
Bandstand, which premiered in 1952, shortly after Your Hit Parade’s move
to television, as well as the popular Total Request Live countdown music
video show in the 1990s on MTV.

YOUTUBE. YouTube is currently the world’s largest free music distribution

platform, affording artists and labels a means to disseminate music on a
previously unthinkable global scale. Founded in 2005, the video-sharing
website allows anyone with an internet connection to view video content
from around the world, which is primarily posted by individual users, who
must establish a free account on the site before posting. The site grew expo-
nentially during its first year of operation and by December 2005 was aver-
aging eight million views a day, a number that exploded to more than 100
million daily views by July 2006. In 2006, Google purchased YouTube for
$1.65 billion. As of February 2016, Statista reported that 63 percent of
Americans had used YouTube to listen to music or watch music videos,
while the number jumps to 86 percent for the 12- to 24-year-old demograph-
ic.
YouTube has drawn criticism from music rights holders for allowing users
to post copyright-protected works without permission, to which YouTube
responded by offering takedown options or the ability to monetize views of
videos that include protected music. YouTube is currently available in 88
countries and reaches more than one billion users, a third of all internet users.
YouTube earns revenue through Google’s AdSense software, which targets
and places ads based on the content and viewer’s profile. YouTube Red, a
paid subscription service, was launched in 2015 in an effort to provide ad-
free and original content to subscribers and stake a claim in the rapidly

307
308 • YOUTUBE
growing video streaming subscription customer pool. YouTube is currently
part of Alphabet Inc., the parent holding company of Google and other ven-
tures.
 Appendix A

Music Industry Trade Associations

UNITED STATES
American Federation of Television
and Radio Artists (SAG-AFTRA)
Academy of Country Music
5757 Wilshire Boulevard, 7th Floor
5500 Balboa Boulevard
Los Angeles, CA 90036
Encino, CA 91316
(855) 724-2387
(818) 788-8000
www.sagaftra.org
www.acmcountry.com
American Guild of Music (inde-
American Association of Indepen-
pendent music teacher organiza-
dent Music (A2IM)
tion)
132 Delancey Street, 2nd Floor
PO Box 599
New York, NY 10002
Warren, MI 48090
(646) 692-4877
(248) 686-1975
http://a2im.org
www.americanguild.org
American Choral Directors Asso-
American Guild of Musical Artists
ciation (ACDA)
(AGMA)
545 Couch Drive
1430 Broadway, 14th Floor
Oklahoma City, OK 73102
New York, NY 10018
(405) 232-8161
(212) 265-3687
www.acda.org
www.musicalartists.org
American Composers Alliance
American Music Therapy Associa-
PO Box 1108
tion (AMTA)
New York, NY 10040
8455 Colesville Road, Suite 1000
(212) 568-0036
Silver Spring, MD 20910
www.composers.com
(301) 589-3300
www.musictherapy.org
American Federation of Musicians
(AFM)
American Society of Composers
1501 Broadway, Suite 600
and Publishers (ASCAP)
New York, NY 10036
1900 Broadway
(212) 869-1330
New York, NY 10023
www.afm.org
(212) 621-6000
309
310 • APPENDIX A
2 Music Square West
Nashville, TN 37203
(615) 742-5000
7920 W. Sunset Boulevard
Los Angeles, CA 90046
(323) 883-1000
www.ascap.com
American Society of Music Ar-
rangers and Composers (ASMAC)
5903 Noble Avenue
Van Nuys, CA 91411
(818) 994-4661
www.asmac.org
American Society of Music Copy-
ists (ASMC)
PO Box 2557
New York, NY 10108
(212) 262-3311
Audio Engineering Society (AES)
551 5th Avenue, Suite 1225
New York, NY 10176
(212) 661-8528
www.aes.org
Broadcast Music Inc. (BMI)
7 World Trade Center
250 Greenwich Street
New York, NY 10007
(212) 220-3000
8730 Sunset Boulevard
West Hollywood, CA 90069
(310) 659-9109
10 Music Square East
Nashville, TN 37203
(615) 401-2000
www.bmi.com
Center for Computer Research in
Music and Acoustics (CCRMA)
Stanford University Department of
Music
Stanford CA, 94305-8180
(650) 723-4971
https://ccrma.stanford.edu/
Chamber Music America
12 West 32nd Street, 7th Floor
New York, NY, 10001
(212) 242-2002
www.chamber-music.org
College Music Society
312 E. Pine Street
Missoula, MT, 59802
(406) 721-9616
www.music.org
Consumer Electronics Association
(CEA)
1919 S. Eada Street
Arlington, VA 22202
(703) 907-7600
www.ce.org
Country Music Association (CMA)
CMA Headquarters
35 Music Square East
Nashville, TN 37203
(615) 244-2840
www.cmaworld.com
Creative Commons (alternative to
traditional copyright)
PO Box 1866
Mountain View, CA 94042
(415) 429-6753
www.creativecommons.org

Electronic Industry Alliance (EIA)
2500 Wilson Boulevard
Arlington, VA 22201
(703) 907-7500
www.eia.org
Gospel Music Association (GMA)
4012 Granny White Pike
Nashville, TN 37204
(615) 242-0303
www.gospelmusic.org
Guild of Music Supervisors
PO Box 642200
Los Angeles, CA 90064
www.guildofmusicsupervisors.com
www.facebook.com/guildofmusicsu-
pervisors
info@guildofmusicsupervisors.com
Harry Fox Agency
40 Wall Street, 6th Floor
New York, NY 10005
(646) 487-6779
www.harryfox.com
International Association of Venue
Managers (IAVM)
635 Fritz Drive, Suite 100
Coppell, TX 75019
(972) 906-7441
(800) 935-4226
www.iavm.org
International Computer Music As-
sociation
2040 Polk Street, Suite 330
San Francisco, CA 94109
www.computermusic.org
League of American Orchestras
33 West 60th Street
New York NY 10023
APPENDIX A • 311
(212) 262-5161
www.americanorchestras.org
Los Angeles Songwriters Showcase
Merged with the National Academy
of Songwriters to become the Song-
writers Guild of America.
Music Biz/The Music Business As-
sociation (formerly National Asso-
ciation of Record Merchants
[NARM])
1 Eves Drive, #138
Marlton, NJ 08053
(856) 596-2221
www.musicbiz.org
Music Educators National Confer-
ence (MENC)
See National Association for Music
Education.
Music Publishers Association
243 5th Avenue, Suite 236
New York, NY 10016
(212) 327-4044 (?)
www.mpa.org
Nashville Songwriters Association
International (NSAI)
1710 Roy Acuff Place
Nashville, TN 37203
(615) 256-3354
(800) 321-6008
nashvillesongwriters.com
National Academy of Recording
Arts and Sciences (NARAS)
See Recording Academy.
312 • APPENDIX A
National Association for Campus National Association of Recording
Activities (NACA) Merchandisers (NARM)
13 Harbison Way See Music Biz.
Columbia, SC 29212-3401
(803) 732-6222 National Association of Schools of
www.naca.org Music (NASM)
11250 Roger Bacon Drive, Suite 21
National Association for Music Reston, VA 20190-5248
Education (NAfME, formerly (703) 437-0700
MENC) http://nasm.arts-accredit.org
1806 Robert Fulton Drive
Reston, VA 20191 National Systems Contractors As-
(703) 860-4000 sociation (NSCA)
www.nafme.org 3950 River Ridge Drive NE
Cedar Rapids, IA 52402
National Association of Broadcast (800) 446-6722
Employees and Technicians (NA- www.nsca.org
BET)
501 3rd Street NW, #880 New Music USA
Washington, DC 20001 90 Broad Street, Suite 1902
(202) 434-1254 New York, NY 10004
www.nabetcwa.org (212) 645-6949
www.newmusicusa.org
National Association of Broadcast-
ers (NAB) Opera America
1771 N Street NW 330 Seventh Avenue
Washington, DC 20036 New York, NY 10001
(202) 429-5300 (212) 796-8620
www.nab.org www.operaamerica.org

National Association of Music Percussive Arts Society (PAS)

Merchants (NAMM) 110 West Washington St., Suite A
5790 Armada Drive Indianapolis, IN 46204
Carlsbad, CA 92008 (317) 974-4488
(760) 438-8001 www.pas.org
www.namm.com
Public Relations Society of Ameri-
National Association of Record In- ca (PRSA)
dustry Professionals (NARIP) 120 Wall Street, 21st Floor
PO Box 2446 New York, NY 10005
Toluca Lake, CA 91610-2446 (212) 460-1400
(818) 769-7007 www.prsa.org
www.narip.com

Recording Academy
3030 Olympic Boulevard
Santa Monica, CA 90404
(310) 392-3777
www.grammy.org
Recording Industry Association of
America (RIAA)
1025 F Street NW
Washington, DC 2004
(202) 775-0101
www.riaa.com
Retail Print Music Dealers Associ-
ation (RPMDA)
14070 Proton Road, Suite 100, LB 9
Dallas, TX 75244
(972) 233-9107
printmusic.org
Screen Actors Guild
Now SAG-AFTRA. See American
Federation of Television and Radio
Artists.
SESAC Inc.
152 West 57th Street, 57th Floor
New York, NY 10019
(212) 586-3450
35 Music Square East
Nashville, TN 37203
(615) 320-0055
6100 Wilshire Boulevard, Suite 700
Los Angeles, CA 90048
www.sesac.com
Society of Professional Audio Re-
cording Services (SPARS)
9 Music Square South, Suite 222
Nashville, TN 37203
(800) 771-7727
APPENDIX A • 313
www.spars.com
Songwriters Guild of America
15 Harbor Boulevard
Weehawken, NJ 07087-6732
(201) 867-7630
276 5th Avenue, Suite 306
New York, NY 1000
(212) 686-6820
1222 16th Avenue South, Suite 25
Nashville, TN 37212
Fax: (615) 329-2623
www.songwritersguild.com
SoundExchange
733 10th Street NW, 10th Floor
Washington, DC 20001
(202) 640-5858
www.soundexchange.com
West Coast Songwriters
1724 Laurel Street, Suite 120
San Carlos, CA 94070
(650) 654-3966
www.westcoastsongwriters.org
CANADA
Association of Canadian Choral
Communities (ACCC)
500-59 Adelaide Street East
Toronto, ON
M5C 1K6
(647) 606-467
accc@choralcanada.org
www.choralcanada.org
314 • APPENDIX A
Canadian Academy of Recording Canadian Music Educators’ Asso-
Arts and Sciences (CARAS) and ciation (CMEA)
JUNO Awards 16 Royaleigh Avenue
345 Adelaide Street West, 2nd Floor Etobicoke, ON
Toronto, ON M9P 2J5
M5V 1R5 (416) 244-3745
Phone: (416) 485-3135 www.cmea.ca
Toll-Free (in Canada): 1 (888) 440-
5866 Canadian Music Publishers Asso-
Fax: (416) 485-4978 ciation (CMPA)
info@carasonline.ca 56 Wellesley Street West, #320
www.carasonline.ca Toronto, ON
junoawards.ca M5S 2S3
(416) 926-7952
Canadian Band Association (CBA) www.musicpublisher.ca
131 Rouge Road
Winnipeg, MB Canadian Musical Reproduction
R3K 1J5 Rights Agency Ltd. (CMRRA)
(204) 663-1226 56 Wellesley Street West, #320
cbaband@shaw.ca Toronto, ON
www.canadianband.org M5S 2S3
(416) 926-1966
Canadian Independent Music As- www.cmrra.ca
sociation (CIMA)
30 St. Patrick Street Foundation Assisting Canadian
2nd Floor Talent on Records (FACTOR)
Toronto, ON 247 Spadina Avenue, 3rd Floor
M5T 3A3 Toronto, ON
(416) 485-3152 ext. 232 M5T 3A8
www.cimamusic.ca (416) 696-2215
(877) 696-2215
Canadian Music Centre/Centre de info@factor.ca
Musique Canadienne (CMC) www.factor.ca
CMC National Office
20 St. Joseph Street Music Industries Association of
Toronto, ON Canada (MIAC)
M4Y 1J9 505 Consumers Road, Suite 807
(416) 961-6601 Toronto, ON
info@musiccentre.ca M2J 4V8
www.musiccentre.ca 416-490-1871
Fax: (866) 524-0037
info@miac.net
www.miac.net
 APPENDIX A • 315
Society of Composers, Authors Mailing Address:
and Music Publishers of Canada 41 Valleybrook Dr.
(SOCAN) Toronto, ON
41 Valleybrook Drive M3B 2S6
Toronto, ON
M3B 2S6 (416) 961-1588
General Enquiries: (866) 456-7664
(416) 445-8700 Fax: (416) 961-2040
1.800.55.SOCAN (76226) www.songwriters.ca
www.socan.ca
Members:
(866) 307-6226 GERMANY
members@socan.ca

Songwriters Association of Canada MusikMesse (EU music products

129 John Street trade organization)
Toronto, ON Messe Frankfurt GmbH
M5V 2E2 Ludwig-Erhard-Anlage 1
60327 Frankfurt am Main
+49 69 75 75-194 12
musik.messefrankfurt.com
 Appendix B
U.S. Music Business Academic Programs
Adams State University Colorado
Alamosa, Colorado
B.A. Music with emphasis in
Business
www.adams.edu
American University
Washington, DC
B.A. Audio Production; B.S. Audio
Technology; B.S. Business and Enter-
tainment; M.A. Arts Management;
M.A. Audio Technology; Minor in
Audio Technology; Minor in Business
and Entertainment; Graduate Certifi-
cates in Arts Management, Audio Pro-
duction, International Arts Manage-
ment, and Technology in Arts Man-
agement
www.american.edu
Anderson University
Anderson, Indiana
B.A. Music Business; B.B.A. Mar-
keting with concentration in Music
Business; Minor in Music Business
www.anderson.edu
Anderson University
Anderson, South Carolina
B.M. Commercial Music
www.andersonuniversity.edu
Appalachian State University
Boone, North Carolina
B.S. Music Industry Studies
317
www.appstate.edu
Augsburg College
Minneapolis, Minnesota
B.A. Business Administration with
specialization in Music Business; B.A.
Music with concentration in Music
Business
www.augsburg.edu
Austin Community College
Austin, Texas
A.A.S. Applied Science with con-
centration in Commercial Music
www.austincc.edu
Azusa Pacific University
Azusa, California
B.M. Commercial Music with
tracks in Audio Recording, Commer-
cial Instrumental, Commercial Vocal,
Composing and Arranging, and Music
Business
www.apu.edu
Ball State University
Muncie, Indiana
B.S. Music Media Production
www.bsu.edu
Bay State College
Boston, Massachusetts
B.S. and A.S. Entertainment Man-
agement with concentrations in Mu-
sic Industry and Audio Production
318 • APPENDIX B
www.baystate.edu Bloomsburg University of
Pennsylvania
Belmont University Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania
Nashville, Tennessee B.A. Music with concentration in
B.A. Audio Engineering Technolo- Audio-Video Recording
gy; B.A. Entertainment Industry Stud- www.bloomu.edu
ies; B.B.A. Music Business with em-
phases in Business and Production; Bluffton University
B.M. Commercial Music with empha- Bluffton, Ohio
ses in Music Business and Music B.A. Music with concentration in
Technology; B.S. Audio Engineering Business
Technology; B.S. Entertainment In- www.bluffton.edu
dustry Studies; M.B.A. Entertainment
and Music Business; M.M. Commer- Bradley University
cial Music; M.S. Audio Engineering; Peoria, Illinois
Minor in Music Business B.A. Music Business; B.S. Music
www.belmont.edu Business
www.bradley.edu
Berklee College of Music
Boston, Massachusetts Brigham Young University
B.M. Music Business/Manage- Provo, Utah
ment with concentrations in Entre- B.M. Commercial Music
preneurship, Management, and Mar- www.byu.edu
keting; B.M. Music Production and
Engineering; Minors in Commercial Broward College
Record Production, Music Technolo- Davie, Florida
gy, and Recording and Production A.S. Music Production Technology
for Musicians www.broward.edu
www.berklee.edu
Butler University
Berry College Indianapolis, Indiana
Mount Berry, Georgia B.A. Recording Industry Studies;
B.M. Music with elective studies Minor in Recording Industry Studies
in Business www.butler.edu
www.berry.edu
California State Polytechnic
Biola University University, Pomona
La Mirada, California Pomona, California
B.A. Music with concentration in B.A. Music Industry Studies
Commercial Music www.cpp.edu
www.biola.edu
 APPENDIX B • 319
California State University, Chico Capital University
Chico, California Columbus, Ohio
B.A. Music with options in Music B.A. Professional Studies with
Industry and Recording Arts concentration in Music Technology;
www.csuchico.edu B.M. Music Industry; B.M. Music
Technology
California State University, Do- www.capital.edu
minguez Hills
Carson, California Cedarville University
B.A. Digital Media Arts with op- Cedarville, Ohio
tions in Audio Recording and Music Minor in Music Technology
Technology www.cedarville.edu
www.csudh.edu
Chapman University
California State University, Los Irvine, California
Angeles Minor in Music Technology
Los Angeles, California www.chapman.edu
B.M. Music with option in Com-
mercial Music and track in Music Chowan University
Technology Murfreesboro, North Carolina
www.calstatela.edu B.A. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Industry
California State University, North- www.chowan.edu
ridge
Northridge, California Cleveland Institute of Music
B.A. Music Industry Studies; Cleveland, Ohio
M.A. Music Industry Administration B.M. Audio Recording
www.csun.edu www.cim.edu

California State University, San College of Saint Rose

Bernardino Albany, New York
San Bernardino, California B.S. Music Industry
Minor in Music Technology www.strose.edu
www.csusb.edu
Colorado Mesa University
California State University, Sta- Grand Junction, Colorado
nislaus B.M. Music with elective studies
Turlock, California in Business
B.A. Music with emphasis in Mu- www.coloradomesa.edu
sic Technology
www.csustan.edu
320 • APPENDIX B
Columbia College
Chicago, Illinois
B.A. Arts Management; B.A. Live
and Performing Arts Management;
B.A. Music Business Management;
M.A. Arts Management; Minor in
Arts Management, Live and Per-
forming Arts Management, Music
Business Management, and Talent
Management
www.colum.edu
Community College of Baltimore
County
Baltimore, Maryland
Certificate in Music Production
and Audio Recording Technology
www.ccbcmd.edu
Concordia University Chicago
River Forest, Illinois
B.A. Music with emphasis in
Business; B.S. Business Manage-
ment with emphasis in Music
www.cuchicago.edu
Concordia University, Nebraska
Seward, Nebraska
B.A. Arts Administration
www.cune.edu
Converse College
Spartanburg, South Carolina
B.M.A. Contemporary Music and
Media Applications; Certificate in
Music Business and Technology;
Minor in Arts Management
www.converse.edu
Cornerstone University
Grand Rapids, Michigan
B.A. Audio Production
www.cornerstone.edu
Culver-Stockton College
Canton, Missouri
B.F.A. Arts Management; Minor
in Arts Management
www.culver.edu
Dallas Baptist University
Dallas, Texas
B.A. Music Business; B.S. Music
Business; B.B.A. Music Business;
Minor in Music Business
www.dbu.edu
Del Mar College
Corpus Christi, Texas
A.A.S. Sound Recording Technol-
ogy; Certificate in Sound Recording
Business
www.delmar.edu
Delta State University
Cleveland, Mississippi
B.S. Entertainment Industry Stud-
ies with concentrations in Audio En-
gineering Technology and Entertain-
ment Industry Entrepreneurship
www.deltastate.edu
DePaul University
Chicago, Illinois
B.M. Performing Arts Manage-
ment; B.S. Sound Recording Tech-
nology; Minors in Music Business
and Music Recording
www.depaul.edu
Drake University
Des Moines, Indiana
B.M. Music with elective studies
in Business
www.drake.edu

Drexel University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
B.S. Entertainment and Arts Man-
agement with concentrations in Me-
dia, Performing Arts, and Visual
Arts Management; B.S. in Music In-
dustry with concentrations in Music
Industry Business and Music Indus-
try Technology; M.B.A. Entertain-
ment and Arts Management; M.S.
Arts Administration
www.drexel.edu
Duquesne University
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
B.M. Music Technology; B.M.
Music with elective studies in Busi-
ness; M.M. Music Technology
www.duq.edu
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky
B.M. Music Industry
www.eku.edu
Eastern Michigan University
Ypsilanti, Michigan
B.A. Arts and Entertainment Man-
agement; B.S. Arts and Entertain-
ment Management; M.A. Arts Ad-
ministration
www.emich.edu
Elmhurst College
Elmhurst, Illinois
B.M. Music Business; B.S. Music
Business; Minor in Music Produc-
tion
www.elmhurst.edu
Evangel University
Springfield, Missouri
Minor in Music Technology
APPENDIX B • 321
www.evangel.edu
Fisk University
Nashville, Tennessee
B.S. Business Administration with
concentration in Music Business;
Minor in Music Business
www.fisk.edu
Five Towns College
Dix Hills, New York
A.A.S. and B.P.S. Business Man-
agement with concentrations in
Audio Recording Technology, Mu-
sic Business, and Business Manage-
ment
www.ftc.edu
Florida Atlantic University
Boca Raton, Florida
B.M. Commercial Music with
concentrations in Commercial Music
Composition, Music Technology,
and Music Business; M.M. Commer-
cial Music
www.fau.edu
Florida International University
Miami, Florida
B.A. Music Business; B.M. Music
Technology; M.F.A. Music Manage-
ment and Production; M.M. Music
Technology
www.fiu.edu
Florida Southern University
Lakeland, Florida
B.S. Music with concentration in
Music Management
www.flsouthern.edu
322 • APPENDIX B
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida
B.A. Music with concentration in
Commercial Music; M.A. Arts Ad-
ministration
www.fsu.edu
Fort Lewis College
Durango, Colorado
B.A. Music with option in Music
Business
www.fortlewis.edu
Francis Marion University
Florence, South Carolina
B.S. Music Industry
www.fmarion.edu
Full Sail University
Winter Park, Florida
B.S. Audio Production; B.S. En-
tertainment Business; B.S. Music
Business; B.S. Music Production;
B.S. Recording Arts; and B.S. Show
Production; Certificate in Audio Pro-
duction; M.S. Entertainment Busi-
ness
www.fullsail.edu
Gardner-Webb University
Boiling Springs, North Carolina
B.M. Music with emphasis in
Business and Music Industry
www.gardner-webb.edu
George Mason University
Fairfax, Virginia
B.A. Music Technology; B.M.
Music Technology; Minor in Music
Technology
www.gmu.edu
Georgia Southern University
Statesboro, Georgia
Minor in Music Technology;
M.M. Music Technology
www.georgiasouthern.edu
Georgia State University
Atlanta, Georgia
B.M. Music Technology; B.S.
Music Management
www.gsu.edu
Grand Rapids Community College
Grand Rapids, Michigan
A.M. Recording Technology
www.grcc.edu
Greenville College
Greenville, Illinois
Majors in Audio Engineering and
Music Business; Minor in Music
Business
www.greenville.edu
Gulf Coast State College
Panama City, Florida
A.S. Entertainment Technology;
College Credit Certificate in Audio
Technology
www.gulfcoast.edu
Hampton University
Hampton, Virginia
B.S. Music Recording Technology
www.hamptonu.edu
Harrisburg Area Community Col-
lege
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
A.A. Music Industry; Diploma in
Music Audio and Recording Tech-
nology
www.hacc.edu

Heidelberg University
Tiffin, Ohio
B.M. Music with concentration in
Music Industry
www.heidelberg.edu
Hinds Community College
Raymond, Mississippi
A.A. Music Industry
www.hindscc.edu
Houghton College
Houghton, New York
B.S. Music Industry; Minor in
Music Industry
www.houghton.edu
Howard University
Washington, DC
B.M. Music with elective studies
in Business
www.howard.edu
Illinois State University
Normal, Illinois
B.S. Music Business
www.illinoisstate.edu
Indiana State University
Terre Haute, Indiana
B.S. Music with concentrations in
Merchandising and Business Admin-
istration
www.indstate.edu
Indiana University Bloomington
Bloomington, Indiana
B.S. Arts Management; M.A. Arts
Administration; Undergraduate Area
Certificate in Arts Administration
www.indiana.edu
APPENDIX B • 323
Indiana University–Purdue Uni-
versity Indianapolis
Indianapolis, Indiana
B.S. Music Technology; M.S.
Music Technology
www.iupui.edu
Ithaca College
Ithaca, New York
B.M. Sound Recording Technolo-
gy
www.ithaca.edu
Jackson State University
Jackson, Missouri
B.M. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Technology
www.jsums.edu
James Madison University
Harrisonburg, Virginia
B.M. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Industry; Minor in Music Indus-
try
www.jmu.edu
Johnson and Wales University
Providence, Rhode Island
B.S. Sports/Entertainment/Event
Management
www.jwu.edu
Keene State College
Keene, New Hampshire
B.M. Music Technology
www.keene.edu
Kent State University
Kent, Ohio
324 • APPENDIX B
B.S. Music Technology with con-
centrations in Audio Recording and
Music Production; Minor in Audio
Recording; Minor in Music Technol-
ogy
www.kent.edu
Kutztown University
Kutztown, Pennsylvania
B.A. Music with track in Com-
mercial Music; Minor in Audio Re-
cording
www.kutztown.edu
Lamar State College, Port Arthur
Port Arthur, Texas
A.A.S. Audiovisual Production;
A.A.S. Sound Engineer; Certificate
in Live Sound Design and Technolo-
gy
www.lamarpa.edu
Lamar University
Beaumont, Texas
B.A. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Business
www.lamar.edu
Lebanon Valley College
Annville, Pennsylvania
B.A. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Business; B.M. Audio and Music
Production
www.lvc.edu
Lee University
Cleveland, Tennessee
B.S. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Business
www.leeuniversity.edu
Los Angeles College of Music
Pasadena, California
A.A. Music Industry Studies with
emphasis in Music Business; A.A.
Music Production with emphasis in
Music Producing and Recording;
B.A. Music Industry Studies with
emphasis in Music Business; B.M.
Music Production with emphasis in
Music Producing and Recording; Di-
ploma in Music Production with em-
phasis in Music Producing and Re-
cording
www.lacm.edu
Loyola University New Orleans
New Orleans, Louisiana
B.M. Music Industry Studies; B.S.
Music Industry Studies; B.S. Popular
and Commercial Music; Minor in
Music Industry Studies and Music
Industry Studies Business
www.loyno.edu
Lyndon State College
Lyndonville, Vermont
A.S. Music Business and Industry
with focus areas in Audio Engineer-
ing, Music Management, and Music
and Self-Promotion; B.S. Music
Business and Industry with concen-
trations in Audio Production, E-Mu-
sic Composition, Music Manage-
ment, and Music and Self-Promotion
www.lyndonstate.edu
Malone University
Canton, Ohio
B.A. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Production
www.malone.edu
Mansfield University
Mansfield, Pennsylvania

B.M. Music Technology; B.M.
Music with elective studies in Busi-
ness; Minor in Music Technology
www.mansfield.edu
Marywood University
Scranton, Pennsylvania
B.A. Arts Administration with
concentration in Music
www.marywood.edu
Master’s College
Santa Clarita, California
B.A. Music with emphasis in
Audio Technology
www.masters.edu
Messiah College
Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania
B.A. Music Business; B.A. Music
with concentration in Commercial
Music
www.messiah.edu
Miami Dade College
Miami, Florida
A.S. Music Business with concen-
trations in Business Management,
Creative Performance, and Creative
Production
www.mdc.edu
Middle Tennessee State University
Murfreesboro, Tennessee
B.S. Recording Industry with con-
centrations in Audio Production,
Commercial Songwriting, and Music
Business; M.F.A. Recording Arts
and Technologies
www.mtsu.edu
Millersville University
Millersville, Pennsylvania
APPENDIX B • 325
B.A. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Business Technology
www.millersville.edu
Millikin University
Decatur, Illinois
B.M. Commercial Music; B.M.
Music Business
www.millikin.edu
Minnesota State University, Man-
kato
Mankato, Minnesota
B.S. Music Industry; B.S. Music
Industry with option in Audio Pro-
duction
www.mnsu.edu
Minnesota State University, Moor-
head
Moorhead, Minnesota
B.M. Music Industry; Minor in
Music Business Entertainment and
Music Technology
www.mnstate.edu
Missouri Baptist University
Saint Louis, Missouri
B.M. Music with elective studies
in Business
www.mobap.edu
Missouri State University
Springfield, Missouri
B.S. Entertainment Management
www.missouristate.edu
Missouri Western State University
St. Joseph, Missouri
B.M. Music with concentrations
in Business and Music Technology
www.missouriwestern.edu
326 • APPENDIX B
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana
B.A. Music Technology
www.montana.edu
Montana State University Billings
Billings, Montana
B.A. Music with option in Busi-
ness
www.msubillings.edu
Montreat College
Montreat, North Carolina
B.S. Music Business; Minor in
Music Business
www.montreat.edu
Morningside College
Sioux City, Iowa
B.S. Music Management
www.morningside.edu
Murray State University
Murray, Kentucky
B.A. Music Business; B.S. Music
Business; Minor in Business Admin-
istration
www.murraystate.edu
Musician’s Institute, College of
Contemporary Music
Hollywood, California
A.A. Performance with emphases
in Audio Engineering and Music
Business; A.S. Music Business; Cer-
tificate in Performance with empha-
ses in Audio Engineering and Music
Business
www.mi.edu
Nazareth College
Rochester, New York
B.S. Music Business; Minor in
Entertainment and Recording Indus-
try
www.naz.edu
New Jersey City University
Jersey City, New Jersey
B.A. Music Business; B.S. Music
Business
www.njcu.edu
New York University
New York, New York
B.M. Music Business; B.M. Mu-
sic Technology; M.A. Music Busi-
ness; M.M. Music Technology
www.steinhardt.nyu.edu
Norfolk State University
Norfolk, Virginia
B.M. Music with emphasis in Me-
dia
www.nsu.edu
North Park University
Chicago, Illinois
B.A. Music with concentration in
Arts Administration
www.northpark.edu
Northeastern State University
Tahlequah, Oklahoma
B.A. Music Business; Minor in
Music Business
www.nsuok.edu
Northeastern University
Boston, Massachusetts
B.S. Music with concentration in
Music Industry; M.S. Music Industry
Leadership
www.northeastern.edu
 APPENDIX B • 327
Northern Kentucky University Oklahoma State University
Highland Heights, Kentucky Stillwater, Oklahoma
B.A. Music with emphases in B.M. Music with elective studies in
Audio Production, Entrepreneurship, Business
and Music Technology www.go.okstate.edu
www.nku.edu
Old Dominion University
Northwest College Norfolk, Virginia
Powell, Wyoming B.M. Music Industry
A.A.S. Music Technology www.odu.edu
www.nwc.edu
Oral Roberts University
Northwest Nazarene University Tulsa, Oklahoma
Nampa, Idaho B.A. Music Arts with concentration
B.A. Music with emphasis in Mu- in Music Technology; B.M. Music
sic Industry Production; Minor in Music Technolo-
www.nnu.edu gy
www.oru.edu
Northwestern State University of
Louisiana Otterbein University
Natchitoches, Louisiana Westerville, Ohio
B.M. Music with concentration in B.A. Music and Business with con-
Music Business centrations in Arts Administration,
www.nsula.edu Audio Production, and Business Ad-
ministration
Ohio State University www.otterbein.edu
Columbus, Ohio
B.A. Arts Management Owens State Community College
www.osu.edu Toledo, Ohio
A.A.S. Music Business Technology
Oklahoma Christian University www.owens.edu
Edmond, Oklahoma
B.A. Performing Arts Management Radford University
www.oc.edu Radford, Virginia
B.M. Music Business
Oklahoma City University www.radford.edu
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
B.S. Entertainment Business with Ramapo College of New Jersey
tracks in Entertainment Enterprise, Mahwah, New Jersey
Event Planning, and Talent Manage- B.A. Music with concentrations in
ment Music Industry and Music Produc-
www.okcu.edu tion
www.ramapo.edu
328 • APPENDIX B
Rowan University
Glassboro, New Jersey
B.S. Music Industry with concen-
trations in Music Business and Mu-
sic Technology
www.rowan.edu
Saint Joseph’s University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
B.S. Entertainment Marketing;
Minor in Entertainment Marketing;
Minor in Music Industry
www.sju.edu
Saint Mary’s University of Minne-
sota
Winona, Minnesota
B.A. Music Industry
www.smumn.edu
Salisbury University
Salisbury, Maryland
B.A. Music Technology
www.salisbury.edu
San Francisco State University
San Francisco, California
Certificate in Music/Recording In-
dustry
www.sfsu.edu
San Jose State University
San Jose, California
B.A. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Technology; Minor in Music
with emphasis in Music Technology
www.sjsu.edu
Seattle Pacific University
Seattle, Washington
B.A. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Technology
www.spu.edu
Shenandoah University
Winchester, Virginia
B.M. Music Production and Re-
cording Technology; M.S. Performing
Arts Leadership and Management
www.su.edu
Snow College
Ephraim, Utah
B.M. Music with emphasis in
Commercial Music
www.snow.edu
South Carolina State University
Orangeburg, South Carolina
B.A. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Industry
www.scsu.edu
South Dakota State University
Brookings, South Dakota
B.A. Music with specialization in
Music Entrepreneurship
www.sdstate.edu
Southern Arkansas University
Magnolia, Arkansas
B.F.A. Music with studies in Busi-
ness
www.saumag.edu
Southern Illinois University Car-
bondale
Carbondale, Illinois
B.A. Music Business; B.A. Radio,
Television, and Digital Media with
specializations in Media Industries
and Radio/Audio
www.siu.edu
Southern Illinois University Ed-
wardsville
Edwardsville, Illinois

B.A. Music with specialization in
Music Business
www.siue.edu
Southern Methodist University
Dallas, Texas
Minor in Arts Entrepreneurship
and Arts Management
www.smu.edu
Southern Nazarene University
Bethany, Oklahoma
B.A. Music Business
www.snu.edu
Southwest Minnesota State Uni-
versity
Marshall, Minnesota
B.A. Music with emphasis in
Management
www.smsu.edu
Southwestern Oklahoma State
University
Weatherford, Oklahoma
B.M. Music with elective studies
in Business
www.swosu.edu
State University of New York at
Fredonia
Fredonia, New York
B.S. Business Administration with
concentration in Music Industry;
B.S. Music Industry
www.fredonia.edu
State University of New York at
Oneonta
Oneonta, New York
B.A. Music Industry
www.oneonta.edu
APPENDIX B • 329
State University of New York at
Oswego
Oswego, New York
Minor in Arts Management and
Audio Design and Production
www.oswego.edu
State University of New York at
Potsdam
Potsdam, New York
B.M. Business of Music; Minor in
Business of Music
www.potsdam.edu
Stephen F. Austin State University
Nacogdoches, Texas
B.M. Music with emphasis in
Sound Recording Technology
www.sfasu.edu
Stetson University
DeLand, Florida
B.M. Music with elective studies
in Business; B.M. Music Technolo-
gy
www.stetson.edu
Syracuse University
Syracuse, New York
Bandier Program; B.M. Music In-
dustry; B.M. Sound Recording Tech-
nology; B.M./M.B.A. Double De-
gree option in Music Industry; M.A.
Audio Arts; Minor in Music Industry
www.syr.edu
Tarleton State University
Stephenville, Texas
B.A. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Business
www.tarleton.edu
330 • APPENDIX B
Temple University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
B.S. Music Technology
www.temple.edu
Tennessee State University
Nashville, Tennessee
B.S. Commercial Music with em-
phases in Business and Technology
www.tnstate.edu
Tennessee Tech University
Cookeville, Tennessee
B.M. Music Performance with op-
tion in Music Business
www.tntech.edu
Texas A&M University–Corpus
Christi
Corpus Christi, Texas
Minor in Music Industry
www.tamucc.edu
Texas State University
San Marcos, Texas
B.S. Sound Recording Technology
www.txstate.edu
Trevecca Nazarene University
Nashville, Tennessee
B.B.A. Music Business
www.trevecca.edu
Troy University
Troy, Alabama
B.S. Music Industry; Minor in
Music Industry
www.troy.edu
Union University
Jackson, Tennessee
B.M. Music Management
www.uu.edu
University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, Alabama
B.A. Music with concentration in
Arts Administration
www.ua.edu
University of Alabama in Hunts-
ville
Huntsville, Alabama
B.A. Music with emphases on
Music Business and Music Technol-
ogy; Minor in Music Technology
www.uah.edu
University of Arkansas
Fayetteville, Arkansas
B.M. Music with elective studies
in Business
www.uark.edu
University of Arkansas at Pine
Bluff
Pine Bluff, Arkansas
B.S. Music with emphasis in
Sound Recording Technology
www.uapb.edu
University of Central Missouri
Warrensburg, Missouri
B.M. Music Technology
www.ucmo.edu
University of Colorado Denver
Denver, Colorado
B.S. Music Business; B.S. Re-
cording Arts; M.S. Recording Arts
www.ucdenver.edu
University of Delaware
Newark, Delaware
B.A. Music with concentration in
Music Management
www.udel.edu

University of Denver
Denver, Colorado
B.M. Recording and Production
www.du.edu
University of Evansville
Evansville, University
B.S. Music Management
www.evansville.edu
University of Hartford
West Hartford, Connecticut
B.A. Performing Arts Manage-
ment; B.M. Music Management;
B.M. Music Production and Tech-
nology
www.hartford.edu
University of Idaho
Moscow, Idaho
B.M. Music with emphasis in
Business
www.uidaho.edu
University of Louisiana at Lafay-
ette
Lafayette, Louisiana
B.M. Music with Concentrations
in Music Business and Music Media
www.louisiana.edu
University of Massachusetts Low-
ell
Lowell, Massachusetts
B.M. Music with emphases in
Music Business and Sound Record-
ing Technology
www.uml.edu
University of Memphis
Memphis, Tennessee
APPENDIX B • 331
B.M. Music Industry with concen-
trations in Music Business and Re-
cording Technology
www.memphis.edu
University of Miami
Miami, Florida
B.M. Music Business and Enter-
tainment Industries, B.M. Music
Business and Entertainment Indus-
tries with emphasis in Entrepreneur-
ship and Management; B.M. Music
Engineering Technology; M.A. Arts
Presenting and Live Entertainment
Management; M.M. Music Business
and Entertainment Industries; J.D./
M.A. Arts Presenting and Live En-
tertainment Management; J.D./M.M.
Music Business and Entertainment
Industries; Minor in Music Business
and Entertainment Industries
www.miami.edu
University of Missouri–St. Louis
St. Louis, Missouri
B.M. Music with elective studies
in Business
www.umsl.edu
University of Nebraska at Kearney
Kearney, Nebraska
B.M. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Business; Minor in Sound Re-
cording Technology
www.unk.edu
University of Nebraska Omaha
Omaha, Nebraska
B.A. Music with concentrations in
Music Entrepreneurship and Music
Technology
www.unomaha.edu
332 • APPENDIX B
University of New Haven
West Haven, Connecticut
B.A. Music Industry; B.A. Music
and Sound Recording; B.S. Music
and Sound Recording
www.newhaven.edu
University of North Alabama
Florence, Alabama
B.A. Entertainment Industry with
emphasis in Entertainment Technol-
ogy; B.S. Entertainment Industry
with emphasis in Entertainment
Business
www.una.edu
University of North Carolina at
Greensboro
Greensboro, North Carolina
B.A. Arts Administration
www.uncg.edu
University of North Carolina at
Pembroke
Pembroke, North Carolina
B.A. Music with elective studies
in Business; Minor in Music Busi-
ness
www.uncp.edu
University of North Carolina
Wilmington
Wilmington, North Carolina
B.A. Music with option in Music
Technology
www.uncw.edu
University of Northern Colorado
Greeley, Colorado
B.M. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Business
www.unco.edu
University of Northern Iowa
Cedar Falls, Iowa
B.A. Music with track in Perform-
ing Arts Management
www.uni.edu
University of Oregon
Eugene, Oregon
B.S. Music with option in Music
Technology; M.M. Intermedia Music
Technology
www.uoregon.edu
University of Puget Sound
Tacoma, Washington
B.M. Music with elective studies
in Business
www.pugetsound.edu
University of Saint Thomas
St. Paul, Minnesota
B.A. Music Business; Minor in
Recording Arts
www.stthomas.edu
University of Science and Arts of
Oklahoma
Chickasha, Oklahoma
B.A. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Business
www.usao.edu
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama
B.M. Music with elective studies
in Business
www.southalabama.edu
University of South Carolina
Columbia, South Carolina

B.S. Sport and Entertainment
Management; Master of Sport and
Entertainment Management; Ph.D.
Sport and Entertainment Manage-
ment
www.sc.edu
University of Southern Mississippi
Hattiesburg, Mississippi
B.S. Entertainment Industry with
emphases in Recording Industry
Management and Recording Industry
Production
www.usm.edu
University of Texas at Arlington
Arlington, Texas
B.M. Music Business; B.M. Mu-
sic Media
www.uta.edu
University of Texas at El Paso
El Paso, Texas
B.M. Commercial Music
www.utep.edu
University of Texas at San Antonio
San Antonio, Texas
B.M. Music with concentration in
Music Marketing; Certificate in Mu-
sic Technology
www.utsa.edu
University of the Arts
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
B.S. Music Business, Entrepren-
eurship, and Technology
www.uarts.edu
University of the Incarnate Word
San Antonio, Texas
B.A. Music with emphasis in Mu-
sic Industry Studies
APPENDIX B • 333
www.uiw.edu
University of the Pacific
Stockton, California
B.M. Music Management; B.S.
Music Industry Studies; B.S. Busi-
ness Administration with concentra-
tion in Arts and Entertainment Man-
agement; Minor in Music Manage-
ment
www.pacific.edu
University of Tulsa
Tulsa, Oklahoma
B.A. Arts Management
www.utulsa.edu
University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh
Oshkosh, Wisconsin
B.M. Music Industry with concen-
trations in Music Business and Re-
cording Technology; Minor in Music
Industry
www.uwosh.edu
University of Wisconsin–Platte-
ville
Platteville, Wisconsin
B.S. Music and Business
www.uwplatt.edu
University of Wisconsin–River
Falls
River Falls, Wisconsin
B.A. Music Business; B.S. Music
Business; Minor in Music Business
www.uwrf.edu
University of Wisconsin–Stevens
Point
Stevens Point, Wisconsin
B.A. Arts Management
www.uwsp.edu
334 • APPENDIX B
Utah Valley University
Orem, Utah
B.M. Commercial Music with
track in Music Technology and Pro-
duction
www.uvu.edu
Valparaiso University
Valparaiso, Indiana
B.A. Music Industry; M.A. Arts
and Entertainment Administration
www.valpo.edu
Villa Maria College
Buffalo, New York
B.S. Music Industry
www.villa.edu
Virginia State University
Petersburg, Virginia
B.M. Music with emphasis in
Sound Recording Technology
www.vsu.edu
Virginia Tech
Blacksburg, Virginia
B.A. Music Technology
www.vt.edu
Viterbo University
La Crosse, Wisconsin
B.F.A. Arts Administration; Mi-
nor in Arts Administration
www.viterbo.edu
Wayne State College
Wayne, Nebraska
B.A. Music industry
www.wsc.edu
Wayne State University
Detroit, Michigan
B.M. Music Business; B.M. Mu-
sic Technology
www.wayne.edu
West Liberty University
West Liberty, West Virginia
B.M. Music Technology
www.westliberty.edu
West Texas A&M University
Canyon, Texas
B.M. Music with elective studies
in Business
www.wtamu.edu
West Virginia University
Morgantown, West Virginia
B.A. Music Industry
www.wvu.edu
Western Carolina University
Cullowhee, North Carolina
B.A. Music with option in Music
Industry
www.wcu.edu
Western Connecticut State Uni-
versity
Danbury, Connecticut
B.M. Audio and Music Production
www.wcsu.edu
Western Illinois University
Macomb, Illinois
B.A. Music Business; B.M. Music
Business; Minor in Music Business
www.wiu.edu
Western State Colorado Univer-
sity
Gunnison, Colorado
 APPENDIX B • 335
B.A. Music with emphasis in Winston-Salem State University
Business; Minor in Music Technolo- Winston-Salem, North Carolina
gy B.A. Music with concentration in
www.western.edu Music Business; Minor in Music
Business
William Paterson University www.wssu.edu
Wayne, New Jersey
B.M. Music with emphasis in Mu- York College of Pennsylvania
sic Management; B.M. Sound Engi- York, Pennsylvania
neering Arts; Minor in Music Man- B.S. Music Industry/Recording
agement; M.M. Music Management; Technology
M.B.A. Music Management www.ycp.edu
www.wpunj.edu
Youngstown State University
Winona State College Youngstown, Ohio
Winona, Minnesota B.M. Music Recording
B.S. Music Business www.ysu.edu
www.winona.edu
 Appendix C

Recording and Broadcast Chronology

1877 Thomas Edison invents cylinder recording

1889 First “coin-in-a-slot” jukebox
1895 Emile Berliner manufactures first shellac disc recordings;
Marconi tests first radio in Italy
1901 First transatlantic radio signal broadcast and received
1906 Lee DeForest invents first vacuum tube
1910 Caruso makes first broadcast from Metropolitan Opera
1918 Okeh Records first release
1920 First commercial radio broadcast on KDKA, Pittsburgh; Mamie
Smith’s “Crazy Blues” sells 1 million copies
1925 Western Electric microphones result in tremendously improved
sound recordings and talking pictures
1927 Philo Farnsworth invents television; The Jazz Singer is first
commercial talking picture
1928 Steamboat Willie—first cartoon with sound
1930 First commercial radio installed in an auto by Motorola
1931 Stereo reproduction conceived by EMI’s Alan Blumlein
1935 Your Hit Parade weekly radio countdown show debuts
1936 First magnetic tape recording of concert made by BASF in
Germany
1938 Orson Welles’ historic War of the Worlds broadcast
1939 First TV broadcast of a baseball game
1942 AFM institutes recording ban; Bing Crosby records “White
Christmas” which goes on to sell 50 million copies
1949 RCA debuts 7” 45-RPM records
1950 Les Paul modifies Ampex recorder to achieve “sound-on-sound”
1953 Debut of NTSC color television
1954 Regency debuts pocket transistor radio
337
338 • APPENDIX C
1955 Debut of Ampex “Sel-Sync” first commercial multitrack sound
recorder
1956 Elvis Presley first national TV appearance
1957 American Bandstand starts broadcasting to national audience
1961 FM Stereo broadcasting begins
1963 Philips introduces compact cassette format
1964 The Beatles appear on Ed Sullivan Show
1965 Robert Moog shows elements of what would become the
synthesizer
1967 Monterey Pop Festival and movie
1969 Woodstock Festival and movie
1971 Soul Train premieres on national TV
1976 First 16-bit digital sound recording
1979 TASCAM 4-track cassette Porta-Studio debut
1980 First Walkman portable music player hits U.S.
1981 MIDI is introduced; MTV debuts
1982 Compact disc players and discs debut; Michael Jackson’s Thriller
release, going on to sell 30 million albums
1984 Apple debuts Macintosh computer, goes on to become leading
music creation computer
1985 Live Aid concert telecast seen by 1.5 billion viewers worldwide
1987 Soundtools, predecessor to ProTools DAW, debut
1991 Alesis ADAT first affordable digital multitrack home recorder
1993 AOL debuts public Internet access for Windows platform
1995 Six Major record labels prospering
1996 Enhanced CDs debut
1997 First MP3 player hits market
1999 Napster reaches 60 million users
2000 Polygram Group bought by Universal Music
2001 Napster shut down by U.S. courts
2002 American Idol debuts
2003 Apple iTunes store debut
2004 Bertelsmann bought by Sony Music
 APPENDIX C • 339
2005 YouTube launches
2007 Netflix launches video streaming services
2011 Spotify launches in U.S.
2012 EMI Records acquired by Universal
2015 Music streaming revenues surpass record sales for first time
2017 Music streaming revenues worldwide projected to exceed $9.2
billion
340 • APPENDIX C
APPENDIX C • 341
 Bibliography

CONTENTS

Introduction 343
Libraries and Archives 345
Scholarly Journals 346
Magazines 346
Web Resources 346
Dictionaries and Encyclopedias 347
General 347
Autobiographies 348
Biographies 348
History 350
Intellectual Property 353
Music Publishing and Licensing 354
Primary Sources 354
Record Labels 355
Sound Recording 355
Documentary Films 357

INTRODUCTION

There is a tremendous amount of literature on the subject of the music indus-

try available to the researcher. While there is a great deal of scholarship on
the history of music, including popular music, the topic of the music industry
is interdisciplinary in nature; therefore, the researcher must gather sources
that may come from a variety of disciplinary perspectives outside of musicol-
ogy, such as business, entrepreneurship, communication, sociology, technol-
ogy, analytics, cultural studies, entertainment studies, and law. Perhaps the
most frustrating issue the researcher might face is trying to uncover historical
and current data on sales and consumer behavior since the vast majority of
that information is only available through proprietary subscription services,
such as PollStar, BuzzAngle Music, and SoundScan. Chart data from Bill-
board magazine and Billboard’s website is useful but limited. Statista is
another subscription-based service that provides a good general overview
and analysis of the domestic and global music and entertainment industry.

343
344 • BIBLIOGRAPHY
A great place to get an overview on the history of the music industry is
Chasing Sound: Technology, Culture, and the Art of Studio Recording from
Edison to the LP (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013) and Selling Sounds:
The Commercial Revolution in America (Harvard University Press, 2001).
For information about the status of the music industry in the 21st century,
start with any of these three works: All You Need to Know about the Music
Business (Simon & Schuster, 2015), This Business of Music: The Definitive
Guide to the Music Industry (Billboard Books, 2007), and Music Business
Handbook and Career Guide (Sage, 2016). These books are sometimes used
as essential textbooks for music management programs across the country.
One major reference source for the history of the music industry is Grove
Music Online (Oxford University Press). Grove requires a subscription and is
available from many public and academic libraries. It contains The New
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edition (2001); The New
Grove Dictionary of Opera (1992); and The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz,
2nd edition (2002). Entries from The Grove Dictionary of American Music,
2nd edition (2013), and The Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments, 2nd
edition (2014), are slowly being added to Grove Music Online. Overall,
Grove contains biographical and subject entries; for example, it has an excel-
lent “Music Industry” entry. While the main focus is on Western Classical
music, Grove is slowly adding and expanding its popular music and non-
Western coverage.
Information pertaining to the music industry can also be founded in these
notable reference works: The Faber Companion to 20th Century Popular
Music (Faber and Faber, 1990), St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture
(St. James Press, 2000), The Harvard Dictionary of Music (Belknap Press,
2003), and How Products Are Made: An Illustrated Guide to Product Manu-
facturing (Gale Cengage Learning, 2000). AllMusic.com is also an excellent
website to find background information on artists and groups, including dis-
cographies and awards.
Articles on historical and current topics pertaining to the music industry
can be found in a variety of peer-reviewed journals. Popular Music & Society
(Routledge) focuses on popular music as a manifestation of society and cul-
ture. Popular Music (Cambridge University Press) provides multidisciplinary
coverage of all aspects of popular music, including musicology, literary stud-
ies, sociology, and economic and social history. The MEIEA Journal is pub-
lished by the Music and Entertainment Industry Educators Association and
includes scholarly research and writing about the music and entertainment
industries. Notably, back issues of the MEIEA Journal are available for free
to the public via the organization’s website. Music Business Journal (Berklee
College of Music) is a respected student publication that provides a forum for
research and discussion on current topics in the music marketplace.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY • 345
There are and have been hundreds of other popular music journals
throughout the history of the music industry. Perhaps the most notable for
their popularity and longevity, as well as historical and current significance,
are Billboard and Rolling Stone. Beyond music-focused popular sources,
newspapers such as the Los Angeles Times and the New York Times also
provide excellent coverage of the music industry, with reviews, interviews,
and analysis of current events.
The following bibliography provides further reading on the history of the
music industry in the United States of America. The sources are listed under
general topics and include books, journal articles, and web resources. Addi-
tionally, a list of approximately 70 documentary films exploring various
aspects of the music industry has been compiled. Any student or researcher
would do well to browse this list and select a few films for viewing in order
to develop a more nuanced understanding of the inner workings of the music
business. The majority of the documentary films referenced take a biographi-
cal or historical approach and include multiple music genres and subcultures,
from heavy metal to punk, new wave, gospel and jazz.
Some resources listed might require a subscription. This bibliography
should not be considered a comprehensive list but rather a helpful place to
build on the information provided in this volume. For books with multiple
editions, the most recent one is cited since the date of publication of this text.
A select number of older sources that are considered classics have also been
included.

LIBRARIES AND ARCHIVES

The American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress, https://

www.loc.gov/folklife/index.html.
Center for Popular Music at Middle Tennessee State University, http://
www.mtsu.edu/popmusic/.
Institute of Jazz Studies at Rutgers University, https://
www.libraries.rutgers.edu/jazz.
Music and Performing Arts Reading Room at the Library of Congress, https:/
/www.loc.gov/rr/perform/.
New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, https://www.nypl.org/
locations/lpa.
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Library and Archives, http://li-
brary.rockhall.com/home.
346 • BIBLIOGRAPHY
SCHOLARLY JOURNALS

American Music
ARSC Journal
Entertainment and Sports Law Journal
Journal of Popular Music Studies
Journal on the Art of Record Production
Journal of the Society of American Music
Music and Entertainment Industry Educators (MEIEA) Journal
Music Business Journal
Popular Music
Popular Music & Society

MAGAZINES

Alternative Press
American Songwriter
Billboard
Downbeat
Electronic Musician
Gramophone
Music Week
Pollstar
Rolling Stone
Spin
Vibe

WEB RESOURCES

All Access Music Group, https://www.allaccess.com/.

AllMusic, http://www.allmusic.com/.
Billboard, http://www.billboard.com/.
BillboardBiz, http://www.billboard.com/biz.
BuzzAngle Music, http://www.buzzanglemusic.com/.
Digital Music News, http://www.digitalmusicnews.com/.
Music Business Worldwide, https://musicbusinessworldwide.com/.
Music Think Tank, http://www.musicthinktank.com/.
Pollstar, https://www.pollstar.com/.
TechCrunch, https://techcrunch.com/.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY • 347
DICTIONARIES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS

Burns, Kristine H. Women and Music in America since 1900: An Encyclope-

dia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001.
Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press. http://
www.oxfordmusiconline.com/.
Hardy, Phil. The Faber Companion to 20th Century Popular Music. London:
Faber and Faber, 1990.
Luhrssen, David, and Michael Larson. Encyclopedia of Classic Rock. Santa
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2017.
Pendergast, Tom, and Sara Pendergast. St. James Encyclopedia of Popular
Culture. Detroit: St. James Press, 2000.
Randel, Don Michael, ed. The Harvard Dictionary of Music. 4th ed. Cam-
bridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2003.
Schlager, Neil. How Products Are Made: An Illustrated Guide to Product
Manufacturing. Detroit: Gale Cengage Learning, 2000.

GENERAL

Baskerville, Tim, and David Baskerville. Music Business Handbook and

Career Guide. 11th ed. Los Angeles: Sage, 2016.
Brabec, Jeffrey, and Todd Brabec. Music, Money, and Success: The Insider’s
Guide to Making Money in the Music Business. 7th ed. New York: Schirm-
er Trade Books, 2011.
Bruenger, David. Making Money, Making Music: History and Core Con-
cepts. Oakland: University of California Press, 2016.
Byrne, David. How Music Works. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2017.
Krasilovsky, William, John Gross, Sidney Shemel, and Jonathan Feinstein.
This Business of Music: The Definitive Guide to the Music Industry. 10th
ed. New York: Billboard Books, 2007.
Passman, Donald S. All You Need to Know about the Music Business. 9th ed.
New York: Simon & Schuster, 2015.
Seabrook, John. The Song Machine: Inside the Hit Factory. New York: W.
W. Norton, 2015.
Street, John, Will Straw, and Simon Frith. The Cambridge Companion to
Pop and Rock. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Wacholtz, Larry. Monetizing Entertainment: An Insider’s Handbook for Ca-
reers in the Entertainment and Music Industry. New York: Routledge,
2016.
Weissman, Dick. Understanding the Music Business: Real World Insights.
2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2017.
348 • BIBLIOGRAPHY
Williams, Justin. The Cambridge Companion to Hip-Hop. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 2015.
Witt, Stephen. How Music Got Free: A Story of Obsession and Invention.
New York: Penguin, 2016.

AUTOBIOGRAPHIES

Branson, Richard. Losing My Virginity: How I’ve Survived, Had Fun, and
Made a Fortune Doing Business My Way. New York: Times Business,
1998.
Cash, Johnny, and Patrick Carr. Cash: The Autobiography. New York: Har-
perCollins, 2003.
Clapton, Eric. Clapton: The Autobiography. New York: Broadway Books,
2008.
Clooney, Rosemary, and Joan Barthel. Girl Singer: An Autobiography. New
York: Three Rivers Press, 2001.
Davis, Miles, and Quincy Troupe. Miles: The Autobiography. New York:
Simon & Schuster, 2011.
Dylan, Bob. Chronicles: Volume One. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005.
Gordy, Berry. To Be Loved. New York: Grand Central, 1994.
Grant, Amy. Mosaic: Pieces of My Life So Far. New York: Broadway
Books, 2008.
Guthrie, Woody. Bound for Glory: The Hard-Driving, Truth-Telling Auto-
biography of America’s Great Poet–Folk Singer. New York: Plume, 1983.
Holiday, Billie, and William Dufty. Lady Sings the Blues. New York: Har-
lem Moon, 2006.
Jay-Z. Decoded. New York: Spiegel & Grau, 2011.
Jones, Quincy. Q: The Autobiography of Quincy Jones. New York: Double-
day, 2001.
Richards, Keith, and James Fox. Life. Boston: Back Bay Books, 2011.
Simmons, Russell, and Nelson George. Life and Def: Sex, Drugs, Money +
God. New York: Crown, 2001.

BIOGRAPHIES

Azzerad, Michael. Come as You Are: The Story of Nirvana. New York:
Doubleday, 1994.
Birkbeck, Matt. Deconstructing Sammy: Music, Money, and Madness. New
York: Amistad, 2009.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY • 349
Bozza, Anthony. Whatever You Say I Am: The Life and Times of Eminem.
New York: Three Rivers Press, 2009.
Breslin, Herbert, and Anne Midgette. The King and I: The Uncensored Tale
of Luciano Pavarotti’s Rise to Fame by His Manager, Friend and Some-
time Adversary. New York: Doubleday, 2004.
Chilton, John. Let the Good Times Roll: The Story of Louis Jordan and His
Music. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997.
Friedman, Myra. Buried Alive: The Biography of Janis Joplin. New York:
Harmony Books, 1992.
Goodman, Fred. Allen Klein: The Man Who Bailed Out the Beatles, Made the
Stones and Transformed Rock and Roll. New York: Houghton Mifflin,
2015.
Gould, Jonathan. Otis Redding. New York: Crown Archetype, 2017.
Graham, Bill, and Robert Greenfield. Bill Graham Presents: My Life Inside
Rock and Out. New York: Da Capo Press, 2004.
Gray, Tyler. The Hit Charade: Lou Pearlman, Boy Bands, and the Biggest
Ponzi Scheme in U.S. History. New York: Harper Business, 2008.
Greenman, Ben. Mo’ Meta Blues: The World according to Questlove. New
York: Grand Central, 2013.
Guralnick, Peter. Last Train to Memphis: The Rise of Elvis Presley. Boston:
Back Bay Books, 1995.
Hoskyns, Barney. Lowside of the Road: A Life of Tom Waits. New York:
Three Rivers Press, 2010.
Jones, Dylan. David Bowie: A Life. New York: Crown Archetype, 2017.
Kaplan, James. Frank: The Voice. New York: Anchor, 2010.
———. Sinatra: The Chairman. New York: Doubleday, 2015.
King, Tom. The Operator: David Geffen Builds, Buys, and Sells the New
Hollywood. New York: Broadway Books, 2001.
Light, Alan. What Happened, Miss Simone? A Biography. New York: Crown
Archetype, 2016.
Marcus, Greil. Mystery Train: Images of America in Rock ’n’ Roll Music. 5th
ed. New York: Penguin, 2008.
Mazor, Barry. Ralph Peer and the Making of Popular Roots Music. Chicago:
Chicago Review Press, 2016.
McNally, Dennis. A Long Strange Trip: The Inside Story of the Grateful
Dead. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2003.
Porter, Lewis. John Coltrane: His Life and Music. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 2008.
Prial, Dunstan. The Producer: John Hammond and the Soul of American
Music. New York: Picador, 2007.
Pyron, Darden Asbury. Liberace: An American Boy. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 2000.
350 • BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ramone, Phil, and Charles L. Granata. Making Records: The Scenes behind
the Music. New York: Hyperion Books, 2007.
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HISTORY

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY • 351
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 BIBLIOGRAPHY • 353
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INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

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MUSIC PUBLISHING AND LICENSING

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PRIMARY SOURCES

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RECORD LABELS

Adler, Bill, and Dan Charnas. Def Jam Recordings: The First 25 Years of the
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MEIEA-Journal-Vol-9-No-1-p95.htm.

SOUND RECORDING

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DOCUMENTARY FILMS

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358 • BIBLIOGRAPHY
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 BIBLIOGRAPHY • 359
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 About the Authors

Veronica A. Wells is associate professor, library faculty chair, and the aca-
demic support librarian for music at the University of the Pacific in Stockton,
California. She leads the library’s research help instruction program as well
as the library’s efforts in assessing students’ information literacy skills. As
the music librarian, she provides research consultations and library sessions
to music students and faculty, manages the music collection, and monitors
the processing and cataloging of music materials. Her research interests in-
clude assessing information literacy skills, developing active learning strate-
gies for library instruction, and scaffolding information literacy into the mu-
sic curriculum. Veronica is involved in the Music Library Association
(MLA) and the California chapter of the Music Library Association
(MLACC).

Keith Hatschek is professor of music and director of the Music Manage-

ment Program at the University of the Pacific in Stockton, California. Prior
to joining academia, he worked in the music business for more than 25 years.
He is the author of two music industry books: The Golden Moment: Record-
ing Secrets of the Pros and How to Get a Job in the Music Industry, which
provides career development tools and strategies for young music profession-
als. A third edition of the music career text was released in 2015. He contrib-
utes regular music industry commentary for the Disc Makers music blog.
Among his research interests are music industry curriculum and pedagogy,
student-led music businesses, recording and music technology, and the life
and work of jazz pianist Dave Brubeck. He has presented a number of con-
ference papers and public lectures at jazz festivals about Brubeck’s role in
cold war jazz diplomacy, the civil rights movement, and musicians’ collabo-
rative efforts to address segregation in the mid-20th century. This latter topic
is the subject of a forthcoming book about Dave and Iola Brubeck’s mid-
1950s jazz musical starring Louis Armstrong and Carmen McRae, which
challenged racial inequality.

361