IP Addresses

IP Address —

A 32 bit address that is used to uniquely identify a computer on a network

Planning an IP Addressing Scheme

How to plan an IP addressing scheme:

– How many IP addresses do you need today?
– How many IP addresses will you need in the future?
– Are you dealing with a pre-existing IP scheme?
Rules of IP Addressing
– Each of the 4 numbers in an IP address is called an octet (8
bits)
– A bit is a 1 or a 0
– Each octet can only have a number from 0 to 255
– The first octet cannot be 127
– The Host ID cannot be all 0s or all 255s
Example:
– 192.168.10.0 is a Network ID
– 192.168.10.255 is the broadcast address for the 192.168.10.0 network
Internetworking: Systems that can communicate from one network to another
Router: A device that forwards data packets along networks
What is a Default Gateway?
The Default Gateway represents the IP address of a router that a computer uses to communicate
outside of its network
Private vs. Public IP Addressing
Private IP ranges which have been reserved from Public Internet use:
• 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255
• 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255
• 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255
• 169.254.0.0 – 169.254.255.255
Network Address Translation (NAT)
– Hosts assigned private IP Addresses can get to the Internet through a technology called
Network Address Translation (NAT)
• Most of today’s companies use private IP Addresses on their private networks
How Computers Get IP Addresses
–manually by network administrator
–dynamically by DHCP Server
–Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA)
• 169.254.x.x

Binary Math
What is this number?

3,482

Three Thousand Four Hundred Eighty Two

Subnetting
Subnetting —The process of taking a large network and dividing it into smaller networks to
increase efficiency and manageability

What is a Subnetting?

Example:

– Network - 172.16.0.0 (65534 Hosts)

– Subnet Mask - 255.255.0.0

– Subnet 1 - 172.16.1.0 (254 Hosts)

– Subnet 2 - 172.16.2.0 (254 Hosts)
– Subnet 3 - 172.16.3.0 (254 Hosts)
– Subnet Mask - 255.255.255.0
Classful IP Addressing
Originally IP Addresses where divided into different “class” ranges:
A Class B Class C Class D Class E Class
1 – 126 128 – 191 192 – 223 224 – 239 240 – 243
126 Networks 16,384 Networks 2,097,152 Networks
16,777,214 Hosts 65,534 Hosts 254 Hosts
= Total of 3,720,314,628 host addresses available
Subnet Mask Subnet Mask Subnet Mask
255.0.0.0 255.255.0.0 255.255.255.0 multicast experimental
Classful vs. Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR)
Problems with Classful IP addressing
– Class A - 16,777,214 Hosts
– Class B - 65,534 Hosts
– Class C - 254 Hosts
What do you do if you have 2,000 hosts?
– Pick Class B and waste 63,000+ addresses
– Take 8 Class C’s and have cluttered routing table entries
Solution:
Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR) with Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM)
Decimal Subnet Mask:
– 255.255.255.0
Binary Subnet Mask:
– 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Variable Length Subnet Masks
11111111 – 255
11111110 – 254
11111100 – 252
11111000 – 248
11110000 – 240
11100000 – 224
11000000 – 192
10000000 – 128
00000000 – 0
Subnetting with CIDR & VLSM
If we start with 255.255.0.0, but want to divide into smaller networks we need to take bits from
the Host ID and move them into the Network ID
Formulas
Number of Subnets:
– 2n
– n = Number of 1’s in the Subnet ID
Number of available host addresses:
– 2n – 2
– n = Number of 0’s in the Host ID
– Host ID cannot be all 0’s or all 1’s
Example:
– 11111111.11111111.11111000.00000000
– 25 = 32 Subnets
– 2 11– 2 = 2046 Available hosts in each subnet
Binary IP Addresses
Each of the 4 numbers in an IP address is called an octet (8 bits).
A bit is a 1 or a 0.
Each octet can only have a number from 0 to 255
– 192.168.10.101
Binary IP Addresses
Binary Decimal
00000000 = 0
11111111 = 255
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0+0+0+0+0+0+0+0

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1=255

Why won’t my network work?

Client - 192.168.10.101
Server - 192.168.10.201
Router - 192.168.10.200
SM - 255.255.255.248
We need to look at everything in binary:
11000000.10101000.00001010.01100 101
11000000.10101000.00001010.11001 001
11000000.10101000.00001010.11001 000
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111 000
How can we fix my network?
With a subnet mask of 255.255.255.248 each network will be broken into blocks of 6 host
addresses:
Example:
11000000.10101000.00001010.00001000 192.168.10.8
11000000.10101000.00001010.00001001 192.168.10.9
11000000.10101000.00001010.00001010 192.168.10.10
11000000.10101000.00001010.00001011 192.168.10.11
11000000.10101000.00001010.00001100 192.168.10.12
11000000.10101000.00001010.00001101 192.168.10.13
11000000.10101000.00001010.00001110 192.168.10.14
11000000.10101000.00001010.00001111 192.168.10.15
Network ID: 192.168.10.8
Host ID’s: 192.168.10.9 – 192.168.10.14
Broadcast ID: 192.168.10.15

CIDR Notation
Without CIDR Notation
– 192.168.10.1
– 255.255.255.248
With CIDR Notation
– 192.168.10.1/29

IPv6 Fundamentals
Disadvantages of IPv4

– Not Enough Addresses

– Cluttered the Internet Routing Tables
– Difficult to Configure
– Security is Optional

IPv6 Solutions

– Plenty of Addresses - 3.4 x 1038

– Simplified the Internet Routing Tables
– Easy and Automated Configuration
– Security is Required
IPv6 Addressing

128 bits long

1111111010000000000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000010111101110000000
001111111100000010001110000100011110110001

Displayed in 16 bit hexadecimal blocks FE80:0000:0000:0000:05EE:00FF:0238:47B1

Simplify by suppressing the leading 0’s FE80:0:0:0:5EE:FF:238:47B1
Further compress by expressing a single FE80::5EE:FF:238:47B1
contiguous set of 0 blocks into “::”
Types of IPv6 Addresses
Unicast (One to One)
– Global Addresses
– Link-Local Addresses - FE80
– Unique Local Addresses - FC or FD
Multicast (One to Many)
Anycast (One to One of Many)
IPv4/IPv6 Compatibility
Dual IP Stack

– When both IPv4 and IPv6 protocols exist within an operating system
– Can be used independently or together
– Hybrid stacks use a special IPv4 mapped address within IPv6

Example ::ffff:192.168.10.1

IPv4 to IPv6 Tunneling

– IPv6 packets encapsulated inside IPv4 datagrams

– Microsoft uses the Teredo virtual adapter

Example FE80::5EFE:192.168.10.1%2
Network Devices
Modem

– Modems are used for dial-up connections over standard analog telephone lines. They can
be integrated onto a system’s motherboard, an internal expansion card, or an external
peripheral device

NIC

– Network Interface Cards are used to connect systems to physical network media. They
can be integrated onto a system’s motherboard or an internal expansion card

Repeater

– Repeaters are used to help deal with attenuation issues. A repeater will take a signal in on
one port and retransmit it out the other

Hub

– Hubs are basically multiport repeaters. A hub will take a signal in on one port and
forward it on to all other ports

Bridge

– Bridges operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model. Bridges have simplistic routing
tables based on MAC addresses. Bridges are used to create separate collision domains

Switch

– Switches are basically multiport bridges. Switches can be used so each computer resides
in its own collision domain

Router

– Routers are used to connect networks together. Routers have sophisticated routing tables
which can determine the best route to get information from one network to another.
Routers function at the Network layer of the OSI model. Routers are used to create
separate broadcast domains

Different Types of Switches

A Multilayer Switch functions at the Data Link layer of the OSI model just like a regular switch,
but also provides additional functionality at higher OSI layers

A Content Switch is an example of a Multilayer Switch which is used to distribute incoming

requests to servers that can handle the data in the packets. The Content Switch will inspect the
network data and then decide where it should be forwarded to Power over Ethernet (PoE) is used
to transfer electrical power, along with data, over standard twisted pair cable

The Spanning Tree Algorithm (STA) is used by switches to determine the best route when there
is more than one connection to a node

Virtual LANs (VLANs) can be created in order to emulate multiple broadcast domains using
switches

Trunking is when a switch presents more than one VLAN configuration over a single connection
to another switch or a router

Port Mirroring is used to send a copy of network data to asecond (mirrored) connection usually
for the purposes of monitoring

Port Authentication is used to restrict access based upon authentication information. Typically
used in 802.1x network

Firewall

– Firewalls are used to protect private networks from external intrusion

Proxy Server

Proxy Servers serve 3 main purposes:

– Disguise an end users actual identity using NAT

– Cache requests to save bandwidth
– Control content permitted to be requested from the Internet

Wireless Access Point

– A Wireless Access Point (WAP) is basically the same thing as a hub, but the connections
are made via the airwaves rather than cable

Basic DHCP Server

– DHCP is a TCP/IP service used to dynamically assign IP addresses on a network.

DNS Server

– DNS is a TCP/IP service used to resolve host names to IP addresses. A DNS server is
responsible for maintaining an hierarchical directory of names in a database and respond
to client requests for name resolution
CSU/DSU

– A Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit is a hardware device which converts data
frames used on a LAN into data frames used on a WAN

Media Converters

– A Media Converter is used to convert from one form of media to another

Load Balancer

– Load balancers are used when there are more than on line of communication available.
Load balancers help to divide communication evenly between the different
communication lines

Bandwidth Shaper

– Bandwidth shapers are very similar to load balancers in that they are used to help make
communication more efficient. The difference is that bandwidth shapers provide a much
higher level of control over what data gets sent where and when