Definition of Brackish Water
Q. We’re designing a concrete foundation that will be in
contact with groundwater. Table 4.2.1 in ACI 318-08
indicates that Exposure Class C2 applies to concrete
1
exposed to moisture and an external source of chlorides
from deicing chemicals, salt, brackish water, seawater, or
spray from these sources. Table 4.3.1 requires a maximum
water-cementitious material ratio (w/cm) of 0.4 and a
minimum specified compressive strength of 5000 psi,
along with the related provisions of Section 7.7.6. The
commentary to Section 7.7.6 states:
Where concrete will be exposed to external sources
of chlorides in service, such as deicing salts, brackish
water, seawater, or spray from these sources, concrete
should be proportioned to satisfy the requirements for
the applicable exposure class in Chapter 4. These
include minimum air content, maximum w/cm,
minimum strength for normal-weight and lightweight
concrete, maximum chloride ion in concrete, and cement
type. Additionally, for corrosion protection, a specified
concrete cover for reinforcement not less than 2 in. for
walls and slabs and not less than 2-1/2 in. for other
members is recommended.
The language in ACI 318-08 implies that brackish water
is a source of chlorides. We’re having the water tested, but
what chloride concentration in brackish water constitutes a
basis for designing to the much more demanding strength
and w/cm requirements of Exposure Class C2?
Finding Voids
Q. We have reason to suspect that the concrete
in a structural wall was not fully consolidated. Are
there nondestructive methods to locate potential voids?
What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of
these methods?
A. There are several nondestructive test methods
based on stress wave propagation that could be used.
The impact-echo method uses mechanical impact to
introduce a transient stress pulse into the wall. The pulse
is reflected by concrete-air interfaces (at internal voids or
external surfaces). The arrival of the reflected pulse, or
echo, at the surface where the impact was generated
produces displacements that are measured by a receiving
transducer and recorded using a data-acquisition system.
The key feature is that the stress pulse undergoes
multiple reflections within the wall that give rise to a
A compressive strength of 3000 psi concrete would be
adequate for structural performance, so if we need to use
5000 psi concrete, there will be a significant cost premium.
A. The Code is intentionally fuzzy on the question
at hand. The Code cannot be expected to define
every possible application for concrete. In some
instances with warm water, a lower chloride concen­
tration may be more of a potential threat than higher
concentrations in colder water. The situation calls for
engineering judgment, looking at the precise water
situation, the nature of whatever is being built, the
potential consequences of corrosion, the cost of a
failure, the desired service life, and alternatives such
as increased cover thickness. Depending on what is
being built, the cost of going to a higher strength, more
durable concrete may be an insignificant increase in
the project cost.
Reference
1. ACI Committee 318, “Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (ACI 318-08) and Commentary,” American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 2008, 473 pp.
Thanks to Terry Holland, Auburn Township, OH, Chair of ACI 318
Subcommittee A, General, Concrete, and Construction, for responding
to this question.
transient resonant frequency related to the depth of the
reflecting interface.
In using the impact-echo method to determine the
locations of voids within the wall, tests are performed
at regularly spaced points along lines marked on the
surface. In the absence of voids, the processed signal will
provide the thickness frequency of the solid wall. The
presence of voids will be indicated by higher frequency
peaks in the amplitude spectrum. The impact-echo
method responds to voids directly below the test point,
so the test spacing will depend on the size of the voids
to be detected.
In the impulse-response method, the wall is struck with
a hammer instrumented with a load cell and the response
of the wall is measured with a velocity transducer. The
impact force causes the wall to vibrate predominately in
a flexural mode. The force and velocity time-base signals
Concrete international / November 2010 71
are digitally recorded and then processed by computer
to provide the response function, which shows the
amplitude of the response per unit of force at different
frequencies. The response function, or mobility plot,
contains information about the condition of the wall.
The impulse-response method provides for a more
global response measurement than impact-echo, and
the test points are spaced farther apart than for impact-
echo. This allows rapid screening of the wall. Test results
are summarized as contour plots of different quantitative
measures obtained from the mobility plots. The presence
of voids will be indicated as anomalous regions in the
contour plot. Invasive probing is used to determine the
cause of the anomalous response.
The ultrasonic-echo method is a time-based technique
that uses an antenna composed of an array of shear wave
transducers. The transducers are controlled by a computer
so that they operate as transmitters and receivers in a
predefined sequence. The result of a measurement is an
array of round trip travel times obtained by the various
transmitter-receiver pairs. The travel times are used to
reconstruct a 3-D image of the locations of internal
reflecting interfaces. The 3-D image is analogous to a
medical tomogram.
To investigate the wall for voids, a series of vertical or
horizontal lines are marked on one side of the wall and
the antenna is moved in discrete steps along those lines.
After all lines have been scanned, the system computes
the internal 3-D image of the wall and the locations and
approximate sizes of the voids are shown.
For further information, consult ACI 228.2R-98,
“Nondestructive Test Methods for Evaluation of Concrete
in Structures.”
Thanks to Nick Carino, Chagrin Falls, OH, and Bernie Hertlein,
Vernon Hills, IL, for their contributions in answering this question.
Questions in this column were asked by users of ACI documents
and have been answered by ACI staff or by a member or members of
ACI technical committees. The answers do not represent the official
position of an ACI committee. Only a published committee document
represents the formal consensus of the committee and the Institute.
We invite comment on any of the questions and answers published
in this column. Write to the Editor, Concrete International, 38800
Country Club Drive, Farmington Hills, MI 48331; contact us by fax at
(248) 848-3701; or e-mail Rex.Donahey@concrete.org.

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72 November 2010 / Concrete international