International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 77 (2000) 85±90

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijpvp

Flow-accelerated corrosion of pressure vessels in fossil plants

R.B. Dooley*, V.K. Chexal
EPRI 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA

Abstract
Flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) is a phenomenon that results in metal loss from piping, vessels and equipment made of carbon steel. It
occurs under conditions of ¯ow, geometry and material, which are common in high-energy piping and tubing in nuclear, fossil and industrial
power plants. Substantial progress has been made towards understanding the mechanism and in preventing FAC. This paper provides a
sprinkling of that knowledge with particular emphasis for fossil and industrial plants. q 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Flow-accelerated corrosion; Feedwater; Hydrazine

1. Introduction EPRI, Electricite de France, and Kraftwerk Union, now a

Flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) causes wall thinning
(metal loss) of carbon steel piping, tubing and vessels
exposed to ¯owing water or wet steam. If undetected, the
degraded component can suddenly rupture, releasing high
temperature steam and water into neighboring plant areas.
The escaping ¯uids can injure plant workers, sometimes
severely, and damage nearby equipment. Over the years,
FAC has caused hundreds of piping and equipment failures
in all types of fossil, industrial steam, and nuclear power
plants. However, often the cause of the failure was not
known by the plant owner, or if known, was not reported.
Additionally, the power industry did not fully understand
the conditions under which FAC occurred, where plants
should look to ®nd it, or how to best control it when it
was found.
This changed in 1986. On 9th December of that year, an
elbow in the condensate system ruptured at the Surry
Nuclear Power Station. The failure caused four fatalities
and tens of millions of dollars in repair costs and lost
revenue. FAC was found to be the cause of the failure.
Because of the deaths involved and the high degree of regu-
lation applied to the nuclear power plants, a comprehensive
overall approach was needed. An intensive international
cooperative effort was initiated to understand the parameters
which affect FAC. The strategy was that understanding FAC
would allow the development of technology to help plants
®nd damage before failure occurs, and the measures to
control it. The major parties in this cooperation were
* Corresponding author.
0308-0161/00/$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0308-016 1(99)00087-3
part of Siemens.
Flow-accelerated corrosion is a process whereby the
normally protective oxide layer on carbon or low-alloy
steel dissolves into a stream of ¯owing water or a water±
steam mixture. The oxide layer becomes thinner and less
protective, and the corrosion rate increases. Eventually a
steady state is reached were the corrosion and dissolution
rates are equal and stable corrosion rates are maintained. In
some areas, the oxide layer may be so thin as to expose an
apparently bare metal surface. More commonly, however,
the corroded surface exhibits a black color typical of
magnetite.
Damage caused by ¯ow-accelerated corrosion can be
characterized as a general reduction of wall thickness
rather than a local attack, such as pitting or cracking.
Although FAC occurs over a wide area within a given
®tting, it is localized in the sense that it frequently
occurs over a limited area of piping ®tting due to
local high areas of turbulence. In this content, ªlocalizedº
may mean within several feet (,1 m) of the ®tting or region
of turbulence. However, if one ®tting is found to be thinned,
then most likely there will be others that have also lost
material.
A thinned component will typically fail due to overstress
from operating pressure, or abrupt changes in conditions
such as water hammer, and start-up loading. Large ®ttings
may rupture suddenly rather than provide warning of their
degraded condition by ®rst leaking.
FAC occurs under both single and two-phase ¯ow condi-
tions. Because water is necessary in order to remove the
oxide layer, FAC does not occur in lines transporting dry
or superheated steam.
86 R.B. Dooley, V.K. Chexal / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 77 (2000) 85±90
Two-phase FAC has been recognized as a worldwide
problem since about 1970. Since the mid-1980s, single-
phase FAC has been acknowledged as a major problem in
the balance-of-plant and secondary piping of US and foreign
nuclear and fossil plants. The remainder of this paper
concentrates only on single-phase FAC.
1.1. Some key ®eld history
The technology and information developed since the
Surry failure have greatly reduced the incidence of FAC
failures, particularly in the nuclear plants which have the
greatest level of implementation of the technology. Never-
theless, instances of severe thinning, leaks, and ruptures
have still occurred. Some of the most signi®cant examples
of recent failures in nuclear plants are summarized in Table
1 [1].
Failures in fossil and industrial steam plants have not
historically been as well documented, because the plants
are not as tightly regulated and because FAC has not been
properly identi®ed. However, as a result of recent fatalities
at a fossil plant, the topic now has a higher priority. A recent
survey [2] of 63 utilities ranked the most important areas
where FAC has been identi®ed in fossil plants (Table 2);
40% of the utilities had found FAC. Table 3 provides a
summary of recent (from 1982) serious fossil plant failures,
resulting in bursts, extensive plant damage, or fatalities,
known to be caused by FAC.
Table 3 indicates that there are a number of very impor-
tant and signi®cant features which are common to these
FAC incidents:
² The feedwater failures all occurred in the high-pressure
portions of the system up to and including the economi-
zer inlet header tubes. This means that the temperature
range up to 280±3008C in fossil plants is susceptible to
failure. This range is above the temperature at which
maximum FAC occurs in laboratory experiments and
above the temperature where magnetite solubility is
maximum.
² Each system (A±W) had stainless steel low- and high-
pressure feedwater heaters.
² The feedwater in each case was treated with both
ammonia and a reducing agent (usually hydrazine)
which means the feedwater was operating under
Table 1
Signi®cant FAC failures in nuclear power plants since 1989
Plant Date Location
S.M. de Garona (Spain) December 1989 Feedwater
Loviisa Unit 1 (Finland) May 1990 Feedwater
Millstone Unit 3 December 1990 Heater drain
Millstone Unit 2 November 1991 Reheater drain
Almaraz Unit 1 (Spain) December 1991 Extraction steam
Loviisa Unit 2 (Finland) February 1993 Feedwater
Sequoyah Unit 2 March 1993 Extraction steam
Fort Calhoun April 1997 Extraction steam
Table 2
Most important fossil plant areas experiencing FAC (results from 1997
survey of 63 utilities [2])
Piping around BFP
Tubesheet/tubes in HP Heaters
Heater Drain Lines
Economizer Inlet Header Tubing
Piping to Economizer Header
Tubesheet/tubes in LP Heaters
Deaerator shell
Heat recovery steam generator
(HRSG) tubing
reducing conditions (below 2300 mV ORP or redox
potential).
² The feedwater oxygen levels were very low (,1 ppb).
² The heater drains are susceptible areas in plants with both
all-ferrous and mixed feedwater metallurgies.
FAC has also been commonly observed in industrial, pulp
and paper, and chemical and petroleum plants. Most
recently it has quickly become the most important failure
mechanism in the heat recovery steam generators (HRSG)
of combined cycle units.
1.2. Key features
The FAC process produces a different surface appearance
for single-phase ¯ow than it does for two-phase ¯ow:
² For single-phase ¯ow (liquid only): when the corrosion
rate is high, the metal surface is often characterized by
overlapping ªhorseshoe pitsº that give a scalloped or
orange peel appearance. The scalloped appearance
usually occurs in large diameter piping where a signi®-
cant loss of thickness has occurred.
² For two-phase ¯ow, the well-known ªtiger stripedº
appearance is often observed in large pipes. The black
part of the surface is the corroded area. It is covered with
a very thin oxide ®lm. The blue to red colored part of the
surface is protected by a thick oxide ®lm. This appear-
ance is thought to be caused by a very disturbed, turbu-
lent water ®lm ¯ow along the pipe wall.
When FAC is occurring, the oxide ®lm present on the
surface can be very thin (less than 1 mm). Under these
conditions, the ®lm is nearly transparent and the surface
has a metallic appearance. However, if the ®lm thickness
increases, the surface appears black.
2. Mechanism of FAC
The phenomenon of FAC is well-understood [1]. It is a
process whereby the normally protective magnetite (Fe3O4)
layer on carbon steel dissolves in a stream of ¯owing water
or wet steam. This process reduces or eliminates the oxide
layer and leads to a rapid removal of the base material until,
in the worst cases, the pipe or tube bursts. The FAC process
 R.B. Dooley, V.K. Chexal / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 77 (2000) 85±90
Table 3
Serious FAC failures in fossil plants from 1982 [3]
Plant Location Temp.
A Elbow downstream of BF 3608F 1828C
booster pump
B Elbow near El at RT plug
C Downstream of boiler stop 4568F 2368C
valve near El
D±W El tubes Final feedwater
Numerous Drain lines
can become rapid: wall thinning rates as high as 3 mm/year
have occurred. The rate of metal loss depends on a complex
interplay of many parameters including the feedwater chem-
istry, the material composition, other materials in the feed-
water systems, and the ¯uid hydrodynamics.
The FAC process is an extension of the generalized corro-
sion process of carbon steel in stagnant water. The major
difference is the effect of the water ¯ow at the oxide±solu-
tion interface. FAC can be divided into coupled processes
that take into account the presence of the porous magnetite
layer on the steel surface up to about 3008C (Fig. 1):
² The ®rst process produces soluble ferrous ions at the
oxide±water interface and can be separated into three
simultaneous actions:
± metal oxidation occurs at the iron±magnetite interface
in water with a reducing potential (ORP , 0 mV);
± the ferrous species diffuse from the iron surface to the
main water ¯ow through the porous oxide layer;
± the magnetite oxide layer at the oxide±water interface
dissolves by a reductive process that is promoted by
the presence of hydrogen.
² The second process involves the transfer of the ferrous
ions into the bulk water across the boundary layer. The
concentration of ferrous ions in the bulk water is very low
compared to the concentration of ferrous ions at the oxide
solution interface. The corrosion rate (FAC) increases if
there is an increase of water ¯ow past the oxide±water
interface.
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of oxide formed on iron-based feedwater
surfaces during operation with deoxygenated all-volatile treatment (AVT)
under reducing conditions (ORP p 0 mV).
87
Feedwater treatment pH Oxygen Feedwater heaters
NH3/N2H4/Carbo-hydrazide Low , 1 ppb All-stainless
NH3/N2H4 8.80±9.20 Low , 1 ppb
NH3/N2H4 8.75 Very low , 1 ppb All-stainless
NH3/N2H4 9.00±9.40 Very low , 1 ppb All-stainless
Low Very low , 1 ppb All-ferrous & mixed
This dissolution process is controlled by the oxidizing/
reducing potential (ORP) of the water. Basically the more
reducing the feedwater, the higher is the dissolution and
level of corrosion products measured in the feedwater.
Under alkaline, deoxygenated (reducing) conditions the
primary reaction of iron dissolution is inhibited by increas-
ing pH or by decreasing the reducing environment (i.e. ORP
becoming more positive). This causes a reduction of the
ferrous ion (Fe 21 and Fe(OH) 1) concentration.
The solubility of ferrous hydroxide (Fe(OH)2) rises with
increasing temperature to a maximum at around 1508C, then
decreases with a steep drop to the solubility of magnetite
between 200 and 2508C.
2.1. Factors in¯uencing FAC
The scienti®c basis of ¯ow-accelerated corrosion together
with laboratory studies do not provide the utility engineer
with the tools needed to solve real plant problems. To meet
this need, a number of models have been developed to
predict the rate of FAC [4±7]. There are several key para-
meters which affect the rate of FAC; these are discussed
below.
Because the FAC process as described above involves at
least two steps (soluble iron production at the oxide/water
interface and transfer of the corrosion products to the bulk
solution across the diffusion boundary layer), it is necessary
to consider both the corrosion processes (steel oxidation,
oxide dissolution, charge transfer, etc.) and mass transfer.
The role of the major in¯uencing factors can be classi®ed as
follows:
² Hydrodynamics factors, i.e. ¯ow velocity, pipe rough-
ness, geometry of the ¯ow path, steam quality or void
fraction for two-phase ¯ows.
² Environmental factors, i.e. temperature, pH, reducing
agent and oxygen concentration, oxidizing±reducing
potential, water impurities.
² Metallurgical factors, mainly the chemical composition
of the steel. The most bene®cial element has been deter-
mined to be chromium. An alloy with a nominal chro-
mium content as low as 1% will have low or negligible
FAC rates. There is evidence that even lower amounts of
chromium (as low as 0.1%) may signi®cantly reduce
FAC in single-phase systems.
88 R.B. Dooley, V.K. Chexal / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 77 (2000) 85±90
Fig. 2. Fossil Plant FAC program Road Map.
2.2. Effect of water chemistry and oxidizing reducing
potential
It has been frequently observed in power plants, espe-
cially fossil and industrial plants, that the occurrence of
FAC damage is very dependent on the environmental
factors:
(a) pH at temperature
(b) ORP which provides an indication of the balance
between reducing agents (such as hydrazine) and oxygen.
Knowledge of the level of one or the other may not be
suf®cient to indicate the susceptibility to FAC. Thus ORP
is becoming the indicator of choice.
It should be noted that ORP, also called redox, utilizes a
platinum measuring electrode with a Ag/AgCl reference
electrode to measure the potential. This measurement is
made at ambient temperature with a sampling system in a
similar manner to pH and dissolved oxygen. ORP is not a
measurement of corrosion potential, but is an excellent para-
meter to determine the relative corrosion potential for a
feedwater system [12].
Hydrazine (and alternatives) is a reducing agent added to
the feedwater/condensate system in a power plant. It main-
tains a reducing environment in the steam generators
(nuclear plants) and in the feedtrain. Hydrazine is unique
in the chemical species in that it is reactive and unstable. It
reacts with oxygen forming water and nitrogen. Most of the
hydrazine which does not react with oxygen thermally
decomposes to form ammonia. Recent information indicates
that in the 0±150 ppb range of hydrazine level, the FAC rate
increases with increasing hydrazine level as the oxidizing±
reducing potential (ORP) becomes more reducing. The
decrease in potential in this range leads to greater dissolu-
tion of the surface magnetite (Fe3O4) and thus to an increase
in the rate of FAC. Above the 150 ppb hydrazine level, the
potential is lowered signi®cantly enough that it leads to
slower kinetics. Thus, any further increase in the hydrazine
level leads to a decrease in the FAC rate. Therefore, a plot of
FAC rate versus hydrazine level is a bell-shaped curve with
a peak at 150 ppb.
Theoretical considerations show that FAC should be
proportional to the concentration of hydrazine to the 1/6
power, with recent laboratory data indicating that this
does not continue above 150 ppb of hydrazine or below
20 ppb.
Hydrazine is commonly added to the feedwater of the
PWR secondary circuit to keep feedwater oxygen levels
lower than 5 ppb. Hydrazine is used to maintain a reducing
environment in the feedtrain and the steam generator as a
scavenger of residual oxygen and as a pH-conditioning
agent as it decomposes to ammonia. However, to achieve
a pH level of 9.5, a concentration of about 50 ppm is neces-
sary, which is not feasible for plant applications.
In fossil and industrial plants, hydrazine, if used, is added
to the feedwater immediately after the condensate polishers
or the condensate extraction pump. It is an absolute neces-
sity for mixed-metallurgy systems to protect the copper-
based feedwater heaters. However, in all-ferrous systems,
it can be eliminated in high purity …,0:3mS=cm† feedwater.
In both cases, it is not optimum practice to use the hydrazine
to both alkalize the cycle and to deoxygenate.
In the past, hydrazine concentrations of about 20 ppb
were used to control the oxygen in the feedtrain. Recently,
US utilities have begun adding larger amounts of hydrazine
in nuclear plants to maintain a strongly reducing environ-
ment within the steam generators. Hydrazine concentrations
of approximately 100 ppb are used for this purpose;
however some utilities, outside the US have used levels
up to 600 ppb.
(c) Temperature: Temperature is an important variable
affecting the FAC of carbon steels and low alloyed steels.
The phenomenon usually occurs between 100 and 2808C.
Temperature in¯uences the rates of the oxidation and reduc-
tion reactions. It also in¯uences the values of the thermo-
physical properties. FAC as a function of temperature is a
dome-shaped curve with a peak near 1508C for a constant
mass ¯ow rate, steam quality, and water chemistry. Above
and below the peak temperature, FAC wear rates tend to
decrease. Note, however, that the peak temperature is a
function of the main variables affecting the FAC process;
but in practice the major failures have occurred in fossil and
industrial plants at temperatures above this laboratory
derived maximum (Table 3).
 R.B. Dooley, V.K. Chexal / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 77 (2000) 85±90
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of oxide formed on iron-based feedwater
surfaces during operation with oxidizing feedwater.
3. Application of mechanism to FAC control
A comprehensive FAC program can help a utility/opera-
tor avoid the large costs that accompany pipe/tube failure
and forced outages. The aspects of such programs for
nuclear [8] and fossil/industrial [9] plants have been devel-
oped. For example, Fig. 2 shows the two pronged approach
for controlling FAC in fossil plants.
The following are some of the activities in any FAC
inspection, evaluation, and mitigation program:
² identifying susceptible systems
² developing computer models of susceptible lines [4±7]
² selecting locations for inspection
² inspection planning [10]
² preparing for inspection
² conducting inspections [11]
² evaluating inspection data
² qualifying the components for continued use
² repair or replacing thinned components
² optimizing feedwater chemistry.
3.1. Control of feedwater chemistry in fossil/industrial
plants
Unlike in most nuclear plants where the feedwater has to
be reducing to protect the steam generator, the feedwater
chemistry can be changed/optimized in some fossil/indus-
trial plants. These cycle chemistry activities have the proven
capability of reducing the generation of feedwater corrosion
products, and reducing and nearly eliminating FAC depend-
ing on the system metallurgy and the feedwater chemistry
adopted.
For both all-ferrous and mixed-metallurgy feedwater
systems, the feedwater treatment always needs to be all-
volatile. Currently there are three types of treatment:
² Type A is classical all-volatile treatment (AVT) using
ammonia and a reducing agent or oxygen scavenger
(such as hydrazine).
² Type B is the same as Type A minus the reducing agent,
called ªNew AVTº.
89
² Type C is oxygenated treatment (OT) using only ammo-
nia and oxygen.
The major difference in terms of FAC between Type A,
and Types B and C chemistries is that Type A provides a
reducing environment (ORP , 0 mV), whereas Types B
and C result in an oxidizing environment (ORP . 0 mV).
Under the reducing conditions of Type A feedwater
chemistry, the type of oxide (magnetite) which grows on
carbon steel surfaces up to about 3008C is shown schema-
tically in Fig. 1.
For ªnormalº Type A chemistry, the ORP is typically less
than 2300 mV, and the level of feedwater corrosion
products (measured at the economizer inlet) will be less
than 10 ppb. Most fossil plants can easily achieve 5 ppb;
this situation is regarded as ªnormalº and not of major
concern from an FAC viewpoint.
For a unit with Type A chemistry and high rates of FAC,
the ORP will also be less than 2300 mV; but because of the
local ¯ow hydrodynamics, the total corrosion/dissolution
process is faster. The result is more dissolution and oxide
particle entrainment into the ¯ow. In the worst cases, FAC
will be so fast that there is only a very thin layer of Fe3O4 on
the surface. Importantly, the level of feedwater corrosion
products (measured at the economizer inlet) can be much
more than 10 ppb.
Types B and C chemistries produce a completely different
situation. Fig. 3 shows the typical oxide structure that forms
on carbon steel surfaces up to about 280±3008C under
oxidizing feedwater environments. Here, the surface is
covered by a layer of ferric oxide hydrate (FeOOH),
which also permeates down the pores of the magnetite.
So under the conditions of B and C chemistries the ORP
is greater than zero; conditions which favor the growth of
FeOOH. This formation does two things: (i) it reduces the
overall corrosion rate because the diffusion (or access) of
oxygen to the base material is restricted (or reduced), and
(ii) it reduces the solubility of the surface oxide layers.
Thus, from an FAC perspective, this surface FeOOH layer
dissolves much slower (at least two orders of magnitude
slower) than magnetite into the ¯owing feedwater, under
exactly the same hydrodynamic conditions that existed
previously with Type A chemistry. The overall result is
that the measured feedwater corrosion products can be
much less than 1 ppb and FAC is minimal.
There are essentially two types of all-ferrous systems:
those containing only carbon steel in the tubing and piping,
and those containing stainless steel tubing and carbon steel
piping. As can be seen clearly in Table 3 most of the serious
FAC failures in fossil plants have occurred when all the
tubing (both LP and HP) is stainless steel, and the chemistry
is Type A (normal AVT with hydrazine producing
ORP , 0 mV). This implies that the reducing environment
is more severe in the HP feedwater when the tubing is stain-
less as compared to when the tubing is carbon steel or
copper-based.
90 R.B. Dooley, V.K. Chexal / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 77 (2000) 85±90

Table 4
Comparison of normal cycle chemistry limits at the economizer inlet for AVT feedwater and oxygenated treatments (values in parentheses represent the
achievable and desirable levels)

Cycle chemistry parameter AVT (mixed metallurgy) AVT (all-ferrous) Oxygenated treatment (OT) (all-ferrous)

PH 8.8±9.1 9.2±9.6 8.0±8.5 a

9.0±9.5 b
Ammonia, NH3 ppm 0.15±0.4 0.5±2.0 0.02±0.07 a
0.3±1.5 b
Cation conductivity (mS/cm) , 0.2 , 0.2 (,0.15) , 0.15 (,0.1)
Fe, ppb , 10 (,5) , 5 (,2) , 5 (,1)
Cu, ppb , 2 (,2)
Oxygen, ppb , 5 (,2) 1±10 30±150 a
30±50 b
ORP c, mV p0 0±80 . 100
a
For once-through units.
b
For drum units.
c
Oxidizing±reducing potential (with respect to Pt electrode vs Ag/AgCl).

Mixed-metallurgy systems can only use Type A feed-
water chemistry which maintains a reducing environment
under all operating regimes to protect the copper based
tubing. This means that the carbon steel interconnecting
piping and the economizer inlet tubing must also be exposed
to the same reducing environment. Observation of Table 3
indicates that no serious FAC failures have occurred in
fossil plant mixed-metallurgy systems; however wall loss
associated with FAC has been observed in fossil plants,
and serious failures have occurred in nuclear plants with
mixed-metallurgy systems; thus the carbon steel compo-
nents in mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems must be
subjected to the same rigorous FAC programs as for all-
ferrous systems.
Finally in this fossil/industrial plant example, Table 4
provides a comparison of the optimum feedwater chemistry
for all-ferrous and mixed metallurgy systems.
4. Concluding remarks
Although FAC remains a major problem in nuclear, fossil
and industrial plants, solutions and approaches are avail-
able. The thorough understanding of the mechanism in feed-
water systems which have all-ferrous metallurgy and
mixed-metallurgy allows the proper application of inspec-
tion and cycle chemistry approaches. The recent studies
involving the effects of oxygen and reducing agents have
led to the use of ORP as a main chemistry controlling para-
meter. Several computer programs to predict FAC are avail-
able, and together with the optimum inspection techniques
and cycle chemistry should provide the tools to implement
FAC programs which will ensure an adequate level of
safety.
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[4] CHECWORKS Computer Program User Guide. EPRI TR-103198-
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