ELeventh Physics Textbook SCERt

GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU
PHYSICS
HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR
VOLUME - I
Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education

Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2018
NOT FOR SALE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
State Council of Educational

Research and Training
© SCERT 2018
Printing & Publishing
Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Services Corporation
www.text bookso nline.tn.nic. in
II
CONTENTS
PHYSICS
UNIT I Nature of Physical World and Measurement 01
UNIT II Kinematics 41
UNIT III Laws of motion 105
UNIT IV Work, Energy and Power 167
UNIT V Motion of System of Particles and Rigid Bodies 208
Appendix 1 266
Appendix 2 290
Appendix 3 297
Appendix 4 298
Glossary 300
E-book Assessment DIGI links
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III
HOW TO USE THE BOOK
• Awareness on higher learning -courses, institutions and required
Scope of Physics competitive exams
• Financial assistance possible to help students to climb academic ladder
Learning Objectives:
• Overview of the unit
• Gives clarity on the goals and intention of the topics
• Additional facts related to the topics covered to facilitate

curiosity driven learning
• To ensure understanding, problems/illustrations are given at every stage

Example problems before advancing to next level
• Visual representation of concepts with illustrations

• Videos, animations, and tutorials
ICT • To harness the digital skills to class room learning and experimenting
Summary • Recap of salient points of the lesson
Concept Map • Schematic outline of salient learning of the unit
• Evaluate students’ understanding and get them acquainted with the

Evaluation application of physical concepts to numerical and conceptual questions
Books for Reference • List of relevant books for further reading
• Numerical/conceptual questions are solved to enable students to tackle

Solved examples standard problems in mechanics in appendix 1
Competitive • Model Questions - To motivate students aspiring to take up competitive

Exam corner examinations such as NEET, JEE, Physics Olympiad, JIPMER etc
• Additional information including the chronological development

Appendix of physics is provided
Glossary • Scientific terms frequently used with their Tamil equivalents
Physics learning - Correct method Value addition of the book

• The correct way to learn is to understand the concept, • Mathematical topics such as vectors, differentiation
express the same in the language of mathematics and integration are essential to understand and express
which are equations. physical phenomena.
• Each equation conveys the meaning of a phenomena • Inclusion of these topics and usage of vector notation
or relationship between various parameters in the wherever necessary is the salient feature of this book.
equations. Such relationship can be diagrammatically • Becoming familiar with vector notations and basic
expressed as graphs. mathematics for physics will solve a lot of difficulty
• This interlink should be clear in mind while going currently faced by students pursuing higher education
through the entire text. in engineering, technology and science disciplines.
IV
Scope of Physics - Higher Education
After completing
undergraduate course in Physics
Exams (B.Sc Physics)
After completing +2
x M.Sc. (Physics) (In Central and State

x B.Sc (Physics) Universities and Colleges)
V
x JEE-Joint Entrance Examination
x Physics Olympiad Exam x Integrated M.Sc (Physics) (Central Universities) x M.Sc. Physics (JAM in IISc ,IITs and NITs)
x NEET- National Eligibility and Entrance Test x Integrated M.Sc (in Central Research Institutes through x M.Sc. (In State and Central Universities)
x NEST- National Entrance Screening Test NEST and KVPY with stipend) x Medical Physics
x AIEEE- All India Engineering Entrance Exam x B.Sc./B.S./B.Stat./B.Math./M.S. in Mathematics, x Materials Science
x AIIMS- All India Institute of Medical Science (Entrance Chemistry and Biology. (KVPY) x Energy
Examination) x B.E/B.Tech/ B.Arch (JEE, AIEEE in IITs and NITs) x Earth Sciences
x JIPMER- Jawaharlal institute of Postgraduate Medical MBBS/ B.D.S/B.Pharm (NEET, JIPMER, AIIMS ) x Space science
Education and Research (Entrance Examination) x B.Sc. (Agriculture) (ICAR -AIEEA) x Oceanography
xKVPY- Kishore Vaigyanik Protsahan Yojana x Dual Degree Program BS & MS x Remote sensing
x JAM- Joint Admission Test (JEE, JEST in IITs and IISERs) x Electronics
x TIFR GS - Tata Institute of Fundamental Research x B.Sc (Hospitality administration) x Photonics
Graduate School Admissions Examination x B.Sc (Optoectronics) x Optoelectronics
x JEST- Joint Entrance Screening Test x B.Sc (Optometry) x Acoustics
x NET- National Eligibility Test (CSIR and UGC) x B.Tech (Optics and Optoelectronics) x Applied electronics
x GATE-Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering x Astronomy and Astrophysics
x ICAR -AIEEA-Indian Council of Agricultural Research x Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
All India Entrance Examination
x Biostatistics
x Bio informatics
x Vacuum sciences
Opportunities after B.Sc. Physics
Financial assistance to
Jobs in Government Sector
pursue higher education
VI
x Indian Forest Services
x Scientist Job in ISRO, DRDO, CSIR labs Scholarships for graduate and post
x Union Public Service Commission graduate courses
x Staff selection commission
x Indian Defence services etc. x International Olympiad: for getting stipend for Higher
x Public sector Bank Education in Science and Mathematics
x State PCS x DST – INSPIRE Scholarships (for UG and PG)
x Grade III & Compiler Post x DST – INSPIRE Fellowships (for Ph.D)
x Tax Assistant x UGC National Fellowship (for Ph.D)
x Statistical Investigator x Indira Gandhi Fellowship for Single girl child
(for UG and PG)
x Combined Higher Secondary
x Moulana Azad Fellowship for minorities (for Ph.D)
x Combined Graduate Level Exam etc.
x In addition various fellowships for SC/ST/PWD,
OBC etc are available.
x Visit website of University Grants Commission
(UGC) and Department of Science and
Technology (DST)
Institutes in india to pursue research in physics
Research Institutions in various areas of science

Name of the Institution Website
Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore www.iisc.ac.in
Raman Research Institute (RRI) Bangalore www.rri.res.in
Institute of Mathematical Sciences (IMSc) Chennai www.imsc.res.in
Indian Association for Cultivation of Science (IACS) Calcutta www.iacs.res.in
After completing Chennai Mathematical Institute (CMI) Chennai www.cmi.ac.in
Post Graduate course in Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) Mumbai www.tifr.res.in
Physics (M.Sc Physics) Bhaba Atomic Research centre (BARC) Mumbai www.barc.gov.in
SN Bose centre Basic Natural science Calcutta www.bose.res.in
Topics of Research Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) Trivandrum www.iist.ac.in
VII
x Quantum Physics andQuantum Optics Physics Research Laboratory (PRL) Ahmedabad www.prl.res.in
x Astrophysics, Astronomy
Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) Bangalore www.iiap.res.in
x String theory, Quantum gravity
Institute of Physics (IOP) Bhubaneswar www.iopb.res.in
x Mathematical Physics, Statistical Mechanics
x Quantum Field Theory Institute for Plasma Research (IPR) Gujarat www.ipr.res.in
x Particle Physics and Quantum Thermodynamics Inter university centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA) Pune www.iucaa.in
x Quantum information theory Indira Gandhi centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam www.igcar.gov.in
x Condensed Matter Physics, Materials Science
Hyderabad central university, Hyderabad www.uohyd.ac.in
x Electro magnetic Theory
Delhi University, Delhi www.du.ac.in
x Black Holes, Cosmology
x Crystal Growth, Crystallography Mumbai University, Mumbai www.mu.ac.in
x Spectroscopy, Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics SavithiribaiPhule Pune university, Pune www.unipune.ac.in
x Nano Science and Nanotechnology National Institute of Science Education and Research (NISER), Bhubaneshwar www.niser.ac.in
x Energy and Environment Studies
IISER Educational Institutions www.iiseradmission.in
x Biophysics, Medical Physics
x Cryptography, Spintronics
Indian Institute of Technology in various places (IIT’s) www.iitm.ac.in
x Optics and Photonics National Institute of Technology (NITs) www.nitt.edu
x Meteorology and Atmospheric Science Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) www.jnu.ac.in
Central Universities www.ugc.ac.in
State Universities https://www.ugc.ac.in
CSIR – Academy (National laboratories, Delhi,
Hyderabad, Trivandrum, Chennai, Calcutta etc)
UNIT NATURE OF PHYSICAL WORLD
1 AND MEASUREMENT
“Science is a method for describing, creating and understanding human experience” – Bruce Lindsay
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In this unit, the student is exposed to

• excitement generated by the discoveries in Physics
• an understanding of physical quantities of importance
• different system of units
• an understanding of errors and corrections in physics measurements
• the importance of significant figures
• usage of dimensions to check the homogeneity of physical quantities
1.1 (Physics and Chemistry), and that dealing

SCIENCE—
I NTRODUCTION with living things is biological science
(Botany, Zoology etc.).
The word ‘science’ has its root in the Latin
verb scientia, meaning “to know”. In Tamil Curiosity-driven observations of natural
language, it is ‘2Jà’ (Ariviyal) happenings was the origin of science.
meaning ‘knowing the truth’. The human The word ‘science’ was coined only in
mind is always curious to know and the 19th century. Natural philosophy was
understand different phenomena like the the earlier name given to science, when
bright celestial objects in nature, cyclic ancient civilization knew and practised
changes in the seasons, occurrence of astronomy, chemistry, human physiology
rainbow, etc. The inquisitive mind looks for and agriculture. Oral communication
meaningful patterns and relations in such was the mode of conveying knowledge when
phenomena. Today’s modern science and writing systems were not yet developed.
technology is an offshoot of the understanding One of the oldest forerunners of
of nature. Science is the systematic scientific advancements, from astronomy to
organization of knowledge gained through medicine, were the Egyptians. Scientific and
observation, experimentation and logical mathematical excellence in India dates back
reasoning. The knowledge of science dealing to prehistoric human activity in the Indus
with non-living things is physical science Valley Civilization (3300 – 1300 BCE).
1
According to part IV Article 51A (h)
of Indian Constitution “It shall be the The name Physics
duty of every citizen of India to develop was introduced by
scientific temper, humanism and spirit of Aristotle in the year
350 BC
inquiry and reform’’. This is the aim of
our Science Education.
1.1.1 7KH6FLHQWL¿F0HWKRG
1.2
The scientific method is a step-by-step
PHYSICS - INTRODUCTION
approach in studying natural phenomena
and establishing laws which govern these The word ‘physics’ is derived from the
phenomena. Any scientific method involves Greek word “Fusis”, meaning nature. The
the following general features. study of nature and natural phenomena
is dealt within physics. Hence physics
(i) Systematic observation
is considered as the most basic of all
(ii) Controlled experimentation sciences.
(iii) Qualitative and quantitative reasoning
Unification and Reductionism are
(iv) Mathematical modeling
the two approaches in studying physics.
(v) Prediction and verification or Attempting to explain diverse physical
falsification of theories phenomena with a few concepts and laws
is unification. For example, Newton’s
Example
universal law of gravitation (in unit 6)
Consider a metalic rod being heated. When explains the motion of freely falling bodies
one end of the rod is heated, heat is felt at towards the Earth, motion of planets around
the other end. The following questions can the Sun, motion of the Moon around the
be asked on this observation Earth, thus unifying the fundamental
a) What happens within the rod when it forces of nature.
is heated? An attempt to explain a macroscopic
b) How does the heat reach the other system in terms of its microscopic
end? constituents is reductionism. For example,
c) Is this effect true for all materials? thermodynamics (unit 8) was developed
d) If heat flows through the material, is it to explain macroscopic properties
possible to visualize heat? like temperature, entropy, etc., of bulk
systems. The above properties have been
The process of finding the answers to these
interpreted in terms of the molecular
queries is scientific investigation.
constituents (microscopic) of the bulk
The basic phenomenon of heat is system by kinetic theory (unit 9) and
discussed in unit 8. statistical mechanics.
2 Unit 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement

1.2.1 %UDQFKHVRI3K\VLFV Some of the fundamental concepts of
basic areas of physics are discussed in higher
Physics as a fundamental science helps to secondary first year physics books volume 1
uncover the laws of nature. The language of its and 2. Mechanics is covered in unit 1 to 6.
expression is mathematics. In ancient times, Unit 1 gives an idea of the development
humans lived with nature – their lifestyles of physics along with discussion on basic
were integrated with nature. They could elements such as measurement, units etc.
understand the signals from the movement Unit 2 gives the basic mathematics needed
of the Stars and other celestial bodies. They to express the impact of physical principles
could determine the time to sow and reap and their governing laws. The impact of
by watching the sky. Thus, astronomy and forces acting on objects in terms of the
mathematics were the first disciplines to be fundamental laws of motion of Newton are
developed. The chronological development very systematically covered in unit 3. Work
of various branches of physics is presented and energy which are the basic parameters
in Appendix A1.1. The various branches of investigation of the mechanical world
of physics are schematically shown in are presented in unit 4. Unit 5 deals with
figure 1.1. The essential focus of different the mechanics of rigid bodies (in contrast,
areas is given in Table 1.1. objects are viewed as point objects in units
Physics
Classical Modern
Statics
Kinematics
Mechanics Quantum Physics
Dynamics Non-relativistic
Relativistic
Kinetics
Atomic Physics
Thermodynamics & Nuclear Physics

Kinetic Theory of Gases
Optics Molecular Physics
Electricity & Magnetism High Energy

Physics
Acoustics
Condensed Matter
Physics
Astrophysics
Relativity
Figure 1.1 Branches of Physics
Unit 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement 3

Table 1.1 Branches of Physics
Classical Physics Refers to traditional physics that was recognized and
developed before the beginning of the 20th century
Branch Major focus
1. Classical mechanics The study of forces acting on bodies whether at rest or in
motion
2. Thermodynamics The study of the relationship between heat and other forms
of energy
3. Optics The study of light
4. Electricity and The study of electricity and magnetism and their mutual
magnetism relationship
5. Acoustics The study of the production and propagation of sound waves
6. Astrophysics The branch of physics which deals with the study of the
physics of astronomical bodies
7. Relativity One of the branches of theoretical physics which deals with
the relationship between space, time and energy particularly
with objects moving in different ways .
Modern Physics Refers to the concepts in physics that have surfaced since
the beginning of the 20th century.
1. *Quantum mechanics The study of the discrete nature of phenomena at the atomic
and subatomic levels
2. Atomic physics The branch of physics which deals with the structure and
properties of the atom
3. Nuclear physics The branch of physics which deals with the structure,
properties and reaction of the nuclei of atoms.
4. Condensed matter The study of the properties of condensed materials (solids,
physics liquids and those intermediate between them and dense
gas). It branches into various sub-divisions including
developing fields such as nano science, photonics etc.
It covers the basics of materials science, which aims at
developing new material with better properties for promising
applications.
5. High energy physics The study of the nature of the particles.
*Quantum mechanics is a broader approach; classical results can be reproduced in quantum mechanics also.
Detailed explanation is beyond the scope of this book.
3 and 4). The basics of gravitation and The impact of heat and investigations of its
its consequences are discussed in unit 6. consequences are covered in units 8 and 9.
Older branches of physics such as different Important features of oscillations and wave
properties of matter are discussed in unit 7. motion are covered in units 10 and 11.
1.2.2 6
FRSHDQG([FLWHPHQW
Range of masses: from heavenly bodies
RI3K\VLFV to electron, 1055 kg (mass of known
observable universe) to 10−31 kg (mass
Discoveries in physics are of two types; of an electron) [the actual mass of an
accidental discoveries and well-analysed electron is 9.11×10–31 kg].
research outcome in the laboratory based
on intuitive thinking and prediction. For The study of physics is not only educative
example, magnetism was accidentally but also exciting in many ways.
observed but the reason for this strange A small number of basic concepts
behavior of magnets was later analysed and laws can explain diverse physical
theoretically. This analysis revealed the phenomena.
underlying phenomena of magnetism. With The most interesting part is the designing
this knowledge, artificial magnets were of useful devices based on the physical
prepared in the laboratories. Theoretical laws.
predictions are the most important
For example i) use of robotics
contribution of physics to the developments
ii) journey to Moon and to
in technology and medicine. For example, the
nearby planets with controls from
famous equation of Albert Einstein, E=mc2
the ground iii) technological
was a theoretical prediction in 1905 and
advances in health sciences etc.
experimentally proved in 1932 by Cockcroft
and Walton. Theoretical predictions aided Carrying out new challenging
with recent simulation and computation experiments to unfold the secrets of
procedures are widely used to identify the nature and in verifying or falsifying the
most suited materials for robust applications. existing theories.
The pharmaceutical industry uses this Probing and understanding the science
technique very effectively to design new behind natural phenomena like the
drugs. Bio compatible materials for organ eclipse, and why one feels the heat when
replacement are predicted using quantum there is a fire? (or) What causes the
prescriptions of physics before fabrication. wind, etc.
Thus, experiments and theory work hand in In today’s world of technological
hand complimenting one another. advancement, the building block of all
Physics has a huge scope as it covers a engineering and technical education is
tremendous range of magnitude of various physics which is explained with the help of
physical quantities (length, mass, time, mathematical tools.
energy etc). It deals with systems of very large
magnitude as in astronomical phenomena
as well as those with very small magnitude
involving electrons and protons.
Range of time scales: astronomical scales

to microscopic scales, 1018s to 10−22s.

1.3 bonding and to understand the complex
PHYSICS IN RELATION chemical structures. Inter-disciplinary
TO TECHNOLOGY AND branches like Physical chemistry and
SOCIETY Quantum chemistry play important
roles here.
Technology is the application of the 2. Physics in relation to biology:
principles of physics for practical purposes. Biological studies are impossible
The application of knowledge for practical without a microscope designed using
purposes in various fields to invent and physics principles. The invention of
produce useful products or to solve the electron microscope has made it
problems is known as technology. Thus, possible to see even the structure of
physics and technology can both together a cell. X-ray and neutron diffraction
impact our society directly or indirectly. For techniques have helped us to
example, understand the structure of nucleic
acids, which help to control vital
i. Basic laws of electricity and
life processes. X-rays are used for
magnetism led to the discovery of
diagnostic purposes. Radio-isotopes
wireless communication technology
are used in radiotherapy for the cure
which has shrunk the world with
of cancer and other diseases. In recent
effective communication over large
years, biological processes are being
distances.
studied from the physics point of view.
ii. The launching of satellite into space
3. Physics in relation to mathematics:
has revolutionized the concept of
Physics is a quantitative science. It is
communication.
most closely related to mathematics as a
iii. Microelectronics, lasers, computers,
tool for its development.
superconductivity and nuclear energy
4. Physics in relation to astronomy:
have comprehensively changed the
Astronomical telescopes are used to
thinking and living style of human
study the motion of planets and other
beings.
heavenly bodies in the sky. Radio
Physics being a fundamental science has telescopes have enabled the astronomers
played a vital role in the development of all to observe distant points of the universe.
other sciences. A few examples: Studies of the universe are done using
physical principles.
1. Physics in relation to Chemistry: In 5. Physics in relation to geology:
physics, we study the structure of atom, Diffraction techniques helps to study
radioactivity, X-ray diffraction etc. the crystal structure of various rocks.
Such studies have enabled researchers Radioactivity is used to estimate the age
in chemistry to arrange elements in the of rocks, fossils and the age of the Earth.
periodic table on the basis of their atomic 6. Physics in relation to oceanography:
numbers. This has further helped to Oceanographers seek to understand the
know the nature of valence and chemical physical and chemical processes of the

oceans. They measure parameters such The comparison of any physical quantity
as temperature, salinity, current speed, with its standard unit is known as
gas fluxes, chemical components. measurement.
7. Physics in relation to psychology: All Measurement is the basis of all
psychological interactions can be derived scientific studies and experimentation.
from a physical process. The movements It plays an important role in our daily
of neurotransmitters are governed by life. Physics is a quantitative science
the physical properties of diffusion and and physicists always deal with numbers
molecular motion. The functioning of our which are the measurement of physical
brain is related to our underlying dualism. quantities.
Nature teaches true science with physics
as an efficient tool. Science and technology
should be used in a balanced manner
1.4.1 H¿QLWLRQRI3K\VLFDO
'
so that they do not become weapons to
4XDQWLW\
destroy nature which taught us science.
Global warming and other negative impacts Quantities that can be measured, and
of technology need to be checked. Safe in terms of which, laws of physics are
science with moderate and appropriate use described are called physical quantities.
of technology is the need of this century. Examples are length, mass, time, force,
energy, etc.
The scope and opportunities for higher
education in physics and various fellowships
offered is given in the beginning of the book.
1.4.2 \SHVRI3K\VLFDO
7
Quantities
Physical quantities are classified into two
types. They are fundamental and derived
quantities.
Fundamental or base quantities are
1.4 quantities which cannot be expressed in
0($685(0(17 terms of any other physical quantities. These
are length, mass, time, electric current,
“When you can measure what you are temperature, luminous intensity and
speaking about and can express it in amount of substance.
numbers, you know something about Quantities that can be expressed in terms
it; but when you cannot express it in of fundamental quantities are called derived
numbers, your knowledge is of a meager quantities. For example, area, volume,
and unsatisfactory kind” - Lord Kelvin velocity, acceleration, force.

1.4.3 '
H¿QLWLRQRI8QLWDQG and second as the three basic units
LWV7\SHV for measuring length, mass and time
respectively.
The process of measurement is basically
a process of comparison. To measure (c) The m.k.s system is based on metre,
a quantity, we always compare it with kilogram and second as the three basic
some reference standard. For example, units for measuring length, mass and
when we state that a rope is 10 meter long, time respectively.
it is to say that it is 10 times as long as an
object whose length is defined as 1 metre.
Such a standard is known as the unit of the The cgs, mks and SI
quantity. Here 1 metre is the unit of the are metric or decimal
quantity ‘length’. system of units. The
An arbitrarily chosen standard of fps system is not a
metric system.
measurement of a quantity, which is accepted
internationally is called unit of the quantity.
The units in which the fundamental
quantities are measured are called
1.4.5 6,XQLW6\VWHP
fundamental or base units and the units
of measurement of all other physical The system of units used by scientists
quantities, which can be obtained by a and engineers around the world is
suitable multiplication or division of powers commonly called the metric system
of fundamental units, are called derived but, since 1960, it has been known
units. officially as the International System,
or SI (the abbreviation for its French
name, Système International). The SI
1.4.4 '
LIIHUHQWW\SHVRI with a standard scheme of symbols, units
0HDVXUHPHQW6\VWHPV and abbreviations, were developed and
A complete set of units which is used to recommended by the General Conference
measure all kinds of fundamental and on Weights and Measures in 1971 for
derived quantities is called a system of units. international usage in scientific, technical,
Here are the common system of units used industrial and commercial work. The
in mechanics: advantages of the SI system are,
(a) the f.p.s. system is the British i) This system makes use of only one unit
Engineering system of units, which uses for one physical quantity, which means
foot, pound and second as the three a rational system of units
basic units for measuring length, mass ii) In this system, all the derived units
and time respectively. can be easily obtained from basic and
(b) The c.g.s system is the Gaussian supplementary units, which means it is
system, which uses centimeter, gram a coherent system of units.

iii) It is a metric system which means that
multiples and submultiples can be
expressed as powers of 10.
In SI, there are seven fundamental units as FPO

given in Table 1.2
Table 1.2 SI Base Quantities and Units

Base SI Units
Quantity Unit Symbol Definition
Length metre m One metre is the length of the path travelled by light in
vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second (1983)
Mass kilogram kg One kilogram is the mass of the prototype cylinder
of platinum iridium alloy (whose height is equal to
its diameter), preserved at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures at Serves, near Paris, France. (1901)
Time second s One second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of
radiation corresponding to the transition between the
two hyperfine levels of the ground state of Cesium-133
atom.(1967)
Electric ampere A One ampere is the constant current, which when
current maintained in each of the two straight parallel conductors
of infinite length and negligible cross section, held one
metre apart in vacuum shall produce a force per unit
length of 2 × 10−7 N/m between them. (1948)
⎛ 1 ⎞
One kelvin is the fraction of ⎜ of the
⎝ 273.16 ⎟⎠
Temperature kelvin K
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point* of

the water. (1967)
Amount of mole mol One mole is the amount of substance which contains as
substance many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg
of pure carbon-12. (1971)
Luminous candela cd One candela is the luminous intensity in a given direction,
intensity of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of
frequency 5.4 × 1014 Hz and that has a radiant intensity
1
of watt/steradian in that direction. (1979)
683
* Triple point of water is the temperature at which saturated vapour, pure and melting ice
are all in equilibrium. The triple point temperature of water is 273.16K

Table 1.3 lists some of the derived quantities and their units.
Table 1.3 Derived Quantities and their Units

Physical quantity Expression Unit
Plane angle arc / radius rad
Solid angle surface area/radius2 sr
Area length × breadth m2
Volume area × height m3
Velocity displacement / time m s−1
Acceleration velocity / time m s−2
Angular velocity angular displacement / time rad s−1
Angular acceleration angular velocity / time rad s−2
Density mass / volume kg m−3
Linear momentum mass × velocity kg m s−1
Moment of inertia mass × (distance)2 kg m2

Force mass × acceleration kg m s−2 or N
Pressure force / area N m−2 or Pa
Energy (work) force × distance N m or J
Power Work / time J s−1 or watt
Impulse force × time Ns
Surface tension force / length N m−1
Moment of force (torque) force × distance Nm
Electric charge current × time A s or C
Current density current / area A m−2
Magnetic induction force / (current × length) N A−1 m−1 or tesla
Force constant force / displacement N m–1
Plank’s constant energy of photon / frequency Js
Specific heat (S) heat energy / mass × temp J kg–1 K–1
Boltzmann constant (k) energy/temperature J K–1

Note: The Radian (rad): One radian is the angle
π radian = 180° subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc
equal in length to the radius of the circle.
180 180 7
1 radian 57. 27 The Steradian (sr): One steradian is
22 the solid angle subtended at the centre
Also, 1° (degree of arc) = 60′ (minute of a sphere, by that surface of the
of arc) and 1′ (minute of arc) = 60″ sphere, which is equal in area, to the
(seconds of arc) square of radius of the sphere
ZĞůĂƟŽŶƐďĞƚǁĞĞŶƌĂĚŝĂŶ͕ĚĞŐƌĞĞĂŶĚ
in which both objects and distances
ŵŝŶƵƚĞƐ͗ are large. On the contrary, objects like
molecules, atoms, proton, neutron,
π
1° = rad = 1.745 × 10-2 rad electron, bacteria etc., and their distances
180 constitute microcosm, which means a
small world in which both objects and
1 1.745 × 10 2
1΄ 2.908 10 4 rad distances are small-sized.
60 60
≈ 2.91 10 4 rad Distances ranging from 10−5 m to 102 m
can be measured by direct methods.
1 1.745 × 10 2 For example, a metre scale can be used
1΄΄ 4.847 10 6rad
3600 3600
4.85
10-6 rad to measure the distance from 10−3 m to 1
m, vernier calipers up to 10−4 m, a screw
gauge up to 10−5 m and so on. The atomic
and astronomical distances cannot be
1.5 measured by any of the above mentioned
0($685(0(172)%$6,& direct methods. Hence, to measure the
QUANTITIES very small and the very large distances,
indirect methods have to be devised and
used. In Table 1.4, a list of powers of 10
1.5.1 0
HDVXUHPHQWRI (both positive and negative powers) is
length given. Prefixes for each power are also
The concept of length in physics is related mentioned. These prefixes are used along
to the concept of distance in everyday life. with units of length, and of mass.
Length is defined as the distance between
any two points in space. The SI unit of
The supplementary
length is metre. The objects of our interest
quantities of plane and
vary widely in sizes. For example, large
solid angle was converted
objects like the galaxy, stars, Sun, Earth,
into Derived quantities in
Moon etc., and their distances constitute
1995 (GCWM)
a macrocosm. It refers to a large world,

Table 1.4 Prefixes for Powers of Ten
Multiple Prefix Symbol Sub multiple Prefix Symbol
1
10 deca da 10−1 deci d
102 hecto h 10−2 centi c
3
10 kilo k 10−3 milli m
106 mega M 10−6 micro μ
9
10 giga G 10−9 nano n
1012 tera T 10−12 pico p
15
10 peta P 10−15 femto f
1018 exa E 10−18 atto a
21
10 zetta Z 10−21 zepto z
1024 yotta Y 10−24 yocto y
i) Measurement of small distances: the circular motion of a screw. The least

screw gauge and vernier caliper count of the screw gauge is 0.01 mm
Screw gauge: The screw gauge is Vernier caliper: A vernier caliper is a
an instrument used for measuring versatile instrument for measuring
accurately the dimensions of objects the dimensions of an object namely
up to a maximum of about 50 mm. diameter of a hole, or a depth of a
The principle of the instrument is the hole. The least count of the vernier
magnification of linear motion using caliper is 0.1 mm
5
0 5 10
95
15 20
0 5 10 15 20 25 0
Screw Gauge 0 5 10
Vernier Caliper
5 10
0
Main Scale
5
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
95 0
0 5 10 0 5 10 0 5 10
(a) No error (b) +ve error (a) No error (b) +ve error (c) - ve error
Vernier Scale
Pitch Scale
0 45
0 1 2 3 4
95 40
0
90 35 0 5 10
(c) - ve error (d) screw gauge reading (d) Vernier reading

A model reading A model reading
PSR = 6 mm ; HSC=40 divisions; MSR = 2.2 cm ; VSC = 4 divisions;
Reading = [6mm+(40x0.01mm)]=6.40mm Reading = [2.2 cm+(4x0.01cm)] = 2.24 cm
Figure 1.2 Screw gauge and vernier caliper with errors

ii) Measurement of large distances (; $0 3 / (
For measuring larger distances such as
the height of a tree, distance of the Moon From a point on the ground, the top of a
or a planet from the Earth, some special tree is seen to have an angle of elevation
methods are adopted. Triangulation 60°. The distance between the tree and a
method, parallax method and radar point is 50 m. Calculate the height of the
method are used to determine very tree?
large distances.
Solution
Triangulation method for the height of an

Angle θ = 60°
accessible object
Let AB = h be the height of the tree or
The distance between the tree and a point
tower to be measured. Let C be the point
x = 50 m
of observation at distance x from B. Place a
range finder at C and measure the angle of Height of the tree (h) = ?
elevation, ∠ACB = θ as shown in Figure 1.3. h
For triangulation method tan θ =
From right angled triangle ABC, x
AB h
tanθ = = h = x tan θ
BC x
= 50 × tan 60°
(or) = 50 × 1.732
height h = x tan θ h = 86.6 m
Knowing the distance x, the height h can The height of the tree is 86.6 m.
be determined.
A
Parallax method
Very large distances, such as the distance
of a planet or a star from the Earth can be
measured by the parallax method. Parallax
h is the name given to the apparent change
in the position of an object with respect to
the background, when the object is seen
from two different positions. The distance
θ
between the two positions (i.e., points of
C x B observation) is called the basis (b). For
Figure 1.3 Triangulation method example, consider Figure 1.4., an observer
is specified by the position O. The observer
Range and order of lengths of various is holding a pen before him, against the
objects are listed in Table 1.5 background of a wall. When the pen is

looked at first by our left eye L (closing places on the surface of the Earth. From A
the right eye) and then by our right eye and B, the parallaxes θ1 and θ2 respectively
R (closing the left eye), the position of of Moon M with respect to some distant
the pen changes with respect to the back star are determined with the help of an
ground of the wall. The shift in the position astronomical telescope. Thus, the total
of an object (say, a pen) when viewed with parallax of the Moon subtended on Earth
two eyes, keeping one eye closed at a time ∠AMB = θ1 + θ2 = θ.
is known as Parallax. The distance between
If θ is measured in radians, then
the left eye (L) and the right eye (R) in this
AB
case is the basis. θ= ; AM≈MC
AM
∠LOR is called the parallax angle or AB AB ;
parallactic angle. θ= or MC = Knowing the
MC θ
Taking LR as an arc of length b and values of AB and θ,
radius LO = RO = x we can calculate the distance MC of
b Moon from the Earth.
we get q = ; b-basis, x-unknown
x
distance
S1 M S2
Knowing ‘b’ and measuring θ, we can
calculate x.
θ
O θ1 θ2
A C B
θ
x x
Figure 1.5 Parallax
method determination of
distance of Moon from
Earth
L b R
Figure 1.4 Parallax

method
(; $0 3 / (
The Moon subtends an angle of 1° 55c at
Determination of distance of Moon the base line equal to the diameter of the
from Earth Earth. What is the distance of the
In Figure 1.5, C is the centre of the Earth. Moon from the Earth? (Radius of the Earth
A and B are two diametrically opposite is 6.4 × 10 6 m)
Solution to get the actual distance of the object. This
method can also be used to determine the
angle θ = 1° 55c c height, at which an aeroplane flies from the
× ˝ × (×) rad ground.
× 10−2 rad
since 1˝ 4.85 × 10 rad
Radius of the Earth = 6.4 × 10 6 m

From the Figure 1.5 AB is the diameter of
the Earth (b)= 2 × 6.4 × 10 6 m Distance of
the Moon from the Earth x = ?
b 2 × 6.4 × 106
x= =
θ 3.34 × 10 −2
x 3.83 × 108m
Figure 1.6 RADAR method

RADAR method
The word RADAR stands for radio
detection and ranging. A radar can be used
to measure accurately the distance of a
nearby planet such as Mars. In this method, (; $0 3 / (
radio waves are sent from transmitters A RADAR signal is beamed towards a
which, after reflection from the planet, are planet and its echo is received 7 minutes
detected by the receiver. By measuring, later. If the distance between the planet
the time interval (t) between the instants and the Earth is 6.3 × 1010 m. Calculate the
the radio waves are sent and received, the speed of the signal?
distance of the planet can be determined as
Solution
Speed = distance travelled / time taken The distance of the planet from the Earth
(Speed is explained in unit 2) d = 6.3 × 1010 m
Distance(d) = Speed of radio
waves × time taken Time t = 7 minutes = 7 × 60 s.
the speed of signal v = ?
v ×t
d=
2
The speed of signal
where v is the speed of the radio wave.
As the time taken (t) is for the distance 2d 2 × 6.3 × 1010
covered during the forward and backward v= = = 3 × 108 ms −1
t 7 × 60
path of the radio waves, it is divided by 2

Table 1.5 Range and Order of Lengths Some Common Practical
Size of objects and distances Length (m) Units
Distance to the boundary of observable 1026 (i) Fermi = 1 fm = 10−15 m
universe (ii) 1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10−10 m

Distance to the Andromeda galaxy 1022 (iii) 1 nanometer = 1 nm = 10−9 m
Size of our galaxy 1021 (iv) 1 micron = 1μm = 10−6 m
Distance from Earth to the nearest star 1016 (v) 1 Light year (Distance
(other than the Sun) travelled by light in vacuum
12
Average radius of Pluto’s orbit 10 in one year) 1 Light Year =
Distance of the Sun from the Earth 1011 9.467 × 1015 m
Distance of Moon from the Earth 108 (vi) 1 astronomical unit
Radius of the Earth 107 (the mean distance of
Height of the Mount Everest above sea level 104 the Earth from the Sun)
Length of a football field 102 1 AU = 1.496 × 1011 m
Thickness of a paper 10−4 (vii) 1 parsec (Parallactic
Diameter of a red blood cell 10−5 second) (Distance at
Wavelength of light 10−7 which an arc of length
Length of typical virus 10−8 1 AU subtends an angle
Diameter of the hydrogen atom 10−10 of 1 second of arc)
Size of atomic nucleus 10−14 1 parsec = 3.08 × 1016 m
Diameter of a proton 10−15 =3.26 light year
Why is the cylinder

used in defining
kilogram made up of
platinum-iridium alloy?
This is because the
platinum-iridium alloy is least affected
by environment and time.
Chandrasekhar Limit (CSL) is

the largest practical unit of mass.
Figure 1.7 The international
1 kg standard of mass, a 1 CSL = 1.4 times the mass of the Sun
platinum-iridium (9:1)
The smallest practical unit of time is Shake.
cylinder 3.9 cm in height and
diameter. 1 Shake = 10−8 s

1.5.2 0HDVXUHPHQWRIPDVV that of planets, stars etc., we make use of
Mass is a property of matter. It does not gravitational methods. For measurement of
depend on temperature, pressure and small masses of atomic/subatomic particles
location of the body in space. Mass of a body etc., we make use of a mass spectrograph.
is defined as the quantity of matter contained Some of the weighing balances commonly
in a body. The SI unit of mass is kilogram used are common balance, spring balance,
(kg). The masses of objects which we shall electronic balance, etc.
study in this course vary over a wide range.
These may vary from a tiny mass of electron
(9.11×10−31kg) to the huge mass of the known 1.5.3 HDVXUHPHQWRI7LPH
0
universe (=1055 kg). The order of masses of intervals
various objects is shown in Table 1.6.
“Time flows uniformly forward”
Ordinarily, the mass of an object is – Sir Issac Newton
determined in kilograms using a common
“Time is what a clock reads”
balance like the one used in a grocery
– Albert Einstein
shop. For measuring larger masses like
A clock is used to measure the time interval.

Table 1.6 Range of masses An atomic standard of time, is based on the
Object Order of mass (kg) periodic vibration produced in a Cesium
Electron 10−30 atom. Some of the clocks developed later
are electric oscillators, electronic oscillators,
Proton or Neutron 10−27
solar clock, quartz crystal clock, atomic clock,
Uranium atom 10−25 decay of elementary particles, radioactive
Red blood corpuscle 10−14 dating etc. The order of time intervals are
A cell 10−10 tabulated in Table 1.7.
Dust particle 10−9
Raindrop 10−6
Mosquito 10−5
Grape 10−3
Frog 10−1
Human 102
Car 103
Ship 105
Moon 1023
Earth 1025
Figure 1.8 The atomic clock, which
Sun 1030 keeps time on the basis of radiation from
Milky way 1041 cesium atoms is accurate to about three
Observable Universe 1055 millionths of a second per year.

Table 1.7 Order of Time Intervals
Event Order of time interval (s)
Lifespan of the most unstable particle 10−24
Time taken by light to cross a distance of nuclear size 10−22
Period of X-rays 10−19
Time period of electron in hydrogen atom 10−15
Period of visible light waves 10−15
Time taken by visible light to cross through a window pane 10−8
Lifetime of an excited state of an atom 10−8
Period of radio waves 10−6
Time period of audible sound waves 10−3
Wink of an eye 10−1
Time interval between two successive heart beats 100
Travel time of light from Moon to Earth 100
Travel time of light from Sun to Earth 102
Halflife time of a free neutron 103
Time period of a satellite 104
Time period of rotation of Earth around its axis (one day) 105
Time period of revolution of Earth around the Sun (one year) 107
Average life of a human being 109
Age of Egyptian pyramids 1011
Age of Universe 1017
1.6
7+(25<2)(55256 In India, the National
Physical Laboratory
The foundation of all experimental science (New Delhi) has
and technology is measurement. The the responsibility of
result obtained from any measurement maintenance and improvement of physical
will contain some uncertainty. Such an standards of length, mass, time, etc.
uncertainty is termed error. Any calculation
made using the measured values will also
have an error. It is not possible to make to be distinguished at this stage. Accuracy
exact measurements in an experiment. refers to how far we are from the true
In measurements, two different terms value, and precision refers to how well we
accuracy and precision are used and need measure.

temperature is 40oC, the thermometer is
1.6.1 $FFXUDF\DQG3UHFLVLRQ
accurate. If the thermometer consistently
Let us say, you know your true height is registers this exact temperature in a row, the
exactly 5′9″. You first measure your height thermometer is precise.
with a yardstick and get the value 5′0″.
Consider another example. Let the
Your measurement is hence not accurate.
temperature of a refrigerator repeatedly
Now you measure your height with a
measured by a thermometer be given as
laser yardstick and get 5′9″ as the value.
10.4oC, 10.2oC, 10.3oC, 10.1oC, 10.2oC,
Now your measurement is accurate. The
10.1oC, 10.1oC, 10.1oC. However, if the real
true value is also called theoretical value.
temperature inside the refrigerator is 9oC,
The level of accuracy required for each
we say that the thermometer is not accurate
application varies greatly. Highly accurate
(it is almost one degree off the true value),
data can be very difficult to produce and
but since all the measured values are close to
compile. For example, if you consistently
10oC, hence it is precise.
measure your height as 5′0″ with a yard
stick, your measurements are precise. The A visual example:
level of precision required for different Target shooting is an example which
applications vary to a great extent. explains the difference between accuracy
Engineering projects such as road and and precision. In Figure 1.9 (a), the shots
utility construction require very precise are focused so as to reach the bull’s eye
information measured to the millimeter (midpoint), but the arrows have reached
or one-tenth of an inch. only around this point. Hence the shots are
If a measurement is precise, that does not accurate and also not precise.
not necessarily mean that it is accurate. In Figure 1.9 (b), all the shots are close
However, if the measurement is consistently to each other but not at the central point.
accurate, it is also precise. Hence the shots are said to be precise but
For example, if the temperature outside not accurate. In Figure 1.9 (c), the shots are
a building is 40oC as measured by a weather closer and also at the central point. Hence
thermometer and if the real outside the shots are both precise and accurate.
(a) Not accurate (b) Not accurate (c) Accurate

Not precise Precise Precise
Figure 1.9 Visual example of accuracy and precision

A numerical example performing experiments with a
The true value of a certain length is near calorimeter, if there is no proper
5.678 cm. In one experiment, using a insulation, there will be radiation
measuring instrument of resolution 0.1 cm, losses. This results in errors and to
the measured value is found to be 5.5 cm. overcome these, necessary correction
In another experiment using a measuring has to be applied.
instrument of greater resolution, say 0.01
3) Personal errors
cm, the length is found to be 5.38 cm. We
These errors are due to individuals
find that the first measurement is more
performing the experiment, may be
accurate as it is closer to the true value, but
due to incorrect initial setting up of
it has lesser precision. On the contrary, the
the experiment or carelessness of the
second measurement is less accurate, but it
individual making the observation
is more precise.
due to improper precautions.
4) Errors due to external causes
1.6.2 (UURUVLQ0HDVXUHPHQW
The change in the external conditions
The uncertainty in a measurement is called during an experiment can cause
an error. Random error, systematic error error in measurement. For example,
and gross error are the three possible errors. changes in temperature, humidity, or
i) Systematic errors pressure during measurements may
Systematic errors are reproducible affect the result of the measurement.
inaccuracies that are consistently in the 5) Least count error
same direction. These occur often due Least count is the smallest value that
to a problem that persists throughout can be measured by the measuring
the experiment. Systematic errors can be instrument, and the error due to this
classified as follows measurement is least count error.
1) Instrumental errors The instrument’s resolution hence is
When an instrument is not the cause of this error. Least count
calibrated properly at the time of error can be reduced by using a
manufacture, instrumental errors high precision instrument for the
may arise. If a measurement is measurement.
made with a meter scale whose end ii) Random errors
is worn out, the result obtained Random errors may arise due to
will have errors. These errors random and unpredictable variations in
can be corrected by choosing the experimental conditions like pressure,
instrument carefully. temperature, voltage supply etc. Errors
2) Imperfections in experimental may also be due to personal errors by the
technique or procedure observer who performs the experiment.
These errors arise due to the Random errors are sometimes called
limitations in the experimental “chance error”. When different readings
arrangement. As an example, while are obtained by a person every time he
repeats the experiment, personal error Certain procedures to be followed
occurs. For example, consider the case of to minimize experimental errors,
the thickness of a wire measured using a along with examples are shown in
screw gauge. The readings taken may be Table 1.8.
different for different trials. In this case,
a large number of measurements are iii) Gross Error
made and then the arithmetic mean is The error caused due to the shear
taken. carelessness of an observer is called
If n number of trial readings are taken gross error.
in an experiment, and the readings For example
are a1, a2, a3,…………………. an. The (i) Reading an instrument without
arithmetic mean is setting it properly.
(ii) Taking observations in a wrong
a1 + a2 + a3 + .............an manner without bothering about
am = (1.1)
n the sources of errors and the
precautions.
or
(iii) Recording wrong observations.
n
1
am = ∑a
n i =1 i
(1.2) (iv) Using wrong values of the
observations in calculations.
Usually this arithmetic mean is taken These errors can be minimized only
as the best possible true value of the when an observer is careful and
quantity. mentally alert.
Table 1.8 Minimizing Experimental Error

Type of error Example How to minimize it
Random error Suppose you measure the mass of Take more data. Random errors
a ring three times using the same can be evaluated through
balance and get slightly different statistical analysis and can
values. 15.46 g, 15.42 g, 15.44 g be reduced by averaging
over a large number of
observations.
Systematic error Suppose the cloth tape measure Systematic errors are difficult to
that you use to measure the length detect and cannot be analysed
of an object has been stretched out statistically, because all of the data
from years of use. (As a result all of is in the same direction. (Either
the length measurements are not too high or too low)
correct).

1.6.3 (UURU$QDO\VLV iii) Relative error
The ratio of the mean absolute error
i) Absolute Error to the mean value is called relative
The magnitude of difference between error. This is also called as fractional
the true value and the measured value of error (or) relative error. Thus
a quantity is called absolute error. If a1,
a2, a3, ……….an are the measured values
Mean absolute error
of any quantity ‘a’ in an experiment Relative error =
Mean value
performed n times, then the arithmetic
Δam
mean of these values is called the true =
am
value (am) of the quantity.
a1 + a2 + a3 + .............. + an Relative error expresses how large

am = or the absolute error is compared to
n
1 n the total size of the object measured.
am = ∑ ai For example, a driver’s speedometer
n i =1
shows that his car is travelling at
The absolute error in measured values 60 km h−1 when it is actually moving
is given by at 62 km h−1. Then absolute error of
speedometer is 62-60 km h−1 = 2 km h−1
|Δa1| = |am – a1| Relative error of the measurement is 2
km h−1 / 60 km h−1 = 0.033.
|Δa2| = |am – a2|
……………… iv) Percentage error
The relative error expressed as a
………………
percentage is called percentage error.
|Δan| = |am – an|
Δam
Percentage error = × 100%
ii) Mean Absolute error am
The arithmetic mean of absolute errors
in all the measurements is called the A percentage error very close to zero
mean absolute error. means one is close to the targeted value,
which is good and acceptable. It is always
Δa1 + Δa2 + Δa3 + ............... + Δan necessary to understand whether error is
Δam = due to impression of equipment used or
n
a mistake in the experimentation.
1 n
or = ∑ Δai
n i =1
(; $0 3 / (
If am is the true value and Δam is the In a series of successive measurements in
mean absolute error then the magnitude an experiment, the readings of the period
of the quantity may lie between am + of oscillation of a simple pendulum were
Δam and am - Δam found to be 2.63s, 2.56 s, 2.42s, 2.71s and
2.80s. Calculate (i) the mean value of (iv) Relative error:
the period of oscillation (ii) the absolute
error in each measurement (iii) the mean ΔTm 0.11
absolute error (iv) the relative error (v) ST = = = 0.0 419
Tm 2.62
the percentage error. Express the result in
proper form. ST = 0.04
Solution (v) Percentage error in T = 0.04

× 100% = 4%
t1 = 2.63 s, t 2 = 2.56 s, t 3 = 2.42 s, (vi) Time period of simple pendulum =
t 4 = 2.71 s, t 5 = 2.80 s T = (2.62 r.11)s
t1 + t 2 + t 3 + t 4 + t 5
(i) Tm =
5
2.63 + 2.56 + 2.42 + 2.71 + 2.80 1.6.4 3URSDJDWLRQRIHUURUV
=
5 A number of measured quantities may
13.12 be involved in the final calculation of an
Tm = = 2.624 s experiment. Different types of instruments
5
might have been used for taking readings.
Tm= 2.62s (Rounded off to 2nd Then we may have to look at the errors in
decimal place) measuring various quantities, collectively.
The error in the final result depends on
(ii) Absolute error ΔT = Tm - t (i) The errors in the individual
measurements
ΔT1 = 2.62 − 2.63 = −0.01s (ii) On the nature of mathematical
ΔT2 = 2.62 − 2.56 = +0.06s operations performed to get the final
ΔT3 = 2.62 − 2.42 = +0.20s result. So we should know the rules to
combine the errors.
ΔT4 = 2.62 − 2.71 = −0.09s
ΔT5 = 2.62 − 2.80 = −0.18s The various possibilities of the
propagation or combination of errors in
different mathematical operations are
Σ ΔTi discussed below:
(iii) Mean absolute error =
n (i) Error in the sum of two quantities
Let ΔA and ΔB be the absolute errors in
0.01 + 0.06 + 0.20 + 0.09 + 0.18 the two quantities A and B respectively.
ΔTm =
5 Then,
0.54 Measured value of A = A ± ΔA

ΔTm = = 0.108s = 0.11s (Rounded
5 Measured value of B = B ± ΔB
off to 2nd decimal place) Consider the sum, Z = A + B
The error ΔZ in Z is then given by ±
= (A − B) ± ΔA ΔB
±
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) + (B ± ΔB) = Z ± ΔA ΔB
(or) ΔZ = ΔA + ΔB………………(1.4)
= (A + B) ± (ΔA + ΔB)
= Z ± (ΔA + ΔB)
(or) ΔZ = ΔA + ΔB (1.3) The maximum error in difference of
two quantities is equal to the sum of
the absolute errors in the individual
The maximum possible error in the sum quantities.
of two quantities is equal to the sum
of the absolute errors in the individual (; $0 3 / (
quantities. The temperatures of two bodies measured
by a thermometer are t1 = (20 + 0.5)°C, t2 =
(50 ± 0.5)°C. Calculate the temperature
(;$ 03/(
difference and the error therein.
Two resistances R1 = (100 ± 3) :, R2 =
(150 ± 2) :, are connected in series. What Solution
is their equivalent resistance?
t1 = (20 ± 0.5)°C t2 = (50 ± 0.5)°C
Solution
temperature difference t=?
R1 = 100 ± 3Ω; R2 = 150 ± 2Ω t = t2 - t1 = (50 ± 0.5) - (20 ± 0.5)°C

(Using equation1.4)
Equivalent resistance R = ? = (50 – 20) ± (0.5 + 0.5)
Equivalent resistance R = R1 + R2
t = (30 ± 1)°C
= (100 ± 3) + (150 ± 2)
= (100 + 150) ± (3 + 2) (iii) Error in the product of two quantities

Let ΔA and ΔB be the absolute errors
R = (250 ± 5) Ω in the two quantities A, and B,
respectively. Consider the product
(ii) Error in the difference of two Z = AB
quantities The error ΔZ in Z is given by Z ± ΔZ =
Let ΔA and ΔB be the absolute (A ± ΔA) (B ± ΔB)
errors in the two quantities, A and B,
= (AB) ± (A ΔB) ± (B ΔA) ± (ΔA . ΔB)
respectively. Then,
Measured value of A = A ± ΔA Dividing L.H.S by Z and R.H.S by AB,
Measured value of B = B ± ΔB we get,
Consider the difference, Z = A – B
The error ΔZ in Z is then given by ΔZ ΔB ΔA ΔA ΔB
1± = 1± ± ± .
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) – (B ± ΔB) Z B A A B

As ΔA /A, ΔB / B are both small (iv) Error in the division or quotient of
ΔA ΔB two quantities
quantities, their product term .
A B Let ΔA and ΔB be the absolute errors in
can be neglected. The maximum the two quantities A and B respectively.
fractional error in Z is A
Consider the quotient, Z =
B
ΔZ ⎛ ΔA ΔB ⎞
=±⎜ + ⎟ (1.5) The error ΔZ in Z is given by
Z ⎝ A B ⎠
⎛ ΔA ⎞
A ⎜1 ± ⎟
A ± ΔA ⎝ A⎠
The maximum fractional error in the Z ± ΔZ = =
B ± ΔB ⎛ ΔB ⎞
product of two quantities is equal to B ⎜1 ± ⎟
⎝ B ⎠
the sum of the fractional errors in the −1
individual quantities. A ⎛ ΔA ⎞ ⎛ ΔB ⎞
= ⎜1 ± ⎟ ⎜1 ± ⎟
B⎝ A ⎠⎝ B ⎠
[Alternative method is given in
Appendix A1.2]
⎛ ΔA ⎞ ⎛ ΔB ⎞
or Z ± ΔZ = Z ⎜ 1 ± ⎟ ⎜1 B ⎟ [using
(;$ 03/( ⎝ A ⎠⎝ B ⎠
(1+x)n ≈1+nx, when x<<1]
The length and breadth of a rectangle
are (5.7 ± 0.1) cm and (3.4 ± 0.2) cm Dividing both sides by Z, we get,
respectively. Calculate the area of the
rectangle with error limits. ΔZ ⎛ ΔA ⎞ ⎛ ΔB ⎞
1± = ⎜1 ± ⎟ ⎜1 B ⎟
Z ⎝ A ⎠⎝ B ⎠
Solutions
ΔA ΔB ΔA ΔB
Length A = (5.7 ± 0.1) cm = 1± B ± .
A B A B
Breadth b =(3.4 ± 0.2) cm
Area A with error limit = A ± ΔA = ? As the terms ΔA/A and ΔB/B are small,
their product term can be neglected.
Area A = A × b = 5.7 × 3.4 = 19.38 = 19.4 cm2
The maximum fractional error in Z is
ΔA Δl Δb
= + ΔZ ⎛ ΔA ΔB ⎞
A l b given by =⎜ + ⎟ (1.6)
⎛ Δl Δb ⎞ Z ⎝ A B ⎠
ΔA = ⎜ + A
⎝ l b ⎟⎠
⎛ 0. 1 0. 2 ⎞
ΔA = ⎜ + 19.4 The maximum fractional error in the
⎝ 5.7 3.4 ⎟⎠ quotient of two quantities is equal to
= (0.0175+0.0588) × 19.4 the sum of their individual fractional
= 1.48 = 1.5 errors.
Area with error limit (Alternative method is given in
A = (19.4±1.5) cm2 Appendix A1.2)

(;$ 03/( We get [(1+x)n ≈1+nx, when x<<1]
neglecting remaining terms, Dividing
The voltage across a wire is (100 ± 5)V and both sides by Z
the current passing through it is (10±0.2)
ΔZ ΔA
A. Find the resistance of the wire. 1± =1± n or
Z A
Solution ΔZ ΔA
= n. (1.7)
Z A
Voltage V = (100±5)V
Current I = (10±0.2) A
Resistance R = ? The fractional error in the nth power
of a quantity is n times the fractional
Then resistance R is given by Ohm’s law, error in that quantity.
V
R=
I
A p Bq
General rule: If Z = Then
100 Cr
= = 10Ω
10 maximum fractional error in Z is
ΔR ⎛ ΔV ΔI ⎞ ΔZ ΔA ΔB ΔC
=⎜ + ⎟ given by =p +q +r
R ⎝ V I ⎠ Z A B C
The percentage error in Z is given by
⎛ ΔV ΔI ⎞
ΔR = ⎜ + ⎟R
⎝ V I ⎠ ΔZ ΔA ΔB
× 100 = p × 100 + q × 100
Z A B
⎛ 5 0. 2 ⎞ ΔC
=⎜ + 10 +r × 100
⎝ 100 10 ⎟⎠ C
= (0.05 + 0.02)10
= 0.07 × 10 = 0.7
(; $0 3 / (
The resistance R = (10 ± 0.7)Ω
a 2b3
A physical quantity x is given by x = .
c d
(v) Error in the power of a quantity If the percentage errors of measurement
Consider the nth power of A, Z = An in a, b, c and d are 4%, 2%, 3% and 1%
The error ΔZ in Z is given by respectively then calculate the percentage
error in the calculation of x. (Related to
n NEET 2013)
⎛ ΔA ⎞
Z ± ΔZ =( A ± ΔA) = A ⎜ 1 ±
n n
⎟
⎝ A⎠
Solution
⎛ ΔA ⎞
= Z ⎜1 ± n ⎟
⎝ A⎠ a 2b3
Given x =
c d
The percentage error in x is given by (; $0 3 / (
State the number of significant figures in
Δx Δa Δb the following
× 100 = 2 × 100 +3 × 100
x a b
i) 600800 iv) 5213.0
Δc 1 Δd ii) 400 v) 2.65 × 10 24 m
+ × 100 + × 100
c 2 d
iii) 0.007 vi) 0.0006032
= (2 × 4%) + (3 × 2%) + (1 × 3%) + Solution: i) four ii) one iii) one

(½ ×1%)
iv) five v) three vi) four
= 8% +6%+3% +0.5%
The percentage error is x = 17.5%

1.7.2 5RXQGLQJ2II
Calculators are widely used now-a-days
1.7 to do calculations. The result given by a
calculator has too many figures. In no case
6,*1,),&$17),*85(6
should the result have more significant
figures than the figures involved in the
1.7.1 '
H¿QLWLRQDQG data used for calculation. The result of
5XOHVRI6LJQL¿FDQW calculation with numbers containing more
)LJXUHV than one uncertain digit should be rounded
off. The rules for rounding off are shown in
The digits which tell us the number of units
Table 1.10.
we are reasonably sure of having counted in
making a measurement are called significant
figures.
(; $0 3 / (
The digits that are known reliably plus the Round off the following numbers as
first uncertain digit are known as significant indicated
figures or significant digits. i) 18.35 up to 3 digits
For example, the value of gravitational ii) 19.45 up to 3 digits
constant is 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2. Here iii) 101.55 × 10 6 up to 4 digits
the digits 6 and 6 are reliable and certain, iv) 248337 up to digits 3 digits
while the digit 7 is uncertain. Thus the v) 12.653 up to 3 digits.
measured value has three significant
figures. Solution
The rules for counting significant figures i) 18.4 ii) 19.4 iii) 101.6 × 10 6
are given in Table 1.9. iv) 248000 v) 12.7

7DEOH Rules for counting significant figures
Rule Example
i) All non-zero digits are significant 1342 has four significant figures
ii) All zeros between two non zero digits are significant 2008 has four significant figures
iii) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but 30700. has five significant figures
to the left of a decimal point are significant.
iv) a) The number without a decimal point, the a) 30700 has three significant figures
terminal or trailing zero(s) are not significant. b) 30700 m has five significant figures
b) All zeros are significant if they come
from a measurement
v) If the number is less than 1, the zero (s) on the 0.00345 has three significant figures
right of the decimal point but to left of the first
non zero digit are not significant.
vi) All zeros to the right of a decimal point and 40.00 has four significant figures and
to the right of non-zero digit are significant. 0.030400 has five significant figures
vii) The number of significant figures does not 1.53 cm, 0.0153 m, 0.0000153 km,
depend on the system of units used all have three significant figures
Note: 1 Multiplying or dividing factors, which are neither rounded numbers nor numbers representing
measured values, are exact and they have infinite numbers of significant figures as per the situation. For
example, circumference of circle S = 2πr, Here the factor 2 is exact number. It can be written as 2.0, 2.00 or
2.000 as required.
Note: 2 The power of 10 is irrelevant to the determination of significant figures.
For example x = 5.70 m = 5.70 × 102 cm = 5.70 × 103 mm = 5.70 × 10−3 km.
In each case the number of significant figures is three.
7DEOH Rules for Rounding Off

Rule Example
i) If the digit to be dropped is smaller than 5, then i) 7.32 is rounded off to 7.3
the preceding digit should be left unchanged. ii) 8.94 is rounded off to 8.9
ii) If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then i) 17.26 is rounded off to 17.3
the preceding digit should be increased by 1 ii) 11.89 is rounded off to 11.9
iii) If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits i) 7.352, on being rounded off to
other than zero, then the preceding digit should first decimal becomes 7.4
be raised by 1 ii) 18.159 on being rounded off to
first decimal, become 18.2
iv) If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by i) 3.45 is rounded off to 3.4
zeros, then the preceding digit is not changed if ii) 8.250 is rounded off to 8.2
it is even
v) If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by i) 3.35 is rounded off to 3.4
zeros, then the preceding digit is raised by 1 if it ii) 8.350 is rounded off to 8.4
is odd

1.7.3 Arithmetical 1.8
2SHUDWLRQVZLWK ',0(16,21$/$1$/<6,6
6LJQL¿FDQW)LJXUHV
(i) Addition and subtraction 1.8.1 LPHQVLRQRI3K\VLFDO
'
In addition and subtraction, the final Quantities
result should retain as many decimal
All the derived physical quantities can be
places as there are in the number
expressed in terms of some combination of
with the smallest number of decimal
the seven fundamental or base quantities.
places.
These base quantities are known as
dimensions of the physical world, and are
Example:
denoted with square bracket [ ]. The three
1. 3.1 + 1.780 + 2.046 = 6.926 dimensions in mechanics are [L] for length,
Here the least number of significant [M] for mass and [T] for time. In electricity,
digits after the decimal is one. Hence the [A] is the dimension of electric current. In
result will be 6.9. thermodynamics, [K] is the dimension for
the temperature. In optics [cd] or [Φ] is
2. 12.637 – 2.42 = 10.217
the dimension for luminous intensity. The
Here the least number of significant
dimension of amount of substance is [mol].
digits after the decimal is two. Hence the
result will be 10.22 The dimensions of a physical quantity
are the powers to which the units of base
(ii) Multiplication and Division
quantities are raised to represent a derived
In multiplication or division,
unit of that quantity.
the final result should retain as
many significant figures as there For example,
are in the original number with
Displacement [L]
smallest number of significant velocity = = = [ M 0 LT −1 ].
time [T ]
figures. Hence the dimensions of velocity are 0 in
mass, 1 in length and -1 in time.
Example:
1. 1.21 × 36.72 = 44.4312 = 44.4 Dimensional formula and equation
Here the least number of significant Dimensional formula is an expression which
digits in the measured values shows how and which of the fundamental
is three. Hence the result when units are required to represent the unit of a
rounded off to three significant digits physical quantity.
is 44.4
2. 36.72 ÷ 1.2 = 30.6 = 31 For example, [M0LT−2] is the dimensional
Here the least number of significant formula of acceleration.
digits in the measured values When the dimensional formula of
is two. Hence the result when a physical quantity is expressed in the
rounded off to significant digit form of an equation, such an equation
becomes 31. is known as the dimensional equation.
Example, acceleration = [M0LT−2]. The 1.8.3 SSOLFDWLRQDQG
$
dimensional formula of various physical /LPLWDWLRQVRIWKH
quantities are tabulated in Table 1.11. 0HWKRGRI'LPHQVLRQDO
$QDO\VLV
This method is used to
1.8.2 LPHQVLRQDO
'
(i) Convert a physical quantity from one
Quantities,
system of units to another.
'LPHQVLRQOHVV
(ii) Check the dimensional correctness of a
Quantities, Principle
given physical equation.
RI+RPRJHQHLW\
(iii) Establish relations among various
On the basis of dimension, we can classify physical quantities.
quantities into four categories.
(1) Dimensional variables (i) To convert a physical quantity from
Physical quantities, which possess one system of units to another
dimensions and have variable values are This is based on the fact that the
called dimensional variables. Examples product of the numerical values (n)
are length, velocity, and acceleration etc. and its corresponding unit (u) is
(2) Dimensionless variables a constant. i.e, n [u] = constant (or)
Physical quantities which have no n1[u1] = n2[u2].
dimensions, but have variable values Consider a physical quantity which
are called dimensionless variables. has dimension ‘a’ in mass, ‘b’ in length
Examples are specific gravity, strain, and ‘c’ in time. If the fundamental
refractive index etc. units in one system are M1, L1 and T1
(3) Dimensional Constant and the other system are M2, L2 and T2
Physical quantities which possess respectively, then we can write, n1 [M1a
dimensions and have constant values L1b T1c] = n2 [M2a L2b T2c]
are called dimensional constants. We have thus converted the numerical
Examples are Gravitational constant, value of physical quantity from one
Planck’s constant etc. system of units into the other system.
(4) Dimensionless Constant
Quantities which have constant values (; $0 3 / (
and also have no dimensions are called
Convert 76 cm of mercury pressure
dimensionless constants. Examples are
into Nm−2 using the method of
π, e, numbers etc.
dimensions.
Principle of homogeneity of dimensions
Solution
The principle of homogeneity of dimensions
states that the dimensions of all the terms in In cgs system 76 cm of mercury
a physical expression should be the same. For pressure = 76 × 13.6 × 980 dyne cm−2
example, in the physical expression v2 = u2 + The dimensional formula of pressure P
2as, the dimensions of v2, u2 and 2 as are the is [ML−1T−2]
same and equal to [L2T−2].
Table 1.11 Dimensional Formula
Physical quantity Expression Dimensional formula
Area length × breadth [L2]
Volume Area × height [L3]
Density mass / volume [ML−3]
Velocity displacement/time [LT−1]
Acceleration velocity / time [LT−2]
Momentum mass × velocity [MLT−1]
Force mass × acceleration [MLT−2]
Work force × distance [ML2T−2]
Power work / time [ML2T−3]
Energy Work [ML2T−2]
Impulse force × time [MLT−1]
Radius of gyration Distance [L]
Pressure (or) stress force / area [ML−1T−2]
Surface tension force / length [MT−2]
Frequency 1 / time period [T−1]
Moment of Inertia mass × (distance)2 [ML2]
Moment of force (or torque) force × distance [ML2T−2]
Angular velocity angular displacement / time [T−1]
Angular acceleration angular velocity / time [T−2]
Angular momentum linear momentum × distance [ML2T−1]
Co-efficient of Elasticity stress/strain [ML−1T−2]
Co-efficient of viscosity (force × distance) / (area × velocity) [ML−1T−1]
Surface energy work / area [MT−2]
Heat capacity heat energy / temperature [ML2T−2K−1]
Charge current × time [AT]
Magnetic induction force / (current × length) [MT−2A−1]
Force constant force / displacement [MT−2]
Gravitational constant [force × (distance)2] / (mass)2 [M−1L3T−2]
Planck’s constant energy / frequency [ML2T−1]
Faraday constant avogadro constant × elementary charge [AT mol−1]
Boltzmann constant energy / temperature [ML2 T–2 K–1]

P1 ⎡⎣ M1a L1bT1c ⎤⎦ = P2 ⎡⎣ M 2a L2bT2c ⎤⎦ M1 = 1 kg L1 = 1m T1 = 1s
a b c M2 = 1 g L2 = 1 cm T2 = 1s
⎡ M1 ⎤ ⎡ L1 ⎤ ⎡ T1 ⎤
We have P2 = P1 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ M 2 ⎦ ⎣ L2 ⎦ ⎣ T2 ⎦
The dimensional formula for G is M −1 L3T −2
M1 = 1g, M2 = 1kg
L1 = 1 cm, L2 = 1m a = -1 b = 3 and c = -2
T1 = 1 s, T2 = 1s −1 3 −2
⎡1kg ⎤ ⎡ 1m ⎤ ⎡1s ⎤
−11
So a =1, b= -1, and c = -2 G cgs = 6.6 ×10 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1g ⎦ ⎣1cm ⎦ ⎣1s ⎦
Then
−1 3 −2
⎡ 1kg ⎤ ⎡ 1m ⎤ ⎡1s ⎤
−11
1 −1 −2 = 6.6 ×10 ⎢ −3 ⎥ ⎢ −2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎡ 1g ⎤ ⎡1cm ⎤ ⎡1s ⎤ ⎣10 kg ⎦ ⎣10 m ⎦ ⎣1s ⎦
P2 = 76 × 13.6 × 980 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣1kg ⎦ ⎣ 1m ⎦ ⎣1s ⎦
= 6.6 × 10−11 × 10−3x 106 × 1
1 −1 −2
⎡ 10−3 kg ⎤ ⎡ 10−2 m ⎤ ⎡ 1s ⎤
= 76 ×13.6 × 980 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ G cgs = 6.6 × 10 −8 dyne cm 2 g −2
⎣ 1kg ⎦ ⎣ 1m ⎦ ⎣ 1s ⎦
= 76 × 13.6 × 980 × [10−3] × 102
P2 = 1.01 × 105 Nm−2 (ii) To check the dimensional correctness
of a given physical equation
Let us take the equation of motion
v = u + at
(;$ 03/ ( Apply dimensional formula on both sides
If the value of universal gravitational [LT−1] = [LT−1] + [LT−2] [T]
constant in SI is 6.6x10−11 Nm2 kg−2, then
find its value in CGS System?
[LT−1] = [LT−1] + [LT−1]
Solution
(Quantities of same dimension
Let GSI be the gravitational constant in the
only can be added)
SI system and Gcgs in the cgs system. Then
We see that the dimensions of both
sides are same. Hence the equation is
GSI = 6.6 ×10 −11Nm2 kg−2
dimensionally correct.
G cgs =?
a b c
⎡M ⎤ ⎡L ⎤ ⎡ T1 ⎤
n2 = n1 ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ (;$0 3 / (
⎣ M2 ⎦ ⎣ L2 ⎦ ⎣ T2 ⎦
Check the correctness of the equation
a b c
⎡ M ⎤ ⎡ L ⎤ ⎡T ⎤ 1 2
G cgs = GSI ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ mv = mgh using dimensional analysis
⎣ M 2 ⎦ ⎣ L2 ⎦ ⎣ T2 ⎦ 2
method.
Solution due to gravity g at the place where the
pendulum is suspended. (Constant k = 2π)
Dimensional formula for i.e
1 2 Solution
mv = [M][LT −1 ]2 = [ML2T −2 ]
2
T α ma l b g c
Dimensional formula for
T = k. ma l b g c
mgh = [M][LT −2 ][L] = [ML2T −2 ] Here k is the dimensionless constant.
Rewriting the above equation with
[ML2T−2] = [ML2T−2]
dimensions
Both sides are dimensionally the [T1] = [Ma] [Lb] [LT−2]c

1
same, hence the equations mv 2 = mgh is [M0L0T1] = [Ma Lb+c T−2c]
2
Comparing the powers of M, L and T
(iii) To establish the relation among
on both sides, a=0, b+c=0, -2c=1
various physical quantities
If the physical quantity Q depends Solving for a,b and c a = 0, b = 1/2, and
upon the quantities Q1, Q2 and Q3 ie. c = −1/2
Q is proportional to Q1, Q2 and Q3. From the above equation T = k. m0
Then, A1/2 g−1/2
Q D Q1a Q2b Q3c 1

⎛ A⎞ 2
A
Q = k Q1 Q2 Q3
a b c T = k⎜ ⎟ =k
⎝ g⎠ g
where k is a dimensionless constant. When Experimentally k = 2π, hence T = 2π A

the dimensional formula of Q, Q1, Q2 and g
Q3 are substituted, then according to the
principle of homogeneity, the powers of (;$0 3 / (
M, L, T are made equal on both sides of
The force F acting on a body moving in a
the equation. From this, we get the values
circular path depends on mass of the body
of a, b, c
(m), velocity (v) and radius (r) of the circular
path. Obtain the expression for the force by
dimensional analysis method. (Take the
(;$ 03/( value of k=1)
Obtain an expression for the time period T Solution
of a simple pendulum. The time period T
depends on (i) mass ‘m’ of the bob (ii) length F D ma νb rc
‘l’ of the pendulum and (iii) acceleration F = k ma νb rc
where k is a dimensionless constant of Limitations of Dimensional analysis
proportionality. Rewriting above equation
in terms of dimensions and taking k = 1, 1. This method gives no information about
we have the dimensionless constants in the
formula like 1, 2, ……..π,e, etc.
[MLT −2 ] = [M] a[LT −1 ]b[L]c 2. This method cannot decide whether
= [M a LbT − b Lc ] the given quantity is a vector or a
scalar.
[MLT −2 ] = [M a ][Lb +c ][T − b ] 3. This method is not suitable to derive
relations involving trigonometric,
Comparing the powers of M, L and T on exponential and logarithmic functions.
both sides 4. It cannot be applied to an equation
a = 1; b + c = 1 -b = -2 involving more than three physical
quantities.
2+c=1 b=2
5. It can only check on whether a
a = 1 b = 2 and c = -1 physical relation is dimensionally
correct but not the correctness of
From the above equation we get
the relation. For example using
F = m a νb r c 1
dimensional analysis, s = ut + at2
3
F = m1v2r−1 is dimensionally correct whereas the
mv 2 correct relation is s = ut + 1 at2.
or F =
r 2

6 8 0 0 $ 5 <
Physics is an experimental science in which measurements made must be expressed

in units.
All physical quantities have a magnitude (size) and a unit.
The SI unit of length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, amount of substance
and luminous intensity are metre, kilogram, second, kelvin, ampere, mole and
candela respectively.
Units of all mechanical, electrical, magnetic and thermal quantities are derived in
terms of these base units.
Screw gauge, vernier caliper methods are available for the measurement of length in
the case of small distances.
Parallax, RADAR methods are available for the measurement of length in the case
of long distances.
The uncertainty in a measurement is called error. The accuracy of a measurement
is a measure of how close the measured value is to the true value of the quantity.
Every accurate measurement is precise but every precise measurement need not be
accurate.
When two or more quantities are added or subtracted, the result can be as precise as
the least of the individual precisions. When the quantities are multiplied or divided,
the result has the same number of significant figures as the quantity with the smallest
number of significant figures.
Dimensional analysis is used to perform quick check on the validity of equations.
Whenever the quantities are added, subtracted or equated, they must have the same
dimension. A dimensionally correct equation may not be a true equation but every
true equation is necessarily dimensionally correct.

&21&(370$3

EXER CISE
, 0XOWLSOH&KRLFH4XHVWLRQV
1. One of the combinations from the 7. Which of the following
hc pairs of physical
fundamental physical constants is .
G quantities have same
The unit of this expression is
dimension?
a) kg2 b) m 3
a) force and power
c) s -1 d) m
b) torque and energy
2. If the error in the measurement of
c) torque and power
radius is 2%, then the error in the
determination of volume of the sphere d) force and torque
will be 8. The dimensional formula of Planck's
a) 8% b) 2% constant h is [AMU, Main, JEE, NEET]
c) 4% d) 6% a) [ML2T-1] b) [ML2T-3]
3. If the length and time period of an c) [MLT-1] d) [ML3T-3]
oscillating pendulum have errors of 9.The velocity of a particle v at an instant t
1% and 3% respectively then the error is given by v = at + bt 2 . The dimensions
in measurement of acceleration due to of b is
gravity is a) [L] b) [LT-1]
a) 4% [Related to AMPMT 2008] c) [LT-2] d) [LT-3]
b) 5% 10. The dimensional formula for
c) 6% gravitational constant G is [Related to
d) 7% AIPMT 2004]
4. The length of a body is measured as 3.51 a) [ML3T-2] b) [M-1L3T-2]
m, if the accuracy is 0.01mm, then the c) [M-1L-3T-2] d) [ML-3T2]
percentage error in the measurement is 11. The density of a material in CGS system
a) 351% b) 1% of units is 4 g cm-3 . In a system of units
c) 0.28% d) 0.035% in which unit of length is 10 cm and
unit of mass is 100 g, then the value of
5. Which of the following has the highest
density of material will be
number of significant figures?
a) 0.04 b) 0.4
a) 0.007 m2
c) 40 d) 400
b) 2.64x1024 kg
12. If the force is proportional to square
c) 0.0006032 m2
of velocity, then the dimension of
d) 6.3200 J proportionality constant is [JEE-2000]
6. If π = 3.14, then the value of π2 is a) [MLT0] b) [MLT-1]
a) 9.8596 b) 9.860 c) [ML-2T] d) [ML-1T0]
c) 9.86 d) 9.9

1 and the charge (q) carried by each of
13. The dimension of ( μ0ε 0 ) 2 is
−
the particles. Which of the following
[Main AIPMT 2011] expression for l is dimensionally
(a) length (b) time correct?. [JEE (advanced) 2016]
(c) velocity (d) force nq 2
(a) l =
14. Planck’s constant (h), speed of light in ε kBT
vacuum (c) and Newton’s gravitational
constant (G) are taken as three
ε kBT
fundamental constants. Which of the (b) l =
nq 2
following combinations of these has
the dimension of length?.
[NEET 2016 (phase II)] q2
(c) l = 2
hG hG ε n kBT
3
(a) 3
(b) 5
2 2
c c q2
(d) l =
ε nkBT
hc Gc
(c) (d) 3
G 2
h
Answers:
15. A length-scale (l) depends on the 1) a 2) d 3) d 4) c
permittivity (H ) of a dielectric material, 5) d 6) c 7) b 8) a
Boltzmann constant (kB ), the absolute 9) d 10) b 11) c 12) d
temperature (T), the number per unit 13) c 14) a 15) b
volume (n) of certain charged particles,
,, 6KRUW$QVZHU4XHVWLRQV
1. Briefly explain the types of physical 4. What are the limitations of dimensional
quantities. analysis?
2. How will you measure the diameter of 5. Define precision and accuracy. Explain
the Moon using parallax method? with one example.
3. Write the rules for determining
significant figures.
,,, /RQJ$QVZHU4XHVWLRQV
1. i) Explain the use of screw gauge and 2. Explain in detail the various types of
vernier caliper in measuring small- errors.
er distances. 3. What do you mean by propagation of
ii) Write a note on triangulation errors? Explain the propagation of
method and radar method to errors in addition and multiplication.
measure larger distances.

4. Write short notes on the following. 5. Explain the principle of homogeniety
a) Unit of dimensions. What are its uses?
b) Rounding - off Give example.
c) Dimensionless quantities
,9 1XPHULFDO3UREOHPV
1. In a submarine equipped with sonar, 4. Jupiter is at a distance of 824.7 million
the time delay between the generation km from the Earth. Its angular
of a pulse and its echo after reflection diameter is measured to be 35.72˝.
from an enemy submarine is observed Calculate the diameter of Jupiter.
to be 80 s. If the speed of sound in water Ans: (1.428 × 105 km)
is 1460 ms −1. What is the distance of 5. The measurement value of length of
enemy submarine? Ans: (58.40 km) a simple pendulum is 20 cm known
2. The radius of the circle is 3.12 m. with 2 mm accuracy. The time for
Calculate the area of the circle with regard 50 oscillations was measured to be
to significant figures. Ans: (30.6 m2) 40 s within 1 s resolution. Calculate
3. Assuming that the frequency γ of a the percentage accuracy in the
vibrating string may depend upon i) determination of acceleration due to
applied force (F) ii) length (A) iii) mass gravity ‘g’ from the above measurement.
Ans: (6%)
per unit length (m), prove that ga
1 F
using dimensional analysis.
l m (related to JIPMER 2001)
9 &RQFHSWXDO4XHVWLRQV
1. Why is it convenient to express the 3. If humans were to settle on other
distance of stars in terms of light year planets which of the fundamental
(or) parsec rather than in km? quantities will be in trouble? Why?
2. Show that a screw gauge of pitch 1 mm 4. Having all units in atomic standards is
and 100 divisions is more precise than more useful. Explain.
a vernier caliper with 20 divisions on 5. Why dimensional methods are
the sliding scale. applicable only up to three quantities?
%22.6)255()(5(1&(
1. Karen Cummings, Priscilla Laws, Edward Redish, Patrick Cooney, Understanding
Physics, Wiley India Pvt LTd, 2nd Edition 2007.
2. Sears and Zemansky’s, College Physics, Pearson Educatoin Ltd,10th Edition, 2016.
3. Halliday. D and Resnick.R, Physics. Part-I, Wiley Easter, New Delhi
4. Sanjay Moreshwar Wagh and Dilip Abasaheb Deshpande, Essentials of Physics Volume I,
PHI learning Pvt Ltd, New Delhi. 2013.
5. James S. Walker , Physics, Addison-Wesley Publishers, 4th Edition
ICT CORNER
Screw Gauge and Vernier Caliper

Measure with Pleasure
STEPS: STEPS:
• Get into/Access the application with the help • Use the given URL to access ‘Vernier Caliper’
of the link given below or the given QR code. simulation page. Click ‘Play Button’ to launch
• To measure the given object’s diameter / the simulation.
thickness, place the object as it should be fitted • Select the unit and set the ‘Zero Error’ from the
between the screw and anvil. The object can be dropdown above the scale.
fitted properly by adjusting the screw. • Click and drag the secondary scale and place
• After clicking the Answer button, You will get a the blue coloured object in between them. Find
box showing Your Measurement Result. Input the measurement and enter it in the answer box
your measured value in it and click Submit above the scale.
button. There you can verify your measurement • Change the size of the object by clicking and
if it is right or wrong. dragging the edge of the blue object and practice
• You can measure the diameter of various the measurement using Vernier Caliper.
objects by clicking Next button.
Step1 Step2 Step1 Step2
Step3 Step4 Step3 Step4
Screw Gauge stimulation URL:

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.priantos.screwgaugegames&hl=en
Vernier caliper stimulation URL:

http://iwant2study.org/ospsg/index.php/interactive-resources/physics/01-
measurements/5-vernier-caliper#faqnoanchor
* Pictures are indicative only.

* If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to
load the page.

UNIT
2 KINEMATICS
All the laws of nature are written in the language of mathematics– Galileo
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• different types of motions (linear, rotation and oscillation)
• the necessity for reference frames to explain the motion of objects
• the meaning of vectors, scalars and their properties
• the role of scalar and vector products in physics
• the basics of differentiation and integration
• the notions of displacement and distance and their variation with time
• the notions of speed, velocity, acceleration and their graphs.
• the notion of relative velocity
• kinematic equations of motion for constant acceleration
• analysis of various types of motion of objects under gravitational force
• radians and degrees
• uniform circular motion, centripetal acceleration and centripetal force.
2.1 of motion is expressed using the language of

INTRODUCTION mathematics.
How do objects move? How fast or slow do
Physics is basically an experimental science they move? For example, when ten athletes
and rests on two pillars–Experiments and run in a race, all of them do not run in the
mathematics. Two thousand three hundred same manner. Their performance cannot be
years ago the Greek librarian Eratosthenes qualitatively recorded by usage of words like
measured the radius of the Earth. The size of ‘fastest’, ‘faster’, ‘average’, ‘slower’ or ‘slowest’.
the atom was measured much later, only in It has to be quantified. Quantifying means
the beginning of the 20th century. The central assigning numbers to each athlete’s motion.
aspect in physics is motion. Motion is found Comparing these numbers one can analyse
at all levels–from microscopic level (within how fast or slow each athlete runs when
the atom) to macroscopic and galactic level compared to others. In this unit, the basic
(planetary system and beyond). In short mathematics needed for analyzing motion
the entire Universe is governed by various in terms of its direction and magnitude is
types of motion. The study of various types covered.
41
Kinematics is the branch of mechanics “Cartesian coordinate system” as shown
which deals with the motion of objects in Figure 2.2
without taking force into account. The
Greek word “kinema” means “motion”. z
z-coordinate
2.2
CONCEPT OF REST (x,y,z)
AND MOTION y
y-coordinate
The concept of rest and motion can be well
understood by the following elucidation x-coordinate
x
(Figure 2.1). A person sitting in a moving bus
is at rest with respect to a fellow passenger but Figure 2.2 Cartesian coordinate system
is in motion with respect to a person outside
the bus. The concepts of rest and motion have
It is to be noted that if the x, y and z axes
meaning only with respect to some reference
are drawn in anticlockwise direction then
frame. To understand rest or motion we need
the coordinate system is called as “right–
a convenient fixed reference frame.
handed Cartesian coordinate system”.
Though other coordinate systems do exist,
in physics we conventionally follow the
right–handed coordinate system as shown
in Figure 2.3.
Right handed
coordinate system
Place your fingers in the direction of the positive x-axis
and rotate them towards the direction of y-axis. Your thumb will
point in the direction of positive z-axis
Figure 2.1 Frame of Reference z

z
Frame of Reference:
If we imagine a coordinate system and the y
position of an object is described relative to
it, then such a coordinate system is called x
frame of reference.
At any given instant of time, the frame Figure 2.3 Right handed coordinate
of reference with respect to which the system
position of the object is described in
terms of position coordinates (x, y, z) The following Figure 2.4 illustrates the
(i.e., distances of the given position of an difference between left and right handed
object along the x, y, and z–axes.) is called coordinate systems.
42 Unit 2 Kinematics
z anti clockwise idealized mass is called “point mass”.
It has no internal structure like shape and
y size. Mathematically a point mass has finite
mass with zero dimension. Even though in
reality a point mass does not exist, it often
x
Right-handed, z up simplifies our calculations. It is to be noted
that the term “point mass” is a relative
z
term. It has meaning only with respect to a
reference frame and with respect to the kind
of motion that we analyse.
x Examples
To analyse the motion of Earth with
y respect to Sun, Earth can be treated as a

Left-handed, z up point mass. This is because the distance
between the Sun and Earth is very large
y anti clockwise compared to the size of the Earth.
If we throw an irregular object like a small
stone in the air, to analyse its motion it is

simpler to consider the stone as a point
mass as it moves in space. The size of
x
the stone is very much smaller than the
distance through which it travels.
z
Right-handed, y up Types of motion
In our day‒to‒day life the following kinds of
y
motion are observed:
z a) Linear motion
An object is said to be in linear motion
if it moves in a straight line.
x
Examples
Left-handed, y up An athlete running on a straight track
A particle falling vertically downwards

Figure 2.4 Right and left handed
coordinate systems to the Earth.
b) Circular motion
Point mass Circular motion is defined as a motion
To explain the motion of an object which described by an object traversing a
has finite mass, the concept of “point circular path.
mass” is required and is very useful. Let
the mass of any object be assumed to Examples
The whirling motion of a stone attached
be concentrated at a point. Then this
to a string
Unit 2 Kinematics 43
The motion of a satellite around the Earth
These two circular motions are shown in
Figure 2.5
Satellite
Figure 2.6 Examples of
Rotational motion
d) Vibratory motion
Earth
If an object or particle executes a to–and–
fro motion about a fixed point, it is said to
be in vibratory motion. This is sometimes
also called oscillatory motion.
Examples
Vibration of a string on a guitar
Movement of a swing
Figure 2.5 Examples of circular motion These motions are shown in Figure 2.7
c) Rotational motion
If any object moves in a rotational
motion about an axis, the motion is
called ‘rotation’. During rotation every
point in the object transverses a circular
path about an axis, (except the points
located on the axis).
Examples
Rotation of a disc about an axis through
its center
Spinning of the Earth about its own axis.
Figure 2.7 Examples of Vibratory

These two rotational motions are shown
motion
in Figure 2.6.
Other types of motion like elliptical Examples
motion and helical motion are also possible Motion of a train along a straight railway
track.
Motion in One, Two and Three Dimensions An object falling freely under gravity
Let the position of a particle in space close to Earth.
be expressed in terms of rectangular
coordinates x, y and z. When these (ii) Motion in two dimensions
coordinates change with time, then the If a particle is moving along a curved
particle is said to be in motion. However, it is path in a plane, then it is said to be in
not necessary that all the three coordinates two dimensional motion.
should together change with time. Even if In this motion, two of the three
one or two coordinates changes with time, rectangular coordinates specifying the
the particle is said to be in motion. Then we position of object change with time.
have the following classification. For instance, when a particle is moving
in the y – z plane, x does not vary, but y
(i) Motion in one dimension and z vary as shown in Figure 2.9
One dimensional motion is the motion of
a particle moving along a straight line. z (y2,z2)
P2
This motion is sometimes known as
rectilinear or linear motion.
In this motion, only one of the three P1
rectangular coordinates specifying the (y1,z1)
position of the object changes with time.

For example, if a car moves from y
position A to position B along x–direction, Figure 2.9 Motion of a particle along

as shown in Figure 2.8, then the variation in two dimensions
x–coordinate alone is noticed.
Examples
Motion of a coin on a carrom board.
An insect crawling over the floor of a
room.
(iii) Motion in three dimensions
y
A particle moving in usual three
dimensional space has three
dimensional motion.
In this motion, all the three
x
A B coordinates specifying the position
of an object change with respect to
Figure 2.8 Motion of a particle along
time. When a particle moves in three
one dimension
dimensions, all the three coordinates
x, y and z will vary.
Examples
2.3.1 Magnitude of a Vector
A bird flying in the sky.
Random motion of a gas molecule. The length of a vector is called magnitude

Flying of a kite on a windy day. of the vector. It is always a positive quantity.
Sometimes the magnitude of a vector is also G
called ‘norm’ of the vector. For a vectorG A,
2.3 the magnitude or norm is denoted by A or
ELEMENTARY CONCEPTS simply ‘A’ (Figure 2.11).
OF VECTOR ALGEBRA
In physics, some quantities possess only Vector

magnitude and some quantities possess both
magnitude and direction. To understand
Magnitude of a vector
these physical quantities, it is very important
to know the properties of vectors and scalars. Figure 2.11 Magnitude of a vector
Scalar
It is a property which can be described 2.3.2 Different types of
only by magnitude. In physics a number of Vectors
quantities can be described by scalars.
1. Equal vectors: Two vectors A and B are
Examples said to be equal when they have equal
Distance, mass, temperature, speed and magnitude and same direction and
energy represent the same physical quantity
(Figure 2.12.).
Vector
It is a quantity which is described by both A
magnitude and direction. Geometrically
a vector is a directed line segment which
B
is shown in Figure 2.10. In physics certain
quantities can be described only by vectors. Figure 2.12 Geometrical
representation of
equal vectors
(a) Collinear vectors: Collinear vectors

are those which act along the same
line. The angle between them can be
Figure 2.10 Geometrical 0° or 180°.
representation of a vector (i) Parallel
Vectors: If two vectors

A and B act in the same
Examples direction along the same
Force, velocity, displacement, position line or on parallel lines, then
vector, acceleration, linear momentum and the angle between them is 00
angular momentum (Figure 2.13).
A y–axis and positive z–axis respectively.
These three unit vectors are directed
perpendicular to each other, the angle
B
between any two of them is 90°. iˆ, ˆj and
Figure 2.13 Geometrical k̂ are examples of orthogonal vectors.
representation of parallel Two vectors which are perpendicular to
vectors each other are called orthogonal vectors
as is shown in the Figure 2.15
(ii) Anti–parallel
vectors: Two z
vectors A and B are said to be
anti–parallel when they are in
∧
opposite directions along the k
same line or on parallel lines. ∧ o

i ∧
Then the angle between them is j y
1800 (Figure 2.14).

Unit vector
x
A
Figure 2.15 Orthogonal unit vectors
B
2.3.3 Addition of Vectors

180°
B A Since vectors have both magnitude and
direction they cannot be added by the
Figure 2.14 Geometrical method of ordinary algebra. Thus, vectors
representation of anti– can be added geometrically or analytically
parallel vectors. using certain rules called ‘vector algebra’.
In order to find the sum (resultant) of two
2. Unit vector: A vector divided by its vectors, which are inclined to each other, we
magnitude is a unit vector. The unit use (i) Triangular law of addition method

vector for A is denoted by Â (read as A or (ii) Parallelogram law of vectors.
cap or A hat). It has a magnitude equal to
unity or one. Triangular Law of addition method

Let us consider two vectors A and B as shown
in Figure 2.16.
ˆ A
Since, A , we can write A AA
ˆ
Head
A
B
Thus, we can say that the unit vector
specifies only the direction of the vector
quantity. Tail
3. Orthogonal unit vectors: Let iˆ, ˆj and kˆ Tail Head

A
be three unit vectors which specify the
directions along positive x–axis, positive Figure 2.16 Head and tail of vectors
To find the resultant of the two vectors B
we apply the triangular law of addition as
follows: R
B sin θ
G G B
Represent the vectors A and B by the α θ
two adjacent sides of a triangle taken in the O A N
same order. Then the resultant is given by A
B cos θ
the third side of the triangle as shown in
Figure 2.17. Figure 2.18 Resultant vector and its
direction by triangle law of addition.
Q
From Figure 2.18
R = A+B
AN
B cos θ = ∴ AN = B cos θ and
B
BN
sin θ = ∴ BN = B sin θ
O P B
A
Figure 2.17 Triangle law of addition For ΔOBN, we have OB 2 = ON 2 + BN 2
To explain ⇒ R 2 = ( A + B cos θ)2 + ( B sin θ)2

G further, the head of the
first vector A is connected
G to the tail of ⇒ R 2 = A2 + B 2 cos 2θ + 2 AB cos θ + B 2sin2θ
the second G B. LetG θ be the angle
G vector
between A and B . Then R is the resultant ( )
⇒ R 2 = A2 + B 2 cos 2θ + sin2θ + 2 AB cos θ
vector Gconnecting the tail of the first ⇒ R = A2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos θ
vector
G A to the head Gof the second vector
B. The magnitude of R (resultant)G is given which is
G G the magnitude of the resultant of
geometrically by the length of R (OQ) and A and B
the direction of Gthe resultant
G vector is the
angle R and A. Thus we write (2) Direction of resultant
G vectors: If θ is
G G between
G G
R = A + B. the angle between A and B , then
G G
A + B = A2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos θ (2.1)
OQ = OP + PQ
G G
If R makes an angle α with A , then in
(1) Magnitude of resultant vector ΔOBN,
The magnitude and angle of the
resultant vector are determined as BN BN
tan α = =
follows. ON OA + AN
From Figure 2.18, consider the B sin θ
tan α =
triangle ABN, which is obtained by A + B cos θ
extending the side OA to ON. ABN is a ⎛ B sin θ ⎞
⇒ α = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
right angled triangle. ⎝ A + B cos θ ⎠
EXA MPL E 2 .1 7 × sin 60 7 3 7 3
G G tan α = = = ≅ 0.713
Two vectors A and B of magnitude 5 units 5 + 7 cos 60 10 + 7 17
and 7 units respectively make an angle 60° ∴α ≅ 35°
with each other as shown below. Find the
magnitude of the resultant vector and
G its
direction with respect to the vector A. →
R
→
B
α = 35 °
7 unit
→
A
→
60° A
Another method to
Note
determine the resultant and
5 unit
angle of resultant of two
Solution vectors is the Parallelogram Law of vector
addition method. It is given in appendix 2.1
By following the law of triangular addition,
the resultant vector is given by
G G G 2.3.4 Subtraction of vectors
R= A+B
Since vectors have both magnitude and
as illustrated below direction two vectors cannot be subtracted
from each other by the method of ordinary
algebra. Thus, this subtraction can be
→ → →
R = A+B done either geometrically or analytically.
→
B We shall now discuss subtraction of two
vectors geometrically using the Figure 2.19
α G G
→
For two non-zero vectors A and B which
A are inclinedG to Geach other at an angle θ, the
G difference GA B is obtained as follows. First
The magnitude of the resultant vector R is
obtain GB as inG Figure 2.19. The angle
given by
between A and B is 180–θ.
G
R = R = 52 + 72 + 2 × 5 × 7 cos 60°
→ → →
R = A+B
→
B
70 × 1
R = 25 + 49 + 109 units θ
2 α1
G G α2 →
A
The angle D between R and A is given by
→
−B 180 − θ
→ → →
R=A −B
B sin θ
tan α = (2.2)
A + B cos θ Figure 2.19 Subtraction of vectors
G G G G
The difference
G A −G B is the same as the The
G angle that A − B makes with the vector
resultant of A and B . A is given by
G G G G
We can write A − B = A + ( − B ) and
using the equation (2.1), we have 7 sin 60 7 3 7
tan α 2 = = = 4.041
5 − 7 cos 60 10 − 7 3
G G
A − B = A2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos(180 − θ) (2.3) α 2 = tan −1 ( 4.041) ≅ 76°
Since, cos (180 − θ ) = − cos θ , we get

2.4
G G COMPONENTS OF A
⇒ A − B = A2 + B 2 − 2 AB cos θ (2.4)
VECTOR
Again from the Figure 2.19, and using an In the Cartesian coordinate system any
equation similar to equation (2.2) we have G
vector A can be resolved into three
B sin (180° − θ) components along x, y and z directions. This
tan α 2 = (2.5) is shown in Figure 2.20.
A + B cos (180° − θ)
Consider a 3–dimensional coordinate
system. With respect to this a vector can be
But sin (180° − θ) = sin θ hence we get written in component form as

B sin θ A Axiˆ Ay ˆj Az kˆ
⇒ tan α 2 = (2.6)
A − B cos θ y
G G
Thus the difference A − B is a vector with
magnitude and direction given by equations →
Ay A
2.4 and 2.6 respectively.
θ
o x
Ax
EXA MPL E 2 .2
G G A two-dimensional Cartesian
Two vectors A and B of magnitude 5 units coordinate system
and 7 units make an angle 60° with each z
other. Find the magnitude of the difference
G G
vector A B and its direction with respect
G Az P(x,y,z)
to the vector A. →
A
Ay
Solution Ax y
o
Using the equation (2.4),
x A three-dimensional Cartesian
G G coordinate system
A − B = 52 + 72 − 2 × 5 × 7 cos 60°
Figure 2.20 Components of a vector in
= 25 + 49 − 35 = 39 units 2 dimensions and 3 dimensions
G z
Here Ax is the x–component
G of A,
Ay is the y–component
G of A and Az is the z
component of A.
∧ −x
In a 2–dimensional Cartesian coordinate ∧ −i
−y −j
system (which
G is shown in the Figure 2.20) y
the vector A is given by ∧
−k
x −z
A Axiˆ Ay ˆj
Then we have:
G
If A makes an angle T with x axis, G The unit vector along the negative x
and Ax and Ay are the components of A direction = î
along x–axis and y–axis respectively, then as
The unit vector along the negative y
shown in Figure 2.21,
direction = ĵ
Ax = A cos θ , Ay = A sin θ The unit vector along the negative z

direction =k̂ .
where ‘A’ is the magnitude (length) of the
G
vector A, A = Ax2 + A2y
2.4.1 Vector addition using
y components
In the previous section we have learnt about
addition and subtraction of two vectors
Ay = A sin θ
using geometric methods. But once we

choose a coordinate system, the addition
and subtraction of vectors becomes much
easier to perform.
A G G
The two vectors A and B in a Cartesian
θ coordinate system can be expressed as
x
o Ax = A cos θ
A Axiˆ Ay ˆj Az kˆ
Figure 2.21 Resolution of a vector
B B iˆ B ˆj B kˆ
x y z
EXA MPLE 2 .3 Then the addition of two vectors is

equivalent to adding their corresponding x,
What are the unit vectors along the
y and z components.
negative x–direction, negative y–direction,
and negative z– direction?
A B Ax Bx iˆ ( Ay B y ) ˆj Az Bz kˆ
Solution
Similarly the subtraction of two vectors is
The unit vectors along the negative directions equivalent to subtracting the corresponding
can be shown as in the following figure. x, y and z components.
2.5
A B Ax Bx iˆ ( Ay B y ) ˆj Az Bz kˆ
MULTIPLICATION OF
VECTOR BY A SCALAR
The above rules form an analytical way
G
of adding and subtracting two vectors.
G by a scalar O results in
A vector A multiplied
anotherGvector, O A. If O is a positive number
G
EXA MPLE 2 .4 then O A is also in the direction
G of A. If O
is a negative number, OGA is in the opposite
G G
Two vectors A and B are given in the direction to the vector A.
component
form asG AG 5iˆG 7 ˆjG 4kˆG and
ˆ Find A + B, B + A, A − BG ,
BG 6Giˆ3 ˆj 2k. EX AM P L E 2 . 5
BA G
Given the vector A 2iˆ 3 ˆj, what is 3 A?
Solution Solution

A B (5iˆ 7 ˆj 4kˆ) (6iˆ 3 ˆj 2kˆ)
11iˆ 10 ˆj 2kˆ
3 A 3 2iˆ 3 ˆj 6iˆ 9 ˆj
G
B A (6iˆ 3 ˆj 2kˆ) (5iˆ 7 ˆj 4kˆ) The vector 3 A is in the same direction as
G
(6 5)iˆ (3 7) ˆj (2 4)kˆ vector A.
11iˆ 10 ˆj 2kˆ

A B (5iˆ 7 ˆj 4kˆ) (6iˆ 3 ˆj 2kˆ) EXAM P L E 2 . 6
G
iˆ 4 ˆj 6kˆ A vector A isG given asG in the following
Figure. Find 4 A and 4 A
B A iˆ 4 ˆj 6kˆ
Solution
G G G G →
Note that the vectors AG BG and BG A
G are
A
same and the vectors A B and B A are →
4A
opposite to each other.
→
The addition of two −4A
Note
vectors using components
In physics, certain vector quantities can
depends on the choice of
be defined as a scalar times another vector
the coordinate system. But the geometric
way of adding and subtracting two
quantity.
vectors is independent of the coordinate For example
system used. G G
1) Force F ma . Here mass ‘m’ is a scalar,
G
and a is the acceleration. Since ‘m’ is
always a positive scalar, the direction
of force is always in the direction of (v) The scalar product of two vectors will
acceleration. be maximum when cos θ = 1, i.e. θ =
G G G
2) Linear momentum P = mv. Here v is 0°, i.e., when the vectors are parallel;
the velocity. The direction of linear
G G
momentum is also in the direction of ( A ⋅ B ) max = AB
velocity. G G
3) Force F qE , Here the G electric (vi) The scalar product of two vectors will
charge ‘q’ is a scalar, and E is the be minimum, when cos θ = –1, i.e.
electric field. Since charge can be θ = 180°
G G
positiveG or negative, the direction of ( A ⋅ B ) min = –AB, when the vectors are
force F is correspondingly
G either in anti-parallel. G G
the directionG of E or opposite to the (vii) If two vectors A and B are
direction of E. perpendicular to each G G other then
their scalar product A ⋅ B = 0 ,GbecauseG
cos 90°=0. Then the vectors A and B
2.5.1 Scalar Product of are said to be mutually orthogonal.
Two Vectors (viii) The scalar product of a vector with itself
Definition is termed as self–dot product and is
G 2 G G
The scalar product (or dot product) of two given by ( A ) = A ⋅ A = AA cos θ = A2.
vectors is defined as the product of the
Here angle θ = 0°
magnitudes of both the vectors and the
cosine of the angle between them. The magnitude or norm of the vector
G G G G G G
Thus if there are two vectors A and B A is A A = A ⋅ A
having an angle θ between them, then their (ix) In case of a unit vector n̂
G G
scalar product is defined as A ⋅ B =G AB cosGθ. n̂ " n̂ = 1 x 1 x cos 0 = 1. For example, î. î =
Here, A and B are magnitudes of A and B. ĵ. ĵ = k̂. k̂ = 1
(x) In the case of orthogonal unit vectors î,
Properties ĵ and k̂,
G G
(i) The product quantity A ⋅ B is always a
scalar. It is positive if the angle between î.ˆj ˆj.kˆ k.i
ˆ ˆ 1 " 1cos 90 0
the vectors is acute (i.e., < 90°) and
negative if the angle between them is (xi) In terms ofG components
G the scalar
obtuse (i.e. 90°<θ< 180°). product of A and B can be written as
(ii) The scalar product is commutative,
G G G G
i.e. A.B B. A
A " B ( Axiˆ Ay ˆj Az kˆ) " Bxiˆ B y ˆj Bz kˆ
(iii) The vectors obey distributive law i.e. = Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az Bz , with all other
G G G G G G G
( )
A. B + C = A.B + A.C terms zero.
(iv) The angle between the vectors G
G G The magnitude of vector A is given by
⎡A ⋅B⎤
θ = cos–1 ⎢ AB ⎥ G
⎣ ⎦ A =A = Ax2 + A2y + Az2
G G
EXA MPLE 2 .7 Hence, C and D are orthogonal to each other.
G
Given two vectors A 2iˆ 4 ˆj G 5Gkˆ and B = It is also possible
G to
G geometrically show that
iˆ 3 ˆj 6kˆ, FindG the product
G A.B, and the the vectors C and D are orthogonal to each
magnitudes of A and B. What is the angle other. This is shown in the following Figure.
y
between them?
Solution
G G →
A.B = 2 + 12 + 30 = 44 A
→
B
Magnitude A = 4 + 16 + 25 = 45 units
Magnitude B = 1 + 9 + 36 = 46 units
y
The angle between the two vectors is

given by
G G →
−1 ⎛ A.B ⎞
C
θ = cos ⎜ ⎟ 90° x
⎝ AB ⎠ →
D
⎛ 44 ⎞ ⎛ 44 ⎞
= cos −1 ⎜ = cos −1 ⎜
⎟
⎝ 45 × 46 ⎠ ⎝ 45.49 ⎟⎠
= cos −1 (0.967 ) In
G physics, the work done by a force
F to move an object through a small
∴θ ≅ 15° G
displacement dr is defined as,
EXA MPLE 2 .8 G G
W F .dr
Check whether the following vectors are W F dr cos θ
orthogonal.
The work done is basically a scalar
i) A 2iˆ 3 ˆj and B 4iˆ 5 ˆj
product between the force vector and the
ii) C 5iˆ 2 ˆj and D 2iˆ 5 ˆj displacement vector. Apart from work done,
there are other physical quantities which are
Solution
also defined through scalar products.
G G
A.B = 8 − 15 = −7 ≠ 0
In uniform circular motion,
Note
G G the centripetal force is
Hence A and B are not orthogonal to each perpendicular to the
other. displacement. Hence, work done by
this force is zero.
G G
C.D = 10 − 10 = 0
G G
2.5.2 The Vector Product of the vectors A and B and is in the sense
Two Vectors of advancement G of a right handed G screw
rotated from A (first vector) to B (second
Definition
vector) through the smaller angle between
The vector product or cross product of two
them. Thus, if a right-handed screw
vectors is defined as another vector having
whose axis Gis perpendicular
to the plane
G
a magnitude equal to the product of the
formed
G by A and B, is rotated from A to
magnitudes of two vectors and the sine of
B through the smaller angle between them,
the angle between them. The direction of the
then the direction of advancement G G of theG
product vector is perpendicular to the plane
screw gives the direction of A u B i.e. C
containing the two vectors, in accordance
which is illustrated in Figure 2.22.
with the right hand screw rule or right hand
thumb rule (Figure 2.22).
G G
Thus, if A and B are two vectors, Gthen According to Right Hand Rule,
G Note
their vector product is written as A u B if the curvature of the fingers
G
which is a vector C defined by of the right hand represents
the sense of rotation of the object, then
G G G the thumb, held perpendicular to the
C = A × B = (AB sin θ)n̂
curvature of the fingers, represents the
G
G G G direction of the resultant C.
The direction n̂ of A u B, i.e., C is
perpendicular to the plane containing
VECTOR PRODUCT (“CROSS“ PRODUCT)

G G G G
The vector
G product of A and B , written as A u B , produces a third
vector C whose magnitude is
G G G
C = A × B =| A || B | sin θ n̂ −C = B × A
C=A×B
B
B A
A
−C = B × A
A × B = −(B × A)
Figure 2.22 Vector product of two vectors
i.e., the vector product of two
non–zero vectors vanishes, if
the vectors are either parallel or
antiparallel.
(v) The self–cross product, i.e.,
product of a vector with itself is
the null vector
Properties of vector (cross) product.
(i) The vector product of any two A A AA sin0nˆ 0.
G
vectors is always another vector In physics the null vector 0 is
whose direction is perpendicular simply denoted as zero.
to the plane containing these two (vi) The self–vector products of unit
vectors, i.e.,G orthogonal to both vectors are thus zero.
G
the vectors AG and B,G even though
iˆ iˆ ˆj ˆj kˆ kˆ 0
the vectors A and B may or may
not be mutually orthogonal.
(ii) The vector product of two (vii) In the case of orthogonal unit
ˆ in accordance with
vectors, iˆ, ˆj, k,
vectors G Gis not G G commutative,
G G
i.e.,G AGu B ≠ B u A But., A u B = the right hand screw rule:
–[ B u A ]
Here iˆ ˆj kˆ, ˆj kˆ iˆ and kˆ iˆ ˆj
G Git is worthwhile
G G to note that
| A u B| = | B u A | = AB sin θ i.e., ∧
j ∧
in
G the G case Gof the
G product vectors j
A u B and B u A , the magnitudes
∧
are equal but directions are ∧ k ∧
i
i
opposite to each other.
∧
k
(iii) The vector product of two vectors
will have maximum magnitude Also, since the cross product is
when sin θ = 1, i.e., θ =G 90° G not commutative,
i.e., when the vectors A and B
are orthogonal to each other. ˆj iˆ kˆ, kˆ ˆj iˆ
and iˆ kˆ ˆj
A B max
ABnˆ
(viii) In terms of components, the
(iv) The vector product of two vector product of two vectors
G G
non–zero vectors will be A and B is
minimum when sin θ = 0,
i.e.,θ = 0° or 180° iˆ ˆj kˆ

A B Ax Ay Az
( A × B( min
=0 Bx By Bz
A number of quantities used

iˆ Ay Bz Az B y in Physics are defined through
ˆj Az Bx Ax Bz vector products. Particularly

kˆ Ax B y Ay Bx
physical quantities representing
rotational effects like torque,
angular momentum, are defined
Note that in the ĵ th component through vector products.
the order of multiplication
is different than iˆth and k̆ th Examples
G G G G
components. (i) Torque τ = r × F . where F is Force
G G G
(ix) If two vectors A and B form and r is position vectorG of a particle
G G
adjacent sides in a parallelogram, (ii) Angular momentum L = r × p where
G G G
then the magnitude of A × B will p is the linear momentum
G G G G
give the area of the parallelogram (iii) Linear Velocity v = ω × r where Z is
as represented graphically in angular velocity
Figure 2.23.
EXAM P L E 2 . 9
A × B = A B sin θ

Two vectors are given as r 2iˆ 3 ˆj 5kˆ

and F 3iˆ 2Gˆj 4kˆ. Find the resultant
G G
B A×B vector τ = r × F
θ Solution
A
Figure 2.23 Area of parallelogram iˆ ˆj kˆ

G
W = rF 2 3 5
(x) Since we can divide a parallelogram 3 2 4
into two equal triangles as shown
in the Figure 2.24, the area of a & (12 10 iˆ 15 8 ˆj 4 9 kˆ
G G
triangle with A and B as sides & 22iˆ 7 ˆj 13kˆ
1 G G
is A u B . This is shown in the
2
Figure 2.24. (This fact will be
used when we study Kepler’s
laws in unit 6) 2.5.3 Properties of the
components of vectors
G G
If two vectors A and B are equal, then their
individual components are also equal.
A×B
B G G
2 Let A B
A Then Axiˆ Ay ˆj Az kˆ Bxiˆ B y ˆj Bz kˆ

Figure 2.24 Area of triangle i.e., Ax Bx , A y B y , Az Bz
EXA MPLE 2 .1 0 Solution
Compare the components for the following By comparing the components both sides,
vector we can write
G equations
G
a) F = ma Here m is positive number 5 − 6 = 3T + T
G
b) p 0
−1 = 4T
Solution 1
T =−
Case (a): 4
G G
F = ma
EXAM P L E 2 . 1 2
Fxiˆ Fy ˆj Fz kˆ maxiˆ ma y ˆj maz kˆ Compare G theG components of vector
G G
equation F1 + F2 + F3 = F4
By comparing the components, we get
Solution
Fx max , Fy ma y , Fz maz We can resolve all the vectors in x, y and

z components with respect to Cartesian
coordinate system.
This implies that one vector equation is
Once we resolve the components we
equivalent to three scalar equations.
can separately equate the x components
on both sides, y components on both sides,
Case (b) and z components on both the sides of the
equation, we then get
G
p 0
F1x + F2 x + F3 x = F4 x
pxiˆ p y ˆj pz kˆ 0iˆ 0 ˆj 0kˆ
F1 y + F2 y + F3 y = F4 y
By comparing the components, we get
F1z + F2 z + F3 z = F4 z
px = 0, py = 0, pz =0
2.6
POSITION VECTOR
EXA MPL E 2 .1 1 It is a vector which denotes the position
Determine the value of the T from the of a particle at any instant of time,
given vector equation. with respect to some reference frame or
coordinate system.
G
The position vector r of the particle at a
5 ˆj Tjˆ 6 ˆj 3Tjˆ
point P is given by
The position vector for the point Q is
r xi y j zk
G rQ 5iˆ 4 ˆj
where x, y and z are components Gof r ,
Figure 2.25 shows the position vector r . The position vector for the point R is

z rR 2iˆ
The position vector for the point S is

P(x,y,z)

r rs 3iˆ 6 ˆj
z
y
x
y EX AM P L E 2 . 1 4
x A person initially at rest starts to walk 2 m
Figure 2.25 Position vector in towards north, then 1 m towards east, then
Cartesian coordinate system 5 m towards south and then 3 m towards
west. What is the position vector of the
person at the end of the trip?
Solution
EXA MPLE 2 .1 3
As shown in the Figure, the positive x axis is
Determine the position vectors for the taken as east direction, positive y direction
following particles which are located at is taken as north.
points P, Q, R, S.
N North y
W E
y S 2
Q 1
West East
→
rQ −x x
r 3
→
rR
P 4
→
−x R rP P x
→
rs South −y
S After the trip, the person reaches the

−y
point P whose position vector given by
Solution

r 2iˆ 3 ˆj
The position vector for the point P is
The displacement direction is south west.

rP 3iˆ
2.7 The displacement covered is zero. It is
because your initial and final positions are
DISTANCE AND
the same.
DISPLACEMENT
But the distance travelled is 4 km.
Distance is the actual path length travelled
by an object in the given interval of time
during the motion. It is a positive scalar EXAM P L E 2 . 1 6
quantity. An athlete covers 3 rounds on a circular
Displacement is the difference between track of radius 50 m. Calculate the total
the final and initial positions of the object in distance and displacement travelled by him.
a given interval of time. It can also be defined
Solution
as the shortest distance between these two
positions of the object and its direction is
from the initial to final position of the object,
during the given interval of time. It is a vector
quantity. Figure 2.26 illustrates the difference
R
between displacement and distance. A
ance
ist
D
Di
The total distance the athlete covered =3x
Start sp
lac circumference of track
em
en
t
Distance = 3 × 2π × 50 m
End = 300π m (or)
Figure 2.26 Distance and displacement Distance ≈ 300 x 3.14 ≈ 942 m
The displacement is zero, since the athlete

EXA MPLE 2 .1 5
reaches the same point A after three rounds
Assume your school is located 2 km away from where he started.
from your home. In the morning you are
going to school and in the evening you
come back home. In this entire trip what is 2.7.1 Displacement Vector in
the distance travelled and the displacement Cartesian Coordinate
covered? System
Solution In terms of position vector, the displacement

vector is given as follows. Let us consider
morning 2 km
Home SCHOOL a particle moving from a point P1 having
G
evening position vector r1 = x1iˆ y1 ˆj z1kˆ to a
G
point P2 where its position vector is r2 =
ˆ r1 iˆ ˆj and r2 4iˆ 2 ˆj
x2iˆ y2 ˆj z 2k.

The displacement vector is given by
'r r2 r1 4iˆ 2 ˆj iˆ ˆj
4 1 iˆ 2 1 ˆj

'r r 2 r 1
'r 3iˆ ˆj
(x2 x1 )i ( y2 y1 )j (z 2 z1 )k .
The magnitude of the displacement vector
This displacement is also shown in Δr = 32 + 12 = 10 unit.
Figure 2.27.
y (1) The Distance travelled

Note
by an object in motion in a
r2 − r1 = Δr P2 given time is never negative
or zero, it is always positive.
P1
(2) The displacement of an object, in
r1 a given time can be positive, zero or
r2 negative.
(3) The displacement of an object
can be equal or less than the distance
x travelled but never greater than
distance travelled.
Figure 2.27 Displacement vector
(4) The distance covered by an object
between two positions can have
EXA MPLE 2 .1 7 many values, but the displacement
between them has only one value (in
Calculate the displacement vector for a
magnitude).
particle moving from a point P to Q as
shown below. Calculate the magnitude of
displacement.
y
2.8
4
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
3
Q
2 Δr • The Concept of a function
P• 1) Any physical quantity is represented
1 r
1 r2
x
by a “function” in mathematics. Take
0 the example of temperature T. We
1 2 3 4
know that the temperature of the
surroundings is changing throughout
Solution
the day. It increases till noon and
The displacement vector Δr = r2 − r1 , with decreases in the evening. At any
time “t” the temperature T has a Graphically this is represented as shown
unique value. Mathematically this in Figure 2.28.
variation can be represented by the
notation ‘T (t)’ and it should be called
“temperature as a function of time”. It y(x)
y
implies that if the value of ‘t’ is given,
then the function “T (t)” will give the dy
at a point P represents the
dx
value of the temperature at that time‘t’. tangent to the curve at P.
Similarly, the position of a bus in Tangent
motion along the x direction can be

P
represented by x(t) and this is called ‘x' Δy
as a function of time’. Here ‘x’ denotes Δx
the x coordinate.
x x
Example Figure 2.28 Derivative of a function

Consider a function f(x) = x2. Sometimes
it is also represented as y = x2. Here y is
called the dependent variable and x is called
EX AM P L E 2 . 1 8
independent variable. It means as x changes,
y also changes. Once a physical quantity is Consider the function y x 2 . Calculate
dy
represented by a function, one can study the derivative using the concept of
dx
the variation of the function over time or limit.
over the independent variable on which the
quantity depends. Calculus is the branch of Solution
mathematics used to analyse the change of Let us take two points given by
any quantity.
x1 = 2 and x2 = 3, then y1= 4 and y2 = 9
If a function is represented by y = f(x),
then dy/dx represents the derivative of Here Δx = 1 and Δy = 5
y with respect to x. Mathematically this
represents the variation of y with respect to Then
change in x, for various continuous values of x. Δy 9 − 4
= =5
Mathematically the derivative dy/dx is Δx 3 − 2
defined as follows If we take x1 = 2 and x2 = 2.5, then y1= 4
and y2 = (2.5)2 = 6.25
dy y ( x + Δx ) − y ( x )
= lim
dx Δx →0 Δx 1
Here Δx = 0.5 = and Δy = 2.25
Δy 2
= Δlim
x →0 Δx Then
dy Δy Δy 6.25 − 4
represents the limit that the quantity = = 4. 5
dx Δx Δx 0. 5
attains, as Δx tends to zero.
If we take x1= 2 and x2 = 2.25, then y1= 4 This is because, if we substitute Δx = 0,
and y2 = 5.0625 Δy
becomes indeterminate.
Δx
1
Here Δx = 0.25 = , Δy = 1.0625 In general, we can obtain the derivative
4 of the function y = x2, as follows:
Δy 5.0625 − 4 ( 5.0625 − 4 )
= 0.25 =
Δx 1
Δy ( x + Δx ) − x
2
4 2
x 2 + 2 x Δx + Δx 2 − x 2
= 4 ( 5.0625 − 4 ) = 4.25 = =
Δx Δx Δx
2 x Δx + Δx 2
= = 2 x + Δx
Δx
If we take x1= 2 and x2= 2.1, then y1= 4
and y2= 4.41 dy
= lim 2 x + Δx = 2 x
dx Δx →0
1
Here Δx = 0.1 = and
10 The table below shows the derivatives of
Δy ( 4.41 − 4 ) = 10 4.41 − 4 = 4.1 some common functions used in physics
Δx
=
1
( )
Function Derivative
10
y=x dy/dx=1
These results are tabulated as shown y = x2 dy/dx=2x
below: y = x3 dy/dx =3x2
y = xn dy/dx=nxn–1
x1 x2 'x y1 y2 'y
y = sinx dy/dx= cosx
'x
y = cosx dy/dx= –sinx
2 2.25 0.25 4 5.0625 4.25
y = constant dy/dx= 0
2 2.1 0.1 4 4.41 4.1
dy  dB   dA 
2 2.01 0.01 4 4.0401 4.01 y = AB  A      B
dx  dx   dx 
2 2.001 0.001 4 4.004001 4.001
2 2.0001 0.0001 4 4.00040001 4.0001 In physics, velocity, speed and acceleration
are all derivatives with respect to time‘t’.
From the above table, the following This will be dealt with in the next section.
inferences can be made.
Δy EXAM P L E 2 . 1 9
As Δx tends to zero, approaches
Δx Find the derivative with respect to t, of the
the limit given by the number 4. function x= A0 + A1t + A2 t2 where A0, A1
and A2 are constants.
dy
At a point x = 2, the derivative 4.
dx Solution
It should also be mentioned here that Note that here the independent variable is
Δx → 0 does not mean that Δx = 0 . ‘t’ and the dependent variable is ‘x’
The requived derivative is dx/dt = 0+ The area under the curve is approximately
A1+2A2t equal to sum of areas of each rectangular
The second derivative is d2x/d2t = 2A2 strip.
This is given by A ≈ f (a ) Δx + f ( x1 ) Δx
+ f ( x2 ) Δx + f ( x3 ) Δx .
2.9
y
INTEGRAL CALCULUS f(b)
f(x)
Integration is basically an area finding f(x3)
process. For certain geometric shapes we f(x2)
can directly find the area. But for irregular f(x1)
shapes the process of integration is used. f(a)
Consider for example the areas of a rectangle
and an irregularly shaped curve, as shown
in Figure 2.29.
a Δx x1 x2 x3 b x
The area of the rectangle is simply given
by A = length u breadth = (b–a) c Figure 2.30 Area under the curve using
rectangular strip
y
Area = (b − a)c
f(x) = c Where f ( a ) is the value of the function

f ( x ) at x = a, f ( x1 ) is the value of f ( x ) for
c
x = x1 and so on.
As we increase the number of strips, the
a b
area evaluated becomes more accurate. If
x
the area under the curve is divided into N
strips, the area under the curve is given by
y N
A= ∑ f ( x ) Δx
n =1
n n
f(x)
As the number of strips goes to infinity,
Area = ? N → ∞, the sum becomes an integral,
b
A= ∫ f ( x ) dx
a b x
a
Figure 2.29 Area of (Note: As N → ∞, Δx → 0)
rectangular and irregular
shape
The integration will give the total area
But to find the area of the irregular shaped under the curve f (x). This is shown in
curve given by f(x), we divide the area into Figure 2.31.
rectangular strips as shown in the Figure 2.30.
Sum becomes integral
y In limit as y
f(x) Δx → 0 f(x)
N→∞
N b
∑ f(xi)Δx ∫f(xi)dx
i=1 x a x
a Δx b a b
xm
= Δx
N
b N
Area = ∫f(x)dx = lim ∑ f(xi)Δx
a Δx → 0 i = 1
Figure 2.31 Relation between summation and integration
Examples the interval from time t = 0 to time

In physics the work done by a force F(x) on t = t1 as
an object to move it from point a to point b
in one dimension is given by t1
Impulse I = ∫ Fdt
b 0
W = ∫F ( x ) dx
a
The impulse is the area under the force function
F (t) - t graph as shown in Figure 2.33.
(No scalar products is required here, since
motion here is in one dimension)
F(t)
1) The work done is the area under the
force displacement graph as shown in
Figure 2.32
Force
F Force = F(x)
Impulse I
0 Time (s) t1 t
Work Figure 2.33 Impulse of a force
x Average velocity
a b Consider a particle located initially at point
G
Figure 2.32 Work done by the P having position vector r1 . In a time interval
force Δt the particle is moved to the point Q
G
having position vector r2 . The displacement
G G G
2) The impulse given by the force in an vector is Δr = r2 − r1 . This is shown in
interval of time is calculated between Figure 2.34.
The average velocity is defined as ratio of Solution
the displacement vector to the corresponding G G
G rP − rO
time interval Average velocity vavg =
Δt
G Here Δt = 5 s
G Δr
vavg = . G
Δt rO 0, r 10 iˆ
P
It is a vector quantity. The direction of G 10iˆ ˆ s−1.

vavg = = 2 icm
average velocity is in the direction of the 5 sec
G
displacement vector (Δr ).
The average velocity is in the positive x
This is also shown in Figure 2.34. direction.
y
Q
The average speed = total path length /
Δr time taken (the path is semi-circular)
r =
r 2− 1 Δr
Vavg =
Δt
P 5π cm
r2 = = π cm s−1 ≈ 3.14 cm s−1
r1 5s
x Note that the average speed is greater

Figure 2.34 Average velocity than the magnitude of the average velocity.
Instantaneous velocity or velocity

Average speed The instantaneous velocity at an instant t
The average speed is defined as the ratio of or simply ‘velocity’ at an instant t is defined
total path length travelled by the particle in as limiting value of the average velocity as
a time interval. Δt → 0, evaluated at time t.
Average speed = total path length / In other words, velocity is equal to rate
total time of change of position vector with respect to
time. Velocity is a vector quantity.
EXA MPL E 2 .2 0 G G
G Δr dr
v = lim =
Consider an object travelling in a semi- Δt →0 Δt dt
circular path from point O to point P
in 5 second, as is shown in the Figure. In component form, this velocity is
Calculate the average velocity and
average speed. dr d ˆ ˆ ˆ
v
dt dt

xi yj zk
y
dx dy dz ˆ
iˆ ˆj k.
dt dt dt
dx
Here = v x = x − component of velocity
dt
o 10 cm P x
dy EX AM P L E 2 . 2 2
= v y = y − component of velocity
dt The velocity of three particles A, B, C are
dz given below. Which particle travels at the
= v z = z − component of velocity greatest speed?
dt

The magnitude of velocity v is called v A 3iˆ 5 ˆj 2kˆ

speed and is given by v B iˆ 2 ˆj 3kˆ

v = v x2 + v 2y + v z2 . vC 5iˆ 3 ˆj 4kˆ
Speed is always a positive scalar. The Solution

unit of speed is also meter per second. We know that speed is the magnitude of
the velocity vector. Hence,
EXA MPLE 2 .2 1
Speed of A = v A = ( 3) + (−5) + ( 2)
2 2 2
The position vector of a particle is given

r = 2t iˆ+ 3 t2 jˆ− 5 ˆk. = 9 + 25 + 4 = 38 m s-1
a) Calculate the velocity and speed of the

(1) + ( 2 ) + ( 3)
2 2 2
particle at any instant t Speed of B = v B =
b) Calculate the velocity and speed of the
= 1 + 4 + 9 = 14 m s-1
particle at time t = 2 s

(5) + (3) + ( 4 )
2 2 2
Solution Speed of C = vC =

dr
The velocity v 2iˆ 6tjˆ
dt = 25 + 9 + 16 = 50 m s-1
The speed v(t ) = 22 + (6t )2 ms −1 The particle C has the greatest speed.
The velocity of the particle at t = 2 s
G 50 ! 38 ! 14
v ( 2sec ) = 2iˆ 12 ˆj
The speed of the particle at t = 2 s EX AM P L E 2 . 2 3
v (2 s) = 22 + 122 = 4 + 144 Two cars are travelling with respective

velocities v1 10 m s 1 along east and
= 148 ≈ 12.16 m s−1
v2 10 m s 1 along west. What are the
speeds of the cars?
Note that the particle has velocity
components along x and y direction. Along
Solution
the z direction the position has constant value
(−5) which is independent of time. Hence Both cars have the same magnitude of
there is no z-component for the velocity. velocity. This implies that both cars travel
at the same speed even though they have
velocities in different directions. Speed will Consider a butterfly and a stone,
not give the direction of motion. both moving towards you with the same
velocity 5 m s−1. If both hit your body, the
effects will not be the same. The effects not
only depend upon the velocity, but also
on the mass. The stone has greater mass
compared to the butterfly. The momentum of
the stone is thus greater than the momentum
of the butterfly. It is the momentum which
plays a major role in explaining the ‘state’ of
Speedometer motion of the object.
The unit of the momentum is kg m s−1
Momentum
The linear momentum or simply
momentum of a particle is defined as EX AM P L E 2 . 2 4
product of mass with velocity. It is denoted Consider two masses of 10 g and 1 kg
G
as ‘ p’. Momentum is also a vector quantity. moving with the same speed 10 m s-1.
G Calculate the magnitude of the momentum.
G
p mv .
Solution
The direction of momentum is also in We use p = mv
the direction of velocity, and the magnitude For the mass of 10 g, m = 0.01 kg
of momentum is equal to product of mass
p = 0.01 u 10 = 0.1 kg m s-1
and speed of the particle.
For the mass of 1 kg
p = mv
p = 1 u 10 = 10 kg m s-1
In component form the momentum
can be written as Thus even though both the masses have
the same speed, the momentum of the
heavier mass is 100 times greater than that
pxiˆ p y ˆj pz kˆ mv xiˆ mv y ˆj mv z kˆ
of the lighter mass.
Here px = x component of momentum

and is equal to mv x 2.10
p y = y component of momentum and is MOTION ALONG ONE
equal to mv y DIMENSION
pz = z component of momentum and is
equal to mv z 2.10.1 Average velocity
The momentum of the particle plays a If a particle moves in one dimension, say for
very important role in Newton’s laws. The example along the x direction, then
physical significance of momentum can be Δx x2 − x1
The average velocity = = .
well understood by the following example. Δt t 2 − t1
The average velocity is also a vector that displacement is negative, so the particle
quantity. But in one dimension we have has travelled in the negative direction. This is
only two directions (positive and negative shown in the Figure 2.35 below.
x direction), hence we use positive and
negative signs to denote the direction. EX AM P L E 2 . 2 5
The instantaneous velocity or velocity is A particle moves along the x-axis in such a
Δx dx way that its coordinates x varies with time
defined as v = lim =
Δt →0 Δt dt 't' according to the equation x = 2 5t + 6t2.
Graphically the slope of the position-time What is the initial velocity of the particle?
graph will give the velocity of the particle.
Solution
At the same time, if velocity time graph is
given, the distance and displacement are
x t t
determined by calculating the area under
dx d
the curve. This is explained below. Velocity, v = = (2 − 5t + 6t 2 )
dx dt dt
We know that velocity is given by v.
dt or v = −5 + 12t
Therefore, we can write dx vdt For initial velocity, t 0
By integrating both sides, we get ? Initial velocity = −5ms−1
x2 t2
∫dx = ∫v dt .
x1 t1 The negative sign implies that at t = 0
As already seen, integration is equivalent the velocity of the particle is along negative
to area under the given curve. So the term x direction.
t2
∫v dt represents the area under the curve v Average speed

t1 The average speed is defined as the ratio of
as a function of time.
the total path length traveled by the particle
Since the left hand side of the integration in a time interval, to the time interval
represents the displacement travelled by the
particle from time t1 to t 2, the area under the Average speed = total path length / total
velocity time graph will give the displacement time period
of the particle. If the area is negative, it means
v(ms-1) Velocity (ms-1)
Area under the curve 4
4 will give the displacement
3
travelled by the particle
from t1 or t2 2 Postive
3
1 displacement
2 8 9 10
Time
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Negative (s)
1 −1 displacement
−2
0 1 t1 2 3 t2 4 t(s)
Figure 2.35 Displacement in the velocity–time graph
2.10.2 Relative Velocity Solution
in One and Two The relative velocity of B with respect to A,
Dimensional Motion G G G
v BA = v B v A = 5 km h−1 due east
When two objects A and B are moving with Similarly, the relative velocity of A with
G G G
different velocities, then the velocity of one respect to B i.e., v AB = v A v B 5 km h-1
object A with respect to another object B due west.
is called relative velocity of object A with To a passenger in the car A, the car
respect to B. B will appear to be moving east with a
velocity 5 km h−1. To a passenger in train B,
Case 1 the train A will appear to move westwards
Consider two objects A and B moving with with a velocity of 5 km h−1
uniform velocities VA and VB, as shown,
Case 2
along straight tracks in the same direction
Consider two objects A and B moving with
VA , VB with respect to ground.
uniform velocities VA and VB along the same
The relative velocity of object A with straight tracks but opposite in direction
respect to object B is VAB= VA _ VB
The relative velocity of object B with ⎯⎯→ ←⎯⎯
VB
respect to object A is VBA= VB _ VA
VA
Thus, if two objects are moving in the The relative velocity of object A with
same direction, the magnitude of relative respect to object B is
velocity of one object with respect to another
is equal to the difference in magnitude of VAB = VA − (−VB ) = VA + VB
two velocities.
EXA MPLE 2 .2 6 The relative velocity of object B with

respect to object A is
Suppose two cars A and B are moving with
uniform velocities with respect to ground
along parallel tracks and in the same
direction. Let the velocities of A and B be
35 km h−1 due east and 40 km h−1 due east Thus, if two objects are moving in
respectively. What is the relative velocity of opposite directions, the magnitude of
car B with respect to A? relative velocity of one object with respect
to other is equal to the sum of magnitude of
their velocities.
Case 3
G G
Consider the velocities v A and v B at an
Velocity VB
angle θ between their directions.
The relative velocity of A with respect to B,
G G G
Velocity VA v AB = v A − v B

Then, the magnitude and direction of v AB is
V RM = V R − V M
given by vAB = v 2A + v 2B − 2 v A v B cos θ
v B sin θ which has magnitude
and tan β = (Here β is angle
v A − v B cos θ
G VRM = VR2 + VM2
between v AB and v B )
(i) When θ = 0°, the bodies move along ⎛V ⎞
parallel straight lines in the same and direction θ = tan −1 ⎜ M ⎟ with the
⎝ VR ⎠
direction, vertical as shown in Figure. 2.36
We have vAB= (vA − vB) in the direction
G
of v A . Obviously vBA = (vB + vA) in the In order to save himself from the rain, he
G should hold an umbrella at an angle θ with
direction of v B .
the vertical.
(ii) When θ = 180°, the bodies move along
parallel straight lines in opposite
directions, EX AM P L E 2 . 2 7
We have vAB = (vA + vB) in the direction
G Suppose two trains A and B are moving
of v A.
with uniform velocities along parallel
Similarly, vBA = (vB − vA) in the direction tracks but in opposite directions. Let
G
of v B . the velocity of train A be 40 km h−1 due
(iii) If the two bodies are moving at right east and that of train B be 40 km h−1
angles to each other, then θ = 90°. The due west. Calculate the relative velocities of
magnitude of the relative velocity of A the trains
with respect to B = vAB = v 2A v 2B . Solution

(iv) Consider a person
moving horizontally Relative velocity of A with respect to B,
with velocity V
M . Let rain fall vertically vAB = 80 km h−1 due east
with velocity V R. An umbrella is held to
Thus to a passenger in train B, the train
avoid the rain. Then the relative velocity
A will appear to move east with a velocity
of the rain with respect to the person is,
of 80 km h−1
(Figure 2.36)
vR
−vM
θ v
R
vM vM
Figure 2.36 Angle of umbrella with respect to rain
The relative velocity of B with respect to Since the boy will watch the full length
A, VBA = 80 km h−1 due west of the other train, to find the time taken to
To a passenger in train A, the train B watch the full train:
will appear to move westwards with a
velocity of 80 km h−1 We have, 15 =
EXA MPLE 2 .2 8
Consider two trains A and B moving along EX AM P L E 2 . 3 0

parallel tracks with the same velocity in
A swimmer’s speed in the direction of flow
the same direction. Let the velocity of each
of a river is 12 km h−1. Against the direction
train be 50 km h−1 due east. Calculate the
of flow of the river the swimmer’s speed is
relative velocities of the trains.
6 km h−1. Calculate the swimmer’s speed in
still water and the velocity of the river flow.
Solution
Relative velocity of B with respect to A, Solution
vBA = vB − vA Let v s and vr , represent the velocities of
= 50 km h−1 + (−50) km h−1 the swimmer and river respectively with
respect to ground.
= 0 km h−1
vs + vr = 12 (1)
Similarly, relative velocity of A with
respect to B i.e., vAB is also zero. and vs − vr = 6 (2)
Thus each train will appear to be at rest Adding the both equations (1) and (2)
with respect to the other. 2vs = 12 + 6 = 18 km h−1 or
vs = 9 km h−1
EXA MPLE 2 .2 9 From Equation (1),
How long will a boy sitting near the window 9 + vr = 12 or
of a train travelling at 36 km h−1 see a train vr = 3 km h−1
passing by in the opposite direction with a When the river flow and swimmer move
speed of 18 km h−1. The length of the slow- in the same direction, the net velocity of
moving train is 90 m. swimmer is 12 km h−1.
Solution
The relative velocity of the slow-moving Accelerated Motion
train with respect to the boy is = (36 + 18) During non-uniform motion of an object,
5 the velocity of the object changes from
km h−1 = 54 km h−1 = = 54 × m s−1 =
18 instant to instant i.e., the velocity of the
15 m s−1
object is no more constant but changes
with time. Such a motion is said to be an (i) Acceleration is a vector quantity. Its SI
accelerated motion. unit is ms−2 and its dimensional formula
is M0L1T−2
i) In accelerated motion, if the change in (ii) Acceleration is positive if its velocity is
velocity of an object per unit time is same increasing, and is negative if the velocity
(constant) then the object is said to be is decreasing. The negative acceleration
moving with uniformly accelerated motion. is called retardation or deceleration.
ii) On the other hand, if the change in velocity
per unit time is different at different times, In terms of components, we can write
then the object is said to be moving with
dv
x
dv y dv z dvG
non-uniform accelerated motion. a i j k=
dt dt dt dt
Average acceleration
G G dv x dv y dv z
If an object changes its velocity from v1 to v2 Thus ax , ay , az are the
in a time interval Δt = t 2 − t1 , then the dt dt dt
average acceleration is defined as the ratio components of instantaneous acceleration.
of change in velocity over the time interval Since each component of velocity is the
Δt = t 2 − t1 derivative of the corresponding coordinate,
we can express the components ax, ay, and az, as
G G G
G v2 − v1 Δv
aavg = = d2x d2 y d2z
t 2 − t1 Δt ax , ay , az = 2
dt 2 dt 2 dt
Average acceleration is a vector quantity
G
Then the acceleration vector a itself is
in the same direction as the vector 'v.
d2x d2 y G
d 2 z d 2r
Instantaneous acceleration a= 2 i+ 2 j+ 2 k = 2
dt dt dt dt
Usually, the average acceleration will give
the change in velocity only over the entire Thus acceleration is the second derivative
time interval. It will not give value of the of position vector with respect to time.
acceleration at any instant time t.
Graphically the acceleration is the slope
Instantaneous acceleration or acceleration in the velocity-time graph. At the same time
of a particle at time ‘t’ is given by the ratio of if the acceleration-time graph is given, then
change in velocity over Δt, as Δt approaches the velocity can be found from the area
zero. under the acceleration-time graph.
dv
G G From a, we have dv a dt ; hence
G Δv dv dt
Acceleration a = lim =
Δt →0 Δt dt
t2
v = ∫a dt
In other words, the acceleration of the t1
particle at an instant t is equal to rate of
change of velocity. For an initial time t1 and final time t2
EXA MPLE 2 .3 1 in the positive x direction. At t = 30
s the velocity becomes zero, and the
A velocity–time graph is given for a particle
particle comes to rest momentarily
moving in x direction, as below
at t = 30 s .
Velocity
(ms-1) From C to D: (30 s to 40 s )
80 From 30 s to 40 s the velocity is negative.
A B
60 It implies that the particle starts to
40 move in the negative x direction. The
20
time
magnitude of velocity increases to a
E
0 (s) maximum 40 m s-1
C
−20
D
−40 From D to E: (40 s to 55 s )
10 20 30 40 50
From 40 s to 55 s the velocity is still
a) Describe the motion qualitatively in negative, but starts increasing from
the interval 0 to 55 s . –40 m s-1 At t = 55 s the velocity of the
b) Find the distance and displacement particle is zero and particle comes to
travelled from 0 s to 40 s . rest.
c) Find the acceleration at t = 5 s and at t
(b) The total area under the curve from
= 20 s
0 s to 40 s will give the displacement.
Solution Here the area from O to C represents
motion along positive x–direction and
(a) From O to A: (0 s to 10 s )
the area under the graph from C to D
At t = 0 s the particle has zero velocity.
represents the particle's motion along
At t > 0, particle has positive velocity and
negative x–direction.
moves in the positive x direction. From
dv The displacement travelled by
0 s to 10 s the slope ( ) is positive, the particle from 0 s to 10 s =
dt
implying the particle is accelerating. 1
× 10 × 60 = 300 m
Thus the velocity increases during this 2
time interval.
The displacement travelled from 10 s
From A to B: (10 s to 15 s ) to 15 s = 60 × 5 = 300 m
From 10 s to 15 s the velocity stays
The displacement travelled from 15 s
constant at 60 m s-1. The acceleration
1
is 0 during this period. But the particle to 30 s = × 15 × 60 = 450 m
2
continues to travel in the positive
x-direction. The displacement travelled from
1
From B to C : (15 s to 30 s ) 30 s to 40 s = × 10 × ( −40 ) = −200 m.
From the 15 s to 30 s the slope is 2
Here the negative sign implies that the
negative, implying the velocity is
particle travels 200 m in the negative x
decreasing. But the particle is moving
direction.
The total displacement from 0 s to Solution
40 s is given by
dr dx ˆ dy ˆ dz ˆ
(a) The velocity v i j k
dt dt dt dt
300 m + 300 m + 450 m − 200 m
= +850 m. We obtain, v t 6tiˆ 5 ˆj
Thus the particle's net displacement is The velocity has only two components
along the positive x-direction. v x 6t , depending on time t and v y 5
The total distance travelled by the which is independent of time.
particle from 0 s to 40 s = 300 + 300 +
The velocity at t = 3 s is v 3 18iˆ 5 ˆj
450 + 200 = 1250 m.
(b) The speed at t = 3 s is v = 182 + 52 =
(c) The acceleration is given by the slope in
the velocity-time graph. In the first 10 349 ≈ 18.68 m s−1
seconds the velocity has constant slope
d 2r
(constant acceleration). It implies that (c) The acceleration a is, a 2 6iˆ
dt
the acceleration a is from v1 = 0 to v2 =
The acceleration has only the
60 m s-1.
x-component. Note that acceleration
v2 v1 here is independent of t, which means
Hence a = gives
a is constant. Even at t = 3 s it has
t 2 t1
same value a 6iˆ. The velocity is
60 0
a=
2
6m s non-uniform, but the acceleration is
10 0
uniform (constant) in this case.
Next, the particle has constant negative
slope from 15 s to 30 s . In this case EX AM P L E 2 . 3 3
v2 0 and v1 60 m s 1. Thus the An object is thrown vertically downward.
acceleration at t = 20 s is given by What is the acceleration experienced by
0 60 the object?
a = 4 m s 2. Here the negative
30 15 Solution
sign implies that the particle has negative
We know that when the object falls towards
acceleration.
the Earth, it experiences acceleration due
to gravity g = 9.8 m s−2 downward. We can
EXA MPLE 2 .3 2
choose the coordinate system as shown in
If the position vector of the particle is given the figure.

by r 3t 2iˆ 5tjˆ 4kˆ, Find the
m
a) The velocity of the particle at t = 3 s y
b) Speed of the particle at t = 3 s

c) acceleration of the particle at time x
t=3s Ground
The acceleration is along the negative y Displacement – time relation
direction. (ii) The velocity of the body is given by the
first derivative of the displacement with

a g ˆj gjˆ respect to time.
For convenience, sometimes we ds

v or ds vdt
Note take the downward direction dt
as positive Y-axis. As a vertically and since v = u + at ,
falling body accelerates downwards, g is taken
as positive in this direction. (a = g) We get ds = ( u + at ) dt
2.10.3 Equations of Uniformly Assume that initially at time t = 0,

Accelerated Motion by the particle started from the origin. At a
Calculus Method later time t, the particle displacement is s.
Further assuming that acceleration is time-
Consider an object moving in a straight line
independent, we have
with uniform or constant acceleration ‘a’.
Let u be the velocity of the object at time s t t
1 2
t = 0, and v be velocity of the body at a later ∫0 ∫0
ds = udt + ∫oat dt ( or ) s = ut + at (2.8)
2
time t.
Velocity - time relation Velocity – displacement relation

(i) The acceleration of the body at any (iii) The acceleration is given by the first
instant is given by the first derivative of derivative of velocity with respect to time.
the velocity with respect to time,
dv dv ds dv
dv a v
a= or dv = a.dt dt ds dt ds
dt [since ds/dt = v] where s is displacement
traversed.
Integrating both sides with the condition
1 dv 2
that as time changes from 0 to t, the velocity This is rewritten as a
2 ds
changes from u to v. For the constant
acceleration, 1
or ds d(v 2 )
2a
v t t v
∫ dv = ∫ a dt = a ∫ dt ⇒ [v ] = a [t ]0 Integrating the above equation, using the

t
u 0 0 u fact when the velocity changes from u2 to v2,

v − u = at (or ) v = u + at → (2.7) displacement changes from 0 to s, we get
s v
∫ds = ∫ 2a d ( v )
If a is dependent on time t, a 1 2
Note
cannot be brought outside the 0 u
time integral.
Equations of motion under
∴s =
1 2
2a
(
v − u2 ) gravity
A practical example of a straight line motion
∴ v 2 = u2 + 2as (2.9) with constant acceleration is the motion of
an object near the surface of the Earth. We
know that near the surface of the Earth, the
We can also derive the displacement
acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ is constant. All
s in terms of initial velocity u and final
straight line motions under this acceleration
velocity v.
can be well understood using the kinematic
From the equation (2.7) we can write, equations given earlier.
at = v − u Case (1): A body falling from a height h
Free fall x
Substitute this in equation (2.8), we get
y
1
s = ut + (v − u )t
2
s=
(u + v )t (2.10)
2 h
The equations (2.7), (2.8), (2.9) and

(2.10) are called kinematic equations of
motion, and have a wide variety of practical
applications. Figure 2.37 An object
in free fall
Kinematic equations Consider an object of mass m falling
from a height h. Assume there is no air
v = u + at resistance. For convenience, let us choose
1 the downward direction as positive y-axis
s = ut + at 2 as shown in the Figure 2.37. The object
2
experiences acceleration ‘g’ due to gravity
v 2 = u2 + 2as which is constant near the surface of the
s=
(u + v )t Earth. We can use kinematic equations to
2 explain its motion. We have

The acceleration a = gjˆ
It is to be noted that all these kinematic
equations are valid only if the motion is in By comparing the components, we get
a straight line with constant acceleration.
For circular motion and oscillatory motion ax = 0, az = 0, a y = g
these equations are not applicable. Let us take for simplicity, a y = a = g
If the particle is thrown with initial The speed of the particle when it reaches
velocity ‘u’ downward which is in negative the ground (y = h) can be found using
y axis, then velocity and position at of the equation (2.16), we get
particle any time t is given by
v ground 2 gh (2.19)
v = u + gt (2.11)
1
y = ut + gt 2 (2.12) The above equation implies that the
2
body falling from greater height(h) will
have higher velocity when it reaches the
The square of the speed of the particle
ground.
when it is at a distance y from the hill-top, is
The motion of a body falling towards the
v 2 = u2 + 2 gy (2.13) Earth from a small altitude (h << R), purely
under the force of gravity is called free fall. (Here
Suppose the particle starts from rest. R is radius of the Earth )
Then u = 0
Then the velocity v, the position of the EX AM P L E 2 . 3 4
particle and v2 at any time t are given by (for
An iron ball and a feather are both falling
a point y from the hill-top)
from a height of 10 m.
v gt (2.14) a) What are the time taken by the iron

ball and feather to reach the ground?
1 2 (2.15)
y gt b) What are the velocities of iron ball and
2 feather when they reach the ground?
v2 2 gy (2.16) (Ignore air resistance and take
g = 10 m s−2)
The time (t = T) taken by the particle to
reach the ground (for which y = h), is given Solution
by using equation (2.15), Since kinematic equations are independent
of mass of the object, according to equation
1 2 (2.8) the time taken by both iron ball and
h gT (2.17) feather to reach the ground are the same.
2
This is given by
2h
T (2.18)
g 2h 2 × 10
T= = = 2 s ≈ 1414
. s
g 10
The equation (2.18) implies that greater
the height(h), particle takes more time(T) Thus, both feather and iron ball reach
to reach the ground. For lesser height(h), it ground at the same time.
takes lesser time to reach the ground.
By following equation (2.19) both iron
ball and feather reach the Earth with the
same speed. It is given by
v = 2 gh = 2 × 10 × 10
= 200 m s−1 ≈ 14.14 m s−1
Galileo concluded that in vaccum all objects fall with the same
acceleration g and reach the ground at the same time.
EXA MPLE 2 .3 5 lemon, start the stop watch. As soon as the

Is it possible to measure the depth of a well lemon touches the bottom of the well, stop
using kinematic equations? the watch. Note the time taken by the lemon
to reach the bottom and denote the time as t.
Since the initial velocity of lemon
u 0 and the acceleration due to gravity
g is constant over the well, we can use
the equations of motion for constant
acceleration.
1
s = ut + at 2
2
Consider a well without water, of some
depth d. Take a small object (for example Since u 0, s d , a g (Since we choose the
lemon) and a stopwatch. When you drop the y axis downwards), Then
Case (ii): A body thrown vertically
1 2
d gt upwards
2
Consider an object of mass m thrown
Substituting g 9.8 m s-2 we get the vertically upwards with an initial velocity u.
depth of the well. Let us neglect the air friction. In this case
we choose the vertical direction as positive
y axis as shown in the Figure 2.38, then the
acceleration a = −g (neglect air friction)
and g points towards the negative y axis. The
kinematic equations for this motion are,
To estimate the error in our calculation

we can use another method to measure
the depth of the well. Take a long rope and
hang the rope inside the well till it touches
the bottom. Measure the length of the
rope which is the correct depth of the well
(dcorrect ). Then
error = dcorrect − d
dcorrect − d
relative error =
dcorrect Figure 2.38. An object thrown
vertically
percentage of relative error
d −d The velocity and position of the object at
= correct ×100 any time t are,
dcorrect
What would be the reason for an error, v = u − gt (2.20)

if any? 1
s = ut − gt 2 (2.21)
Repeat the experiment for different 2
masses and compare the result with dcorrect
every time. The velocity of the object at any position
y (from the point where the object is
If there is water in the well, thrown) is
Note
this method can be used to
measure depth of the well till v 2 = u2 − 2 gy (2.22)
the surface of the water.
EXA MPLE 2 .3 6 2. A bullet fired from a rifle.
3. A ball thrown in any direction.
A train was moving at the rate of 54 km h−1
4. A javelin or shot put thrown by an athlete.
when brakes were applied. It came to rest
5. A jet of water issuing from a hole near
within a distance of 225 m. Calculate the
the bottom of a water tank.
retardation produced in the train.
It is found that a projectile moves under
Solution the combined effect of two velocities.
The final velocity of the particle v=0 i) A uniform velocity in the horizontal
The initial velocity of the particle direction, which will not change
provided there is no air resistance.
5 ii) A uniformly changing velocity (i.e.,
u 54 m s1 15 m s 1
18 increasing or decreasing) in the vertical
S = 225 m direction.
Retardation is always against the There are two types of projectile motion:
velocity of the particle. (i) Projectile given an initial velocity in
the horizontal direction (horizontal
projection)
v 2 = u2 − 2aS (ii) Projectile given an initial velocity at
0 = (10)2 – 2a (225) an angle to the horizontal (angular
−450 a = 100 projection)
1 To study the motion of a projectile, let us
a = − ms −2 = 0.5 ms −2 assume that,
2
Hence, retardation = 0.5 m s –2 i) Air resistance is neglected.
ii) The effect due to rotation of Earth and
curvature of Earth is negligible.
2.11 iii) The acceleration due to gravity is
PROJECTILE MOTION constant in magnitude and direction at
all points of the motion of the projectile.
2.11.1 Introduction
When an object is thrown in the air with some
initial velocity (NOT just upwards), and then 2.11.2 Projectile in
allowed to move under the action of gravity horizontal projection
alone, the object is known as a projectile. Consider a projectile, say a ball, thrown
The path followed by the particle is called its horizontally with an initial velocity
G
trajectory. u from the top of a tower of height h
Examples of projectile are (Figure 2.39).
1. An object dropped from window of a As the ball moves, it covers a horizontal
moving train. distance due to its uniform horizontal
O u The distance traveled by the projectile at a
1
time t is given by the equation x = uxt + at 2.
2
P Since a = 0 along x direction, we have
y=h
x ux t (2.23)
Motion along downward direction

A Here uy = 0 (initial velocity has no downward
x
component), a = g (we choose the +ve y-axis in
downward direction), and distance y at time t
1
? From equation, y = u yt + at 2 , we get
2
1 2
y gt (2.24)
2
Substituting the value of t from equation

(2.23) in equation (2.24) we have
Figure 2.39 Horizontal Projection.
1 x2 ⎛ g ⎞ 2
y = g 2 =⎜ ⎟x
2 ux ⎝ 2ux 2 ⎠
velocity u, and a vertical downward
distance because of constant acceleration
y Kx 2 (2.25)
due to gravity g. Thus, under the combined
effect the ball moves along the path OPA. g
where K = is constant
The motion is in a 2-dimensional plane. 2ux2
Let the ball take time t to reach the ground at
point A, Then the horizontal distance
Equation (2.25) is the equation of a
travelled by the ball is x (t) = x, and the
parabola. Thus, the path followed by the
vertical distance travelled is y (t) = y
projectile is a parabola (curve OPA in the
We can apply the kinematic equations along Figure 2.39).
the x direction and y direction separately. Since
(1) Time of Flight: The time taken for the
this is two-dimensional motion, the velocity
projectile to complete its trajectory or time
will have both horizontal component ux and
taken by the projectile to hit the ground is
vertical component u y .
called time of flight.
Motion along horizontal direction Consider the example of a tower and
The particle has zero acceleration along x projectile. Let h be the height of a tower. Let
direction. So, the initial velocity ux remains T be the time taken by the projectile to hit
constant throughout the motion. the ground, after being thrown horizontally
from the tower.
1 of the tower to the point where the projectile
We know that s y = u y t + at 2 for vertical hits the ground is called horizontal range.
2
motion. Here sy = h, t = T, uy = 0 (i.e., no For horizontal motion, we have
initial vertical velocity). Then
1
s x = uxt + at 2 .
2
1 2 2h
h gT or T= Here, sx = R (range), ux = u, a = 0 (no
2 g
horizontal acceleration) T is time of flight.
Then horizontal range = uT.
Thus, the time of flight for projectile 2h
Since the time of flight T , we
motion depends on the height of the tower, g
but is independent of the horizontal velocity substitute this and we get the horizontal
of projection. If one ball falls vertically and
2h
another ball is projected horizontally with range of the particle as R u
g
some velocity, both the balls will reach the
bottom at the same time. This is illustrated The above equation implies that the
in the Figure 2.40. range R is directly proportional to the initial
velocity u and inversely proportional to
acceleration due to gravity g.
(3) Resultant Velocity (Velocity of
projectile at any time): At any instant t, the
projectile has velocity components along
both x-axis and y-axis. The resultant of
these two components gives the velocity of
the projectile at that instant t, as shown in
Figure 2.41.
O u
P vx
β
vy v(t)
A
Figure 2.41. Velocity
resolved into two components
The velocity component at any t along

Figure 2.40 Vertical distance covered by horizontal (x-axis) is vx = ux + axt
the two particles is same in equal intervals.
Since, ux = u, ax = 0 , we get
(2) Horizontal range: The horizontal
vx = u → (2.26)
distance covered by the projectile from the foot
The component of velocity along vertical The horizontal component velocity of
direction (y-axis) is vy = u y + a yt the projectile remains the same i.e vx= u
Since, uy = 0, ay = g, we get The vertical component velocity of the
projectile at time T is
vy = gt → (2.27)
Hence the velocity of the particle at any vy gT g 2h 2 gh

g
instant is
The speed of the particle when it reaches
v uiˆ gtjˆ
the ground is
The speed of the particle at any instant t
is given by v = u2 + 2 gh
v = v x2 + v 2y
? 2.11.3 Projectile under
v = u2 + g 2t 2 an angular projection
This projectile motion takes place when
(4) Speed of the projectile when it hits the initial velocity is not horizontal, but at
the ground: When the projectile hits the some angle with the vertical, as shown in
ground after initially thrown horizontally Figure 2.42.
from the top of tower of height h, the time (Oblique projectile)
of flight is
Examples:
2h ł Water ejected out of a hose pipe held

t= obliquely.
g
ł Cannon fired in a battle ground.
ux = u cos θ; uy = 0
A
uy
ux = u cos θ
ux = u cos θ u
uy
uy = u sin θ
u hmax
θ ux = u cos θ
0 ux = u cos θ θ
uy = - u sin θ
(a) Water is ejected out of a pipe (b) Graphical representation
held obliquely of angular projection
Figure 2.42. Projectile motion
Consider an object thrown with initial
G x
velocity u at an angle θ with the horizontal. Thus, x = u cos θ .t or t = (2.28)
Refer Figures 2.42 and 2.43. u cos θ
Then,
Next, for the vertical motion vy = uy+ ayt

u uxiˆ + u y ˆj Here uy= u sinθ, ay = - g (acceleration due
to gravity acts opposite to the motion). Thus
where ux = u cos θ is the horizontal
component and u y usinθ the vertical Thus, vy = usinθ – gt (2.29)
component of velocity.
The vertical distance travelled by the
Since the acceleration due to gravity is
1
in the direction opposite to the direction of projectile in the same time t is s y = u y t + a yt 2
vertical component u y , this component will 2
Here, sy = y, uy = u sinθ, ax = −g. Then
gradually reduce to zero at the maximum
height of the projectile. At this maximum
1
height, the same gravitational force will push y = u sin θ t − gt 2 (2.30)
the projectile to move downward and fall to
2
the ground. There is no acceleration along the
x direction throughout the motion. So, the Substitute the value of t from equation
horizontal component of the velocity (ux = u (2.28) in equation (2.30), we have
cosθ) remains the same till the object reaches
the ground. x 1 x2
y = u sinT − g
Hence after the time t, the velocity along u cos T 2 u2 cos2 T
horizontal motion vx = ux+ axt = ux = u cos θ
1 x2
The horizontal distance travelled by y = x tan θ − g 2 (2.31)
2 u cos2 T
1
projectile in time t is s x = uxt + axt 2
2 Thus the path followed by the projectile
Here, sx = x, ux = u cosθ, ax = 0 is an inverted parabola.
Maximum height (hmax)

y
The maximum vertical distance travelled
by the projectile during its journey is called
u maximum height. This is determined as
A
follows:
P
u sin θ hmax For the vertical part of the motion,
y x
θ B
O x
u cos θ C v 2y = u2y + 2a y s
R
Figure 2.43. Initial velocity resolved into
Here, uy = u sinθ, a = −g, s = hmax, and at
components
the maximum height v y = 0
Hence, The horizontal range directly depends on
the initial speed (u) and the sine of angle
(0)
2
= u2 sin2 θ = 2 ghmax of projection (T ). It inversely depends on
acceleration due to gravity ‘g’
u2 sin2 θ
Or hmax = (2.32) For a given initial speed u, the maximum
2g possible range is reached when sin2T is
maximum, sin2T = 1. This implies 2θ = π /2
Time of flight (Tf )
The total time taken by the projectile
π
from the point of projection till it hits the or θ=
horizontal plane is called time of flight. 4
This time of flight is the time taken by This means that if the particle is projected
the projectile to go from point O to B via at 45 degrees with respect to horizontal, it
point A (Figure 2.43) attains maximum range, given by.
1
We know that s y = u y t + a yt 2
2 u2
Rmax (2.34)
Here, sy = y = 0 (net displacement in g
y-direction is zero), uy = u sinθ, ay = −g, t = Tf
Then
Projectile motion !
1
0 = u sin θ T f − gT f2
2
sin θ
Tf = 2 u
g
Horizontal range (R)

The maximum horizontal distance between
the point of projection and the point on the
horizontal plane where the projectile hits
the ground is called horizontal range (R). In Tamil Nadu there is an interesting
This is found easily since the horizontal traditional game ‘kitti pull’. When the
component of initial velocity remains the ‘pull’ is hit by the kitti, the path followed
same. We can write by the pull is ‘parabolic’.
Range R = Horizontal component of
velocity x time of flight = u cos θ × T f
2u sin θ 2u2 sin θ cos θ

R = u cosθ × =
g g
u sin 2θ
2
∴R = (2.33)
g
EXA MPL E 2 .3 7 EX AM P L E 2 . 3 8
Suppose an object is thrown with initial speed In the cricket game, a batsman strikes the
10 m s-1 at an angle S/4 with the horizontal, ball such that it moves with the speed 30
what is the range covered? Suppose the same m s-1 at an angle 300 with the horizontal as
object is thrown similarly in the Moon, shown in the figure. The boundary line of
will there be any change in the range? If the cricket ground is located at a distance
yes, what is the change? (The acceleration of 75 m from the batsman? Will the ball go
1 for a six? (Neglect the air resistance and take
due to gravity in the Moon g moon g)
6 acceleration due to gravity g = 10 m s−2).
Solution
In projectile motion, the range of particle
is given by,
u2 sin 2θ
R=
g
θ = π /4 u= v0 = 10m s-1
(10 )
2
sin π /2
∴ Rearth = = 100 / 9.8
9. 8
Rearth = 10.20 m (Approximately 10 m)
75m
If the same object is thrown in the
Moon, the range will increase because in
the Moon, the acceleration due to gravity
is smaller than g on Earth,
Solution
g
g moon
6 The motion of the cricket ball in air is
essentially a projectile motion. As we have
u2 sin 2θ v02 sin 2θ
Rmoon = = already seen, the range (horizontal distance)
g moon g /6 of the projectile motion is given by
∴ Rmoon = 6Rearth
Rmoon = 6 × 10.20 = 61.20 m u2 sin 2θ

R=
(Approximately 60 m) g
The range attained on the Moon is The initial speed u 30 m s 1
approximately six times that on Earth.

The projection angle θ = 30°
The horizontal distance travelled by the a circle, the total angle covered is equivalent
cricket ball to 360°. Thus, a circle has 360°. In terms of
radians, the full circle has 2z
S radian.
3
( 30 )
2
× sin 60° 900 ×
2 = 77.94 m Hence we write 360° = 2π radians
R= =
10 10
180
or 1 radians = degrees
π
This distance is greater than the distance
of the boundary line. Hence the ball will which means 1 rad = 57.2950
cross this line and go for a six.
EX AM P L E 2 . 3 9
2.11.4 Introduction to Calculate the angle T subtended by the two
Degrees and Radians adjacent wooden spokes of a bullock cart
In measuring angles, there are several possible wheel is shown in the figure. Express the
units used, but the most common units are angle in both radian and degree.
degrees and radians. Radians are used in
measuring area, volume, and circumference
of circles and surface area of spheres.
Radian describes the planar angle
subtended by a circular arc at the center of
a circle. It is defined as the length of the arc
divided by the radius of the arc. One radian
is the angle subtended at the center of a circle
by an arc that is equal in length to the radius
of the circle. This is shown in the Figure 2.44.
θ = 1 radian (rad)
Solution
The full wheel subtends 2S radians at the
r
center of the wheel. The wheel is divided
θ
into 12 parts (arcs).
r
So one part subtends an angle
2π π
θ= = radian at the center
12 6
π
Figure 2.44 One radian Since, S rad = 180°, radian is equal
6
(shown in yellow color) to 30 degree.
? The angle subtended by two adjacent
Degree is the unit of measurement which wooden spokes is 30 degree at the center.
is used to determine the size of an angle.
When an angle goes all the way around in
The angular displacement (θ) in radian is
Note The number S plays a very related to arc length S (AB) and radius r as
important role in both
physics and mathematics. It
S
is an irrational number which cannot θ = , or S = rθ
be expressed in finite decimal form. r
However, we can approximate πas | 3.14
22 G
or . But we should not forget that Angular velocity (Z )
7 22
3.14 or is only an approximation to S The rate of change of angular displacement is
7 called angular velocity.
not equal to S
If θ is the angular displacement in time t,
then the angular velocity Z is
2.11.5 Angular displacement Δθ dT

ω = Δlim =
Consider a particle revolving around a point
t →0
Δt dt
O in a circle of radius r (Figure 2.45). Let the
position of the particle at time t = 0 be A and The unit of angular velocity is radian per
after time t, its position is B. second (rad s−1). The direction of angular
velocity is along the axis of rotation following
the right hand rule. This is shown in Figure 2.46.
v2 v1
ω
B
r2
θ A r
O
r1
Figure 2.46 Direction of

angular velocity
Figure 2.45 Angular
displacement i) Angular acceleration (α)
The rate of change of angular velocity is called
Then, angular acceleration.
G
The angle described by the particle about G dω
the axis of rotation (or center O) in a given α=
dt
time is called angular displacement.
i.e., angular displacement = ∠AOB = θ The angular acceleration is also a vector
The unit of angular displacement is quantity which need not be in the same
radian. direction as angular velocity.
Tangential acceleration which gives the relation between linear
Consider an object moving along a circle of speed and angular speed.
radius r. In a time Δt, the object travels an
arc distance Δs as shown in Figure 2.47. The
corresponding angle subtended is Δθ The direction of linear
Note G
velocity v is tangential to the
Δs circle, whereas the direction
G
of angular velocity Z is along the axis of
rotation. The radius is also represented
Δθ r G
as a vector r directed radially from the
centre of the circle.
Equation (2.38) is true only for circular

motion. In general the relation between
Figure 2.47 Circular linear and angular velocity is given by
motion
G G G
v =ω ×r (2.39)
The Δs can be written in terms of Δθ as,
For circular motion equation (2.39)
Δs = r Δθ (2.35) G G
reduces to equation (2.38) since Z and r are
perpendicular to each other.
In a time Δt , we have Differentiating the equation (2.38) with
respect to time, we get (since r is constant)
Δs Δθ
=r (2.36)
Δt Δt dv rdω
= = rα (2.40)
dt dt
In the limit Δt → 0, the above equation
becomes
dv
Here is the tangential acceleration
dt
ds dZ
= rω (2.37) and is denoted as at is the angular
dt dt
acceleration D . Then eqn. (2.39) becomes
ds
Here is linear speed (v) which is
dt
tangential to the circle and Z is angular at = rα (2.41)
speed. So equation (2.37) becomes
The tangential acceleration at
v = rω (2.38) experienced by an object is circular motion
as shown in Figure 2.48.
at If the velocity changes in both speed and
v direction during the circular motion, we get
non uniform circular motion.
r Centripetal acceleration
As seen already, in uniform circular motion
o the velocity vector turns continuously
without changing its magnitude (speed), as
shown in Figure 2.50.
v
Figure 2.48 Tangential acceleration r
r v
Note that the tangential acceleration is in o

r r
the direction of linear velocity. r
v
v
2.11.6 Circular Motion
When a point object is moving on a circular Figure 2.50 Velocity in uniform circular
motion
path with a constant speed, it covers equal
distances on the circumference of the circle
in equal intervals of time. Then the object is Note that the length of the velocity vector
said to be in uniform circular motion. This (blue) is not changed during the motion,
is shown in Figure 2.49. implying that the speed remains constant.
Even though the velocity is tangential at
Velocity every point in the circle, the acceleration is
acting towards the center of the circle. This is
called centripetal acceleration. It always
points towards the center of the circle. This is
o f m o ti o n
shown in the Figure 2.51.
Δv
v1
on
a a v2
c ti
re
Di v1
Figure 2.49 Uniform circular motion a a
a a
In uniform circular motion, the velocity a
Δv = a
is always changing but speed remains the Δt
same. Physically it implies that magnitude
Figure 2.51 Centripetal acceleration
of velocity vector remains constant and only
the direction changes continuously.
The centripetal acceleration is derived about the center. Then the centripetal
from a simple geometrical relationship acceleration can be written as
between position and velocity vectors
(Figure 2.48 or Figure 2.52) a = −ω 2r
v2
Δv
The magnitude of centripetal
r2 r2 Δr θ v1
Note
acceleration is constant for
θ θ v2
v1 uniform circular motion. But
r1 r1
centripetal acceleration is not constant,
but takes different directions during the
motion.
Figure 2.52 Geometrical relationship
between the postion and velocity vectors
Non uniform circular motion
Let the directions of position and velocity If the speed of the object in circular motion
vectors shift through the same angle T in a is not constant, then we have non-uniform
small interval of time 't, as shown in Figure circular motion. For example, when the bob
G G
2.52. For uniform circular motion, r r1 r2 attached to a string moves in vertical circle,
G G
and v v1 v2 . If the particle moves from the speed of the bob is not the same at all
G G
position vector r1 to r2 , the displacement time. Whenever the speed is not same in
G G G
is given by Δr = r2 − r1 and the change in circular motion, the particle will have both
G G G G G
velocity from v1 to v2 is given by Δv = v2 − v1 . centripetal and tangential acceleration as
The magnitudes of the displacement Δr and shown in the Figure 2.53.
of Δv satisfy the following relation at
aR
Δr Δv θ
=− =T ac
r v
r
Here the negative sign implies that Δv points 0
radially inward, towards the center of the circle.
⎛ Δr ⎞
Δv = −v ⎜ ⎟
⎝ r ⎠ Figure 2.53 Resultant
Δv v ⎛ Δr ⎞ v 2 acceleration (aR ) in non
Then, a= = ⎜ ⎟=− uniform circular motion
Δt r ⎝ Δt ⎠ r
The resultant acceleration is obtained
For uniform circular motion v = ωr , by vector sum of centripetal and tangential
where Z is the angular velocity of the particle acceleration.
v2
Since centripetal acceleration is , the Are we moving with the same speed
r
magnitude of this resultant acceleration is both day and night with respect to Sun?
2
⎛ v2 ⎞ Earth orbits the Sun in an elliptical orbit.
given by aR = a + ⎜ ⎟ .
2
t
⎝ r ⎠ Let us specify the velocity of the center of
G G
Earth with respect to Sun as vc . This vc is
This resultant acceleration makes an
due to the elliptical motion of the Earth
angle T with the radius vector as shown in
around the Sun. We know that at the
Figure 2.53.
same time Earth is also spinning on its
a
This angle is given by tan θ = t2 . own axis. Due to this spinning, all objects
(v r) on the surface of the Earth undergo
G
circular motion with velocity ( v s ) with
EXA MPLE 2 .4 0 respect to the axis of rotation of the Earth.
G G
A particle moves in a circle of radius 10 m. At night both vc and v s are either in the
Its linear speed is given by v 3t where t is same direction or at an acute angle with
in second and v is in m s−1. each other. So, the velocity of an object
on the surface of Earth with respect to
(a) Find the centripetal and tangential G G G
Sun at night time is vnight = vc + v s . During
acceleration at t = 2 s. G G
the day vc and v s are either in opposite
(b) Calculate the angle between the
resultant acceleration and the radius directions or at an obtuse angle with each
vector. other. So, the velocity of the object with
G G G
respect to Sun at day time vday = vc − v s.
Solution From this, we can conclude that any
The linear speed at t = 2 s object on the surface of the Earth travels
faster with respect to Sun during night
v = 3t = 6 m s−1 than during day time. This happens due
to the rotation of the Earth.
The centripetal acceleration at t = 2 s is
Sunlight
( 6 ) = 3.6 m s−2
2
2
v
ac = =
r 10
dv
The tangential acceleration is at = = 3 m s−2
dt
The angle between the radius vector with
resultant acceleration is given by
at 3
tan θ = = = 0.833
ac 3.6 Vnight = VC + VS Vday = VC − VS
θ = tan −1(0.833) = 0.69 radian

In terms of degree θ = 0.69 × 57.17° ≈ 40°
Kinematic Equations of circular motion
If an object is in circular motion with Kinematic equations for linear
Note
constant angular acceleration α, we can motion are applicable for
derive kinematic equations for this motion, only constant acceleration.
analogous to those for linear motion. Similarly kinematic equations for angular
motion are applicable to only constant
Let us consider a particle executing angular acceleration.
circular motion with initial angular velocity
Z0 . After a time interval t it attains a final
angular velocity Z . During this time, it
covers an angular displacement T . Because
EX AM P L E 2 . 4 1
of the change in angular velocity there is an
angular acceleration D . A particle is in circular motion with an
acceleration α = 0.2 rad s −2 .
The kinematic equations for circular
motion are easily written by following the (a) What is the angular displacement
kinematic equations for linear motion in made by the particle after 5 s?
section 2.4.3 (b) What is the angular velocity at t = 5 s?.
The linear displacement (s) is replaced Assume the initial angular velocity is
by the angular displacement (θ ) . zero.
The velocity (v) is replaced by angular
velocity (Z ). Solution
The acceleration (a) is replaced by Since the initial angular velocity is zero
angular acceleration (D ). (ω0 = 0).
The initial velocity (u) is replaced by the The angular displacement made by the
initial angular velocity (Z0 ). particle is given by
By following this convention, kinematic
equations for circular motion are as in the 1
table given below. θ = ω0t + α t 2
2
1
2 10 1 25 2.5 rad
Kinematic Kinematic 2
equations for linear equations for In terms of degree
motion angular motion
θ = 2.5 × 57.17° ≈ 143°
v = u + at ω = ω0 + α t
1 1
s = ut + at 2 θ = ω0t + α t 2
2 2
v 2 = u2 + 2as
2 2
0 2 3
s=
(v + u )t θ=
(ω0 + ω ) t
2 2
SUMMARY
A state of rest or of motion is defined with respect to a frame of reference.

In Physics, we conventionally follow a right handed Cartesian coordinate system to
explain the motion of objects
To explain linear motion the concept of point mass is used.
A vector is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction. A scalar has only
magnitude.
The length of a vector is called magnitude or norm of the vector
In a Cartesian coordinate system the unit vectors are orthogonal to each other.
Vectors can be added using either the triangular law of addition or the parallelogram
law of addition.
Any vector can be resolved into three components with respect to a Cartesian
coordinate system
G G
The magnitude or norm of a vector A is given by A = A = Ax2 + A2y + Az2
If two vectors are equal, then their corresponding individual components should be
separately equal.
The position vector of a particle with respect to a Cartesian coordinate system is

given by r xiˆ yjˆ zkˆ
G G
The
G scalar
G product of two vectors is defined by A.B = AB cos θ (T is the angle between
A and B )

The vector product of two vectors is defined by A B AB sin 3 nˆ. The direction of
n^ can be found using right hand thumb rule or right hand cork screw rule.
In physics, scalar and vector products are used to describe various concepts.
Distance is the total path length travelled by the particle and displacement is the
difference between final and initial positions. Distance is a scalar quantity and
displacement is a vector
G
G Δr
Average velocity is defined as vavg = and instantaneous velocity is defined as
Δt
Δr dr
v= lim = . Both average velocity and instantaneous velocity are vector
Δt → 0 Δt dt
quantities.
G G
Momentum is defined as p mv .
S U M M A R Y (cont)
G G G
G v2 − v1 Δv
The average acceleration is defined as aavg = = and instantaneous
t 2 − t1 Δt
G
G lim Δv dv
acceleration is defined as a = =
Δt → 0 Δt dt
For constant acceleration, kinematic equations can be used to analyse motion of a
particle.
In projectile motion for which acceleration is uniform, the path traced by the particle
is a parabola.
The maximum height and range of the particle in projectile motion depend inversely
on acceleration due to gravity g.
s
The angular displacement of the particle is defined by θ = and angular velocity
G dθ r
ω=
dt G G G
The relation between the linear velocity and angular velocity is given by v = ω × r
v2
The centripetal acceleration is given by ac = - or - ω r and is always
2
r
directed towards the center of the circle.
CONCEPT MAP
Measuring Motion
Frame of Reference
Vector / Scalars
Position Vector Distance

Displacement Vector
Calculus
Velocity
Average Velocity
Speed, Average Speed
Acceleration Average Acceleration
Circular Motion Motion at constant

acceleration
Uniform circular Non-Uniform Circular Kinematic Equation

motion motion
Range(m)
Height(m)
Time(s)
Kinematic Equation Projectile Motion
EXERCISE
I. Multi Choice Question 5. If a particle has negative velocity and

1. Which one of the following Cartesian negative acceleration, its speed
coordinate systems is not followed in (a) increases (b) decreases
physics? (c) remains same (d) zero
ˆ 2ˆ
z y
6. If the velocity is v 2i t j 9k , then
the magnitude of acceleration at t = 0.5
s is
y x
x z (a) 1m s-2 (b) 2 m s-2
(a) (b)
(c) zero (d) -1 m s-2
x y
7. If an object is dropped from the top of
a building and it reaches the ground at t
z z
= 4 s , then the height of the building is
y x
(c) (d) (ignoring air resistance) (g = 9.8 ms–2)
2. Identify the unit vector in the following. (a) 77.3 m (b) 78.4 m
iˆ (c) 80.5 m (d) 79.2 m
(a) î ˆj (b)
2
ˆj iˆ ˆj 8. A ball is projected vertically upwards
(c) kˆ (d) with a velocity v. It comes back to ground
2 2
in time t. Which v-t graph shows the
3. Which one of the following physical
motion correctly? (NSEP 00-01)
quantities cannot be represented by a
scalar? v v
(a) Mass
(b) length t
t
(c) momentum
(a) (b)
(d) magnitude of acceleration
v v
4. Two objects of masses m1 and m2 fall
from the heights h1 and h2 respectively.
The ratio of the magnitude of their t t
momenta when they hit the ground is
(c) (d)
(AIPMT 2012)
9. If one object is dropped vertically
h1 m1h1 downward and another object is thrown
(a) (b)
h2 m2h2 horizontally from the same height, then
the ratio of vertical distance covered by
(c) m1 h1 (d) m1 both objects at any instant t is
m2 h2 m2
(a) 1 (b) 2 13. If an object is thrown vertically up with
(c) 4 (d) 0.5 the initial speed u from the ground,
10. A ball is dropped from some height then the time taken by the object to
towards the ground. Which one of return back to ground is
the following represents the correct u2 u2
(a) (b)
motion of the ball? 2g g
y y u 2u
(c) (d)
2g g
14. Two objects are projected at angles 30°
x x
and 60° respectively with respect to the
(a) (b) horizontal direction. The range of two
y y objects are denoted as R300 and R600 .
Choose the correct relation from the
following
(a) R300 = R600
x x
(c) (d)
(b) R300 4 R600
11. If a particle executes uniform circular R600

(c)R300 =
motion in the xy plane in clock wise 2
direction, then the angular velocity is in (d) R300 =2 R600
(a) +y direction
(b) +z direction 15. An object is dropped in an unknown
(c) -z direction planet from height 50 m, it reaches the
ground in 2 s . The acceleration due to
(d) -x direction
gravity in this unknown planet is
12. If a particle executes uniform circular
(a) g = 20 m s-2 (b) g = 25 m s-2
motion, choose the correct statement
(NEET 2016) (c) g = 15 m s-2 (d) g = 30 m s-2
(a) The velocity and speed are constant.
(b) The acceleration and speed are Answers
constant. 1) d 2) d 3) c 4) c 5) a
(c) The velocity and acceleration are 6) a 7) b 8) c 9) a 10) a
constant. 11) c 12) d 13) d 14) a 15) b
(d) The speed and magnitude of
acceleration are constant.
II. Short Answer Questions
1. Explain what is meant by Cartesian 3. Define a scalar. Give examples
coordinate system? 4. Write a short note on the scalar product
2. Define a vector. Give examples between two vectors.
5. Write a short note on vector product 11. Define a radian?
between two vectors. 12. Define angular displacement and
6. How do you deduce that two vectors angular velocity.
are perpendicular? 13. What is non uniform circular motion?
7. Define displacement and distance. 14. Write down the kinematic equations
8. Define velocity and speed. for angular motion.
9. Define acceleration. 15. Write down the expression for angle
10. What is the difference between velocity made by resultant acceleration and
and average velocity. radius vector in the non uniform
circular motion.
III. Long Answer Questions
1. Explain in detail the triangle law of 5. Derive the equation of motion, range
addition. and maximum height reached by the
2. Discuss the properties of scalar and particle thrown at an oblique angle T
vector products. with respect to the horizontal direction.
3. Derive the kinematic equations of 6. Derive the expression for centripetal
motion for constant acceleration. acceleration.
4. Derive the equations of motion for 7. Derive the expression for total
a particle (a) falling vertically (b) acceleration in the non uniform
projected vertically circular motion.
IV. Exercises
1. The position vectors particle has length time 5 second.

1m and makes 30 D with the x-axis.
What are the lengths of the x and y
3
[Ans: vavg iˆ ˆj ]
5

G ˆ ˆ
components of the position vector? 4. Convert the vector r 3i 2 j into a
3 unit vector.
[Ans: lx , l y 0.5]
2
2. A particle has its position moved from [Ans: rˆ
3iˆ 2 ˆj ]
13
r1 3iˆ 4 ˆj to r2 iˆ 2 ˆj . Calculate
G
the displacement vector ( Δr ) and 5. What are the resultants of the vector
G G product of two given vectors given by
draw the r1, r2 and 'r vector in a two
dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system. A 4iˆ 2 ˆj kˆ and B 5iˆ 3 ˆj 4kˆ?

[Ans: 'r 2iˆ 2 ˆj ] [Ans: 5iˆ 21 ˆj 22kˆ
3. Calculate the average velocity of the
particle whose position vector changes 6. An object at an angle such that the

from r1 5iˆ 6 ˆj to r2 2iˆ 3 ˆj in a horizontal range is 4 times of the

maximum height. What is the angle of (d) Position vector – remains downward
projection of the object?
[Ans: v x remains constant ͕
[Ans: θ = 45°] vy decreases and increases ,
7. The following graphs represent a remains downward ,
velocity – time graph. Identify what r varies]
kind of motion a particle undergoes in
10. A water fountain on the ground
each graph.
sprinkles water all around it. If the
v v v v speed of the water coming out of the
fountain is v. Calculate the total area
around the fountain that gets wet.
t t t t v4
(a) (b) (c) (d) [Ans: Area = 2 ]
g
G G 11. The following table gives the range of
[Ans: (a) aG constant (b) v constant
(c) a constant but greater than a particle when thrown on different
G
ĮƌƐƚŐƌĂƉŚ;ĚͿ a is variable ] planets. All the particles are thrown at
the same angle with the horizontal and
8. The following velocity–time graph
with the same initial speed. Arrange the
represents a particle moving in the
planets in ascending order according
positive x–direction. Analyse its
to their acceleration due to gravity,
motion from 0 to 7 s. Calculate the
(g value).
displacement covered and distance
travelled by the particle from 0 to 2 s. Planet Range
V(m s-1)
Jupiter 50 m
Earth 75 m
2
Mars 90 m
1 Mercury 95 m
t(s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 [Ans: g jupiter is greater, g mercury is
−1
smaller]
−2 12. The resultant of two vectors A and
B is perpendicular to vector A and
[Ans: ĚŝƐƚĂŶĐĞсϭ͘ϳϱŵ͕ĚŝƐƉůĂĐĞŵĞŶƚсͲϭ͘Ϯϱŵ] its magnitude is equal to half of the
9. A particle is projected at an angle magnitude of vector B. Then the angle
of T with respect to the horizontal between A and B is
direction. Match the following for the a) 30° b) 45°
above motion. c) 150° d) 120°
(a) v x – decreases and increases
[Ans: θ = 150°]
(b) v y – remains constant
13. Compare the components for the
(c) Acceleration – varies following vector equations

G G G G of a building of height 100 m. what is
a) Tjˆ mgjˆ majˆ b) T + F = A + B
G G G G the horizontal distance covered by the
c) T − F = A − B d) Tjˆ mgjˆ majˆ
particle?
[Ans: (a) T − mg = ma
[Ans: R= 45 m]
(b) Tx + Fx = Ax + Bx etc.]
19. An object is executing uniform circular
14. Calculate the area of the triangle for
motion with an angular speed of
which two of its sides are given by the 12

vectors A 5iˆ 3 ˆj , B 4iˆ 6 ˆj radian per second. At t = 0 the object
[Ans: Area = 21] starts at an angle T = 0 What is the
angular displacement of the particle
15. If Earth completes one revolution in
after 4 s ?
24 hours, what is the angular displacement
made by Earth in one hour. Express your [Ans: 30°]
answer in both radian and degree. 20. Consider the x–axis as representing
π east, the y–axis as north and z–axis
[Ans: θ = 15° or ]
12 as vertically upwards. Give the vector
16. A object is thrown with initial speed
representing each of the following
5 m s−1 with an angle of projection 30b
points.
. What is the height and range reached
by the particle? a) 5 m north east and 2 m up
[Ans: height = 0.318 m Range =2.21 m] b) 4 m south east and 3 m up
17. A foot-ball player hits the ball with c) 2 m north west and 4 m up
speed 20 m s-1 with angle 30° with
respect to horizontal direction as shown [Ans: (a)

5 î ˆj
2kˆ (b)

4 î ˆj
3kˆ
in the figure. The goal post is at distance 2 2
of 40 m from him. Find out whether (c) ( ]
ball reaches the goal post?
21. The Moon is orbiting the Earth
approximately once in 27 days, what is
the angle transversed by the Moon per
day?
[Ans: 13°3’]
22. An object of mass m has angular
acceleration α = 0.2 rad s−2. What is the
angular displacement covered by the
object after 3 second? (Assume that the
object started with angle zero with zero
[Ans: Ball will not reach the goal angular velocity).
post. The range =35.3 m] [Ans: 0.9 rad or 51°]
18. If an object is thrown horizontally with
an initial speed 10 m s−1 from the top

BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
1. Charles Kittel, Walter Knight, Malvin Ruderman, Carl Helmholtz and Moyer,
Mechanics, 2nd edition, Mc Graw Hill Pvt Ltd,
2. A.P.French, Newtonian Mechanics, Viva-Norton Student edition
3. SomnathDatta, Mechanics, Pearson Publication
4. H.C.Verma, Concepts of physics volume 1 and Volume 2, Bharati Bhawan Publishers
5. Serway and Jewett, Physics for scientist and Engineers with modern physics, Brook/Coole
publishers, Eighth edition
6. Halliday, Resnick & Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, Wiley Publishers, 10th edition

ICT CORNER
Projectile motion
HIT THE TARGET

Through this activity you will be able to
understand the velocity variation and
Different angles of projection and range
STEPS:
• Type the given URL (or) Scan the QR Code. You can see “Projectile Motion” PhET
simulation page. Click ‘Intro’ to initiate the activity.
• Click the red coloured shoot button. Blast a ball out of a cannon, and challenge yourself to
hit the target.
• Drag ‘up & down’ button to change the height of the cylinder. Click left and right button to
change the speed of the cannon ball.
• Drag the target box and fix the target to measure time, range and height. Drag the Meter
tape to measure the length from cannon. On the right side top, mark in the corresponding
boxes to know the velocity vectors and acceleration vectors.
Step1 Step2
Step3 Step4
Timeline Project’s URL:

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/projectile-motion/latest/
projectile-motion_en.html
* If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

UNIT
3 LAWS OF MOTION
“In the beginning there was a mechanics” – Von Laue
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Newton’s laws
• logical connection between laws of Newton
• free body diagram and related problems
• law of conservation of momentum
• role of frictional forces
• centripetal and centrifugal forces
• origin of centrifugal force
3.1 Objects move because something pushes

INTRODUCTION or pulls them. For example, if a book is at rest,
it will not move unless a force is applied on
Each and every object in the universe interacts it. In other words, to move an object a force
with every other object. The cool breeze must be applied on it. About 2500 years ago,
interacts with the tree. The tree interacts with the famous philosopher, Aristotle, said that
the Earth. In fact, all species interact with ‘Force causes motion’. This statement is based
nature. But, what is the difference between on common sense. But any scientific answer
a human’s interaction with nature and that cannot be based on common sense. It must
of an animal’s. Human’s interaction has be endorsed with quantitative experimental
one extra quality. We not only interact with proof.
nature but also try to understand and explain In the 15th century, Galileo challenged
natural phenomena scientifically. Aristotle’s idea by doing a series of
In the history of mankind, the most experiments. He said force is not required
curiosity driven scientific question asked was to maintain motion.
about motion of objects–‘How things move?’ Galileo demonstrated his own idea using
and ‘Why things move?’ Surprisingly, these the following simple experiment. When a
simple questions have paved the way for ball rolls from the top of an inclined plane
development from early civilization to the to its bottom, after reaching the ground
modern technological era of the 21st century. it moves some distance and continues
to move on to another inclined plane of force acted on it in the horizontal direction.
same angle of inclination as shown in the From this simple experiment, Galileo
Figure 3.1(a). By increasing the smoothness proved that force is not required to maintain
of both the inclined planes, the ball reach motion. An object can be in motion even
almost the same height(h) from where it without a force acting on it.
was released (L1) in the second plane (L2) In essence, Aristotle coupled the motion
(Figure 3.1(b)). The motion of the ball with force while Galileo decoupled the
is then observed by varying the angle of motion and force.
inclination of the second plane keeping the
same smoothness. If the angle of inclination
is reduced, the ball travels longer distance in
the second plane to reach the same height
(Figure 3.1 (c)). When the angle of inclination
is made zero, the ball moves forever in the
horizontal direction (Figure 3.1(d)). If the
Aristotelian idea were true, the ball would
not have moved in the second plane even if
its smoothness is made maximum since no
3.2
Initial position Final position
NEWTON’S LAWS
L1 L2
h Newton analysed the views of Galileo, and

rough surface
other scientist like Kepler and Copernicus

(a)
on motion and provided much deeper
Initial position Final position
L1 L2 insights in the form of three laws.
h
smooth surface
(b) 3.2.1 Newton’s First Law

Initial position
L1
Final position Every object continues to be in the state
L2
h
of rest or of uniform motion (constant
velocity) unless there is external force acting
smooth surface
(c) on it.
Initial position This inability of objects to move on its
L1
own or change its state of motion is called
Ball goes to infinity
smooth surface
inertia. Inertia means resistance to change
(d) its state. Depending on the circumstances,
there can be three types of inertia.
Figure 3.1 Galileo’s experiment with the
second plane (a) at same inclination angle 1. Inertia of rest: When a stationary bus
as the first (b) with increased smoothness starts to move, the passengers experience
(c) with reduced angle of inclination a sudden backward push. Due to inertia,
(d) with zero angle of inclination
the body (of a passenger) will try to
106 Unit 3 L aws of Motion
motion, and if the string is cut suddenly,
the stone will not continue to move in
circular motion but moves tangential
to the circle as illustrated in Figure 3.4.
This is because the body cannot change
its direction of motion without any force
acting on it. The inability of an object to
change its direction of motion on its own
Figure 3.2 Passengers experience a is called inertia of direction.
backward push due to inertia of rest
When we say that an object is at rest or
in motion with constant velocity, it has a
continue in the state of rest, while the
meaning only if it is specified with respect to
bus moves forward. This appears as a
some reference frames. In physics, any motion
backward push as shown in Figure 3.2.
has to be stated with respect to a reference
The inability of an object to change its
frame. It is to be noted that Newton’s first law is
state of rest is called inertia of rest.
valid only in certain special reference frames
2. Inertia of motion: When the bus is
called inertial frames. In fact, Newton’s first
in motion, and if the brake is applied
law defines an inertial frame.
suddenly, passengers move forward
and hit against the front seat. In this
case, the bus comes to a stop, while the
body (of a passenger) continues to move
forward due to the property of inertia
as shown in Figure 3.3. The inability of
an object to change its state of uniform
speed (constant speed) on its own is called
inertia of motion.
3. Inertia of direction: When a stone If a string is released when
attached to a string is in whirling the ball is here, it goes
straight forward toward A,
not toward B,
not toward C.
B
A
C
Force
needed
to
overcome
inertia
Side View Top View
Figure 3.3 Passengers experience a Figure 3.4 A stone moves tangential to

forward push due to inertia of motion circle due to inertia of direction
Unit 3 L aws of Motion 107

Inertial Frames with constant velocity relative to each other. If
If an object is free from all forces, then it an object appears to be at rest in one inertial
moves with constant velocity or remains at frame, it may appear to move with constant
rest when seen from inertial frames. Thus, velocity with respect to another inertial frame.
there exists some special set of frames in For example, in Figure 3.5, the car is moving
which if an object experiences no force it with uniform velocity v with respect to a person
moves with constant velocity or remains at standing (at rest) on the ground. As the car is
rest. But how do we know whether an object moving with constant velocity with respect to
is experiencing a force or not? All the objects ground to the person is at rest on the ground,
in the Earth experience Earth’s gravitational both frames (with respect to the car and to the
force. In the ideal case, if an object is in deep ground) are inertial frames.
space (very far away from any other object),
then Newton’s first law will be certainly valid.
Such deep space can be treated as an inertial
frame. But practically it is not possible to reach
such deep space and verify Newton’s first law.
For all practical purposes, we can treat

Earth as an inertial frame because an object on
the table in the laboratory appears to be at rest Figure 3.5 The person and
always. This object never picks up acceleration vehicle are inertial frames
in the horizontal direction since no force
acts on it in the horizontal direction. So the Suppose an object remains at rest on a
laboratory can be taken as an inertial frame for smooth table kept inside the train, and if the
all physics experiments and calculations. For train suddenly accelerates (which we may
making these conclusions, we analyse only the not sense), the object appears to accelerate
horizontal motion of the object as there is no backwards even without any force acting on
horizontal force that acts on it. We should not it. It is a clear violation of Newton’s first law
analyse the motion in vertical direction as the as the object gets accelerated without being
two forces (gravitational force in the downward acted upon by a force. It implies that the train
direction and normal force in upward is not an inertial frame when it is accelerated.
direction) that act on it makes the net force is For example, Figure 3.6 shows that car 2 is
zero in vertical direction. Newton’s first law a non-inertial frame since it moves with
deals with the motion of objects in the absence G
acceleration a with respect to the ground.
of any force and not the motion under zero net
force. Suppose a train is moving with constant
velocity with respect to an inertial frame, then
an object at rest in the inertial frame (outside
1 2
the train) appears to move with constant
velocity with respect to the train (viewed from
within the train). So the train can be treated as Figure 3.6 Car 2 is a non-inertial
an inertial frame. All inertial frames are moving frame

These kinds of accelerated frames are called The above equation conveys the fact that
G
non-inertial frames. A rotating frame is also if there is an acceleration a on the body,
a non inertial frame since rotation requires then there must be a force acting on it. This
acceleration. In this sense, Earth is not really implies that if there is a change in velocity,
an inertial frame since it has self-rotation then there must be a force acting on the
and orbital motion. But these rotational body. The force and acceleration are always
effects of Earth can be ignored for the motion in the same direction. Newton’s second law
involved in our day-to-day life. For example, was a paradigm shift from Aristotle’s idea
when an object is thrown, or the time of motion. According to Newton, the force
period of a simple pendulum is measured need not cause the motion but only a change
in the physics laboratory, the Earth’s self- in motion. It is to be noted that Newton’s
rotation has very negligible effect on it. In second law is valid only in inertial frames.
this sense, Earth can be treated as an inertial In non-inertial frames Newton’s second law
frame. But at the same time, to analyse cannot be used in this form. It requires some
the motion of satellites and wind patterns modification.
around the Earth, we cannot treat Earth as In the SI system of units, the unit of force
an inertial frame since its self-rotation has is measured in newtons and it is denoted by
a strong influence on wind patterns and symbol ‘N’.
satellite motion.
One Newton is defined as the force which
acts on 1 kg of mass to give an acceleration
3.2.2 Newton’s Second Law 1 m s−2 in the direction of the force.
This law states that
The force acting on an object is equal to Aristotle vs. Newton’s approach on
the rate of change of its momentum sliding object
Newton’s second law gives the correct
G G explanation for the experiment on the
dp
F (3.1) inclined plane that was discussed in
dt
section 3.1. In normal cases, where friction
In simple words, whenever the momentum is not negligible, once the object reaches the
of the body changes, there must be a force bottom of the inclined plane (Figure 3.1),
acting on it. The momentum of the object is it travels some distance and stops. Note
G G that it stops because there is a frictional
defined as p mv . In most cases, the mass
of the object remains constant during the force acting in the direction opposite to
motion. In such cases, the above equation its velocity. It is this frictional force that
gets modified into a simpler form reduces the velocity of the object to zero and
brings it to rest. As per Aristotle’s idea, as
soon as the body reaches the bottom of the
G G
G d ( mv ) dv G plane, it can travel only a small distance and
F= = m = ma .
dt dt stops because there is no force acting on the
G G object. Essentially, he did not consider the
F ma . (3.2)
frictional force acting on the object.
3.2.3 Newton’s Third Law
Aristotle
Consider Figure 3.8(a) whenever Gan
External force needs to be
object 1 exerts a force on the object 2 ( F21),
applied to move an object
with constant velocity v then object 2 must also exert equal
G and
opposite force on the object 1 ( F12). These
Fext v forces must lie along the line joining the
two objects.
G G
F12 = −F21
net force = Fext
Newton’s third law assures that the
forces occur as equal and opposite pairs.
Galileo and Newton
An isolated force or a single force cannot
There is zero net force exist in nature. Newton’s third law states
on the object when it moves
that for every action there is an equal and
with constant velocity v
opposite reaction. Here, action and reaction
pair of forces do not act on the same body
Fext v but on two different bodies. Any one of the
forces can be called as an action force and
Ffriction
the other the reaction force. Newton’s third
law is valid in both inertial and non-inertial
frames.
net force = zero
These action-reaction forces are not
cause and effect forces. It means that when
Figure 3.7 Aristotle, Galileo and the object 1 exerts force on the object 2, the
Newton’s approach
object 2 exerts equal and opposite force on
the body 1 at the same instant.
Object 1
Wall ACTION
F 21 Ball force exerted by the feet
on ground
Object 2 F 12
F wall on ball F ball on wall
F 12 - force exerted by the nail on the hammer

REACTION
F 21 - force exerted by the hammer on the the nail force exerted by the Earth
on the feet
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.8 Demonstration of Newton’s third law (a) Hammer and the nail (b) Ball
bouncing off the wall (c) Walking on the floor with friction

ACTIVITY
Verification of Newton’s third law
Attach two spring balances as shown in the figure. Fix one end with rigid support and
leave the other end free, which can be pulled with the hand.
Pull one end with some
force and note the reading
on both the balances.
A B
Repeat the exercise a
10
15
20
N
5
0
number of times.
15
10
0
N
20
as Fxiˆ Fy ˆj Fz kˆ maxiˆ ma y ˆj maz kˆ.
The reading in the spring
By comparing both sides, the three scalar
Note balance A is due to the force
given by spring balance B. The equations are
reading in the spring balance
B is due to the reaction force given by
Fx max The acceleration along the x
spring balance A. Note that according to direction depends only on the component
Newton’s third law, both readings (force) of force acting along the x-direction.
are equal. Fy ma y The acceleration along the y
direction depends only on the component
of force acting along the y-direction.
Fz maz The acceleration along the z
direction depends only on the component
of force acting along the z-direction.
From the above equations, we can infer
that the force acting along y direction
cannot alter the acceleration along x
direction. In the same way, Fz cannot
affect a y and ax . This understanding is
3.2.4 Discussion on essential for solving problems.
Newton’s Laws 2. The acceleration experienced by the
1. Newton’s Glaws are vector laws. The body at time t depends on the force
G
equation F ma is a vector equation which acts on the body at that instant
and essentially it is equal to three of time. It does not depend on the force
scalar equations. In Cartesian which acted on the body before the time
coordinates, this equation can be written t. This can be expressed as
G G Case 2: Force and motion not in the
F ( t ) = ma ( t )
same direction
The Moon experiences a force towards
Acceleration of the object does not
the Earth. But it actually moves in
depend on the previous history of
elliptical orbit. In this case, the direction
the force. For example, when a spin
of the force is different from the direction
bowler or a fast bowler throws the ball
of motion as shown in Figure 3.9 (b).
to the batsman, once the ball leaves
the hand of the bowler, it experiences
only gravitational force and air
frictional force. The acceleration of
Earth
the ball is independent of how the ball
was bowled (with a lower or a higher Direction of
Direction of force
speed). Moon
Motion
3. In general, the direction of a force

may be different from the direction
of motion. Though in some cases, the
object may move in the same direction Figure 3.9 (b) Moon orbiting in elliptical
as the direction of the force, it is not orbit around the Earth
always true. A few examples are given
Case 3: Force and motion in opposite
below.
direction
Case 1: Force and motion in the same If an object is thrown vertically upward,
direction the direction of motion is upward,
When an apple falls towards the Earth, but gravitational force is downward as
the direction of motion (direction of shown in the Figure 3.9 (c).
velocity) of the apple and that of force
are in the same downward direction as
shown in the Figure 3.9 (a). V
v
F
Figure 3.9 (c) Force and

Figure 3.9 (a) Force and motion in the direction of motion are in
same direction opposite directions

Case 4: Zero net force, but there is motion
When a raindrop gets detached from
c
the cloud it experiences both downward
b
gravitational force and upward air drag
force. As it descends towards the Earth, a
the upward air drag force increases and
after a certain time, the upward air drag Vector addition of forces
a + b give resultant c.
force cancels the downward gravity. From
then on the raindrop moves at constant Figure 3.10 Vector addition of forces
velocity till it touches the surface of
the Earth. Hence the raindrop comes
Newton’s second law for this case is
with zero net force, therefore with zero
acceleration but with non-zero terminal G G
Fnet ma
velocity. It is shown in the Figure 3.9 (d).
In this case the direction of acceleration
is in the direction of net force.
Example
Air drag Bow and arrow
Gravity (Bow and arrow) Vectorial addition
(Bow and arrow) Vectorial addition
Air drag
F1
F1 F2
Gravity
F net
F2
F net
Air drag
Figure 3.11 Bow and arrow – Net force

Gravity is on the arrow
Figure 3.9 (d) Zero net force and non

zero velocity 5. Newton’s second law can also be written
in the following form.
G G G G Since the acceleration is the second
4. If multiple forces F1 , F2 , F3 ….Fn act on
the derivative of position vector of the body
G same body, then the total force G
⎛ G d 2r ⎞
( Fnet ) is equivalent to the vectorial sum
⎜ a = 2 ⎟ , the force on the body is
of the individual forces. Their net force ⎝ dt ⎠
provides the acceleration.
G
G G G G G G d 2r
Fnet = F1 + F2 + F3 + …+ Fn F m 2.
dt

From this expression, we can infer that 3. Draw the vectors representing the forces
Newton’s second law is basically a second acting on the object.
order ordinary differential equation
and whenever the second derivative of When we draw the free body diagram for
position vector is not zero, there must be an object or a system, the forces exerted by
a force acting on the body. the object should not be included in the free
6. If no force acts on the body then Newton’s body diagram.
G
dv
second law, m = 0.
dt
G EX AM P L E 3 . 1
It implies that v constant . It is
essentially Newton’s first law. It implies A book of mass m is at rest on the table.
that the second law is consistent with (1) What are the forces acting on the book?
the first law. However, it should not be (2) What are the forces exerted by the
thought of as the reduction of second book? (3) Draw the free body diagram for
law to the first when no force acts on the the book.
object. Newton’s first and second laws are
independent laws. They can internally Solution
be consistent with each other but cannot
(1) There are two forces acting on the book.
be derived from each other.
7. Newton’s second law is cause and (i) Gravitational force (mg) acting
effect relation. Force is the cause and downwards on the book
acceleration is the effect. Conventionally, (ii) Normal contact force (N) exerted by
the effect should be written on the left the surface of the table on the book. It
and cause on the right hand side of the acts upwards as shown in the figure.
equation. So the correct way of writing
G
G G dp G Free body diagram
Newton’s second law is ma F or F
dt N
3.3
Book
APPLICATION OF
NEWTON’S LAWS
mg
3.3.1 Free Body Diagram

Free body diagram is a simple tool to analyse
the motion of the object using Newton’s In the free body diagram,
laws. as the magnitudes of the
Note
normal force and the
The following systematic steps are followed
gravitational force are
for developing the free body diagram: same, the lengths of both these vectors
1. Identify the forces acting on the object. are also same.
2. Represent the object as a point.
(2) According to Newton’s third law, there
are two reaction forces exerted by the Even though the force
book. Note applied on both the objects
is the same, acceleration
(i) The book exerts an equal and experienced by each object
opposite force (mg) on the Earth differs. The acceleration is inversely
which acts upwards. proportional to mass. For the same
(ii) The book exerts a force which force, the heavier mass experiences
is equal and opposite to normal lesser acceleration and the lighter mass
force on the surface of the table experiences greater acceleration.
(N) acting downwards.
When an apple falls, it experiences

It is to be emphasized that Earth’s gravitational force. According
Note while applying Newton’s to Newton’s third law, the apple exerts
third law it is wrong to equal and opposite force on the Earth.
conclude that the book on
Even though both the apple and
the table is at rest due to the downward
Earth experience the same force, their
gravitational force exerted by the
acceleration is different. The mass of
Earth and the equal and opposite
Earth is enormous compared to that of
reacting normal force exerted by the
table on the book. Action and reaction an apple. So an apple experiences larger
forces never act on the same body. acceleration and the Earth experiences
almost negligible acceleration. Due to the
negligible acceleration, Earth appears to be
(3) The free body diagram of the book is stationary when an apple falls.
shown in the figure.
EX AM P L E 3 . 3
EXA MPLE 3 .2
WhichG isGtheG greatest force among the three
If two objects of masses 2.5 kg and 100 kg force F1 , F2 , F3 shown below
experience the same force 5 N, what is the
acceleration experienced by each of them? o
F1
Solution o
F2
From Newton’s second law (in o
magnitude form), F = ma F3
For the object of mass 2.5 kg, the

F 5 Solution
acceleration is a = = = 2 m s −2 Force is a vector and magnitude of the
m 2. 5
vector is represented
G by the length of the
For the object of mass 100 kg, the vector. Here F1 hasGgreater length compared
F 5 to other two. So F1 is largest of the three.
acceleration is a = = = 0.05 m s −2
m 100
EXA MPLE 3 .4 By following the above steps:
Apply Newton’s second law to a mango We fix the inertial coordinate system on
hanging from a tree. (Mass of the mango the ground as shown in the figure.
is 400 gm) y
Solution
Note: Before applying Newton’s laws,
the following steps have to be followed:
1) Choose a suitable inertial coordinate ĵ

system to analyse the problem. For x
î
most of the cases we can take Earth as
an inertial coordinate system. The forces acting on the mango are
2) Identify the system to which Newton’s i) Gravitational force exerted by
laws need to be applied. The system can the Earth on the mango acting
be a single object or more than one object. downward along negative y axis
3) Draw the free body diagram.
ii) Tension (in the cord attached to the
4) Once the forces acting on the system are
mango) acts upward along positive
identified, and the free body diagram
y axis.
is drawn, apply Newton’s second law.
In the left hand side of the equation, The free body diagram for the mango is
write the forces acting on the system shown in the figure
in vector notation and equate it to the
right hand side of equation which is y
the product of mass and acceleration.
Here, acceleration should also be in
T
vector notation. x
5) If acceleration is given, the force can be
calculated. If the force is given,
Mango
acceleration can be calculated.
mg

Tension force (T)

Fg mg ˆj mgjˆ
Earth’s gravitational Here, mg is the magnitude of the gravitational

force (mg)
force and ĵ represents the unit vector in
y negative y direction

x T Tjˆ

Here T is the magnitude of the tension EX AM P L E 3 . 6

force and ĵ represents the unit vector in
The position vector of a particle is given
positive y direction
by r 3tiˆ 5t 2 ˆj 7kˆ. Find the direction in
G G G which the particle experiences net force?
Fnet = Fg + T = mgjˆ Tjˆ T mg ˆj
Solution
G G
From Newton’s second law Fnet ma Velocity of the particle,
Since the mango is at rest with respect
to us (inertial coordinate system) the v=
dt dt

dt

G dr d 3t iˆ d 5t 2 ˆj d 7 kˆ
dt

G
acceleration is zero (a 0).
dr
G G 3iˆ 10tjˆ
So Fnet ma 0 dt
Acceleration of the particle
T mg ˆj 0
dv d 2r
a 10 ˆj
By comparing the components on both sides dt dt 2
of the above equation, we get T − mg = 0
Here, the particle has acceleration only along
So the tension force acting on the positive y direction. According to Newton’s
mango is given by T mg second law, net force must also act along
Mass of the mango m = 400g and positive y direction. In addition, the particle
g = 9.8 m s–2 has constant velocity in positive x direction
Tension acting on the mango is and no velocity in z direction. Hence, there
T = 0.4 × 9.8 = 3.92 N are no net force along x or z direction.
EX AM P L E 3 . 7
EXA MPLE 3 .5 Consider a bob attached to a string,

hanging from a stand. It oscillates as
A person rides a bike with a constant
G shown in the figure.
velocity v with respect to ground and
another biker accelerates with acceleration Solution
G
a with respect to ground. Who can apply a) Identify the forces that act on the bob?
Newton’s second law with respect to a b) What is the acceleration experienced by
stationary observer on the ground? the bob?
Solution
Second biker cannot apply Newton’s
second law, because he is moving with 3
G
acceleration a with respect to Earth (he is
not in inertial frame). But the first biker
can apply Newton’s second law because he A B C
is moving at constant velocity with respect

to Earth (he is in inertial frame).

Two forces act on the bob. EX AM P L E 3 . 8
(i) Gravitational force (mg) acting
downwards The velocity of a particle moving in a plane
(ii) Tension (T) exerted by the string on is given by the following diagram. Find out
the bob, whose position determines the direction of force acting on the particle?
the direction of T as shown in figure. Solution
y
x
3
T T T
A C t = 0 sec t = 1 sec t = 2 sec t = 3 sec

B

mg mg mg
The velocity of the particle is v v xiˆ

v y ˆj v z kˆ. As shown in the figure, the particle
is moving in the xy plane, there is no motion
The bob is moving in a circular arc as in the z direction. So velocity in the z direction
shown in the above figure. Hence it has is zero (v z 0). The velocity of the particle
centripetal acceleration. At a point A and has x component (v x ) and y component (v y ).
C, the bob comes to rest momentarily and From figure, as time increases from t = 0
then its velocity increases when it moves sec to t = 3 sec, the length of the vector in y
towards point B. Hence, there is a tangential direction is changing (increasing). It means
acceleration along the arc. The gravitational ( )
y component of velocity v y is increasing
force can be resolved into two components with respect to time. According to Newton’s
(mg cosθ, mg sinθ) as shown below second law, if velocity changes with respect
T T to time then there must be acceleration. In
A Fres
T Fres C
this case, the particle has acceleration in the
y direction since the y component of velocity
m
θ m θ
θ
g
θ
s
gs
co
sin
co
inθ Fres
sθ
changes. So the particle experiences force in

mg
g
m
B
mg mg
the y direction. The length of the vector in
x direction does not change. It means that
mg
the particle has constant velocity in the x
direction. So no force or zero net force acts
Note that the bob does not in the x direction.
Note move in the direction of
the resultant force. At the
points A and C, tension T = mg cosθ. EX AM P L E 3 . 9
At all other points, tension T is greater than Apply Newton’s second law for an object at
mg cosθ, since it has non zero centripetal rest on Earth and analyse the result.
acceleration. At point B, the resultant
force acts upward along the string. It is an Solution
example of a non uniform circular motion The object is at rest with respect to
because the bob has both the centripetal
Earth (inertial coordinate system). There
and tangential accelerations.
are two forces that act on the object.
y
By comparing the components on both
sides of the equation, we get
x
−mg + N = 0
Normal force(N) N mg
We can conclude that if the object is at rest,

the magnitude of normal force is exactly
Gravity(mg)
equal to the magnitude of gravity.
i) Gravity acting downward (negative

EX AM P L E 3 . 1 0
y-direction)
ii) Normal force by the surface of the Earth A particle of mass 2 kg experiences two

acting upward (positive y-direction) forces,F1 5iˆ 8 ˆj 7kˆ and F2 3iˆ 4 ˆj 3kˆ .
The free body diagram for this object is What is the acceleration of the particle?
Solution
G G
y We use Newton’s second law, Fnet ma
G G G
where Fnet = F1 + F2 . From the above
G
G Fnet
N equations the acceleration is a , where
x m

Fnet 5 3 iˆ 8 4 ˆj 7 3 kˆ
Object
Fnet 8iˆ 4 ˆj 10kˆ
4 8 5 4 4 5 4 10 5
a 6 7 iˆ 6 7 ˆj 6 7 kˆ
mg 829 829 8 2 9

a 4iˆ 2 ˆj 5kˆ

Fg mgjˆ EXAM P L E 3 . 1 1

N Njˆ Identify the forces acting on blocks A, B
and C shown in the figure.
Net force F mgjˆ Njˆ
net Solution
But there is no acceleration on the ball.
G
SoG a 0. By applying Newton’s second law
G
( Fnet ma )

Since a 0, Fnet mgjˆ Njˆ
(mg N ) ˆj 0

Forces on block A: EX AM P L E 3 . 1 2
(i) Downward gravitational force exerted Consider a horse attached to the cart which
by the Earth (mAg) is initially at rest. If the horse starts walking
(ii) Upward normal force (NB) exerted by forward, the cart also accelerates in the
block B (NB) forward direction. If the horse pulls the
The free body diagram for block A is as cart with force Fh in forward direction, then
shown in the following picture. according to Newton’s third law, the cart also
Force on block A pulls the horse by equivalent opposite force
Fc Fh in backward direction. Then total
NB
force on ‘cart+horse’ is zero. Why is it then the
‘cart+horse’ accelerates and moves forward?
A
Solution
mAg
This paradox arises due to wrong
application of Newton’s second and third
Forces on block B :
laws. Before applying Newton’s laws, we
(i) Downward gravitational force exerted should decide ‘what is the system?’. Once
by Earth (mBg) we identify the ‘system’, then it is possible to
(ii) Downward force exerted by block A (NA) identify all the forces acting on the system.
(iii) Upward normal force exerted by We should not consider the force exerted
block C (NC) by the system. If there is an unbalanced
Force on block B force acting on the system, then it should
NC have acceleration in the direction of the
resultant force. By following these steps we
B will analyse the horse and cart motion.
NA If we decide on the cart+horse as a

mBg ‘system’, then we should not consider the
force exerted by the horse on the cart or
Forces onblock C:
the force exerted by cart on the horse.
(i) Downward gravitational force exerted Both are internal forces acting on each
by Earth (mCg) other. According to Newton’s third law,
(ii) Downward force exerted by block B (NB) total internal force acting on the system is
(iii) Upward force exerted by the table (Ntable) zero and it cannot accelerate the system.
Force on block C The acceleration of the system is caused
Ntable
by some external force. In this case, the
force exerted by the road on the system is
C
the external force acting on the system. It
is wrong to conclude that the total force
NB acting on the system (cart+horse) is zero
mCg without including all the forces acting on
the system. The road is pushing the horse
and cart forward with acceleration. As there The force exerted by the road can be
is an external force acting on the system, resolved into parallel and perpendicular
Newton’s second law has to be applied and components. The perpendicular
not Newton’s third law. component balances the downward
The following figures illustrates this. gravitational force. There is parallel
component along the forward direction. It

is greater than the backward force (Fc ). So

there is net force along the forward direction
Fh
Fc
which causes the forward movement of the
;
N= Fr
Lorem ipsum
road
N= F:r
;
Fr horse.
F:r
(Forward motion)
If we take the cart as the system, then
Fr
there are three forces acting on the cart.

F:r
mh g
(i) Downward gravitational force (mc g )
’
(ii) Force exerted by the road (Fr )
mC g
(iii) Force exerted by the horse (Fh )

If we consider the horse as the ‘system’,
then there are three forces acting on the It is shown in the figure
horse.
Force on the cart
(i) Downward gravitational force (mh g )
(ii) Force exerted by the road (Fr )
Fr′ N = F⊥′
(iii) Backward force exerted by the cart (Fc ) r
It is shown in the following figure.

′ Fh
F||r Cart
Fr
mcg
Fc Horse F||r
The force exerted by the road ( Fr’ ) can

be resolved into parallel and perpendicular
components. The perpendicular
mh g component cancels the downward gravity
(mc g ). Parallel component acts backwards

Fr – Force exerted by the road on the horse
and the force exerted
by the horse (Fh)
Fc – Force exerted by the cart on the horse acts forward. Force (Fh ) is greater than the
parallel component acting in the opposite
F⊥r – Perpendicular component of Fr = N
direction. So there is an overall unbalanced
F||r – Parallel component of Fr which is reason force in the forward direction which causes
for forward movement the cart to accelerate forward.
If we take the cart+horse as a system, d2 y
then there are two forces acting on the The acceleration is given by a
dt 2
system. dv
(or) a
(i) Downward gravitational force dt
(mh mc )g Here
(ii) The force exerted by the road (Fr ) on
the system. v = velocity of the particle in y direction
dy
It is shown in the following figure. v = u gt
dt
F;
r

N
Fr
The momentum of the particle = mv = m
(u-gt).
F||r

Parallel component of
Cart+Horse
force exerted by road.
It is the reason for forward
dv
movement of Cart + Horse a= = −g
dt
(mh
mc)g
The force acting on the object is given by

(iii) In this case the force exerted
F = ma = −mg
by the road (Fr ) on the system
(cart+horse) is resolved in to parallel The negative sign implies that the force
and perpendicular components. is acting on the negative y direction. This is
The perpendicular component is exactly the force that acts on the object in
the normal force which cancels projectile motion.
the downward gravitational force
(mh mc )g. The parallel component
of the force is not balanced, hence the 3.3.2 Particle Moving in an
system (cart+horse) accelerates and Inclined Plane
moves forward due to this force.
When an object of mass m slides on a
frictionless surface inclined at an angle T as
shown in the Figure 3.12, the forces acting
EXA MPL E 3 .1 3 on it decides the
The position of the particle is represented
a) acceleration of the object
1
by y = ut − gt 2 . b) speed of the object when it reaches the
2 bottom
a) What is the force acting on the particle?
The force acting on the object is
b) What is the momentum of the particle?
(i) Downward gravitational force (mg)
Solution (ii) Normal force perpendicular to inclined
To find the force, we need to find the surface (N)
acceleration experienced by the particle.
There is no motion(acceleration) along
m the y axis. Applying Newton’s second law in
the y direction
h a
s
mg cos 3 ˆj Njˆ 0 No acceleration

sides, N − mg cos θ = 0
L
Figure 3.12 Object moving
in an inclined plane N = mg cos θ
The magnitude of normal force (N) exerted

To draw the free body diagram, the block is
by the surface is equivalent to mg cosθ .
assumed to be a point mass (Figure 3.13 (a)).
Since the motion is on the inclined surface, The object slides (with an acceleration)
we have to choose the coordinate system along the x direction. Applying Newton’s
parallel to the inclined surface as shown in second law in the x direction
Figure 3.13 (b).
The gravitational force mg is resolved mg sin 3 iˆ maiˆ
in to parallel component mg sin T along
the inclined plane and perpendicular By comparing the components on both
component mg cos T perpendicular to the sides, we can equate
inclined surface (Figure 3.13 (b)).
mg sin θ = ma
Note that the angle made by the
gravitational force (mg) with the The acceleration of the sliding object is
perpendicular to the surface is equal to the
angle of inclination T as shown in Figure a = g sinθ
3.13 (c).
y
Free body
diagram In the triangle ABC
x total angle = 90 + θ + θ1 = 180
N N
m From the above equation
A θ1 = 180 − 90 − θ = 90 − θ
m But from the figure θ2 + θ1 = 90
θ mg sinθ so θ2 = 90 − θ1 = 90 − (90 − θ)
mg cosθ D
E θ 2 θ1 It given θ2 = θ
mg
mg θ 90 θ
B C
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.13 (a) Free body diagram, (b) mg resolved into parallel and perpendicular
components (c) The angle θ2 is equal to θ

Note that the acceleration depends on the
angle of inclination θ . If the angle θ is 90
degree, the block will move vertically with
acceleration a = g.
Newton’s kinematic equation is used to
find the speed of the object when it reaches
the bottom. The acceleration is constant
throughout the motion.
v 2 = u2 + 2as along the x direction (3.3) Figure 3.14 (a) Two blocks of masses
m1 and m2 (m1> m2) kept in contact
The acceleration a is equal to g sinT. The with each other on a smooth, horizontal
initial speed (u) is equal to zero as it starts frictionless surface
from rest. Here s is the length of the inclined
surface. By the application of a horizontal force
The speed (v) when it reaches the bottom F, both the blocks are set into motion
is (using equation (3.3)) with acceleration ‘a’ simultaneously in the
direction of the force F.
G
v = 2sg sinθ (3.4) To find the acceleration a, Newton’s
second law has to be applied to the system
(combined mass m = m1 + m2)
Here we choose the G G

Note F ma
coordinate system along the
inclined plane. Even if we
If we choose the motion of the two masses
choose the coordinate system parallel
to the horizontal surface, we will get
along the positive x direction,
the same result. But the mathematics
will be quite complicated. Choosing a Fiˆ maiˆ
suitable inertial coordinate system for
the given problem is very important. By comparing components on both sides of
the above equation
F ma where m = m1 + m2
3.3.3 Two Bodies in Contact
on a Horizontal Surface The acceleration of the system is given by
Consider two blocks of masses m1 and m2
(m1> m2) kept in contact with each other on F
∴a = (3.5)
a smooth, horizontal frictionless surface as m1 + m2
The force exerted by the block m1 on m2 Equation (3.7) shows that the magnitude
due
G to its motion is called force of contact of contact force depends on mass m2 which
( f 21). According to Newton’s third law, the provides the reaction force. Note that
block m2 will exert
G an equivalent opposite this force is acting along the negative
reaction force ( f12 ) on block m1. x direction.
Figure 3.14 (b) shows the free body In vector notation, the reaction force on
diagram of block m1. Fm2 ˆ
mass m1 is given by fi12
m1 m2
Free body diagram
for mass m1 For mass m2 there is only one force acting
on
G it in the x direction and it is denoted by
y m1
f12
N f 21. This force is exerted by mass m1. The
F
m1 free body diagram for mass m2 is shown in
f12 F
x m1g Figure 3.14 (c).
Figure 3.14 (b) Free body diagram of

block of mass m1 Free body diagram
for mass m2
y f21 m2 N
Fiˆ f12iˆ m1aiˆ x mg

f21
By comparing the components on both sides Figure 3.14 (c) Free body diagram of
of the above equation, we get block of mass m2
F − f12 = m1a Applying Newton’s second law for mass

f12 = F − m1a (3.6)
m2 f iˆ m aiˆ
21 2

Substituting the value of acceleration from sides of the above equation
equation (3.5) in (3.6) we get
f 21 m2a (3.8)
⎛ F ⎞ Substituting for acceleration from equation

f12 = F − m1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ m1 + m2 ⎠ Fm2
(3.5) in equation (3.8), we get f 21 =
m1 + m2
⎡ m1 ⎤
f12 = F ⎢1 − ⎥
⎣ m1 + m2 ⎦ In this case the magnitude of the contact
force is
Fm2 Fm2
f12 = (3.7) f 21 = The direction of this force
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
is along the positive x direction.

In vector notation, the force acting on The upward direction is chosen as y
Fm2 ˆ direction. The free body diagrams of both
mass m2exerted by mass m1is fi21
m1 m2 masses are shown in Figure 3.16.
G G
Note f12 = − f 21 which confirms Newton’s
Free body diagram
third law.
y
T
3.3.4 Motion of Connected T
Bodies
m1
When objects are connected by strings x m2
and a force F is applied either vertically or
horizontally or along an inclined plane, it m1g m2g
produces a tension T in the string, which
affects the acceleration to an extent. Let us
discuss various cases for the same. Figure 3.16 Free body
diagrams of masses m1 and m2
Case 1: Vertical motion
Consider two blocks of masses m1 and
m2 (m1> m2) connected by a light and Applying Newton’s second law for
inextensible string that passes over a pulley mass m2
Tjˆ m2 gjˆ m2ajˆ
The left hand side of the above equation

is the total force that acts on m2 and the
T
right hand side is the product of mass and
m2 a?
T
acceleration of m2 in y direction.
m2g
m1 a@ By comparing the components on both

(m1>m2) sides, we get
m1g
T − m2 g = m2a (3.9)
Figure 3.15 Two blocks
connected by a string
over a pulley Similarly, applying Newton’s second law for
mass m1
Let the tension in the string be T and
acceleration a. When the system is released,
Tjˆ m1 gjˆ m1ajˆ
both the blocks start moving, m2 vertically
upward and m1 downward with same
acceleration a. The gravitational force m1g As mass m1 moves downward ( ˆj), its
on mass m1 is used in lifting the mass m2. acceleration is along ( ˆj)

sides, we get ⎛ m − m2 ⎞
T = m2 g ⎜ 1 + 1 ⎟
⎝ m1 + m2 ⎠
T − m1 g = −m1a ⎛ m + m2 + m1 − m2 ⎞
T = m2 g ⎜ 1 ⎟
m1 g − T = m1a (3.10) ⎝ m1 + m2 ⎠
⎛ 2m1m2 ⎞
Adding equations (3.9) and (3.10), we get T =⎜ ⎟g
⎝ m1 + m2 ⎠
m1 g − m2 g = m1a + m2a
Equation (3.12) gives only magnitude of
( m1 − m2 ) g = (m1 m2 )a (3.11) acceleration.
For mass m1, the acceleration vector is
From equation (3.11), the acceleration of
4 m m2 5 ˆ
both the masses is given by a 6 1 7j
m
8 1 m2 9
⎛ m − m2 ⎞ For mass m2, the acceleration vector is

a=⎜ 1 ⎟g (3.12)
⎝ m1 + m2 ⎠ 4 m m2 5 ˆ
given by a 6 1 7j
m
8 1 m2 9
If both the masses are equal (m1=m2), from
equation (3.12) Case 2: Horizontal motion
In this case, mass m2 is kept on a horizontal
table and mass m1 is hanging through
a 0
a small pulley as shown in Figure 3.17.
Assume that there is no friction on the
This shows that if the masses are equal, there
surface.
is no acceleration and the system as a whole
will be at rest.
To find the tension acting on the string,
substitute the acceleration from the equation
T=m1g
(3.12) into the equation (3.9). m2
⎛ m − m2 ⎞ T
T − m2 g = m2 ⎜ 1 ⎟ m1
⎝ m1 + m2 ⎠ m1 g
y
⎛ m − m2 ⎞
T = m2 g + m2 ⎜ 1 ⎟g (3.13)
⎝ m1 + m2 ⎠ x
By taking m2g common in the RHS of Figure 3.17 Blocks in horizontal

motion
equation (3.13)
As both the blocks are connected to the By comparing the components on both sides
unstretchable string, if m1 moves with an of above equation,
acceleration a downward then m2 also moves
with the same acceleration a horizontally. T m2a (3.15)
The forces acting on mass m2 are
There is no acceleration along y direction
(i) Downward gravitational force (m2g) for m2 .
(ii) Upward normal force (N) exerted by
the surface Njˆ m2 gjˆ 0
(iii) Horizontal tension (T) exerted by the
string By comparing the components on both sides
of the above equation
The forces acting on mass m1 are
(i) Downward gravitational force (m1g) N − m2 g = 0

(ii) Tension (T) acting upwards
N m2 g (3.16)
The free body diagrams for both the masses
is shown in Figure 3.18. By substituting equation (3.15) in equation
(3.14), we can find the tension T
Free body diagram y
m2a − m1 g = −m1a
N T
m2a + m1a = m1 g
x
T m1
m2 m1 a= g (3.17)
m1 m2
m2g m1g
Tension in the string can be obtained by
Figure 3.18 Free body diagrams of substituting equation (3.17) in equation
masses m1 and m2 (3.15)
Applying Newton’s second law for m1 m1m2

T= g (3.18)
m1 + m2
Tjˆ m1 gjˆ m1ajˆ (along y direction)
Comparing motion in both cases, it is clear
By comparing the components on both sides that the tension in the string for horizontal
of the above equation, motion is half of the tension for vertical
motion for same set of masses and strings.
T − m1 g = −m1a (3.14)
This result has an important application
Applying Newton’s second law for m2 in industries. The ropes used in conveyor
belts (horizontal motion) work for longer
duration than those of cranes and lifts
Tiˆ m2aiˆ (along x direction)
(vertical motion).

a common point O as shown in Figure 3.20.
3.3.5 Concurrent Forces and
If the point is at equilibrium, then according
Lami’s Theorem
to Lami’s theorem
A collection of forces is said to be
concurrent, if the lines of forces act at
F1
a common point. Figure 3.19 illustrates
concurrent forces.
γ
Concurrent forces need not be in the F2
o
same plane. If they are in the same plane, β α
they are concurrent as well as coplanar
forces.
F1 F2 F3
Figure 3.20 Three

coplanar
G andG concurrent
G
forces F1 , F2 and F3
O acting at O
G
F3 F1 ∝ sin α
G
F2 ∝ sin β
O
45° 30° F3 sin
45° 30° F3
F2
F1 F2 F3
Figure 3.19 Concurrent forces Therefore, (3.19)
sin sin sin
Lami’s theorem is useful to analyse the

3.4 forces acting on objects which are in static
LAMI’S THEOREM equilibrium.
If a system of three concurrent and coplanar Application of Lami’s Theorem

forces is in equilibrium, then Lami’s theorem
states that the magnitude of each force of the EX AM P L E 3 . 1 4
system is proportional to sine of the angle
between the other two forces. The constant A baby is playing in a swing which is hanging
of proportionality is same for all three forces. with the help of two identical chains is at rest.
Identify the forces acting on the baby. Apply
Let us consider three coplanar and Lami’s theorem and find out the tension
G G G
concurrent forces F1 , F2 and F3 which act at acting on the chain.

From this, the tension on each string is
mg
T= .
2cos θ
Rigid support Rigid support
Modeled to
T T
When θ = 0°, the strings are

Note
mg vertical and the tension on
mg
each string is T
2
Solution
The baby and the chains are modeled as a
particle hung by two strings as shown in the 3.5
figure. There are three forces acting on the LAW OF CONSERVATION
baby. OF TOTAL LINEAR
MOMENTUM
i) Downward gravitational force along
negative y direction (mg) In nature, conservation laws play a very
ii) Tension (T) along the two strings important role. The dynamics of motion
of bodies can be analysed very effectively
These three forces are coplanar as well as
using conservation laws. There are
concurrent as shown in the following figure.
three conservation laws in mechanics.
Conservation of total energy, conservation of
total linear momentum, and conservation of
2T cosθ
y angular momentum. By combining Newton’s

T T second and third laws, we can derive the law
θ θ
x of conservation of total linear momentum.
When two particles interact with each
T sinθ mg T sinθ
other, they exert equal and opposite forces G
on each other. The particle 1 exerts force F21
on particle 2 and particle 2 Gexerts an exactly
By using Lami’s theorem equal and opposite force F12 on particle 1,
according to Newton’s third law.
T T mg
= =
sin (180 − θ ) sin (180 − θ ) sin ( 2θ ) G G
F21 = −F12 (3.20)
Since sin (180 − θ ) = sin θ and sin ( 2θ ) = In terms of momentum of particles, the
2 sin θ cos θ force on each particle (Newton’s second law)
can be written as
T mg G G
G dp1 G dp2
We get = F12 and F21 . (3.21)
sinθ 2 sin θ cos θ dt dt

G
Here p1 is the momentum of particle 1 EX AM P L E 3 . 1 5
G
which changes due to the force F12 exerted Identify the internal and external forces
G
by particle 2. Further p2 is the momentum acting on the following systems.
G
of particle 2. This changes due to F21 exerted
by particle 1. a) Earth alone as a system
b) Earth and Sun as a system
Substitute equation (3.21) in equation c) Our body as a system while walking
(3.20) d) Our body + Earth as a system
G G
dp1 dp2
=− (3.22) Solution
dt dt
G G a) Earth alone as a system
dp1 dp2 Earth orbits the Sun due to gravitational
+ =0 (3.23)
dt dt attraction of the Sun. If we consider
d G G Earth as a system, then Sun’s
( p1 + p2 ) = 0 gravitational force is an external force.
dt
If we take the Moon into account, it
G G also exerts an external force on Earth.
It implies that p1 + p2 = constant vector
(always). System
G G Sun
p1 p2 is the total linear momentum of External
G G G Earth
the two particles ( ptot = p1 + p2). It is also Force exerted
called as total linear momentum of the by the sun
system. Here, the two particles constitute

the system. From this result, the law of b) (Earth + Sun) as a system
conservation of linear momentum can be In this case, there are two internal forces
stated as follows. which form an action and reaction pair-
the gravitational force exerted by the
If there are no external forces acting on the
Sun on Earth and gravitational force
system, then the total linear momentum of
G exerted by the Earth on the Sun.
the system ( ptot ) is always a constant vector.
In otherwords, the total linear momentum of
System
the system is conserved in time. Here the word
G G
‘conserve’ means that p1 and p2 can vary,in Sun Internal force
G G Internal force
Earth
such a way that p1 p2 is a constant vector. exerted by the earth exerted by the sun
G G
The forces F12 and F21 are called the
internal forces of the system, because they
act only between the two particles. There is c) Our body as a system
no external force acting on the two particles While walking, we exert a force on the
from outside. In such a case the total linear Earth and Earth exerts an equal and
momentum of the system is a constant opposite force on our body. If our body
vector or is conserved. alone is considered as a system, then

the force exerted by the Earth on our the forces involved in the process.
body is external. This is difficult to specify in real
System situations. But conservation of
linear momentum does not require
any force involved in the process. It
is covenient and hence important.
For example, when two particles collide,

External force the forces exerted by these two particles
exerted by earth
on each other is difficult to specify. But it
Our body as a system is easier to apply conservation of linear
momentum during the collision process.
d) (Our body + Earth) as a system
Before collision
In this case, there are two internal
forces present in the system. One is the
force exerted by our body on the Earth
and the other is the equal and opposite Collision
force exerted by the Earth on our body.
System
After collision
Internal Internal
force exerted force exerted
by Earth by body Collision of two particles
Our body + Earth as a Examples

system • Consider the firing of a gun. Here the
system is Gun+bullet. Initially the gun
Meaning of law of conservation of and bullet are at rest, hence the total linear
momentum
momentum of the system is zero. Let 1p
1) The Law of conservation of linear be the momentum of the bullet and p2 the
momentum is a vector law. It momentum of the gun before firing. Since
implies that both the magnitude and initially both are at rest,
direction of total linear momentum Recoil force Accelerating force on
on the gun M the bullet
are constant. In some cases, this m
total momentum can also be zero. v
2) To analyse the motion of a particle,
we can either use Newton’s second
law or the law of conservation
of linear momentum. Newton’s
p1 0, p2 0.
second law requires us to specify
Total momentum
before firing the gun is after collision also has to be in the forward
zero, p1 p 2 0. direction. The following figure explains this.
According to the law of conservation of v1
m
linear momentum, total linear momemtum v
m m2
has to be zero after the firing also. P tot rest m2
P tot
v2
When the gun is fired, a force is exerted Before collision After collision
by the gun on the bullet in forward
A more accurate calculation is covered in
direction. Now the momentum of the
section 4.4. It is to be noted that the total
bullet changes from p1 to p1:. To conserve
momentum vector before and after collison
the total linear momentum of the system,
points in the same direction. This simply
the momentum

of the gun must also change
means that the total linear momentum is
from p2 to p2′ . Due to the conservation of constant before and after the collision. At
linear momentum, p1 p 2 0. It implies
the time of collision, each particle exerts a
that p1 p2 , the momentum of the gun is
force on the other. As the two particles are
exactly equal, but in the opposite direction
considered as a system, these forces are only
to the momentum of the bullet. This is the
internal, and the total linear momentum
reason after firing, the gun suddenly moves
cannot be altered by internal forces.
backward with the momentum p2’ . It
is called ‘recoil momemtum’. This is an
example of conservation of total linear 3.5.1 Impulse
momentum.
If a very large force acts on an object for a
very short duration, then the force is called
impulsive force or impulse.
If a force (F) acts on the object in a very
short interval of time (Δt), from Newton’s
second law in magnitude form
Fdt dp
Integrating over time from an initial time t i

to a final time t f , we get
• Consider two particles. One is at rest and f tf
the other moves towards the first particle Cdp = CF dt

i ti
(which is at rest). They collide and after
tf
collison move in some arbitrary directions.
In this case, before collision, the total linear p f − pi = ∫F dt
ti
momentum of the system is equal to the
initial linear momentum of the moving pi initial momentum of the object at time t i
particle. According to conservation of pf final momentum of the object at time t f
momentum, the total linear momentum
p f − pi = Δp = change in momentum
J = Favg Δt (3.26)
of the object during the time interval
t f − t i = Δt . The graphical representation of constant
tf force impulse and variable force impulse is
The integral ∫F dt = J is called the impulse given in Figure 3.21.
ti
and it is equal to change in momentum of For constant force
F
the object. Area under graph
impulse F't
If the force is constant over the time
interval, then
tf tf Favg
∫F dt = F ∫dt = F (t
ti ti
f )
− t i = F 't
F Δt = Δp (3.24) ti tf t
Equation (3.24) is called the ‘impulse-

momentum equation’. For variable force
F
tf
Area under graph
For a constant force, the impulse is
denoted as J = F Δt and it is also equal to
impulse (J) = F dt
∫
ti
Fpeak
change in momentum ('p) of the object
over the time interval 't.
Favg
Impulse is a vector quantity and its unit is Ns.
The average force acted on the object
over the short interval of time is defined by
ti tf t
Figure 3.21 Constant force impulse

Δp
Favg = (3.25) and variable force impulse
Δt
From equation (3.25), the average force Illustration

that act on the object is greater if 't is
1. When a cricket player catches the ball, he
smaller. Whenever the momentum of the
pulls his hands gradually in the direction
body changes very quickly, the average force
of the ball’s motion. Why?
becomes larger.
If he stops his hands soon after
The impulse can also be written in terms catching the ball, the ball comes to
of the average force. Since 'p is change in rest very quickly. It means that the
momentum of the object and is equal to momentum of the ball is brought to rest
impulse (J), we have very quickly. So the average force acting
on the body will be very large. Due to there is a bump on the road, a sudden
this large average force, the hands will force is transferred to the vehicle. The
get hurt. To avoid getting hurt, the player shock absorber prolongs the period of
brings the ball to rest slowly. transfer of force on to the body of the
rider. Vehicles without shock absorbers
will harm the body due to this reason.
4. Jumping on a concrete cemented floor
is more dangerous than jumping on the
sand. Sand brings the body to rest slowly
than the concrete floor, so that the
average force experienced by the body
will be lesser.
2. When a car meets with an accident, its

momentum reduces drastically in a very
short time. This is very dangerous for the
passengers inside the car since they will
experience a large force. To prevent this Impulse
fatal shock, cars are designed with air
bags in such a way that when the car
meets with an accident, the momentum
of the passengers will reduce slowly so
that the average force acting on them
will be smaller.
If an egg is thrown, can you catch the

egg safely without breaking it? How?
Air
ir
ba
bag
EX AM P L E 3 . 1 6
An object of mass 10 kg moving with a
speed of 15 m s−1 hits the wall and comes
to rest within
3. The shock absorbers in two wheelers play a) 0.03 second

the same role as airbags in the car. When b) 10 second
Calculate the impulse and average force
Fext
acting on the object in both the cases.
Friction
Solution
Initial momentum of the object
pi =10 × 15 =150 k gm s−1
Final momentum of the object p f 0
Δp = 150 − 0 = 150 kg m s −1
Fext
Friction
(a) Impulse J = Δp = 150 N s.

(b) Impulse J = Δp = 150 N s
Δp 150
(a) Average force Favg = = 5000 N
Δt 0.03
150
(b) Average force Favg 15 N
10
Figure 3.22 Frictional force
We see that, impulse is the same in both
cases, but the average force is different.
by the surface by exerting a frictional force
on the object in a direction opposite to
3.6 applied force. Frictional force always acts on
FRICTION the object parallel to the surface on which
the object is placed. There are two kinds
of friction namely 1) Static friction and 2)
3.6.1 Introduction
Kinetic friction.
If a very gentle force in the horizontal
direction is given to an object at rest on the G
table, it does not move. It is because of the 3.6.2 Static Friction (fs)
opposing force exerted by the surface on the Static friction is the force which opposes
object which resists its motion. This force the initiation of motion of an object on the
is called the frictional force which always surface. When the object is at rest on the
opposes the relative motion between an object surface, only two forces act on it. They are the
and the surface where it is placed. If the force downward gravitational force and upward
applied is increased, the object moves after a normal force. The resultant of these two
certain limit. forces on the object is zero. As a result the
Relative motion: when a force parallel object is at rest as shown in Figure 3.23.
to the surface is applied on the object, the If some external force Fext is applied on
force tries to move the object with respect to the object parallel to the surface on which
the surface. This ‘relative motion’ is opposed the object is at rest, the surface exerts
exactly an equal and opposite force on the The static and kinetic frictions (which
object to resist its motion and tries to keep we discuss later) depend on the normal
the object at rest. It implies that external force acting on the object. If the object is
force and frictional force are exactly equal pressed hard on the surface then the normal
and opposite. Therefore, no motion parallel force acting on the object will increase. As
to the surface takes place. But if the external a consequence it is more difficult to move
force is increased, after a particular limit, the the object. This is shown in Figure 3.23 (a)
surface cannot provide sufficient opposing and (b). The static friction does not depend
frictional force to balance the external force upon the area of contact.
on the object. Then the object starts to slide.
This is the maximal static friction that can be F
exerted by the surface. Experimentally, it is m1
found that the magnitude of static frictional friction
force f s satisfies the following empirical N = m1g
relation.
(a) Easier to move
0 ≤ f s ≤ μs N , (3.27)
m2
where μs is the coefficient of static friction. F
m1
It depends on the nature of the surfaces in
contact. N is normal force exerted by the friction
surface on the body and sometimes it is N = m1g + m2g
equal to mg. But it need not be equal to mg (b) Harder to move
always.
Fig 3.23 Static friction and
Equation (3.27) implies that the force of kinetic friction (a) Easier to
static friction can take any value from zero move (b) Harder to move
to μsN.
If the object is at rest and no external EX AM P L E 3 . 1 7
force is applied on the object, the static
Consider an object of mass 2 kg resting on
friction acting on the object is zero ( f s 0).
the floor. The coefficient of static friction
If the object is at rest, and there is between the object and the floor is μs = 0.8.
an external force applied parallel to the What force must be applied on the object
surface, then the force of static friction to move it?
acting on the object is exactly equal to
Solution
the external force applied on the object
( f s Fext ). But still the static friction f s is Since the object is at rest, the gravitational
less than μsN. force experienced by an object is balanced
by normal force exerted by floor.
When object begins to slide, the static
friction ( f s ) acting on the object attains N = mg
maximum,
The maximum static frictional force f smax = m2 should be used so that mass 7 kg begins
μs N = μs mg to slide on the table?
Solution
f smax = 0.8 × 2 × 9.8 = 15.68 N As shown in the figure, there are four
forces acting on the mass m1
Therefore to move the object the external force a) Downward gravitational force along the
should be greater than maximum static friction. negative y-axis (m1g)
b) Upward normal force along the positive
Fext > 15.68 N y axis (N)
c) Tension force due to mass m2 along the
positive x axis
EXA MPLE 3 .1 8 d) Frictional force along the negative x axis
Consider an object of mass 50 kg at rest on Since the mass m1 has no vertical motion,
the floor. A Force of 5 N is applied on the m1g = N
object but it does not move. What is the y
frictional force that acts on the object? T = m 2g x
m1
Solution f
When the object is at rest, the external

force and the static frictional force are
equal and opposite. m2
The magnitudes of these two forces are

m2 g
equal, f s Fext
Therefore, the static frictional force
Free body diagram for mass m
acting on the object is 1
y
N = m 1g
f s = 5N . x
f T
m1
The direction of this frictional force is
m1 g
opposite to the direction of Fext .
To determine whether the mass m1
moves on the surface, calculate the
EXA MPL E 3 .1 9 maximum static friction exerted by the table
on the mass m1. If the tension on the mass
Two bodies of masses 7 kg and 5 kg are
m1 is equal to or greater than this maximum
connected by a light string passing over
static friction, the object will move.
a smooth pulley at the edge of the table
as shown in the figure. The coefficient of
f smax = μs N = μ s m1 g
static friction between the surfaces (body
and table) is 0.9. Will the mass m1 = 7 kg f smax 0.9 X 7 X 9.8 61.74 N
on the surface move? If not what value of
The tension T m2 g 5 X 9.8 49 N 3.6.3 Kinetic Friction
If the external force acting on the object
max
Tf s is greater than maximum static friction,
the objects begin to slide. When an object
The tension acting on the mass m1 is less slides, the surface exerts aG frictional force
than the maximum static friction. So the called kinetic friction f k (also called
mass m1 will not move. sliding friction or dynamic friction). To
To move the mass m1, T > f smax where move an object at constant velocity we must
T = m2g apply a force which is equal in magnitude
and opposite to the direction of kinetic
μs m1 g friction.
m2 = = μs m1
g F ext V
m2 0.9 X 7 6.3 kg
fk
If the mass m2 is greater than 6.3 kg then
the mass m1 will begin to slide. Note that if
there is no friction on the surface, the mass V Fext
m1 will move for m2 even for just 1 kg.

The values of coefficient of static fk
friction for pairs of materials are presented
Figure 3.24 Kinetic
in Table 3.1. Note that the ice and ice pair friction
have very low coefficient of static friction.
This means a block of ice can move easily
Experimentally it was found that the
over another block of ice.
magnitude of kinetic friction satisfies the
relation
Table 3.1 Coefficient of Static Friction
for a Pair of Materials
f k = μk N (3.28)
Material Coefficient of
Static Friction
where μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction
Glass and glass 1.0 and N the normal force exerted by the
Ice and ice 0.10 surface on the object,
Steel and steel 0.75
Wood and wood 0.35 and μk < μ s
Rubber tyre and dry 1.0
concrete road This implies that starting of a motion is
Rubber tyre and wet 0.7 more difficult than maintaining it. The
road salient features of static and kinetic friction
are given in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Salient Features of Static and Kinetic Friction
Static friction Kinetic friction
It opposes the starting of motion It opposes the relative motion of the object
with respect to the surface
Independent of surface of contact Independent of surface of contact
ms depends on the nature of materials in mk depends on nature of materials and
mutual contact temperature of the surface
Depends on the magnitude of applied Independent of magnitude of applied force
force
It can take values from zero to μs N It can never be zero and always equals to mkN
whatever be the speed (true 10 ms-1)
f smax ! f k It is less than maximal value of static friction
μ s > μk Coefficient of kinetic friction is less than

coefficient of static friction
The variation of both static and kinetic

frictional forces with external applied force Note The relation f s = μ s N is not
is graphically shown in Figure 3.25. a vector relation. This is
because the normal force N
f and f s are not in the same direction
even though f s is equal to μ s times the
fmax normal force. This is also true in the
s fk FkN
case of kinetic friction.
fs Fext
3.6.4 To Move an Object -
Fext
Push or pull?
Figure 3.25 Variation of Which is easier?
static and kinetic frictional
forces with external applied When a body is pushed at an arbitrary angle θ
force ⎛ π⎞
⎜ 0 to 2 ⎟ , the applied force F can be resolved
⎝ ⎠
The Figure 3.25 shows that static friction into two components as F sinθ parallel to the
increases linearly with external applied surface and F cosθ perpendicular to the surface
force till it reaches the maximum. If the as shown in Figure 3.26. The total downward
object begins to move then the kinetic force acting on the body is mg + Fcosθ. It
friction is slightly lesser than the maximum implies that the normal force acting on the
static friction. Note that the kinetic friction body increases. Since there is no acceleration
is constant and it is independent of applied along the vertical direction the normal force
force. N is equal to
Equation (3.31) shows that the normal force
N push = mg + Fcosθ (3.29)
is less than Npush. From equations (3.29) and
(3.31), it is easier to pull an object than to
As a result the maximal static friction also push to make it move.
increases and is equal to
3.6.5 Angle of Friction

f s
max
= μs N push = μs ( mg + F cosθ ) (3.30)
The angle of friction is defined as the
angle between the normal force (N) and
Equation (3.30) shows that a greater force the resultant force (R) of normal force and
needs to be applied to push the object into maximum friction force ( f smax )
motion.
H
R H
Free body diagram N
N
F sin θ
H
F cos θ
θ F
F Block θ
fs
F
fs mg H max H
fs R = resultant force
H H H
R = N + fsmax
Figure 3.26 An object is pushed at an
angle θ Figure 3.28 Angle of Friction
When an object is pulled at an angle In Figure 3.28 the resultant force is

θ, the applied force is resolved into two
(f )
2
max
R= s + N2
components as shown in Figure 3.27.
The total downward force acting on the
object is f smax
tan θ = (3.32)
N
Npull = mg − Fcosθ (3.31)
But from the frictional relation, the object
Free body diagram
begins to slide when f smax = μs N
F F cos θ N
F
f smax
θ
or when = μs (3.33)
fs N
F sin θ
From equations (3.32) and (3.33) the

fs
mg coefficient of static friction is
Figure 3.27 An object is pulled at an
angle T μs = tanθ (3.34)

The coefficient of static friction is equal to The component of force parallel to the
tangent of the angle of friction inclined plane (mg sinT) tries to move the
object down.
The component of force perpendicular
to the inclined plane (mg cosT) is balanced
by the Normal force (N).
N = mg cos T
When the object just begins to move,

the static friction attains its maximum
3.6.6 Angle of Repose value
Consider an inclined plane on which an
object is placed, as shown in Figure 3.30. f s = f smax = F s N = F s mg cosθ (3.35)
Let the angle which this plane makes with
the horizontal be T . For small angles of T ,
the object may not slide down. As T is This friction also satisfies the relation
increased, for a particular value of T , the
object begins to slide down. This value is f smax = mg sinθ (3.36)
called angle of repose. Hence, the angle of
repose is the angle of inclined plane with the
horizontal such that an object placed on it Equating the right hand side of equations
begins to slide. (3.35) and (3.36), we get
N
max F s = sin3 / cos3
fs
mg sin θ From the definition of angle of friction, we

mg cos θ θ also know that
mg tan θ = μ s, (3.37)
θ
Figure 3.29 Angle of repose

in which T is the angle of friction.
Let us consider the various forces in action Thus the angle of repose is the same as
here. The gravitational force mg is resolved angle of friction. But the difference is that the
into components parallel (mg sin T ) and angle of repose refers to inclined surfaces
perpendicular (mg cos T ) to the inclined and the angle of friction is applicable to any
plane. type of surface.

EXA MPL E 3 .2 0 mg cos T = N = mg/2
A block of mass m slides down the plane
f K = mK N = mK mg/2
inclined at an angle 60° with an acceleration
g
. Find the coefficient of kinetic friction? ⎛ 3 −1 ⎞
2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ mg
Solution 2
μK = ⎝ ⎠
Kinetic friction comes to play as the mg
block is moving on the surface. 2
The forces acting on the mass are the μK = 3 − 1
normal force perpendicular to surface,
downward gravitational force and kinetic
friction f k along the surface. 3.6.7 Application of Angle of
y
y
Repose
N 1. Antlions make sand traps in such a way that
x fk
x when an insect enters the edge of the trap, it
starts to slide towards the bottom where the
mg sin θ antilon hide itself. The angle of inclination
mg cos θ θ of sand trap is made to be equal to angle of
repose. It is shown in the Figure 3.30.
mg θ
Along the x-direction
mg sin θ − f k = ma
But a = g/2
mg sin60° − f k = mg/2
3 mg – f = mg/2
k
2
⎛ 3 1⎞
f k = mg ⎜ −
⎜ 2 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 3 −1 ⎞
fK = ⎜
⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
mg
⎝ ⎠
Figure 3.30 Sand trap of antlions
There is no motion along the y-direction
as normal force is exactly balanced by the 2. Children are fond of playing on sliding
mg cos T . board (Figure 3.31). Sliding will be easier
when the angle of inclination of the board is
greater than the angle of repose. At the same
time if inclination angle is much larger than
the angle of repose, the slider will reach the 3
bottom at greater speed and get hurt.

order to observe that the coefficient
of static friction differs from case
to case.
Note At the point of sliding

tanT s = ms
To measure the
coefficient of kinetic friction, reduce
the inclination of the book after it
starts sliding, such that the coin/
eraser moves with uniform velocity.
Figure 3.31 Sliding board
Now measure the angle from which
coefficient of kinetic friction can be
ACTIVITY
Activity: calculated as
mK = tanT k
Measuring the coefficients
of friction Observe that θ K < θ S
Take a hard bound note book and a
coin. Keep the coin on the note book.
The note book cover has to be in an
inclined position as shown in the 3.6.8 Rolling Friction
figure. Slowly increase the angle of
inclination of the cover with respect The invention of the wheel plays a crucial
to rest of the pages. When the angle role in human civilization. One of the
of inclination reaches the angle of important applications is suitcases with
repose, the parallel component of rolling on coasters. Rolling wheels makes
gravitational force (mg sinT ) to book it easier than carrying luggage. When an
surface becomes equal to the frictional object moves on a surface, essentially it is
force and the coin begins to slide sliding on it. But wheels move on the surface
down. Measure the angle of inclination through rolling motion. In rolling motion
and take the tangent of this angle. It when a wheel moves on a surface, the point
gives the coefficient of static friction of contact with surface is always at rest.
between the surface of the cover and Since the point of contact is at rest, there is
coin. The same can be repeated with no relative motion between the wheel and
other objects such as an eraser in surface. Hence the frictional force is very
less. At the same time if an object moves
without a wheel, there is a relative motion
3.6.9 Methods to Reduce
between the object and the surface. As a
Friction
result frictional force is larger. This makes
it difficult to move the object. The Figure Frictional force has both positive and
3.32 shows the difference between rolling negative effects. In some cases it is absolutely
and kinetic friction. necessary. Walking is possible because of
frictional force. Vehicles (bicycle, car) can
move because of the frictional force between
Rolling friction
the tyre and the road. In the braking system,
kinetic friction plays a major role. As we
have already seen, the frictional force comes
into effect whenever there is relative motion
between two surfaces. In big machines
Kinetic friction
used in industries, relative motion between
different parts of the machine produce
unwanted heat which reduces its efficiency.
To reduce this kinetic friction lubricants are
used as shown in Figure 3.34.
Figure 3.32 Rolling and kinetic friction
Ideally in pure rolling, motion of the

point of contact with the surface should be Without oil
at rest, but in practice it is not so. Due to
the elastic nature of the surface at the point Viewed through a microscope
of contact there will be some deformation
on the object at this point on the wheel or
surface as shown in Figure 3.33. Due to this
deformation, there will be minimal friction With oil
between wheel and surface. It is called
‘rolling friction’. In fact, ‘rolling friction’ is
much smaller than kinetic friction. Effect of lubricants
Figure 3.34 Reducing kinetic

friction using lubricant
Ball bearings provides another effective

way to reduce the kinetic friction (Figure 3.35)
in machines. If ball bearings are fixed between
two surfaces, during the relative motion only
the rolling friction comes to effect and not
Figure 3.33 Rolling friction kinetic friction. As we have seen earlier, the
rolling friction is much smaller than kinetic

friction; hence the machines are protected in the twentieth century, the understanding
from wear and tear over the years. on atoms, electron and protons has changed
the perspective. The frictional force is
actually the electromagnetic force between
the atoms on the two surfaces. Even well
polished surfaces have irregularities on the
surface at the microscopic level as seen in
the Figure 3.36.
Points to Ponder
When you walk on the tiled floor

where water is spilled, you are likely
to slip. Why?
Figure 3.35 Reducing kinetic

friction using ball bearing
During the time of Newton and Galileo,

frictional force was considered as one of the
natural forces like gravitational force. But
N
Nominal contact area
True contact
area
Block
Force
Friction
Table
Figure 3.36 Irregularities on the surface at the microscopic level

Solution
Frictional force in the motion of a bicycle
When a bicycle moves in the forward If an object moves with constant velocity,
direction, what is the direction of frictional then it has no acceleration. According to
force in the rear and front wheels? Newton’s second law there is no net force
acting on the object. The external force is
balanced by the kinetic friction.
Front wheel Rear wheel
NR
Note It is not that ‘no force acts
on the object’. In fact there
mg
NF NR mg are two forces acting on the
fF fR object. Only the net force acting on
the object is zero.
When we pedal a bicycle, we try to push

the surface backward and the velocity
of point of contact in the rear wheel is
backwards. So, the frictional force pushes
3.7
the rear wheel to move forward. But as DYNAMICS OF CIRCULAR
the front wheel is connected with a rigid MOTION
support to the back wheel, the forward
In the previous sections we have studied
motion of back wheel pushes the front
how to analyse linear motion using
wheel in the forward direction. So, the
Newton’s laws. It is also important to know
frictional forces act backward. Remember
how to apply Newton’s laws to circular
both frictional forces correspond to only
motion, since circular motion is one of
static friction and not kinetic friction. If
the very common types of motion that we
the wheel slips then kinetic friction comes
come across in our daily life. A particle
into effect. In addition to static friction,
can be in linear motion with or without
the rolling friction also acts on both
any external force. But when circular
wheels in the backward direction.
motion occurs there must necessarily be
some force acting on the object. There is
EXA MPL E 3 .2 1 no Newton’s first law for circular motion.
In other words without a force, circular
Consider an object moving on a horizontal
motion cannot occur in nature. A force
surface with a constant velocity. Some
can change the velocity of a particle in
external force is applied on the object to keep
three different ways.
the object moving with a constant velocity.
What is the net force acting on the object? 1. The magnitude of the velocity can be
Fext v changed without changing the direction
of the velocity. In this case the particle
will move in the same direction but with
fk acceleration.

Examples
For uniform circular motion Fcp mI 2r rˆ
Particle falling down vertically,
bike moving in a straight road with
The direction –r̂ points towards the center
acceleration.
of the circle which is the direction of
2. The direction of motion alone can be centripetal force as shown in Figure 3.38.
changed without changing the magnitude
(speed). If this happens continuously v
then we call it ‘uniform circular motion’. rˆ

Fcp
3. Both the direction and magnitude
rˆ rˆ Fcp Fcp v
(speed) of velocity can be changed. If this rˆ o rˆ rˆ o
happens non circular motion occurs. For rˆ v
Fcp
example oscillation of a swing or simple r
pendulum, elliptical motion of planets v
around the Sun.
Figure 3.38 Centripetal force
In this section we will deal with uniform
circular motion and non-circular motion. It should be noted that ‘centripetal force’ is
not other forces like gravitational force or
spring force. It can be said as ‘force towards
3.7.1 Centripetal force center’. The origin of the centripetal force
If a particle is in uniform circular motion, can be gravitational force, tension in the
there must be centripetal acceleration string, frictional force, Coulomb force etc.
towards the center of the circle. If there is Any of these forces can act as a centripetal
acceleration then there must be some force force.
acting on it with respect to an inertial frame.
This force is called centripetal force. 1. In the case of whirling motion of a stone
tied to a string, the centripetal force
As we have seen in chapter 2, the
on the particle is provided by the
centripetal acceleration of a particle in the
tensional force on the string. In circular
v2
circular motion is given by a and it acts motion in an amusement park, the
r centripetal force is provided by the
towards center of the circle. According to
tension in the iron ropes.
Newton’s second law, the centripetal force is
2. In motion of satellites around the Earth,
given by
the centripetal force is given by Earth’s
gravitational force on the satellites.
mv 2
Fcp macp Newton’s second law for satellite motion is
r
The word Centripetal force means center mv 2

F = earth′s gravitational force =
seeking force. r
mv 2
In vector notation Fcp rˆ Where r- distance of the planet from the
r center of the Earth.
Newton’s second law for this case is
F mv 2
Frictional force =
r
m-mass of the car
v-speed of the car
r-radius of curvature of track
Even when the car moves on a curved

track, the car experiences the centripetal
force which is provided by frictional
force between the surface and the tyre of
the car. This is shown in the Figure 3.41.
Curvy
road
Fcp
Figure 3.39 Whirling motion of objects
Fcp
m-mass of the satellite
v-speed of the satellite
3. When a car is moving on a circular

track the centripetal force is given by the
frictional force between the road and the Figure 3.41 Centripetal force
tyres. due to frictional force between
the road and tyre
4. When the planets orbit around the Sun,

they experience centripetal force towards
curved road
straight road
N
the center of the Sun. Here gravitational
N
force of the Sun acts as centripetal force
on the planets as shown in Figure 3.42
Fs Planet
Centripetal force
mg
mg
SUN
Figure 3.40 Car in the circular track

Figure 3.42 Centripetal force on the
orbiting planet due Sun’s gravity

Newton’s second law for this motion
Rm = 60R = 60 × 6.4 × 106 = 384 × 106 m
Gravitational force of Sun on the
mv 2
planet =
r 2π
As we know the angular velocity ω =
T
EXA MPL E 3 .2 2 and T = 27.3 days = 27.3 × 24 × 60 × 60
If a stone of mass 0.25 kg tied to a string second = 2.358 × 106 sec

executes uniform circular motion with a speed By substituting these values in the formula
of 2 m s1 of radius 3 m, what is the magnitude for acceleration
of tensional force acting on the stone?
=
( 4π ) ( 384 × 10 ) =0.00272 m s
2 6
2
Solution am
( 2.358 × 10 )
2
6
1
× (2)
2
Fcp = 4 = 0.333 N. The centripetal acceleration of Moon

3 towards the Earth is 0.00272 m s2
This result was calculated

EXA MPL E 3 .2 3 Note
by Newton himself. In
The Moon orbits the Earth once in unit 6 we will use this
27.3 days in an almost circular orbit. result.
Calculate the centripetal acceleration
experienced by the Moon? (Radius of
the Earth is 6.4 × 106 m)
3.7.2 Vehicle on a leveled
circular road
Solution
The centripetal acceleration is given by When a vehicle travels in a curved path,
v2 there must be a centripetal force acting on
a . This expression explicitly depends
r it. This centripetal force is provided by the
on Moon’s speed which is non trivial. We frictional force between tyre and surface
can work with the formula of the road. Consider a vehicle of mass ‘m’
moving at a speed ‘v’ in the circular track
ω 2 Rm = am of radius ‘r’. There are three forces acting on
the vehicle when it moves as shown in the
am is centripetal acceleration of the Figure 3.43
Moon due to Earth’s gravity.
1. Gravitational force (mg) acting
Z is angular velocity. downwards
Rm is the distance between Earth and 2. Normal force (mg) acting upwards
the Moon, which is 60 times the radius of 3. Frictional force (Fs) acting horizontally
the Earth. inwards along the road
curved road
straight road
N
N
Fs
mg
mg
Figure 3.43 Forces acting on the vehicle on a leveled circular road
Suppose the road is horizontal then the car on the road. So the coefficient of static
normal force and gravitational force are friction between the tyre and the surface of
exactly equal and opposite. The centripetal the road determines what maximum speed
force is provided by the force of static the car can have for safe turn.
friction Fs between the tyre and surface of
the road which acts towards the center of
mv 2 v2
the circular track, b) If > μs mg , or μs < (skid)
r rg
mv 2
Fs If the static friction is not able to provide
r
enough centripetal force to turn, the vehicle
will start to skid.
As we have already seen in the previous
section, the static friction can increase from
zero to a maximum value EX AM P L E 3 . 2 4
Consider a circular leveled road of
Fs ≤ μs mg . radius 10 m having coefficient of static
friction 0.81. Three cars (A, B and C) are
There are two conditions possible: travelling with speed 7 m s−1, 8 m s−1 and
10 ms−1 respectively. Which car will skid
when it moves in the circular level road?
mv 2 v2
a) If ≤ μs mg , or μs ≥ or μs rg ≥ v (g =10 m s−2)
r rg
(Safe turn) Solution
From the safe turn condition the speed
The static friction would be able to provide of the vehicle (v) must be less than or equal
necessary centripetal force to bend the to μs rg
Let the surface of the road make angle T
v ≤ μs rg with horizontal surface. Then the normal
force makes the same angle T with the
μs rg = 0.81 × 10 × 10 = 9 m s −1
vertical. When the car takes a turn, there are
two forces acting on the car:
For Car C, μs rg is less than v a) Gravitational force mg (downwards)
The speed of car A, B and C are 7 m s−1, b) Normal force N (perpendicular to
8 m s−1 and 10 m s−1 respectively. The cars surface)
A and B will have safe turns. But the car
We can resolve the normal force into two
C has speed 10 m s−1 while it turns which
components. N cos T and N sin T as shown
exceeds the safe turning speed. Hence, the
in Figure 3.46. The component N cos T
car C will skid.
balances the downward gravitational force
‘mg’ and component N sin T will provide the
necessary centripetal acceleration. By using
3.7.3 Banking of Tracks Newton second law
In a leveled circular road, skidding mainly
depends on the coefficient of static friction N cos T = mg
ms The coefficient of static friction depends
on the nature of the surface which has a mv 2
N sin T =
maximum limiting value. To avoid this r
problem, usually the outer edge of the road v2
is slightly raised compared to inner edge By dividing the equations we get tanθ =
rg
as shown in the Figure 3.44. This is called
banking of roads or tracks. This introduces v = rg tan θ
an inclination, and the angle is called
banking angle.
The banking angle T and radius of curvature
of the road or track determines the safe
speed of the car at the turning. If the speed
of car exceeds this safe speed, then it starts to
skid outward but frictional force comes into
effect and provides an additional centripetal
force to prevent the outward skidding. At
the same time, if the speed of the car is little
lesser than safe speed, it starts to skid inward
and frictional force comes into effect, which
reduces centripetal force to prevent inward
skidding. However if the speed of the vehicle
is sufficiently greater than the correct speed,
Figure 3.44 Outer edge of the road is then frictional force cannot stop the car
slightly raised to avoid skidding from skidding.

EXA MPL E 3 .2 5 inward centripetal force −mω 2r there must
Consider a circular road of radius 20 meter be an equal and opposite force that acts on
banked at an angle of 15 degree. With what the stone outward with value +mω 2r . So the
speed a car has to move on the turn so that total force acting on the stone in a rotating
it will have safe turn? frame is equal to zero (−mω 2r + mω 2r = 0).
This outward force +mZ 2r is called the
Solution centrifugal force. The word ‘centrifugal’
means ‘flee from center’. Note that the
v= ( rg tanθ ) = 20 × 9.8 × tan 15° ‘centrifugal force’ appears to act on the
particle, only when we analyse the motion
= 20 × 9.8 × 0.26 = 7.1 m s1 from a rotating frame. With respect to an
inertial frame there is only centripetal force
The safe speed for the car on this road is 7.1 m s1 which is given by the tension in the string.
For this reason centrifugal force is called as a
‘pseudo force’. A pseudo force has no origin.
3.7.4 Centrifugal Force It arises due to the non inertial nature of the
frame considered. When circular motion
Circular motion can be analysed from two
problems are solved from a rotating frame
different frames of reference. One is the
of reference, while drawing free body
inertial frame (which is either at rest or in
diagram of a particle, the centrifugal force
uniform motion) where Newton’s laws are
should necessarily be included as shown in
obeyed. The other is the rotating frame of
the Figure 3.45.
reference which is a non-inertial frame
of reference as it is accelerating. When we
examine the circular motion from these 3.7.5 Effects of Centrifugal
frames of reference the situations are entirely Force
different. To use Newton’s first and second Although centrifugal force is a pseudo force,
laws in the rotational frame of reference, its effects are real. When a car takes a turn in
we need to include a pseudo force called a curved road, person inside the car feels an
‘centrifugal force’. This ‘centrifugal force’ outward force which pushes the person away.
appears to act on the object with respect to This outward force is also called centrifugal
rotating frames. To understand the concept force. If there is sufficient friction between
of centrifugal force, we can take a specific the person and the seat, it will prevent the
case and discuss as done below. person from moving outwards. When a car
Consider the case of a whirling motion moving in a straight line suddenly takes
of a stone tied to a string. Assume that the a turn, the objects not fixed to the car try
stone has angular velocity Z in the inertial to continue in linear motion due to their
frame (at rest). If the motion of the stone is inertia of direction. While observing this
observed from a frame which is also rotating motion from an inertial frame, it appears as
along with the stone with same angular a straight line as shown in Figure 3.46. But,
velocity Z then, the stone appears to be when it is observed from the rotating frame
at rest. This implies that in addition to the it appears to move outwards.
(a)
N
Centripetal force
(-mω 2 r)
(-mω 2 r) m
m
r
Observer in inertial frame

mg
N
(b)
(-mω 2 r) m (+mω2 r)
r Centripetal force
m
(-mω 2 r) Centrifugal force
(+mω2 r)
Observer in non-inertial frame mg
Figure 3.45 Free body diagram of a particle including the centrifugal force
Inertial frame (with respect observer

out side the car)
Free body N
diagram
mg
Non Inertial frame (with respect to car)

N
Free body
diagram
“Centrifugal force”
mg
Figure 3.46 Effects of centrifugal force
A person standing on a rotating platform

Caution!
feels an outward centrifugal force and is
likely to be pushed away from the platform. It is dangerous to stand near the open
Many a time the frictional force between door (or) steps while travelling in the
the platform and the person is not sufficient bus. When the bus takes a sudden turn
to overcome outward push. To avoid this, in a curved road, due to centrifugal
usually the outer edge of the platform force the person is pushed away from
is little inclined upwards which exerts a the bus. Even though centrifugal force is
normal force on the person which prevents a pseudo force, its effects are real.
the person from falling as illustrated in
Figures 3.47.

Free body diagram
with respect to
rotating platform
N
N
mω2R
R Centrifugal force
(+mω2 R)
mg
Net outward push
Rotating flat platform (outward push experienced)
mg Ftot = mg + mω2 R
Free body diagram

with respect to
rotating edge lifted
plateform
N
N
Centrifugal force
(+mω2 R) mω2R
2
Fnet = mg + mω R = N
Rotating edge lifted platform (no outward push experienced)
mg mg
Figure 3.47 Outward centrifugal force in rotating platform
3.7.6 Centrifugal Force due Here R = radius of the Earth

to Rotation of the and θ = latitude of the Earth where the
Earth man is standing.
Even though Earth is treated as an
inertial frame, it is actually not so. Earth
spins about its own axis with an angular
velocity Z. Any object on the surface of
Earth (rotational frame) experiences a
centrifugal force. The centrifugal force
appears to act exactly in opposite direction
from the axis of rotation. It is shown in the
Figure 3.48.
The centrifugal force on a man standing
on the surface of the Earth is Fc = mω 2r
where r is perpendicular distance of the
man from the axis of rotation. By using right Figure 3. 48 Centrifugal force
angle triangle as shown in the Figure 3.48, acting on a man on the surface of
the distance r = R cos θ Earth

EXA MPL E 3 .2 6 Latitude of Chennai = 13°
Calculate the centrifugal force experienced

) × 6400 ×10
2
Fcf = 60 × ( 7.268 × 10
−5 3
by a man of 60 kg standing at Chennai?
(Given: Latitude of Chennai is 13° × cos (13° ) = 1.9678 N
Solution
The centrifugal force is given by A 60 kg man experiences centrifugal force
Fc = mω 2 R cos θ of approximately 2 Newton. But due to
2 Earth’s gravity a man of 60 kg experiences a
The angular velocity (Z ) of Earth = , force = mg = 60 × 9.8 = 588N. This force is
T
where T is time period of the Earth (24 hours) very much larger than the centrifugal force.
2π 2π
ω= =
24 × 60 × 60 86400 3.7.7 Centripetal Force Versus
= 7.268 × 10 −5 radsec −1 Centrifugal Force
The radius of the Earth R = 6400 Salient features of centripetal and centrifugal
Km = 6400 × 103 m forces are compared in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Salient Features of Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces

Centripetal force Centrifugal force
It is a real force which is exerted on It is a pseudo force or fictitious force which
the body by the external agencies cannot arise from gravitational force, tension
like gravitational force, tension in the force, normal force etc.
string, normal force etc.
Acts in both inertial and non-inertial Acts only in rotating frames (non-inertial frame)
frames
It acts towards the axis of rotation It acts outwards from the axis of rotation or radially
or center of the circle in circular motion outwards from the center of the circular motion
mv 2 mv 2
Fcp = mω r =
2
Fcf = mω 2r =
r r
Real force and has real effects Pseudo force but has real effects
Origin of centripetal force is interaction Origin of centrifugal force is inertia. It does not
between two objects. arise from interaction.
In an inertial frame the object’s inertial motion
appears as centrifugal force in the rotating frame.
In inertial frames centripetal force In inertial frames there is no centrifugal force.
has to be included when free body In rotating frames, both centripetal and
diagrams are drawn. centrifugal force have to be included when free
body diagrams are drawn.
SUMMARY
Aristotle’s idea of motion: To maintain motion, a force is required

Galileo’s idea of motion: To maintain motion, a force is not required
Mass is a measure of inertia of the body
Newton’s first law states that under no external force, the object continues its state
of motion
Newton’s second law states that to change the momentum of the body, external force
is required
G dpG
Mathematically it is defined as F
dt
Both Newton’s first and second laws are valid only in inertial frames
Inertial frame is the one in which if there is no force on the object, the object moves
at constant velocity.
Newton’s third law states that for every force there is an equivalent and opposite
force and such a pair of forces is called action and reaction pair.
To draw a free body diagram for an object,
Isolate the object from other objects and identify the forces acting on it
The force exerted by that object should not be taken into account
Draw the direction of each force with relative magnitude
Apply Newton’s second law in each direction
If no net external force acts on a collection of particles (system), then the total
momentum of the collection of particles (system) is a constant vector.
Internal forces acting in the system cannot change the total momentum of the system.
Lami’s theorem states that if an object is in equilibrium under the concurrent forces,
then the ratio of each force with the sine of corresponding opposite angle is same.
An impulse acting on a body is equal to the change in momentum of the body.
Whenever a force acts on the object for a very short time, it is difficult to calculate
the force. But impulse can be calculated.
Static friction is the force which always opposes the movement of the object from
rest. It can take values from zero to msN. If an external force is greater than msN then
object begins to move.
If the object begins to move, kinetic friction comes into effect. To move an object
with constant velocity, the external force must be applied to overcome the kinetic
friction. The kinetic friction is mkN.
Rolling friction is much smaller than static and kinetic friction. This is the reason
that to move an object roller coaster is fixed in the bottom of the object. Example:
Rolling suitcase

S U M M A R Y (cont)
The origin of friction is electromagnetic interaction between the atoms of two

surfaces which are touching each other.
Whenever there is a motion along a curve, there must be a centripetal force that acts
towards the center of the curve. In uniform circular motion the centripetal force
acts at the center of the circle.
The centripetal force is not a separate natural force. Any natural force can behave
as centripetal force. In planetary motion, Sun’s gravitational force acts as centripetal
force. In the whirling motion of a stone attached to a string, the centripetal force is
given by the string. When Moon orbits the Earth, it experiences Earth’s gravitational
force as centripetal force.
Centrifugal force arises whenever the motion is analysed from rotating frame. It is
a pseudo force. The inertial motion of the object appears as centrifugal force in the
rotating frame.
The magnitude of centrifugal and centripetal force is mZ 2r . But centripetal force
acts towards center of the circular motion and centrifugal force appears to acts in
the opposite direction to centripetal force.

CONCEPT MAP
Motion
Aristotle Galileo Newton

Force Motion Force Motion Force = Change of motion
Second Law
Law of inertia dp Third Law
V = constant F= Equal & Opposite forces
dt
Conservation of
Momentum
Frictional force Free body diagram Circular Motion
Static friction Kinetic friction Centripetal force Centrifugal force

EXERCISE
I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. When a car takes a sudden left turn in
the curved road, passengers are pushed
towards the right due to
(a) inertia of direction (b) Gravitational force exerted by the
(b) inertia of motion book on Earth
(c) inertia of rest (c) Normal force exerted by the book
(d) absence of inertia on the table
2. An object of mass m held against a (d) None of the above
vertical wall by applying horizontal
force F as shown in the figure. The 5. Two masses m1 and m2 are experiencing
minimum value of the force F is the same force where m1 < m2 . The ratio
a
(IIT JEE 1994) of their acceleration 1 is
a2
(a) Less than mg Wall (a) 1
(b) Equal to mg
(b) less than 1
(c) Greater than mg m
F (c) greater than 1
(d) Cannot determine
(d) all the three cases
3. A vehicle is moving along the positive
x direction, if sudden brake is applied, 6. Choose appropriate free body diagram
then for the particle experiencing net
(a) frictional force acting on the acceleration along negative y direction.
vehicle is along negative x (Each arrow mark represents the force
direction acting on the system).
(b) frictional force acting on the
vehicle is along positive x direction
a) b)
(c) no frictional force acts on the
vehicle
(d) frictional force acts in downward
direction
4. A book is at rest on the table which c) d)
exerts a normal force on the book. If
this force is considered as reaction
force, what is the action force according
to Newton’s third law? 7. A particle of mass m sliding on the
(a) Gravitational force exerted by smooth double inclined plane (shown
Earth on the book in figure) will experience

10. An object of mass m begins to move
on the plane inclined at an angle T .
The coefficient of static friction of
inclined surface is ms. The maximum
static friction experienced by the
mass is
(a) mg
(a) greater acceleration along the (b) msmg
path AB (c) msmg sinT
(b) greater acceleration along the (d) ms mg cos T
path AC 11. When the object is moving at constant
(c) same acceleration in both the paths velocity on the rough surface,
(d) no acceleration in both the paths. (a) net force on the object is zero
8. Two blocks of masses m and 2m are (b) no force acts on the object
placed on a smooth horizontal surface (c) only external force acts on the
as shown. In the first case only a force object
F1 is applied from the left. Later only a
(d) only kinetic friction acts on the
force F2 is applied from the right. If the
object
force acting at the interface of the two
blocks in the two cases is same, then 12. When an object is at rest on the inclined
F1 : F2 is rough surface,
(Physics Olympiad 2016) (a) static and kinetic frictions acting

on the object is zero
(b) static friction is zero but kinetic
friction is not zero
(c) static friction is not zero and
kinetic friction is zero
(d) static and kinetic frictions are not
(a) 1:1 (b) 1:2
zero
(c) 2:1 (d) 1:3
13. The centrifugal force appears to
9. Force acting on the particle moving exist
with constant speed is
(a) only in inertial frames
(a) always zero
(b) only in rotating frames
(b) need not be zero
(c) in any accelerated frame
(c) always non zero
(d) both in inertial and non-inertial
(d) cannot be concluded frames

14. Choose the correct statement from the 15. If a person moving from pole to
following equator, the centrifugal force acting on
(a) Centrifugal and centripetal forces him
are action reaction pairs (a) increases
(b) Centripetal forces is a natural force (b) decreases
(c) Centrifugal force arises from (c) remains the same
gravitational force (d) increases and then decreases
(d) Centripetal force acts towards
the center and centrifugal force Answers
appears to act away from the center 1) a 2) c 3) a 4) c 5) c
in a circular motion 6) c 7) b 8) c 9) b 10) d
11) a 12) c 13) b 14) d 15) a

1. Explain the concept of inertia. Write 6. Explain various types of friction.
two examples each for inertia of Suggest a few methods to reduce
motion, inertia of rest and inertia of friction.
direction. 7. What is the meaning by ‘pseudo force’?
2. State Newton’s second law. 8. State the empirical laws of static and
3. Define one newton. kinetic friction.
4. Show that impulse is the change of 9. State Newton’s third law.
momentum. 10. What are inertial frames?
5. Using free body diagram, show that it 11. Under what condition will a car skid
is easy to pull an object than to push it. on a leveled circular road?

1. Prove the law of conservation of linear 5. State Newton’s three laws and discuss
momentum. Use it to find the recoil their significance.
velocity of a gun when a bullet is fired 6. Explain the similarities and differences
from it. of centripetal and centrifugal forces.
2. What are concurrent forces? State 7. Briefly explain ‘centrifugal force’ with
Lami’s theorem. suitable examples.
3. Explain the motion of blocks connected 8. Briefly explain ‘rolling friction’.
by a string in i) Vertical motion ii) 9. Describe the method of measuring
Horizontal motion. angle of repose.
4. Briefly explain the origin of friction. 10. Explain the need for banking of tracks.
Show that in an inclined plane, angle
11. Calculate the centripetal acceleration
of friction is equal to angle of repose.
of Moon towards the Earth.
IV. Conceptual Questions
1. Why it is not possible to push a car 6. When a person walks on a surface,
from inside? the frictional force exerted by the
2. There is a limit beyond which the surface on the person is opposite to the
polishing of a surface increases direction of motion. True or false?
frictional resistance rather than 7. Can the coefficient of friction be more
decreasing it why? than one?
3. Can a single isolated force exist in 8. Can we predict the direction of motion of
nature? Explain your answer. a body from the direction of force on it?
4. Why does a parachute descend slowly? 9. The momentum of a system of particles
5. When walking on ice one should take is always conserved. True or false?
short steps. Why?
V. Numerical Problems
1. A force of 50N act on the object of mass 3. What is the reading shown in spring
20 kg. shown in the figure. Calculate balance?
the acceleration of the object in x and y
Spring balance
directions.
y
50 N 4 kg 4 kg
30°
m
Ans: ax=2.165 ms2; ay=1.25 ms2 30°
2. A spider of mass 50 g is hanging on m = 2kg
a string of a cob web as shown in the Ans: Zero, 9.8 N

figure. What is the tension in the string? 4. The physics books are stacked on each
Ans: T=0.49N other in the sequence: +1 volumes 1
and 2; +2 volumes 1 and 2 on a table.
a) Identify the forces acting on each
book and draw the free body diagram.
b) Identify the forces exerted by each
book on the other.
5. A bob attached to the string oscillates
back and forth. Resolve the forces
acting on the bob in to components.
What is the acceleration experience by
the bob at an angle T .

Ans: Tangential acceleration = g sinθ ; 8. Apply Lami’s theorem on sling shot and
(T−mg cosθ) calculate the tension in each string ?
centripetal acceleration = .
m
6. Two masses m1 and m2 are connected
with a string passing over a
T
frictionless pulley fixed at the corner 30°
T
of the table as shown in the figure.
The coefficient of static friction F = 50N
of mass m1 with the table is μs.

Calculate the minimum mass m3
that may be placed on m1to prevent
it from sliding. Check if m1=15 kg, Ans: T= 28.868N.
m2=10 kg, m3=25 and μs =0.2 9. A football player kicks a 0.8 kg ball
and imparts it a velocity 12 ms 1. The
m3 contact between the foot and ball is
m1 only for one- sixtieth of a second. Find
the average kicking force.
m2 Ans: 576N.
10. A stone of mass 2 kg is attached to a
string of length 1 meter. The string can
withstand maximum tension 200 N.
m2 What is the maximum speed that stone
Ans: m3 = − m1 , the combined masses
μs can have during the whirling motion?
m1+m3 will slide.
Ans: vmax=10ms1
7. Calculate the acceleration of the bicycle
of mass 25 kg as shown in Figures 1 and 2. 11. Imagine that the gravitational force
between Earth and Moon is provided
by an invisible string that exists
between the Moon and Earth. What is
500 N
the tension that exists in this invisible
string due to Earth’s centripetal force?
(Mass of the Moon = 7.34 × 1022 kg,
400 N Distance between Moon and Earth =
3.84 × 108 m)
400 N Moon
Invisible
string
400 N Earth
Ans: a=4 ms2, zero

Ans: T 2 1020 N. ‘action’ in Newton third law? Give your
arguments based on Newton’s laws.
12. Two bodies of masses 15 kg and 10 kg
are connected with light string kept on Ans: Newton’s third law is applicable
a smooth surface. A horizontal force to only human’s actions which involves
F=500 N is applied to a 15 kg as shown physical force. Third law is not
in the figure. Calculate the tension applicable to human’s psychological
acting in the string actions or thoughts
14. A car takes a turn with velocity
50 ms-1 on the circular road of radius
of curvature 10 m. calculate the
centrifugal force experienced by a
person of mass 60kg inside the car?
Ans: 15,000 N
Ans: T 200N .
15. A long stick rests on the surface. A
13. People often say “For every action there
person standing 10 m away from the
is an equivalent opposite reaction”.
stick. With what minimum speed an
Here they meant ‘action of a human’. Is
object of mass 0.5 kg should he thrown
it correct to apply Newton’s third law
so that it hits the stick. (Assume the
to human actions? What is mean by
coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.7).
Ans: 11.71 ms1
BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
1. Charles Kittel, Walter Knight, Malvin Ruderman, Carl Helmholtz and Moyer, Mechanics,
2nd edition, Mc Graw Hill Pvt Ltd,
3. SomnathDatta, Mechanics, Pearson Publication
5. Serway and Jewett, Physics for scientist and Engineers with modern physics, Brook/Coole
publishers, Eighth edition
6. Halliday, Resnick & Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, Wiley Publishers, 10th edition

ICT CORNER
Force and motion
Through this activity you will

understand the Force and motion
STEPS:
• Open the browser and type the given URL to open the PhET simulation on
force and motion. Click OK to open the java applet.
• Select the values of the applied force to observe the change.
• Observe the change of the ramp angle by changing the position of the object.
• You can also observe the variations in force and ramp angle by changing
the weights.
Step1 Step2
Step3 Step4
PhET simulation’s URL:

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/ramp-forces-and-motion
* If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

UNIT
4 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
“Matter is Energy. Energy is Light. We are all Light Beings.” – Albert Einstein
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In this unit, student is exposed to

• definition of work
• work done by a constant and a variable force
• various types of energy
• law of conservation of energy
• vertical circular motion
• definition of power
• various types of collisions
4.1 quantity in this sequence of discussion is

the rate of work done or the rate of energy
INTRODUCTION
delivered. The rate of work done is called
The term work is used in diverse contexts in power. A powerful strike in cricket refers to
daily life. It refers to both physical as well as a hit on the ball at a fast rate. This chapter
mental work. In fact, any activity can generally aims at developing a good understanding
be called as work. But in Physics, the term work of these three physical quantities namely
is treated as a physical quantity with a precise work, energy and power and their physical
definition. Work is said to be done by the force significance.
when the force applied on a body displaces
it. To do work, energy is required. In simple
words, energy is defined as the ability to do
4.1.1
work. Hence, work and energy are equivalents WORK
and have same dimension. Energy, in Physics G
Let us consider a force (F), acting on a body
exists in different forms such as mechanical, which movesG it by a displacement in some
electrical, thermal, nuclear and so on. Many direction (d r ) as shown in Figure 4.1
machines consume one form of energy and
deliver energy in a different form. In this The expression for work done (w) by the
chapter we deal mainly with mechanical force on the body is mathematically written as,
energy and its two types namely kinetic G G
W = F ⋅ dr (4.1
)
energy and potential energy. The next
167
The work done by the force depends
on the force (F), displacement (dr) and the
angle (θ) between them.
F
θ
F cosθ
dr F
Figure 4.1 Work done by a force

3
F cos3 dr
G G w = (F cos3)dr
Here, the product F dr is a scalar product
(or dot product). The scalar product of two Figure 4.2 Calculating work done.
vectors is a scalar (refer section 2.5.1). Thus,
work done is a scalar quantity. It has only
Work done is zero in the following cases.
magnitude and no direction. In SI system,
unit of work done is N m (or) joule (J). Its (i) When the force is zero (F = 0).
dimensional formula is [ML2T-2]. For example, a body moving on a
The equation (4.1) is, horizontal smooth frictionless surface
will continue to do so as no force (not
even friction) is acting along the plane.
W F dr cos (4
.2 )
(This is an ideal situation.)
(ii) When the displacement is zero (dr = 0).
which Gcan be realised using Figure 4.2 For example, when force is applied on
G
(as a " b ab cos 3) where, T is the angle a rigid wall it does not produce any
between applied force and the displacement displacement. Hence, the work done is
of the body. zero as shown in Figure. 4.3(a).
dr
Centripetal
force
(a) Displacement
Figure 4.3 Different cases of zero work done
168 Unit 4 Work, E nergy and Power

(iii) When the force and displacement are
perpendicular (θ = 90o) to each other.
when a body moves on a horizontal
direction, the gravitational force (mg)
does no work on the body, since it acts at
dr F
right angles to the displacement as shown
in Figure 4.3(b). In circular motion the
centripetal force does not do work on the
object moving on a circle as it is always
perpendicular to the displacement as
shown in Figure 4.3(c).
Figure 4.4 Negative work done
For a given force (F) and displacement (dr),
the angle (θ) between them decides the value
of work done as consolidated in Table 4.1. EX AM P L E 4 . 1
There are many examples for the negative A box is pulled with a force of 25 N to
work done by a force. In a football game, the produce a displacement of 15 m. If the
goalkeeper catches the ball coming towards angle between the force and displacement
him by applying a force such that the force is is 30o, find the work done by the force.
applied in a direction opposite to that of the
motion of the ball till it comes to rest in his
hands. During the time of applying the force,
he does a negative work on the ball as shown
in Figure 4.4. We will discuss many more 30o
situations of negative work further in this unit.
Solution
Force, F = 25 N
Displacement, dr = 15 m
Angle between F and dr, θ = 30o
Table 4.1 Angl e( θ)a dtn eh an tu

r eof w ork
Angle (θ) cosθ Work
θ =0 o 1 Positive, Maximum
0< θ<90 o
(acu
t e) <
0 c osθ<1 Positive
θ =90 o
(rig
ht a gln e) 0 Zero
90 o<θ<801 o
-1< c osθ<0 Negative
θ =180 o -1 Negative, Maximum
Unit 4 Work, E nergy and Power 169

Work done, W F dr cos θ EX AM P L E 4 . 2
An object of mass 2 kg falls from a height of
3 5 m to the ground. What is the work done
W 25 15 cos30 25 15
2 by the gravitational force on the object?
W = 324.76 J (Neglect air resistance; Take g = 10 m s-2)
4.1.2 Work done by a

dr
constant force F = mg
5m
When a constant force F acts on a body,
the small work done (dW) by the force in
producing a small displacement dr is given
by the relation,
dW = (F cosθ) dr (4.3)
Solution
The total work done in producing a In this case the force acting on the object is
displacement from initial position ri to final G
downward gravitational force mg . This is a
position rf is, constant force.
rf Work done by gravitational force is
W C dW (4.4)
ri rf
G G
rf rf W = CF " dr
W = ∫ (F cosθ) dr = (F cosθ) ∫dr = ri
ri ri
rf
(F cosθ) (rf − ri ) (4.5) W = (F cosθ) ∫dr =( mg cosθ) (rf ri ).

ri
The graphical representation of the

work done by a constant force is shown in The object also moves downward which
Figure 4.5. The area under the graph shows isG in the direction of gravitational force
G
the work done by the constant force. ( F = mg ) as shown in figure. Hence, the
angle between them is θ = 0°; cos 0 1 and
the displacement, rf ri 5 m
F cos3
W = mg rf ri
W =2 × 10 × 5 =10J
ri rf r
The work done by the gravitational force
Figure 4.5 Work done by the constant force on the object is positive.

EXA MPLE 4 .3 W =F dr =( mg sinθ)( dr)
An object of mass m =1 kg is sliding from ( dr = length of the inclined place)
top to bottom in the frictionless inclined 1
plane of inclination angle 3 30 and the W = 1 u 10 u sin (30°) u 10 = 100 50 J
2
length of inclined plane is 10 m as shown
in the figure. Calculate the work done by
The component mg cosθ and the normal
gravitational force and normal force on
force N are perpendicular to the direction
the object. Assume acceleration due to
of motion of the object, so they do not
gravity, g = 10 m s-2
perform any work.
N
10 m EX AM P L E 4 . 4
m
mg sin θ
If an object of mass 2 kg is thrown up
mg cos θ from the ground reaches a height of 5 m
θ
and falls back to the Earth (neglect the air
resistance). Calculate
mg
θ
(a) The work done by gravity when the
object reaches 5 m height
Solution (b) The work done by gravity when the
We calculated in the previous chapter that object comes back to Earth
the acceleration experienced by the object (c) Total work done by gravity both in
in the inclined plane as g sinθ . upward and downward motion and
mention the physical significance of
According to Newton’s second law, the the result.
force acting on the mass along the inclined
plane F = mg sinθ. Note that this force is Solution
constant throughout the motion of the When the object goes up, the displacement
mass. points in the upward direction whereas
The work done by the parallel the gravitational force acting on the object
component of gravitational force (mg sinθ ) points in downward direction. Therefore,
is given by the angle between gravitational force and
displacement of the object is 180°.
G G
W = F .dr Fdr cosࢥ (a) The work done by gravitational force
in the upward motion.
where ࢥ LV WKH DQJOH EHWZHHQ WKH IRUFH Given that 'r 5 m and F mg
(mg sin θ) an d th e id rection of motion
(dr). In this case, force (mg sin θ) and the Wup F 'r cos3 mg 'r cos180
G
displacement (dr ) are in the same direction. Wup 2 10 5 1 100 joule.
Hence ࢥ 0 and cos ࢥ= 1 [cos 180° = −1]

(b) When the object falls back, both the (b) When the weight lifter lifts the mass,
gravitational force and displacement the gravity acts downwards which
of the object are in the same direction. means that the force and displacement
This implies that the angle between are in opposite direction. Therefore,
gravitational force and displacement the angle between them 3 1800
of the object is 0°.
Wdown F'r cos 0
Wgravity Fg h cos 3 mgh cos 1800
Wdown 2 10 5 1 100 joule
250 10 5 1
[cos 0° = 1]
12, 500 joule = -12.5 k J
(c) The total work done by gravity in the entire
trip (upward and downward motion) (c) The net workdone (or total work done)
Wtotal Wup Wdown on the object
100 joule 100 joule 0
Wnet Wweight lifter Wgravity
It implies that the gravity does not transfer = 25 k J – 12.5 k J = + 12.5 k J
any energy to the object. When the object is
thrown upwards, the energy is transferred to
the object by the external agency, which means
that the object gains some energy. As soon as
4.1.3 Work done by a
it comes back and hits the Earth, the energy
variable force
gained by the object is transferred to the surface
of the Earth (i.e., dissipated to the Earth). When the component of a variable force F
acts on a body, the small work done (dW) by
EXA MPLE 4 .5 the force in producing a small displacement
dr is given by the relation
A weight lifter lifts a mass of 250 kg with a
force 5000 N to the height of 5 m. dW F cos3 dr
(a) What is the workdone by the weight [F cos θ is the component
lifter? of the variable force F]
(b) What is the workdone by the gravity?
(c) What is the net workdone on the object? where, F and θ are variables. The total work
done for a displacement from initial position
Solution
ri to final position rf is given by the relation,
(a) When the weight lifter lifts the mass,
force and displacement are in the same rf rf
direction, which means that the angle W C dW CF cos3 dr (4.6

)
between them 3 00. Therefore, the ri ri
work done by the weight lifter,

A graphical representation of the

Wweight lifter Fw h cos 3 Fw h cos 0 0
work done by a variable force is shown in
Figure 4.6. The area under the graph is the
5000 5 1 25, 000 joule = 25 kJ
work done by the variable force.
The important aspect of energy is that
for an isolated system, the sum of all forms
F cosθ
of energy i.e., the total energy remains the

same in any process irrespective of whatever
internal changes may take place. This means
that the energy disappearing in one form
ri rf S
reappears in another form. This is known
as the law of conservation of energy. In this
chapter we shall take up only the mechanical
energy for discussion.
F cosθ
In a broader sense, mechanical energy is

classified into two types
1. Kinetic energy
ri rf S
2. Potential energy
Figure 4.6 Work done by a variable force
The energy possessed by a body due
to its motion is called kinetic energy. The
EXA MPLE 4 .6 energy possessed by the body by virtue of
its position is called potential energy.
A variable force F = k x 2 acts on a particle
which is initially at rest. Calculate the work The SI unit of energy is the same as
done by the force during the displacement that of work done i.e., N m (or) joule
of the particle from x 0 m to x 4 m. (J). The dimension of energy is also the
(Assume the constant k 1 N m-2) same as that of work done. It is given
by [ML 2T-2]. The other units of energy
Solution and their SI equivalent values are given
Work done, in Table 4.2.
xf 4
64 Table 4.2 SI equivalent of other
W = ∫ F ( x ) dx = k ∫ x dx =
2
Nm units of energy
xi 0
3
Unit Equivalent in
joule
4.2
ENERGY 1 erg (CGS unit) 107 J
Energy is defined as the capacity to do

1 electron volt (eV) 1.6x1019 J
work. In other words, work done is the
manifestation of energy. That is why work 1 calorie (cal) 4.186 J
and energy have the same dimension
(ML2T−2) 1 kilowatt hour (kWh) 3.6x106 J
Work Energy

The third equation of motion (refer
4.2.1 Kinetic energy
section 2.10.3) can be written as,
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by
a body by virtue of its motion. All moving v 2 u 2 2as
objects have kinetic energy. A body that is
v 2 u2
in motion has the ability to do work. For a
2s
example a hammer kept at rest on a nail does
not push the nail into the wood. Whereas
Substituting for a in equation (4.8),
the same hammer when it strikes the nail,
draws the nail into the wood as shown in 4 v 2 u2 5
F m6 7 (4.9)
Figure 4.7. Kinetic energy is measured by the 8 2s 9
amount of work that the body can perform
before it comes to rest. The amount of work Substituting equation (4.9) in (4.7),
done by a moving body depends both on the
mass of the body and the magnitude of its ⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎛ u2 ⎞
W = m ⎜ s⎟ − m ⎜ s⎟
velocity. A body which is not in motion does ⎝ 2s ⎠ ⎝ 2s ⎠
not have kinetic energy. 1 1 (4.10)
W = mv 2 − mu 2
2 2
4.2.2 Work–Kinetic Energy The expression for kinetic energy:
Theorem 41 5
The term 6 mv 2 7 in the above equation is
Work and energy are equivalents. This is 82 9
true in the case of kinetic energy also. To the kinetic energy of the body of mass (m)
prove this, let us consider a body of mass m moving with velocity (v).
at rest on a frictionless horizontal surface.
1
The work (W) done by the constant KE mv 2 (4.11)
2
force (F) for a displacement (s) in the same
direction is,
Kinetic energy of the body is always positive.
From equations (4.10) and (4.11)
W Fs (4.7)
The constant force is given by the equation, 1 1

'KE mv 2 mu 2 (4.12)
2 2
F ma (4.8) Thus, W = ΔKE
Figure 4.7 Demonstration of kinetic energy

G G
1 (mv ) . (mv ) G
The expression on the right hand side
G
(RHS) of equation (4.12) is the change in = [p = mv ]
2 m
kinetic energy (ΔKE) of the body.
GG
This implies that the work done by the 1 p.p
=
force on the body changes the kinetic energy 2 m
of the body. This is called work-kinetic energy
theorem. p2
=
The work-kinetic energy theorem 2m
implies the following. p2
KE= (4
.14)
2m
1. If the work done by the force on the
body is positive then its kinetic energy G
increases. where p is the magnitude of the momentum.
The magnitude of the linear momentum can
2. If the work done by the force on the
be obtained by
body is negative then its kinetic energy
decreases. G
p = p = 2m (KE) (4.15)
3. If there is no work done by the force
on the body then there is no change in
its kinetic energy, which means that Note that if kinetic energy and mass are
the body has moved at constant speed given, only the magnitude of the momentum
provided its mass remains constant. can be calculated but not the direction of
momentum. It is because the kinetic energy
and mass are scalars.
4.2.3 Relation between
Momentum and
EX AM P L E 4 . 7
Kinetic Energy
Two objects of masses 2 kg and 4 kg are
Consider an object of mass m moving with moving with the same momentum of
G
a velocity v . Then its linear momentum is 20 kg m s-1.
G G 1
p = m v and its kinetic energy, KE mv 2 . (a) Will they have same kinetic energy?
2
(b) Will they have same speed?
1 1 GG Solution
KE = mv 2 = m ( v .v ) ( 4
.13)
2 2 (a) The kinetic energy of the mass is given
p2
Multiplying both the numerator and by KE =
2m
denominator of equation (4.13) by mass, m
For the object of mass 2 kg, kinetic
2 G G
1 m ( v .v ) ( 20)
2
400
KE = energy is KE1 = = = 100 J
2 m 2×2 4

For the object of mass 4 kg, kinetic (ii) The energy due to spring force and
other similar forces give rise to elastic
20
2
400 potential energy.
energy is KE2 50 J
2 4 8 (iii) The energy due to electrostatic force
Note that KE1 ≠ KE2 i.e., even though on charges gives rise to electrostatic
both are having the same momentum, the potential energy.
kinetic energy of both masses is not the
We will learn more about conservative
same. The kinetic energy of the heavier
forces in the section 4.2.7. Now, we continue
object has lesser kinetic energy than smaller
to discuss more about gravitational potential
mass. It is because the kinetic energy is
1 energy and elastic potential energy.
inversely proportional to the mass (KE v )
m
for a given momentum.
(b) As the momentum, p = mv, the two 4.2.5 Potential energy near
objects will not have same speed. the surface of the
Earth
4.2.4 Potential Energy The gravitational potential energy (U) at
The potential energy of a body is associated some height h is equal to the amount of work
with its position and configuration with required to take the object from ground to
respect to its surroundings. This is because that height h with constant velocity.
the various forces acting on the body also Let us consider a body of mass m being
depends on position and configuration. moved from ground to the height h against
“Potential energy of an object at a point P the gravitational force as shown in Figure 4.8.
is defined as the amount of work done by an
external force in moving the object at constant
velocity from the point O (initial location) to
the point P (final location). At initial point O
potential energy can be taken as zero.
Mathematically, potential
G Genergy is
defined as U CFa .dr (4.16)
h
where the limit of integration ranges from
initial location point O to final location
point P.
We have various types of potential Figure 4.8 Gravitational potential energy
energies. Each type is associated with a
particular force. For example, G
The gravitational
force Fg acting on
(i) The energy possessed by the body ˆ
the body is, Fg = − mg j (as the force is in
due to gravitational force gives rise to y direction, unit vector ĵ is used). Here,
gravitational potential energy. negative sign implies that the force is acting
vertically downwards. In order to move
the body without acceleration (or with • How can an object move with
constant velocity), an external applied force Note zero acceleration (constant
G
Fa equal in magnitude Gbut opposite to that velocity) when the external
of gravitational force FGg has to be applied force is acting on the object?
G
the body i.e., Fa Fg . This implies that
on It is possible when there is another
Fa = + mg ˆj. The positive sign implies that force which acts exactly opposite
the applied force is in vertically upward to the external applied force. They
direction. Hence, when the body is lifted up both cancel each other and the
its velocity remains unchanged and thus its resulting net force becomes zero,
kinetic energy also remains constant. hence the object moves with zero
acceleration.
The gravitational potential energy (U) • Why should the object be moved at
at some height h is equal to the amount of constant velocity when we define
work required to take the object from the potential energy?
ground to that height h. If the object does not move at
constant velocity, then it will have
G G h G G different velocities at the initial and
U CFa .dr C Fa dr cos θ (4.17) final locations. According to work-
0
kinetic energy theorem, the external
force will impart some extra kinetic
Since the displacement and the applied force energy. But we associate potential
are in the same upward direction, the angle energy to the forces like gravitational
between
G them, 3 0. Hence, cos 00 1 and force, spring force and coulomb
G
Fa mg and dr dr . force. So the external agency should
not impart any kinetic energy when
the object is taken from initial to
h
final location.
U mg C dr (4.18)
0
U mg Kr L0 mgh EX AM P L E 4 . 8
h
(4.19)
An object of mass 2 kg is taken to a height
Note that the potential energy stored in
5 m from the ground g 10m s -2 .
the object is defined through work done (a) Calculate the potential energy stored
by the external force which is positive. in the object.
Physically this implies that the agency (b) Where does this potential energy come
which is applying the external force is from?
transferring the energy to the object which (c) What external force must act to bring
is then stored as potential energy. If the the mass to that height?
object is allowed to fall from a height h then (d) What is the net force that acts on the
the stored potential energy is converted object while the object is taken to the
into kinetic energy. height ‘h’?
Solution horizontal table as shown in Figure 4.9.
Here, x = 0 is the equilibrium position. One
(a) The potential energy U m g h = end of the spring is attached to a rigid wall
2 u 10 u 5 = 100 J and the other end to the mass.
Here the positive sign implies that the
x=0 Fs
energy is stored on the mass.
(b) This potential energy is transferred
x
from external agency which applies Fa
the force on the mass. x
G
(c) The external applied force Fa which
takes the object to the height 5 m is
G G
Fa Fg x

( )
Fa = − − mg j = mg j
Fs
x
where, j represents unit vector along Fa
vertical upward direction. x
Figure 4.9 Potential energy of the spring

(d) From the definition of potential energy, (elastic potential energy)
the object must be moved at constant
velocity. So the net force acting on the
As long as the spring remains in
object is zero.
equilibrium position, its potential
G energy is
G G zero. Now an external force F a is applied so
Fg Fa 0
that it is stretched by a distance (x) in the
direction of the force.
There
G is a restoring force called spring
4.2.6 Elastic Potential force F s developed in the spring which
Energy tries to bring the mass back to its original
position. This applied force and the spring
When a spring is elongated, it develops a force are equal in
restoring force. The potential energy possessed G magnitude
G but opposite in
direction i.e., Fa Fs . According Hooke’s
by a spring due to a deforming force which law, the restoring force developed in the
stretches or compresses the spring is termed spring is
as elastic potential energy. The work done by
G G
the applied force against the restoring force Fs k x (4.20)
of the spring is stored as the elastic potential
energy in the spring. The negative sign in the above expression
Consider a spring-mass system. Let implies that the spring force is always
G
us assume a mass, m lying on a smooth opposite to that of displacement x and k
is the force
G constant. Therefore applied spring depends on the force constant k and
G
force is Fa = k x . The positive sign implies elongation or compression x.
that the applied force is in the direction
G
of displacement x . The spring force is an
example of variable force as it depends on the The potential energy stored
G Note
displacement x . Let the spring be stretched in the spring does not
G
to a small distance dx . The work done by the depend on the mass that is
applied force on the spring to stretch it by a attached to the spring.
G
displacement x is stored as elastic potential
energy.
Force-displacement graph for
x
G G G G a spring
U = ∫Fa .dr = ∫ Fa dr cos θ
Since the restoring spring force and
0
x
(4.21) displacement are linearly related as F = – k x,
= ∫Fa dx cos θ and are opposite in direction, the graph
0
between F and x is a straight line with
G dwelling only in the second and fourth
The applied force Fa and the displacement quadrant as shown in Figure 4.10. The elastic

dr (i.e., here dx ) are in the same potential energy can be easily calculated
direction. As, the initial position is by drawing a F - x graph. The shaded area
taken as the equilibrium position or (triangle) is the work done by the spring
mean position, x=0 is the lower limit of force.
integration.
x 1 1
U = ∫kxdx (4
.2) Area = (base)(height) (x ) (kx ) .
2 2
0
1
x kx 2
⎡ x2 ⎤ 2
U= k⎢ ⎥ (4.23)
⎣ 2 ⎦0
1
U = kx 2 (4.24)
2
Force (-k x)
If the initial position is not zero, and if the

mass is changed from position xi to xf , then 0
the elastic potential energy is
1
(
U = k x f2 − xi2
2
) (4.25)
Displacement (x)
Figure 4.10 Force–displacement

From equations (4.24) and (4.25), we observe graph for a spring
that the potential energy of the stretched
Potential energy-displacement graph for The work done on the springs are stored as
a spring potential energy in the springs.
A compressed or extended spring will
transfer its stored potential energy into 1 1
UA = kA x A ;
2
UB kB x B 2
kinetic energy of the mass attached to the 2 2
spring. The potential energy-displacement
graph is shown in Figure 4.11. 4F 5
2
1
kA 6 7
Total energy U A kA x A2 k
8 A 92 A
k

U B kB x B 2 4F 5 1
kB 6 7 kB
Kinetic energy 8 kB 9
U A kB

U B kA
Potential energy
kA>kB implies that UB>UA . Thus, more

work is done on B than A.
O
Displacement
EX AM P L E 4 . 1 0
Figure 4.11 Potential energy–
displacement graph for a spring- A body of mass m is attached to the spring
mass system which is elongated to 25 cm by an applied
force from its equilibrium position.
In a frictionless environment, the energy
(a) Calculate the potential energy stored
gets transferred from kinetic to potential
in the spring-mass system?
and potential to kinetic repeatedly such
(b) What is the work done by the spring
that the total energy of the system remains
force in this elongation?
constant. At the mean position,
(c) Suppose the spring is compressed
to the same 25 cm, calculate the
Δ.( ΔU (4.26)
potential energy stored and also the
work done by the spring force during
EXA MPLE 4 .9 compression. (The spring constant,
k = 0.1 N m−1).
Let the two springs A and B be such that
kA>kB. On which spring will more work Solution
has to be done if they are stretched by the
The spring constant, k = 0.1 N m-1
same force?
The displacement, x = 25 cm = 0.25 m
Solution (a) The potential energy stored in the
F = kA xA kB x B spring is given by
F F 1 1
U = kx 2 0.1 0.25 0.0031 J
2
xA ; xB
kA kB 2 2

G work done Ws by the spring force
(b) The
4.2.7 Conservative and non-
F s is given by,
conservative forces
Conservative force
x
G G x
Ws ³Fs dr ³
k xi (dx î) A force is said to be a conservative force
0 0 if the work done by or against the force in
G moving the body depends only on the initial
The spring force Fs acts in the negative
x direction while elongation acts in the and final positions of the body and not on
positive x direction. the nature of the path followed between the
initial and final positions.
x
1 Let us consider an object at point A on
Ws = ∫ ( − kx ) dx = − kx 2
2 the Earth. It can be taken to another point B
0
at a height h above the surface of the Earth
1
Ws = − × 0.1 × (0.25) = −0.0031 J
2
by three paths as shown in Figure 4.12.
2
Whatever may be the path, the work
Note that the potential energy is defined done against the gravitational force is
through the work done by the external the same as long as the initial and final
agency. The positive sign in the potential positions are the same. This is the reason
energy implies that the energy is why gravitational force is a conservative
transferred from the agency to the object. force. Conservative force is equal to the
But the work done by the restoring force negative gradient of the potential energy.
in this case is negative since restoring In one dimensional case,
force is in the opposite direction to the
displacement direction. B
(c) During compression also the potential
energy stored in the object is the same.
1
U = kx 2 0.0031 J .
2
Work done by the restoring spring force h
during compression is given by
A
G G x x
Ws = ³Fs .d r
0
³ k x î . dx î
0 Figure 4.12 Conservative force
In the case of compression, the restoring

spring force acts towards positive x-axis and dU
displacement is along negative x direction. Fx (4.27)
dx
x
1
Ws C kx dx kx 2 0.0031 J Examples for conservative forces are elastic
0
2 spring force, electrostatic force, magnetic
force, gravitational force, etc.
Table 4.3 Comparison of conservative and non-conservative forces
S.No Conservative forces Non-conservative forces
1. Work done is independent of the path Work done depends upon the path
2. Work done in a round trip is zero Work done in a round trip is not zero
3 Total energy remains constant Energy is dissipated as heat energy
4 Work done is completely recoverable Work done is not completely recoverable.
5 Force is the negative gradient of No such relation exists.
potential energy
Non-conservative force y
A force is said to be non-conservative if the
B D
work done by or against the force in moving
a body depends upon the path between
Path 2
the initial and final positions. This means h
(ACDB)
that the value of work done is different in
different paths.
0 A C x
1. Frictional forces are non-conservative
forces as the work done against friction
depends on the length of the path moved
by the body. Solution

2. The force due to air resistance, viscous
force are also non-conservative forces as ( )
Force F = mg −j = −mg j

the work done by or against these forces Displacement vector dr = dx i + dy j
depends upon the velocity of motion.
(As the displacement is in two dimension;
The properties of conservative and non- unit vectors î and ĵ are used)
conservative forces are summarized in the
Table 4.3. (a) Since the motion is only vertical,
horizontal displacement component
EXA MPLE 4 .1 1 dx is zero. Hence, work done by the
force along path 1 (of distance h).
Compute the work done by the gravitational
force for the following cases
B
( )( )
B
y
Wpath 1 = ∫F.dr = ∫ −mgj . dy j
A A
B
h
= − mg ∫dy = − mgh
0
h
Path 1 Total work done for path 2 is
(AB)
B
G G C G G DG G B G G
Wpath 2 = ∫F.dr = ∫F.dr + ∫F.dr + ∫F.dr
0 A x A A C D

But The work done by the external force
Wext F d 20 10 200 J
C
( )( )
C
The work done by the force of kinetic
∫F .dr = ∫ −mg j . dx i = 0
A A friction Wk f k d = ( −18) × 10 = −180 J.
D Here the negative sign implies that the
( )( )
D
∫F .dr = ∫ −mg j . dy j
C C
force of kinetic friction is opposite to the
h
direction of displacement.
= − mg ∫dy = − mgh The total work done on the object
0
Wtotal = Wext + Wk = 200 J − 180 J = 20 J .
B
( )( )
B
∫F .dr = ∫ −mg j . −dx i = 0

D D
Since the friction is a non-conservative
force, out of 200 J given by the external
force, the 180 J is lost and it can not be
Therefore, the total work done by the force recovered.
along the path 2 is
G G
B 4.2.8 Law of conservation of
Wpath 2 CF .dr mgh energy
A
When an object is thrown upwards its
Note that the work done by the conservative kinetic energy goes on decreasing and
force is independent of the path. consequently its potential energy keeps
increasing (neglecting air resistance). When
it reaches the highest point its energy is
EXA MPLE 4 .1 2 completely potential. Similarly, when the
object falls back from a height its kinetic
Consider an object of mass 2 kg moved
energy increases whereas its potential
by an external force 20 N in a surface
energy decreases. When it touches the
having coefficient of kinetic friction 0.9
ground its energy is completely kinetic. At
to a distance 10 m. What is the work
the intermediate points the energy is both
done by the external force and kinetic
kinetic and potential as shown in Figure 4.13.
friction ? Comment on the result. (Assume
When the body reaches the ground the
g = 10 ms 2)
kinetic energy is completely dissipated into
Solution some other form of energy like sound, heat,
light and deformation of the body etc.
m = 2 kg, d = 10 m, Fext = 20 N, μk = 0.9.
When an object is in motion on the In this example the energy transformation
horizontal surface, it experiences two takes place at every point. The sum of kinetic
forces. energy and potential energy i.e., the total
mechanical energy always remains constant,
(a) External force, Fext 20 N implying that the total energy is conserved.
(b) Kinetic friction, This is stated as the law of conservation of
f k = Fk mgg 0.9 2 10 18 N . energy.
(d) What will be the speed of the object
A U = mgh, KE = 0, E = U
when it hits the ground?
(Assume g 10 m s-2)
y
Solution
B U ≠ 0, KE ≠ 0, E = U + KE
h (a) The gravitational force is a conservative
force. So the total energy remains
h−y
constant throughout the motion. At
h 10 m, the total energy E is entirely
potential energy.
C U = 0, KE ≠ 0, E = KE
E = U = mgh = 1 × 10 × 10 = 100 J
Figure 4.13 Conservation of energy
(b) The potential energy of the object at
h 4 m is
The law of conservation of energy
states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. It may be transformed from one U mgh 1 10 4 40J
form to another but the total energy of an
isolated system remains constant. (c) Since the total energy is constant
throughout the motion, the
Figure 4.13 illustrates that, if an object
kinetic energy at h 4 m must be
starts from rest at height h, the total energy
KE = E − U = 100 − 40 = 60J
is purely potential energy (U=mgh) and the
kinetic energy (KE) is zero at h. When the Alternatively, the kinetic energy could
object falls at some distance y, the potential also be found from velocity of the object at
energy and the kinetic energy are not zero 4 m. At the height 4 m, the object has fallen
whereas, the total energy remains same as through a height of 6 m.
measured at height h. When the object is The velocity after falling 6 m is calculated
about to touch the ground, the potential from the equation of motion,
energy is zero and total energy is purely
kinetic.
v 2gh 2 10 6 120 m s-1;
EXA MPLE 4 .1 3 v 2 120

An object of mass 1 kg is falling from the
height h = 10 m. Calculate 1 1
The kinetic energy is KE = mv = × 1
2
2 2
(a) The total energy of an object at h 10 m × 120 = 60 J
(b) Potential energy of the object when it
is at h 4 m (d) When the object is just about to hit the
(c) Kinetic energy of the object when it is ground, the total energy is completely
at h 4 m kinetic and the potential energy, U 0.
1 be equal to the gravitational force,
E = KE = mv 2 = 100 J
2 F1 mg 100 10 1000 N
The distance moved along path (1) is,
2 2
v= KE = × 100 = 200 ≈ 14.12 m s −1 h 10 m
m 1
The work done on the object along
path (1) is
EXA MPLE 4 .1 4
W F h 1000 10 10, 000 J
A body of mass 100 kg is lifted to a height 10
m from the ground in two different ways as Along path (2):
shown in the figure. What is the work done In the case of the ramp, the minimum force
by the gravity in both the cases? Why is it F2 that we apply on the object to take it
easier to take the object through a ramp? up is not equal to mg, it is rather equal to
mg sin T . mg sin3 M mg .
Here, angle θ = 30o
Therefore, F2 = mg sinθ = 100 × 10 ×
sin30o = 100 × 10 × 0.5 500 N
Hence, mg sin3 M mg
h = 10 m The path covered along the ramp is,

h 10
30° l= 20 m
sin 30 0.5
Path (1) straight up The work done on the object along path
(2) is, W = F2 l = 500 × 20 = 10,000 J
Since the gravitational force is a
conservative force, the work done by
gravity on the object is independent of the
path taken.
h = 10 m In both the paths the work done by the
30° gravitational force is 10,000 J
Along path (1): more force needs to be
applied against gravity to
cover lesser distance .
Path (2) along the ramp Along path (2): lesser force needs to be
applied against the gravity
Solution
to cover more distance.
m = 100 kg, h = 10 m
Along path (1): As the force needs to be applied along
The minimum force F1 required to move the ramp is less, it is easier to move the
the object to the height of 10 m should object along the ramp.

EXA MPLE 4 .1 5 EX AM P L E 4 . 1 6
An object of mass m is projected from the An object of mass 2 kg attached to a spring
ground with initial speed v 0 . is moved to a distance x 10 m from its
Find the speed at height h. equilibrium position. The spring constant
k 1 N m-1 and assume that the surface is
Solution frictionless.
Since the gravitational force is conservative; (a) When the mass crosses the equilibrium
the total energy is conserved throughout position, what is the speed of the mass?
the motion. (b) What is the force that acts on the object
when the mass crosses the equilibrium
position and extremum position
Initial Final
x = r 10 m.
Kinetic 1 1
energy mv 20 mv 2
2 2 Solution
Potential 0 mgh
(a) Since the spring force is a conservative
energy
force, the total energy is constant. At
Total 1 1 2 1 x 10 m, the total energy is purely
energy 2 mv 2
0 0 mv 0 mv 2 mgh
2 2 potential.
Final values of potential energy, kinetic

1 2 1
k x = × (1) × (10) = 50 J
2
energy and total energy are measured at E=U=
2 2
the height h.
By law of conservation of energy,
When the mass crosses the equilibrium
the initial and final total energies are the
position x 0 , the potential energy
same.
1
1 1 U = 1 0 0 J
mv 20 mv 2 mgh 2
2 2
v 20 v 2 2gh The entire energy is purely kinetic energy
at this position.
v v 20 2gh
1
E = KE = mv 2 = 50 J
2
Note that in section (2.11.2) similar result
is obtained using kinematic equation
The speed
based on calculus method. However,
calculation through energy conservation
2KE 2 × 50
method is much easier than calculus v= = = 50 m s −1 ≈ 7.07 m s −1
method. m 2

(b) Since the restoring spring force is
F = - kx, when the object crosses the
equilibrium position, it experiences
C B
no force. Note that at equilibrium
position, the object moves very fast. O v
When the object is at x = +10 m θ T
(elongation), the force F = − k x r
r
F = − (1) (10) = − 10 N. Here the D A
negative sign implies that the force θ mgcos θ
is towards equilibrium i.e., towards mgsinθ
negative x-axis and when the object is at mg
x = − 10m (compression), it experiences Figure 4.14 Motion in vertical circle
a forces F = − (1) (− 10) = +10 N. Here
the positive sign implies that the force
points towards positive x-axis. dv
where, a t is tangential retardation
The object comes to momentary rest dt
at x = r10m even though it experiences
a maximum force at both these points. In the radial direction,
4.2.9 Motion in a vertical circle T − mg cosθ = m a r

mv 2 (4.29)
Imagine that a body of mass (m) attached T − mg cosθ =
to one end of a massless and inextensible r
string executes circular motion in a vertical v2
where, a r is the centripetal
plane with the other end of the string fixed. r
The length of the string becomes the radius acceleration.
G
( r ) of the circular path (Figure 4.14).
Let us discuss the motion of the body The circle can be divided into four
by taking the free body diagram (FBD) at sections A, B, C, D for better understanding
G of the motion. The four important facts to
a position where the position vector ( r )
makes an angle θ with the vertically be understood from the two equations are
downward direction and the instantaneous as follows:
velocity is as shown in Figure 4.14. (i) The mass is having tangential
There are two forces acting on the mass. acceleration (g sin θ) for all values of
1. Gravitational force which acts downward θ (except θ = 0o), it is clear that this
2. Tension along the string. vertical cirular motion is not a uniform
Applying Newton’s second law on the mass, circular motion.
In the tangential direction, (ii) From the equations (4.28) and (4.29) it
mg sin 3 m a t is understood that as the magnitude of
velocity is not a constant in the course
4 dv 5 (4.28)
mg sin 3 m 6 7 of motion, the tension in the string is
8 dt 9 also not constant.
2
(iii) The equation (4.29),T = mg cosθ + mv body (vertically downwards) and another
r G
one is the tension T 1 acting vertically
highlights that in sections A and D upwards, i.e. towards the center. From the
4 equation (4.29), we get
of the circle, 6 for M 3 M ; cos3
8 2 2
5 mv 12
is positive 7, the term mg cosθ is always T1 mg (4.30)
9 r
greater than zero. Hence the tension mv 12
T1 mg (4.31)
cannot vanish even when the velocity r
vanishes.
mv 2 V2
(iv) The equation (4.29), T mg cos3 ; 2
r
further highlights that in sections B mg
4 3 T2
and C of the circle, 6 for M 3 M ;
8 2 2
5
cos3 is negative 7 , the second term
9 r
is always greater than zero. Hence T1
velocity cannot vanish, even when the
tension vanishes. 1
These points are to be kept in mind V1
while solving problems related to motion in

mg
vertical circle.
Figure 4.15 Motion in
To start with let us consider only two
vertical circle shown for
positions, say the lowest point 1 and the lowest and highest points
highest point 2 as shown in Figure 4.15 for
further analysis. Let the velocity of the body For the highest point (2)
G At the highest point 2, both the gravitational
at the lowest point 1 be v 1, at the highest G
G G G
point 2 be v 2 and v at any other point. force mg on the body and the tension T 2 act
The direction of velocity is tangential to downwards, i.e. towards the center again.
G
the circular path at all points. Let T1 be the
tension
G in the string at the lowest point andG
T2 be the tension at the highest point and T mv 22 (4.32)
T2 + mg =
be the tension at any other point. Tension r
at each point acts towards the center. mv 22
T2 = − mg (4.3)
The tensions and velocities at these two r
points can be found by applying the law of
conservation of energy.
From equations (4.31) and (4.33), it is
For the lowest point (1) understood that T1 ! T2 . The difference in
When the body is at the lowest point 1, the tension T1 T2 is obtained by subtracting
G
gravitational force m g which acts on the equation (4.33) from equation (4.31).

mv 12 4 mv 22 5 From the law of conservation of energy
T1 T2 mg 6 mg 7
r 8 r 9 given in equation (4.35), we get
mv 12 mv 22 1 1
= mg mg mv 12 2mgr mv 22
r r 2 2
m 2 After rearranging,
T1 T2 NO v 1 v 22 PQ 2mg (4.34)
r 1
2

m v 12 v 22 2mgr
The term NO v 12 v 22 PQ can be found easily
v 12 v 22 4gr (4.36)
by applying law of conservation of energy at
point 1 and also at point 2.
Substituting equation (4.36) in equation
(4.34) we get,
The tension will not do any
Note work on the mass as the tension m
and the direction of motion is T1 − T2 =
r
[ 4gr ] + 2mg
always perpendicular.
The gravitational force is doing work
Therefore, the difference in tension is
on the mass, as it is a conservative
force the total energy of the mass is
conserved throughout the motion. T1 T2 6 mg (4.37)
Total Energy at point 1(E1) is same as the

Minimum speed at the highest point (2)
total energy at a point 2 (E2) The body must have a minimum speed
E1 = E2 (4.35) at point 2 otherwise, the string will slack
before reaching point 2 and the body will
Potential Energy at point 1, U1 0 (by not loop the circle. To find this minimum
taking reference as point 1) speed let us take the tension T2 = 0 in
1
Kinetic Energy at point 1, KE1 = mv 1 equation (4.33).
2
Total Energy at point 1, E1 = U1 + KE1 = mv 22

1 1 0 mg
= 0 + mv 12 = mv 12 r
2 2
Similarly, Potential Energy at point 2, mv 22
mg
U 2 mg (2r) (h is 2r from point 1) r
1 v 22 rg
Kinetic Energy at point 2, KE2 = mv 2
2
2
v2 gr (4.38
)
Total Energy at point 2, E2 = U 2 + KE2 =
1
2 mg r + mv 22
2
The body must have a speed at point 2, Solution
v 2 t gr to stay in the circular path.
Radius of circle r = 0.5 m
The required speed at the highest point
Minimum speed at the lowest point 1
v2 gr 10 0.5 5 ms 1. The speed
To have this minimum speed v 2 gr at lowest point v1 5 gr 5 gr 5
at point 2, the body must have minimum
u 5 = 5 ms 1
speed also at point 1.
By making use of equation (4.36) we can

find the minimum speed at point 1.
v 12 v 22 4gr
Substituting equation (4.38) in (4.36), 4.3

POWER
v 12 gr 4gr
v 12 5gr 4.3.1 'H¿QLWLRQRISRZHU
v1 5gr (4.39) Power is a measure of how fast or slow a

work is done. Power is defined as the rate of
work done or energy delivered.
The body must have a speed at point 1,
v 1 t 5gr to stay in the circular path. work done W
Power P
From equations (4.38) and (4.39), it is time taken t
clear that the minimum speed at the lowest
point 1 should be 5 times more than the W
P
minimum speed at the highest point 2, so t
that the body loops without leaving the
circle.
Average power
The average power (Pav) is defined as the
EXA MPLE 4 .1 7 ratio of the total work done to the total time
Water in a bucket tied with rope is whirled taken.
around in a vertical circle of radius 0.5 m.
Calculate the minimum velocity at the total work done
Pav
lowest point so that the water does not total time taken
spill from it in the course of motion.
(g = 10 ms-2)

Instantaneous power in watt and time in second is written as,
The instantaneous power (Pinst) is defined as 1 J =1 W s. When electrical appliances are
the power delivered at an instant (as time put in use for long hours, they consume
interval approaches zero), a large amount of energy. Measuring the
electrical energy in a small unit watt.
second (W s) leads to handling large
dW
Pinst numerical values. Hence, electrical energy
dt
is measured in the unit called kilowatt
hour (kWh).
4.3.2 8QLWRISRZHU
1 electrical unit = 1 kWh = 1 u (103 W)
Power is a scalar quantity. Its dimension is u (3600 s)
[ML2T–3]. The SI unit of power is watt (W),
1 electrical unit = 3600×103 W s
named after the inventor of the steam engine
James Watt. One watt is defined as the power 1 electrical unit = 3.6×106 J
when one joule of work is done in one second,
1 kWh = 3.6×106 J
(1 W = 1 J s–1).
The higher units are kilowatt(kW),
megawatt(MW), and Gigawatt(GW). Electricity bills are generated in units
of kWh for electrical energy consumption.
1 unit of electrical energy is 1 kWh.
1kW = 1000 W = 10 3 watt (Note: kWh is unit of energy and not of
1MW = 106 watt power.)
1GW = 109 watt
For motors, engines and some EX AM P L E 4 . 1 8

automobiles an old unit of power still Calculate the energy consumed in
commercially in use which is called as the electrical units when a 75 W fan is
horse-power (hp). We have a conversion used for 8 hours daily for one month
for horse-power (hp) into watt (W) (30 days).
which is,
Solution
1 hp = 746 W
Power, P = 75 W
All electrical goods come with a Time of usage, t = 8 hour × 30 days =

definite power rating in watt printed on 240 hours
them. A 100 watt bulb consumes 100 joule Electrical energy consumed is the
of electrical energy in one second. The product of power and time of usage.
energy measured in joule in terms of power

Electrical energy = power × time of Substituting equation (4.41) and equation
usage = P × t (4.42) in equation (4.40), we get
75 watt 240 hour G G

18000 watt hour
dW
C dt dt
C " v dt
F
18 kilowatt hour 18 kWh 4 dW G G 5

C 8 dt F " v 79 dt 0
6
1 electrical unit 1 kWh
Electrical energy 18 unit This relation is true for any arbitrary value
of dt. This implies that the term within the
bracket must be equal to zero, i.e.,
Incandescent lamps glow for

1000 hours. CFL lamps glow dW G G
F "v 0
for 6000 hours. But LED lamps dt
glow for 50000 hrs (almost 25 years at 5.5 Or
hour per day).
dW G G
F "v (4.43)
dt
4.3.3 Relation between
SRZHUDQGYHORFLW\ EX AM P L E 4 . 1 9
G
The work done by a force F for a displacement A vehicle of mass 1250 kg is driven with an
G
dr is acceleration 0.2 m s 2 along a straight level
G G road against an external resistive force 500 N.
W CF " dr (4.40) Calculate the power delivered by the
vehicle’s engine if the velocity of the vehicle
Left hand side of the equation (4.40) can be is 30 m s 1 .
written as
Solution
dW The vehicle’s engine has to do work against
W CdW C dt
dt resistive force and make vechile to move
(multiplied and divided by dt) with an acceleration. Therefore, power
(4.41) delivered by the vehicle engine is
G
G dr G G
Since, velocity is v ; dr v dt . Right P = (resistive force + mass u
dt
hand side of the equation (4.40) can be acceleration) (velocity)
G G G
written as P F tot v (Fresistive F)v
G G G
P Ftot " v (Fresistive ma )v
G G 4 G drG 5 G G G
N G dr P
CF " dr C 68 F " dt 79 dt C F " v dt ROv dt SQ = (500 N + (1250 kg) u (0.2 ms 2 ))
(4.42) (30 ms 1) = 22.5 kW

G G G G
4.4 ' p1 p2 d p1 p2
lim 0
COLLISIONS 't H0 't dt
Collision is a common phenomenon that The above expression implies that the total
happens around us every now and then. linear momentum is a conserved quantity.
For example, carom, billiards, marbles, etc.,. Note: The momentum is a vector quantity.
Collisions can happen between two bodies Hence, vector addition has to be followed to
with or without physical contacts. find the total momentum of the individual
bodies in collision.
Linear momentum is conserved in
all collision processes. When two bodies
collide, the mutual impulsive forces acting 4.4.1 7\SHVRI&ROOLVLRQV
between them during the collision time
In any collision process, the total linear
(Δt) produces a change in their respective
momentum and total energy are always
momenta.
G That is, the first body exerts a
conserved whereas the total kinetic energy
force F12 on the second body. From Newton’s
G need not be conserved always. Some part
third law, the second body exerts a force F21
of the initial kinetic energy is transformed
on the first body. This causes a change in
G G to other forms of energy. This is because,
momentum Δ p1 and Δ p2 of the first body
the impact of collisions and deformation
and second body respectively. Now, the
occurring due to collisions may in general,
relations could be written as,
produce heat, sound, light etc. By taking
G G these effects into account, we classify the
'p1 F12 't (4.44) types of collisions as follows:
G G
'p2 F21't (4.45)
(a) Elastic collision
Adding equation (4.44) and equation (4.45), (b) Inelastic collision

we get
(a) Elastic collision
G G G G G In a collision, the total initial kinetic energy
'p1 'p2 F12 't F21't F12 F21 't
G
of the bodies (before collision) is equal to
the total final kinetic energy of the bodies
G G (after collision) then, it is called as elastic
According to Newton’s third law, F12 F21
collision. i.e.,
G G Total kinetic energy before collision =
'p1 'p2 0
G G Total kinetic energy after collision
' p1 p2 0
(b) Inelastic collision
In a collision, the total initial kinetic energy
Dividing both sides by 't and taking limit of the bodies (before collision) is not equal
't H 0 , we get

to the total final kinetic energy of the bodies vehicle and they move together with the
(after collision) then, it is called as inelastic same velocity.
collision. i.e.,
Total kinetic energy before collision ≠
Total kinetic energy after collision 4.4.2 Elastic collisions in one
dimension
Consider two elastic bodies of masses m1 and
4 Total kinetic energy 5 m2 moving in a straight line (along positive
6 7
8 after collision 9 x direction) on a frictionless horizontal
4 Total kinetic energy 5 surface as shown in Figure 4.16.
6 7
8 before collision 9
u1 u2 v1 v2
4 loss in energy 5
6 7 ΔQ m1 m2 m1 m2
8 during collision 9
Before collision After collision
Even though kinetic energy is not conserved Figure 4.16 Elastic collision in one
but the total energy is conserved. This is dimension
because the total energy contains the kinetic
energy term and also a term ΔQ , which
includes all the losses that take place during Mass Initial velocity Final velocity
collision. Note that loss in kinetic energy
Mass m1 u1 v1
during collision is transformed to another
Mass m2 u2 v2
form of energy like sound, thermal, etc.
Further, if the two colliding bodies stick
together after collision such collisions are In order to have collision, we assume that
known as completely inelastic collision or the mass m1 moves faster than mass m2 i.e.,
perfectly inelastic collision. Such a collision u1 ! u2 . For elastic collision, the total linear
is found very often. For example when a clay momentum and kinetic energies of the
putty is thrown on a moving vehicle, the clay two bodies before and after collision must
putty (or Bubblegum) sticks to the moving remain the same.
Table 4.4 Comparison between elastic and inelastic collisions

S.No. Elastic Collision Inelastic Collision
1. Total momentum is conserved Total momentum is conserved
2. Total kinetic energy is conserved Total kinetic energy is not conserved
3. Forces involved are conservative forces Forces involved are non-conservative
forces
4. Mechanical energy is not dissipated. Mechanical energy is dissipated into heat,
light, sound etc.

Momentum of Momentum of Total linear momentum
mass m1 mass m2
Before collision pi1 m1u1 pi2 m2u2 pi pi1 pi 2
pi m1u1 m2u 2
After collision pf 1 m1v 1 pf 2 m2 v 2 pf pf 1 pf 2
p f m1v 1 m2 v 2
From the law of conservation of linear

m1u1 m2u 2 m1v 1 m2 v 2 (4.46)
momentum,
Total momentum before collision Or m1 u1 v 1 m2 v 2 u 2 (4.47)
( pi ) = Total momentum after collision ( p f )
Further,
Kinetic energy of Kinetic energy of

Total kinetic energy
mass m1 mass m2
KEi = KEi1 + KEi 2

Before 1 1
collision KEi1 = m1u12 KEi2 = m2u 22 1 1
2 2 KEi m1u12 m2u 22
2 2
KEi = KEi1 + KEi 2

After 1 1
collision KE f 1 = m1v 12 KE f 2 = m2 v 22 1 1
2 2 KE f = m1v 12 + m2 v 22
2 2
For elastic collision,

Total kinetic energy before collision KEi
m1 u12 v 12 m2 v 22 u 22
= Total kinetic energy after collision KE f
Using the formula a 2 b2 a b a b ,
1 1 1 1 we can rewrite the above equation as
m1u12 m2u 22 m1v 12 m2 v 22
2 2 2 2
(4.48) m1 u1 v 1 u1 v 1 m2 v 2 u 2 v 2 u 2
(4.49)
After simplifying and rearranging the
terms, Dividing equation (4.49) by (4.47) gives,

Similarly, by substituting (4.51) in
m1 u1 v 1 u1 v 1 m2 v 2 u2 v 2 u2
equation (4.47) or substituting equation
m1 u1 v 1 m2 v 2 u2 (4.53) in equation (4.52), we get the final
u1 v 1 v 2 u 2 velocity of m2 as
Rearranging, (4.50)
u1 u 2 v 2 v 1
4 2m1 5 4 m2 m1 5
v2 6 7 u1 6 7 u 2 (4
)
4
.5
Equation (4.50) can be rewritten as 8 m1 m2 9 8 m1 m2 9
u1 u 2 (v 1 v 2 )
Case 1: When bodies has the same mass
i.e., m1 = m2,
This means that for any elastic head
4 2m 2 5
on collision, the relative speed of the two e uaq tion
( 4.53) ⇒ v 1 0 u1 6 7 u2
elastic bodies after the collision has the 8 2m 2 9
same magnitude as before collision but in
v1 u2 (4.5)
opposite direction. Further note that this
result is independent of mass. 4 2m 5
eq
ua tion
( 4.5) ⇒ v 2 6 1 7 u1 0 u 2
Rewriting the above equation for v1 8 2m1 9
and v2 ,
v2 u1 (4.56)
v 1 v 2 u 2 u1 (4.51)
The equations (4.55) and (4.56) show
Or
that in one dimensional elastic collision,
v 2 u1 v 1 u 2 (4.52) when two bodies of equal mass collide
after the collision their velocities are
exchanged.
To find the final velocities v 1 and v 2 :
Substituting equation (4.52) in equation
(4.47) gives the velocity of m1 as Case 2: When bodies have the same
mass i.e., m1 m2 and second body (usually
called target) is at rest (u2 0),
m1 u1 v 1 m2 u1 v 1 u 2 u 2
By substituting m1 m 2 and u 2 0 in
m1 u1 v 1 m 2 u1 v 1 2u 2 equations (4.53) and equations (4.54)
we get,
m1u1 m1v 1 m2u1 m2 v 1 2m2u 2
m1u1 m2u1 2m2 u 2 m1v 1 m2 v 1 frome uaq tion

( .53)4 ⇒ v1 0 (4.57)
m1 m2 u1 2m 2u 2 m1 m2 v 1 frome uaq tion

( 4.5) ⇒ v2 u1 (4.58)
4 m m2 5 4 2m 2 5
or v 1 6 1 7 u1 6 7 u2 Equations (4.57) and (4.58) show that
m
8 1 m 2 9 m
8 1 m 2 9
when the first body comes to rest the second
(4.53)

body moves with the initial velocity of the (rebounds) in the opposite direction with the
first body. same initial velocity as it has a negative sign.
The equation (4.60) implies that the second
Case 3:
body which is heavier in mass continues
The first body is very much lighter than the to remain at rest even after collision. For
second body example, if a ball is thrown at a fixed wall,
⎛ m1 ⎞ m the ball will bounce back from the wall with
⎜⎝ m1 m2 , m 1⎟⎠ th e ratio 1 ≈ 0
e n th the same velocity with which it was thrown
2 m2
but in opposite direction.
an
da e ti sa tr est u 2 0
lsoi ft eh t arg
Dividing numerator and denominator of Case 4:
equation (4.53) by m2, we get The second body is very much lighter than
the first body
4 m1 5 4 5
6 m 1 7 6 2 7 ⎛ m2 ⎞ m
v1 6 2 7 u1 6 7 0 ⎜⎝ m 2 m1 , 1⎟ th e ratio 2 ≈ 0
e n th
6 m1 1 7 6 m1 1 7 m1 ⎠ m1
6m 7 6m 7 an
da e ti sa tr est u 2 0
lsoi ft eh t arg
8 2 9 8 2 9
4 0 1 5 Dividing numerator and denominator of

v1 6 7 u1 equation (4.53) by m1, we get
8 0 19
v 1 u1 (4.59) 4 m2 5 4 m2 5
6 1 7 6 2m 7
m1
Similarly, v1 6 7 u1 6 1 7 0
6 1 m2 7 61 2
m 7
Dividing numerator and denominator of 6 m1 7 6 m1 7
8 9 8 9
equation (4.54) by m2, we get
41 0 5 4 0 5
v1 6 7 u1 6 7 0
81 0 9 81 0 9
4 m1 5 4 m1 5
6 2m 7 61 m 7 v1 u1 (4.61)
v2 6 2 7
u1 6 2 7
0
6 1 17
m 6 1 17
m Similarly,
6m 7 6m 7
8 2 9 8 2 9 Dividing numerator and denominator of
4 m1 5 equation (4.58) by m1, we get
6 1
m2 7
v 2 0 u1 6 7 0 4 m2 5
6 m1 1 7 6 1 7
6m 7 4 2 5 m
7 0
8 2 9 v2 6 7 u1 6 1
66 1
m2 6 m2 7
m
77 61 m 7
v2 0 (4.60) 8 1 9 8 1 9
4 2 5
v2 6 7 u1
81 0 9
The equation (4.59) implies that the
v 2 2 u1 (4.62)
first body which is lighter returns back
The equation (4.61) implies that the first
4 m 2m 5 4 2 2m 5
body which is heavier continues to move v1 6 7 10 6 75
with the same initial velocity. The equation 8 m 2m 9 8 m 2m 9
(4.62) suggests that the second body which
415 445 10 20 10
is lighter will move with twice the initial v 1 6 710 6 7 5
velocity of the first body. It means that the 839 839 3 3
lighter body is thrown away from the point v 1 3.33 ms 1
of collision.
4 2m1 5 4 m2 m1 5
v2 6 7 u1 6 7 u2
EXA MPLE 4 .2 0 m
8 1 m 2 9 m
8 1 m 2 9
A lighter particle moving with a speed of

4 2m 5 4 2m m 5
10 m s-1 collides with an object of double v2 6 7 10 6 75
its mass moving in the same direction with 8 m 2m 9 8 m 2m 9
half its speed. Assume that the collision is 425 415 20 5 25
a one dimensional elastic collision. What v 2 6 710 6 7 5
839 839 3 3
will be the speed of both particles after the
collision? v 2 8.33 ms 1
Solution
As the two speeds v1 and v2 are positive,
they move in the same direction with
u 1 =10 ms-1 u2=5 ms-1 the velocities, 3.33 m s−1 and 8.33 m s−1
respectively.
m1=m
4.4.3 Perfect inelastic
m2=2m
collision
In a perfectly inelastic or completely
inelastic collision, the objects stick together
Let the mass of the first body be m which permanently after collision such that they
moves with an initial velocity, u1 = 10 m s-1. move with common velocity. Let the two
Therefore, the mass of second body is bodies with masses m1 and m2 move with
1
2m and its initial velocity is u2 = u1 = initial velocities u1 and u2 respectively
( )
1 −1
2
10 m s , before collision. After perfect inelastic
2 collision both the objects move together
Then, the final velocities of the bodies
with a common velocity v as shown in
can be calculated from the equation (4.53)
Figure (4.17).
and equation (4.54)
Since, the linear momentum is conserved
during collisions,
4 m m2 5 4 2m 2 5
v1 6 1 7 u1 6 7 u2
8 m1 m2 9 8 m1 m2 9 m1 u1 + m2 u2 = (m1+ m2) v

u1 u2 v The speed of the bullet is u1. The second
m1 m2 m1 m2 body is at rest u 2 0 . Let the common
velocity of the bullet and the object after the
Before collision After collision bullet is embedded into the object is v.
Figure 4.17 Perfect inelastic collision in
one dimension m1u1 m2u 2
v
m1 m2
Velocity Linear
0.05u1 + (0.45 × 0) 0.05
momentum v= = u
(0.05 + 0.45) 0.50 1
Initial Final Initial Final
Mass m1 u1 v m1u1 m1v The combined velocity is the initial
Mass m2 u2 v m2u2 m2v velocity for the vertical upward motion of
Total m1u1 + (m1+ the combined bullet and the object. From
m2u2 m2) v second equation of motion,
The common velocity can be computed by v 2gh
v 2 10 1.8 36
m u m2u2
v 1 1 (4.63) v 6 ms 1
m1 m2
Substituting this in the above equation, the
EXA MPLE 4 .2 1 value of u1 is
A bullet of mass 50 g is fired from below into
a suspended object of mass 450 g. The object 0.05 0.50
6 u1 or u1 6 10 6
rises through a height of 1.8 m with bullet 0.50 0.05
remaining inside the object. Find the speed
u1 60 ms 1
of the bullet. Take g = 10 ms-2.
Solution
4.4.4 Loss of kinetic energy
m1 = 50 g = 0.05 kg; m2 = 450 g = 0.45 kg LQSHUIHFWLQHODVWLF
collision
In perfectly inelastic collision, the loss
in kinetic energy during collision is
transformed to another form of energy
like sound, thermal, heat, light etc. Let KEi
be the total kinetic energy before collision
and KEf be the total kinetic energy after
collision.
Total kinetic energy before collision,

1 1 velocity of separation after collision
KEi = m1u12 + m2u 22 (4.64) e
2 2 velocity of approach before collision
(v 2 v1 )
Total kinetic energy after collision, (4.68)
u1 u 2
1
KE f =
2
( m1 + m2 ) v 2 (4.65)
In an elastic collision, we have obtained the
velocity of separation is equal to the velocity
Then the loss of kinetic energy is of approach i.e.,
Loss of KE, 'Q = KEi − KE f
(v 2 v1 )
u1 u 2 v 2 v1 H 1 e
= 1 m1u12 1 m2u 22 1 m1 m2 v 2
u1 u 2
2 2 2
(4.66) This implies that, coefficient of restitution
for an elastic collision, e 1. Physically, it
Substituting equation (4.63) in equation means that there is no loss of kinetic energy
(4.66), and on simplifying (expand v by using after the collision. So, the body bounces
the algebra a b a 2 b2 2ab, we get
2
back with the same kinetic energy which is
usually called as perfect elastic.
14 m m 5
Loss of KE, 'Q = 6 1 2 7 u1 u2
2
In any real collision problems, there
2 8 m1 m2 9
(4.67) will be some losses in kinetic energy due
to collision, which means e is not always
equal to unity. If the ball is perfectly plastic,
4.4.5 &RHI¿FLHQWRI it will never bounce back and therefore
restitution (e) their separation of velocity is zero after the
collision. Hence, the value of coefficient of
Suppose we drop a rubber ball and a plastic restitution, e 0.
ball on the same floor. The rubber ball
In general, the coefficient of restitution
will bounce back higher than the plastic
for a material lies between 0 e 1.
ball. This is because the loss of kinetic
energy for an elastic ball is much lesser
than the loss of kinetic energy for a plastic EX AM P L E 4 . 2 2
ball. The amount of kinetic energy after Show that the ratio of velocities of equal
the collision of two bodies, in general, masses in an inelastic collision when one
can be measured through a dimensionless v 1 e
number called the coefficient of restitution of the masses is stationary is 1 .
v2 1 e
(COR).
Solution
It is defined as the ratio of velocity of
separation (relative velocity) after collision velocity of separation after collision
e
to the velocity of approach (relative velocity) velocity of approach before collision
before collision, i.e.,
Using the equation (2) for u1 in (1), we get
(v v1 ) (v 2 v1 ) (v 2 v1 )
2
u 1 u 2 u1 0 u1
v 2 v1 e v1 v 2
T v 2 v 1 e u1 (1)
On simplification, we get
From the law of conservation of linear
momentum, v1 1 e

v2 1 e
m u1 m v 1 m v 2 T u1 v 1 v 2 (2)
SUMMARY
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dŚĞŬŝŶĞƟĐĞŶĞƌŐǇŽĨƚŚĞƐǇƐƚĞŵŝƐĐŽŶƐĞƌǀĞĚŝŶĞůĂƐƟĐĐŽůůŝƐŝŽŶƐ͘
velocity of separation after collision
dŚĞĐŽĞĸĐŝĞŶƚŽĨƌĞƐƟƚƵƟŽŶс
velocity of approach before collision

CONCEPT MAP

EXER CISE
,0XOWLSOH&KRLFH4XHVWLRQV
1. A uniform force of (2 î + ˆj) N acts on 5. A body of mass 4 m is lying in xy-plane
a particle of mass 1 kg. The particle at rest. It suddenly explodes into three
displaces from position (3 ĵ kˆ ) m to pieces. Two pieces each of mass m
(5iˆ 3 ˆj ) m. The work done by the force move perpendicular to each other with
on the particle is equal speed v. The total kinetic energy
(AIPMT model 2013) generated due to explosion is
(a) 9 J (b) 6 J (AIPMT 2014)
(c) 10 J (d) 12 J
3 2
2. A ball of mass 1 kg and another of mass (a) mv2 (b) mv
2
2 kg are dropped from a tall building
whose height is 80 m. After, a fall of 40 (c) 2mv2 (d) 4mv2
m each towards Earth, their respective 6. The potential energy of a system
kinetic energies will be in the ratio of increases, if work is done
(AIPMT model 2004) (a) by the system against a conservative
(a) 2 :1 (b) 1 : 2 force
(c) 2 : 1 (d) 1 : 2 (b) by the system against a non-
3. A body of mass 1 kg is thrown upwards conservative force
with a velocity 20 m s−1. It momentarily (c) upon the system by a conservative
comes to rest after attaining a height of force
18 m. How much energy is lost due to (d) upon the system by a non-
air friction?. conservative force
−2
(Take g = 10m s ) (AIPMT 2009) 7. What is the minimum velocity with
(a) 20 J (b) 30 J which a body of mass m must enter a
(c) 40 J (d) 10 J vertical loop of radius R so that it can
4. An engine pumps water continuously complete the loop?.
through a hose. Water leaves the hose (a) 2gR (b) 3gR
with a velocity v and m is the mass per
unit length of the water of the jet. What (c) 5gR (d) gR
is the rate at which kinetic energy is 8. The work done by the conservative
imparted to water ?. force for a closed path is
(AIPMT 2009) (a) always negative
1 (b) zero
(a) mv 2 (b) mv3
2
(c) always positive
3 5
(c) mv 2 (d) mv 2 (d) not defined
2 2

9. If the linear momentum of the object U(x) U(x)
is increased by 0.1%, then the kinetic
energy is increased by a) x b) x
(a) 0.1 % (b) 0.2%
(c) 0.4% (d) 0.01% U(x)
U(x)
10. If the potential energy of the particle
V
is U x 2 , then force experienced by c) x d) x
2
the particle is
V 2 14. A particle which is constrained to
(a) F x (b) F V x
2 move along x-axis, is subjected to a
V 2 force in the same direction which
(c) F V x (d) F x
2 varies with the distance x of the particle
11. A wind-powered generator converts from the origin as F x kx ax 3.
wind energy into electric energy. Here, k and a are positive constants.
Assume that the generator converts For x ≥ 0, the functional form of the
a fixed fraction of the wind energy potential energy U(x) of the particle is
intercepted by its blades into electrical (IIT 2002)
energy. For wind speed v, the electrical U(x) U(x)
power output will be proportional to
(a) v (b) v 2 a) x b) x
3 4
(c) v (d) v
12. Two equal masses m1 and m2 are U(x)

U(x)
moving along the same straight line
with velocities 5ms-1 and 9ms-1
c) d)
respectively. If the collision is elastic,
x
then calculate the velocities after the x
collision of m1 and m2 , respectively
15. A spring of force constant k is cut into
(a) 4 ms-1 and 10 ms -1 two pieces such that one piece is double
(b) 10ms -1 and 0 ms -1 the length of the other. Then, the long
(c) 9ms-1 and 5 ms -1 piece will have a force constant of
(d) 5 ms -1 and 1 ms -1 2 3
(a) k (b) k
3 2
13. A particle is placed at the origin and
(c) 3k (d) 6k
a force F kx is acting on it (where k
is a positive constant). If U 0 0 , the Answers
graph of U x versus x will be (where
1) c 2) d 3) a 4) a 5) b
U is the potential energy function)
6) a 7) c 8) b 9) b 10) c
(IIT 2004) 11) c 12) c 13) c 14) d 15) b

,, 6KRUW$QVZHU4XHVWLRQV
1. Explain how the definition of work in 4. Explain the characteristics of elastic
physics is different from general percep- and inelastic collision.
tion. 5. Define the following
2. Write the various types of potential a) Coefficient of restitution
energy. Explain the formulae. b) Power
3. Write the differences between c) Law of conservation of energy
conservative and Non-conservative d) loss of kinetic energy in inelastic
forces. Give two examples each. collision.
,,, /RQJ$QVZHU4XHVWLRQV
1. Explain with graphs the difference 4. Arrive at an expression for elastic
between work done by a constant force collision in one dimension and discuss
and by a variable force. various cases.
2. State and explain work energy principle. 5. What is inelastic collision? In which
Mention any three examples for it. way it is different from elastic collision.
3. Arrive at an expression for power and Mention few examples in day to day
velocity. Give some examples for the life for inelastic collision.
same.
IV. Numerical Problems

1. Calculate the work done by a force of conservation of energy). Is this speed
30 N in lifting a load of 2kg to a height less or greater than speed obtained in
of 10m (g = 10ms−2) the section 4.2.9?
Ans: 300J Ans: v = 4gr m s–1
2. A ball with a velocity of 5 ms−1
impinges at angle of 60˚ with the
vertical on a smooth horizontal plane.
If the coefficient of restitution is 0.5,
find the velocity and direction after
the impact.
Ans: v = 0.3 m s–1
3. A bob of mass m is attached to one
end of the rod of negligible mass
and length r, the other end of which
is pivoted freely at a fixed center O as 4. Two different unknown masses A and B
shown in the figure. What initial speed collide. A is initially at rest when B has a
must be given to the object to reach speed v. After collision B has a speed v/2
the top of the circle? (Hint: Use law of and moves at right angles to its original

direction of motion. Find the direction pendulum rises a vertical distance of 10
in which A moves after collision. cm. If the bullet gets embedded into the
Ans: T = 26° 33′ pendulum, calculate its initial speed.
5. A bullet of mass 20 g strikes a pendulum Ans: v = 351.4ms–1
of mass 5 kg. The centre of mass of
9 &RQFHSWXDO4XHVWLRQV
1. A spring which in initially in un- 4. A car starts from rest and moves on
stretched condition, is first stretched a surface with uniform acceleration.
by a length x and again by a further Draw the graph of kinetic energy
length x. The work done in the first versus displacement. What
case W1 is one third of the work done information you can get from that
in second case W2. True or false? graph?
2. Which is conserved in inelastic collision? 5. A charged particle moves towards
Total energy (or) Kinetic energy? another charged particle. Under
3. Is there any net work done by external what conditions the total momentum
forces on a car moving with a constant and the total energy of the system
speed along a straight road? conserved?
BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
1. Charles Kittel, Walter Knight, Malvin Ruderman, Carl Helmholtz and Moyer,
Mechanics, 2nd edition, Mc Graw Hill Pvt Ltd,
3. Somnath Datta, Mechanics, Pearson Publication
5. Serway and Jewett, Physics for scientist and Engineers with modern physics, Brook/
Coole publishers, Eighth edition
6. Paul Tipler and Gene Mosca, Physics for scientist and engineers with modern physics,
Sixth edition, W.H. freeman and Company.

ICT CORNER
Energy Skate
Through this activity you will

understand about potential
energy and kinetic energy
STEPS:
• Open the browser and type the given URL to open the PhET simulation on
work power and energy. Click OK to open the activity.
• Select the height to observe the change in the kinetic energy, potential energy.
• Also observe the change by altering the mass.
• You can also create your own optional friction or playground to observe
the change in potential energy and kinetic energy.
Step1 Step2
Step3 Step4

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/energy-skate-park
*Pictures are indicative only.
*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

UNIT MOTION OF SYSTEM OF
5 PARTICLES AND RIGID BODIES
“In nature, we have to deal not with material points but with material bodies ... – Max Planck
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• relevance of the center of mass in various systems of particles
• torque and angular momentum in rotational motion
• types of equilibria with appropriate examples
• moment of inertia of different rigid bodies
• dynamics of rotation of rigid bodies
• distinguishing translational motion from rotational motion
• rolling motion, slipping and sliding motions.
5.1 forces. Internal forces are the forces acting

INTRODUCTION among the particles within a system that
constitute the body. External forces are
Most of the objects that we come across in the forces acting on the particles of a
our day to day life consist of large number of system from outside. In this unit, we deal
particles. In the previous Units, we studied with such system of particles which make
the motion of bodies without considering different rigid bodies. A rigid body is the
their size and shape. So far we have treated one which maintains its definite and fixed
even the bulk bodies as only point objects. In shape even when an external force acts on it.
this section, we will give importance to the This means that, the interatomic distances
size and shape of the bodies. These bodies do not change in a rigid body when an
are actually made up of a large number of external force is applied. However, in real
particles. When such a body moves, we life situation, we have bodies which are
consider it as the motion of collection of not ideally rigid, because the shape and
particles as a whole. We define the concept size of the body change when forces act on
of center of mass to deal with such a system them. For the rigid bodies we study here,
of particles. we assume that such deformations are
negligible. The deformations produced on
The forces acting on these bulk bodies non-rigid bodies are studied separately in
are classified into internal and external Unit 7 under elasticity of solids.
208
5.1.1 For bodies of regular shape and uniform
mass distribution, the center of mass is at the
CENTER OF MASS
geometric center of the body. As examples, for
When a rigid body moves, all particles that a circle and sphere, the center of mass is at their
constitute the body need not take the same centers; for square and rectangle, at the point
path. Depending on the type of motion, their diagonals meet; for cube and cuboid, it is
different particles of the body may take at the point where their body diagonals meet.
different paths. For example, when a wheel For other bodies, the center of mass has to be
rolls on a surface, the path of the center point determined using some methods. The center
of the wheel and the paths of other points of mass could be well within the body and in
of the wheel are different. In this Unit, we some cases outside the body as well.
study about the translation, rotation and
the combination of these motions of rigid
bodies in detail.
5.1.3 Center of Mass for
Distributed Point
5.1.2 Center of Mass of Masses
a Rigid Body
A point mass is a hypothetical point particle
When a bulk object (say a bat) is thrown at which has nonzero mass and no size or shape.
an angle in air as shown in Figure 5.1; do all To find the center of mass for a collection of
the points of the body take a parabolic path? n point masses, say, m1, m2, m3 . . . mn we have
Actually, only one point takes the parabolic path to first choose an origin and an appropriate
and all the other points take different paths. coordinate system as shown in Figure 5.2.
Let, x1, x2, x3 . . . xn be the X-coordinates of
the positions of these point masses in the X
direction from the origin.
Y
m1 m2
(xCM, yCM, zCM)
Figure 5.1 Center of mass tracing the rCM m3

path of a parabola
m4
The one point that takes the parabolic o

X
path is a very special point called center of
mass (CM) of the body. Its motion is like the
motion of a single point that is thrown. The
Z
center of mass of a body is defined as a point
where the entire mass of the body appears to
Figure 5.2 Center of mass for
be concentrated. Therefore, this point can distributed point masses
represent the entire body.
Unit 5 Motion of System of Pa rticles and R igid B odies 209
The equation for the x coordinate of the
5.1.4 Center of Mass of Two
center of mass is,
Point Masses
With the equations for center of mass, let
x CM =
∑m x i i
us find the center of mass of two point
∑m i masses m1 and m2, which are at positions
x1 and x2 respectively on the X-axis. For
this case, we can express the position of
where, 6m is the total mass M of all the
i
particles, ( ∑m = M ). Hence,
center of mass in the following three ways
i
based on the choice of the coordinate
system.
x CM =
∑m x i i
(5.1) (i) When the masses are on positive X-axis:
M
The origin is taken arbitrarily so that the
Similarly, we can also find y and z masses m1 and m2 are at positions x1 and x2 on
coordinates of the center of mass for these the positive X-axis as shown in Figure 5.3(a).
distributed point masses as indicated in The center of mass will also be on the positive
Figure (5.2). X-axis at xCM as given by the equation,
m1x1 + m2 x 2
x CM =
y CM =
∑m y i i
(5.2)
m1 + m2
M
(ii) When the origin coincides with any one
z CM =
∑m z i i
(5.3) of the masses:
M The calculation could be minimised if the
origin of the coordinate system is made to
Hence, the position of center of mass of coincide with any one of the masses as shown
these point masses in a Cartesian coordinate in Figure 5.3(b). When the origin coincides
system is (xCM, yCM, zCM). In general, the with the point mass m1, its position x1 is
position of center of mass can be written in zero, (i.e. x1 = 0). Then,
a vector form as,
m1 ( 0 ) + m2 x 2
x CM =

rCM =
∑mi ri (5.4) m1 + m2
M
The equation further simplifies as,

where, rCM x CMî y CMˆj z CM kˆ is the m2 x 2
x CM =
position vector of the center of mass and m1 + m2

ri x iî y i ĵ z i k̂ is the position vector of
(iii) When the origin coincides with the
the distributed point mass; where, î, ˆj and k̂ center of mass itself:
are the unit vectors along X, Y and Z-axes If the origin of the coordinate system is
respectively. made to coincide with the center of mass,
210 Unit 5 Motion of System of Particles and R igid B odies
then, xCM = 0 and the mass m1 is found EX AM P L E 5 . 1
to be on the negative X-axis as shown in
Two point masses 3 kg and 5 kg are at
Figure 5.3(c). Hence, its position x1 is
4 m and 8 m from the origin on X-axis.
negative, (i.e. -x1).
Locate the position of center of mass of the
two point masses (i) from the origin and
m1 ( − x1 ) + m2 x 2
0= (ii) from 3 kg mass.
m1 + m2
0 = m1 ( − x1 ) + m2 x 2 Solution
Let us take, m1 = 3 kg and m2= 5 kg
m1x1 m2 x 2
(i) To find center of mass from the origin:
The equation given above is known as The point masses are at positions, x1 = 4 m,
principle of moments. We will learn more x2 = 8 m from the origin along X axis.
about this in Section 5.3.3. Y
3 kg 5 kg
CM
o X
Y 4m
8m
xCM
m1 m2
CM
o X
x1
x2 The center of mass xCM can be obtained
xCM
using equation 5.4.
(a) When the masses are on positive X axis
m1x1 + m2 x 2
x CM =
m1 + m2
Y
x CM =
(3 × 4 ) + (5 × 8 )
m1 CM 3+5
X
o
x2 12 + 40 52
xCM x CM = = = 6. 5 m
8 8
(b) When the origin coincides with any The center of mass is located 6.5 m from
one of the masses
the origin on X-axis.
Y
(ii) To find the center of mass from 3 kg mass:
The origin is shifted to 3 kg mass along
m1 m2
CM
X X-axis. The position of 3 kg point mass is
o
(−x1) (+x2) zero (x1 = 0) and the position of 5 kg point
mass is 4 m from the shifted origin (x2 = 4 m).
(c) When the origin coincides with the center
of mass itself Y
5 kg
Figure 5.3. Center of mass of two 3 kg CM
X
point masses determined by shifting o
4m
the origin xCM

x CM =
(3 × 0 ) + (5 × 4 )
3+5
0 + 20 20
x CM = = = 2. 5 m R R/2
8 8
The center of mass is located 2.5 m from

3 kg point mass, (and 1.5 m from the
5 kg point mass) on X-axis.
M-m m
x R/2
This result shows that the center of
mass is located closer to larger mass.
If the origin is shifted to the center
of mass, then the principle of Hence, the remaining portion of the
moments holds good. m1x1 m2 x 2; disc should have its center of mass to the
3 × 2. 5 = 5 × 1. 5 ; 7 . 5 7 . 5 left of the origin; say, at a distance x. We
can write from the principle of moments,
When we compare case (i) with case
(ii), the x CM = 2.5 m from 3 kg mass could (M − m ) x = (m ) 2
R
also be obtained by subtracting 4 m (the
position of 3 kg mass) from 6.5 m, where ⎛ m ⎞R
x=⎜ ⎟
the center of mass was located in case (i) ⎝ (M − m ) ⎠ 2
If σ is the surface mass density (i.e. mass

EXA MPL E 5 .2 M
per unit surface area), σ = 2 ; then, the
From a uniform disc of radius R, a small πR
mass m of small disc is,
disc of radius R is cut and removed as
2
shown in the diagram. Find the center m = surface mass density × surfacearea
2
of mass of the remaining portion of ⎛R⎞
m = σ × π⎜ ⎟
the disc. ⎝2⎠
2
Solution ⎛ M ⎞ ⎛R⎞ M R2 M
m = ⎜ 2 ⎟ π⎜ ⎟ = 2 π =
Let us consider the mass of the uncut full ⎝ πR ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ πR 4 4
disc be M. Its center of mass would be at substituting m in the expression for x
the geometric center of the disc on which M M
the origin coincides. 4 R R
x= × = 4 ×
Let the mass of the small disc cut and ⎛ M ⎞ 2 ⎛ 3M ⎞ 2
removed be m and its center of mass is at ⎜M − 4 ⎟ ⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
a position R to the right of the origin as R
2 x=
shown in the figure. 6

The center of mass of the remaining portion 5.1.5 Center of mass for uniform
R
is at a distance to the left from the center distribution of mass
6
of the disc.
If the mass is uniformly distributed in a bulk
object, then a small mass (Δm) of the body can
If, the small disc is removed
be treated as a point mass and the summations
concentrically from the large disc,
can be done to obtain the expressions for the
what will be the position of the
coordinates of center of mass.
center of mass of the remaining
portion of disc? ∑ ( Δm ) x
x CM =
i i
∑Δm i
y CM =
∑ ( Δm ) y
i i
(5.5)
EXA MPL E 5 .3 ∑Δm i
The position vectors of two point masses z CM =

∑ ( Δm ) z
i i
10 kg and 5 kg are (3iˆ 2 ˆj 4kˆ) m and ∑Δm i
(3iˆ 6 ˆj 5kˆ) m respectively. Locate the On the other hand, if the small mass
position of center of mass. taken is infinitesimally small (dm) then, the
Solution summations can be replaced by integrations as
given below.
m1 10 kg
x cm =
∫xdm
m2 5 kg ∫dm

r1 (3iˆ 2 ˆj 4kˆ) m y cm =
∫ydm (5.6)

r2 (3iˆ 6 ˆj 5kˆ) m ∫dm

m1r1 m2r2

z cm =
∫zdm
r
m1 m2 ∫dm
ˆ ˆ
G 10(3iˆ 2 ˆj 4k ) 5(3iˆ 6 ˆj 5k ) EX AM P L E 5 . 4
∴r =
10 5
Locate the center of mass of a uniform rod
30iˆ 20 ˆj 40kˆ 15iˆ 30 ˆj 25kˆ of mass M and length A.

15
Solution
15iˆ 50 ˆj 65kˆ
Consider a uniform rod of mass M and
15
length A whose one end coincides with the
G 4 ˆ 10 ˆj 13 kˆ5 m origin as shown in Figure. The rod is kept
r = 68 i 7
3 3 9 along the x axis. To find the center of mass
G ∗

Infinitesimal quantity is an extremely small
The center of mass is located at position r .
quantity.

dx 5.1.6 Motion of Center of
Mass
o
When a rigid body moves, its center of
x
mass will also move along with the body.
For kinematic quantities like velocity ( v CM )
and acceleration ( a CM ) of the center of
mass, we can differentiate the expression
of this rod, we choose an infinitesimally
for position of center of mass with respect
small mass dm of elemental length dx at a
to time once and twice respectively.
distance x from the origin.
For simplicity, let us take the motion
along X direction only.
λ is the linear mass density (i.e. mass
M
per unit length) of the rod. λ
A G
⎛ dx i ⎞
dx CM ∑ i ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠
G m
The mass of small element (dm) is, G
v CM = =
dm
M
dx
dt ∑mi
A
G
Now, we can write the center of mass G
v CM =
∑mi v i
(5.7)
equation for this mass distribution as, ∑mi
G
⎛ dv i ⎞
d ⎛ dx CM ⎞ ⎛ dv CM ⎞ ∑ i ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠
G G m
G
= ⎜ = =
x CM =
∫xdm a CM
dt ⎝ dt ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ ∑mi
∫dm G

⎛M ⎞
G
a CM =
∑mia i
(5.8)
∫ x ⎜ dx ⎟
⎝

⎠ = 1 xdx
∑mi
∫o
x CM = o
M
G
l In the absence of external force, i.e. Fext 0,
1 ⎡x ⎤ 1⎛ A ⎞
2 2
= ⎢ ⎥ = ⎜ ⎟ the individual rigid bodies of a system
A ⎣ 2 ⎦0 A ⎝ 2 ⎠
can move or shift only due to the internal
forces. This will not affect the position of
x CM = the center of mass. This means that the
2
center of mass will be in a state of rest
G
or uniform motion. Hence, v CM will be
A
As the position is the geometric center zero when center of mass is at rest and
2 constant when center of mass has uniform
of the rod, it is concluded that the center G G
motion ( v CM = 0 or v CM = constant ) . There
of mass of the uniform rod is located at its
will be no acceleration of center of mass,
geometric center itself.
( a CM = 0 ) .

From equation 5.7 and 5.8, [Given: There is friction between the man
and the boat and no friction between the

0
Ym v i i
(or) constant,
boat and water.]
Ym i Solution

vCM
Ymv i i
; a CM 0 Mass of the man (m1) is, m1= 50 kg
Ym i Mass of the boat (m2) is, m2 = 300 kg
With respect to a stationary observer:
Here, the individual particles may still The man moves with a velocity, v1 =
move with their respective velocities and 2 m s-1 and the boat moves with a velocity
accelerations due to internal forces. v2 (which is to be found)
In the presence of external force, (i.e.
G (i) To determine the velocity of the boat with
Fext ≠ 0 ), the center of mass of the system
respect to a stationary observer on land:
will accelerate as given by the following
As there is no external force acting on the
equation.
system, the man and boat move due to the
friction, which is an internal force in the

Fext = ( ) Fext
∑mi a CM ; Fext = Ma CM ; a CM = M boat-man system. Hence, the velocity of
the center of mass is zero (vCM = 0).
Using equation 5.7,
EXA MPLE 5 .5
A man of mass 50 kg is standing at one end of 0=
∑m v i i
=
m1v 1 + m2 v 2
a boat of mass 300 kg floating on still water. ∑m i m1 + m2
He walks towards the other end of the boat 0 = m1v 1 + m2 v 2
with a constant velocity of 2 m s-1 with respect
−m 2 v 2 = m1v 1
to a stationary observer on land. What will be
the velocity of the boat, (a) with respect to the m1
v2 = − v1
stationary observer on land? (b) with respect m2
to the man walking in the boat? 50 100
v2 = − ×2 = −
300 300
v 2 = −0.33 m s−1
The negative sign in the answer implies

m CM m that the boat moves in a direction opposite
to that of the walking man on the boat to a
stationary observer on land.
(ii) To determine the velocity of the
boat with respect to the walking man:
m CM m
We can find the relative velocity as,
v 21 = v 2 − v 1

where, v 21 is the relative velocity of the boat Solution
with respect to the walking man. It is an explosion of its own without any
external influence. After the explosion, the
v 21 = ( −0.33 ) − ( 2 ) center of mass of the projectile will continue
v 21 = −2.33 ms −1 to complete the parabolic path even though
the fragments are not following the same
The negative sign in the answer implies that
parabolic path. After the fragments have
the boat appears to move in the opposite
fallen on the ground, the center of mass
direction to the man walking in the
rests at a distance R (the range) from the
boat.
point of projection as shown in the diagram.
The magnitude of the relative
velocity of the boat with respect to
the walking man is greater than the
magnitude of the relative velocity of 3 kg 2 kg
the boat with respect to the stationary R CM
3R 1R d
observer. 4 4
The negative signs in the two R+d
answers indicate the opposite If the origin is fixed to the final position
direction of the boat with respect of the center of mass, the principle of
to the stationary observer and the moments holds good.
walking man on the boat.
m1x1 m2 x 2
Center of mass in explosions: 1
where, m1 = 3 kg, m2 = 2 kg, x1 = R. The
Many a times rigid bodies are broken in to 4
value of x2 = d
fragments. If an explosion is caused by the
internal forces in a body which is at rest or
in motion, the state of the center of mass is 1
3 × R = 2 × d;
not affected. It continues to be in the same 4
state of rest or motion. But, the kinematic 3
d R
quantities of the fragments get affected. If the 8
explosion is caused by an external agency,
then the kinematic quantities of the center The distance between the point of launching
of mass as well as the fragments get affected. and the position of 2 kg mass is R+d.
EXA MPLE 5 .6 3 11
R + d = R + R = R = 1.375R
A projectile of mass 5 kg, in its course 8 8
of motion explodes on its own into two
fragments. One fragment of mass 3 kg falls at The other fragment falls at a distance of
three fourth of the range R of the projectile. 1.375R from the point of launching. (Here
Where will the other fragment fall? R is the range of the projectile.)
G
5.2 where, r is the position
G vector of the point
where the force F is acting on the body as
TORQUE AND ANGULAR
MOMENTUM
When a net force acts on a body, it produces θ

linear motion in the direction of the applied F
force. If the body is fixed to a point or an r
axis, such a force rotates the body depending O
on the point of application of the force on
the body. This ability of the force to produce Figure 5.4. Torque on a
rotational motion in a body is called torque rigid body
or moment of force. Examples for such
G G
motion are plenty in day to day life. To Here, the product of r and F is called the
mention a few; the opening and closing of a vector product or cross product. The vector
door about the hinges and turning of a nut product of two vectors results in another
using a wrench. vector that is perpendicular to both the
vectors (refer Section 2.5.2). Hence, torque
G
( τ ) is a vector quantity.
Tor que has a magnitude ( rFsin
G θ ) and
G
direction perpendicular to r and F . Its unit
is N m.

& rFsin 3 nˆ (5.10)
The extent of the rotation depends on
G G
the magnitude of the force, its direction Here, θ is the angle between r and F, and
G
and the distance between the fixed point n̂ is the unit vector in the direction of W .
G
and the point of application. When torque Torque ( τ ) is sometimes called as a pseudo
G
produces rotational motion in a body, its vector as it needs the other two vectors r and
G
angular momentum changes with respect F for its existence.
to time. In this Section we will learn
about the torque and its effect on rigid The direction of torque is found using
bodies. right hand rule. This rule says that if fingers
of right hand are kept along the position
vector with palm facing the direction of the
5.2.1 'H¿QLWLRQRI7RUTXH force and when the fingers are curled the
Torque is defined as the moment of the thumb points to the direction of the torque.
external applied force about a point or axis This is shown in Figure 5.5.
of rotation. The expression for torque is, The direction of torque helps us to find
G G G the type of rotation caused by the torque.
τ = r ×F (5.9) For example, if the direction of torque is out

separately. For direction, we use the vector
rule or right hand rule. For magnitude, we
use scalar form as,
F τ = r F sin θ (5.11)
r The expression for the magnitude of

torque can be written in two different ways
by associating sin θ either with r or F in the
&
following manner.
Figure 5.5. Direction of torque using
right hand rule τ = r ( F sin θ ) = r × ( F ⊥ ) (5.12)
τ = ( r sin θ ) F = ( r ⊥ ) × F (5.13)
of the paper, then the rotation produced by
the torque is anticlockwise. On the other G
hand, if the direction of the torque is into Here, ( F sinθ ) is the component of F
G
the paper, then the rotation is clockwise as perpendicular to r . Similarly, ( r sinθ )G is the
G
shown in Figure 5.6. component of r perpendicular to F. The
two cases are shown in Figure 5.7.
In many cases, the direction and
magnitude of the torque are found
F cos θ
θ
F
r F sin θ
τ
F O
r
θ
Page (a) τ = r (F sin θ) = r(F⊥)
(a) anticlockwise rotation
θ
θ r sin θ F
r
τ F
Page r
θ r cos θ
(b) τ =(r sin θ) F = (r⊥)F
(b) clockwise rotation
Figure 5.6. Direction of torque and the Figure 5.7. Two ways of calculating the
type of rotation torque.

G G
Based on the angle θ between r and F, Solution
the torque takes different values. G Arm length of the spanner, r = 15 cm
G
The torque is maximum when, r and F = 15×10−2m
are perpendicular to each other. That is when Force, F = 2.5 N
θ = 90o and sin 90o = 1, Hence, τmax = rF. G Angle between r and F, θ = 90o
G
The torque is zero when r and F are
parallel or antiparallel. If parallel, then θ = 2.5 N
90°
0o and sin 0o = 0. If antiparallel, then θ = 180o 15 cm
and sin 180o = 0. Hence, τ = 0. (i) Torque, τ = rF sin θ
The torque is zero if the force acts at the
G
reference point. i.e. as r 0, τ = 0. The different τ = 15 × 10 −2 × 2.5 × sin (90°)
cases discussed are shown in Table 5.1. [here, sin 90° = 1]
Table 5.1 The Value of τ for τ = 37.5 × 10−2 N m

different cases.
(ii) As per the right hand rule, the
F direction of torque is out of the page.
r F
r (iii) The type of rotation caused by the
O
O
torque is anticlockwise.
θ = 90ο; τmax = rF θ = 0ο; τ = 0
F EXAM P L E 5 . 8
O
r
O
F

A force of 4iˆ 3jˆ 5kˆ N is applied at a point
θ = 180ο; τ = 0 r = 0; τ = 0
whose position vector is 7iˆ 4jˆ 2kˆ m.
Find the torque of force about the origin.
EXA MPLE 5 .7 Solution

If the force applied is perpendicular to
the handle of the spanner as shown in the r 7iˆ 4jˆ 2kˆ

diagram, find the (i) torque exerted by the F 4iˆ 3jˆ 5kˆ
force about the center of the nut, (ii) direction G G G
of torque and (iii) type of rotation caused by Torque, τ = r × F
the torque about the nut.
î ˆj kˆ

& 7 4 2
2.5 N 4 3 5
ˆ
& i 20 6 ˆj 35 8 kˆ 21 16

& 14iˆ 43jˆ 37kˆ N m
15 cm

EXA MPLE 5 .9 τ = r F sin θ
A crane has an arm length of 20 m inclined τ = 20 × 20000 × sin 150D ( )
at 30o with the vertical. It carries a container
of mass of 2 ton suspended from the top end (
= 400000 × sin 90D + 60D )
of the arm. Find the torque produced by the [here, sin ( 90 + θ ) = cos θ]
o
gravitational force on the container about

the point where the arm is fixed to the crane. = 400000 × cos ( 60 ) D
[Given: 1 ton = 1000 kg; neglect the weight of

1 ⎡ 1⎤
⎢cos 60 = 2 ⎥
D
the arm. g = 10 m s-2] = 400000 ×
2 ⎣ ⎦
3150
200000 N m
τ = 2 × 105 N m
r
r
30 Method – II
mg Let us take the force and perpendicular
\60
distance from the point where the arm is
fixed to the crane.
Solution
In many problems,G the angle

Note G
θ between r and F will not
r sin 60
be directly given. Thus,

r
the students must get accustomed to
identify and denote Galways the angle r
G
between the r and F as θ. The other mg
angles in the arrangement may be \60
denoted as α, β, ϕ etc. r cos 60
The force F at the point of suspension is τ = (r ⊥ ) F

due to the weight of the hanging mass. τ = r cos φ mg
F = mg = 2 × 1000 × 10 = 20000 N; τ = 20 × cos 60D × 20000

The arm length, r = 20 m 1
= 20 × × 20000
We can solve this problem by three different 2
methods. 200000 Nm
Method – I τ = 2 × 105 Nm
The angle (θ) between the arm length (r)
and the force (F) is, θ = 150o Method – III
The torque (τ) about the fixed point of Let us take the distance from the fixed
the arm is, point and perpendicular force.

60°
5.2.2 7RUTXHDERXWDQ$[LV
mg sin 60 mg cos 60
T=mg
In the earlier sections, we have dealt with
the torque about a point. In this section we
r will deal with the torque about an axis. Let
us consider a rigid body capable of rotating
about an axis AB as shown in Figure 5.8. Let
φ=60° the force F act at a point P on the rigid body.
The force F may not be on the plane ABP. We
can take the origin O at any random point
on the axis AB.
τ = r (F ⊥)
τ = r mg cos φ
A
τ = 20 × 20000 × cos 60D
P
1 F
= 20 × 20000 ×
2 r
O
200000 Nm
τ = 2 × 105 Nm
B
Figure 5.8. Torque about

All the three methods, give the same an axis
answer.
Tamil Nadu is known for creative and innovative

traditional games played by children. One such
very popular game is “silli” (zà) or “sillukodu”
(zà³ÔZ>T©). There is a rectangular area which
is further partitioned as seen in the Figure. One
has to hop through the rectangles. While doing so,
children lean on one side.
What is the reason?

Naturally the body takes this position to balance
the gravitational force (mg) and Normal force
(N) acting on the body and to nullify the torque.
Failing which, both these forces act along
different lines leading to a net torque which
makes one to fall.

G
The torque of the force F about O is, Hereafter, for the calculation of torques on
G G G rigid bodies we will:
τ = r × F. The component of the torque along
G
the axis is the torque of F about 1. Consider only those forces that lie on
the axis. To find it, we should first find the planes perpendicular to the axis (and do
G G G
vector τ = r × F and then find the angle φ not intersect the axis).
G
between τ and AB. (Remember here, F is not 2. Consider position vectors which are
on the plane ABP). The torque about AB is perpendicular to the axis.
the parallel component of the torque along
G G • Forces parallel to the
AB, which is r u F cos φ. And the torque Note
G G axis will give torques
perpendicular to the axis AB is r u F sin φ.
perpendicular to the axis
The torque about the axis will rotate the of rotation and need not
object about it and the torque perpendicular be taken into account.
to the axis will turn the axis of rotation. • Forces that intersect (pass
When both exist simultaneously on a rigid through) the axis cannot
body, the body will have a precession. One produce torque as r = 0.
can witness the precessional motion in a • Position vectors along the
spinning top when it is about to come to rest axis will result in torques
as shown in Figure 5.9. perpendicular to the axis and
need not be taken into account.
EX AM P L E 5 . 1 0
n Three mutually perpendicular beams AB,

Precessio
atio
n OC, GH are fixed to form a structure which
Rot
is fixed to the ground firmly as shown in
the Figure. One string is tied to the point
C and its free end D is pulled with a force
mg
F. Find the magnitude and direction of the
torque produced by the force,
(i) about the

Figure 5.9. Precession of a spinning top
points D, C, O
Study of precession is beyond the scope of and B
the higher secondary physics course. Hence, (ii) about the axes
it is assumed that there are constraints CD, OC, AB
to cancel the effect of the perpendicular and GH.
components of the torques, so that the
fixed position of the axis is maintained.
Therefore, perpendicular components of
the torque need not be taken into account.
Solution The torque of a force about an axis is
(i) Torque about point D is zero. (as F independent of the choice of the origin as
passes through D). long as it is chosen on that axis itself. This
can be shown as below.
Torque about point C is zero. (as F
passes through C). Let O be the origin on the axis AB, which

Torque about point O is ( OC ) × F and is the rotational axis of a rigid body. F is the
direction is along GH. force acting at the point P. Now, choose
another point O’ anywhere on the axis as
Torque about point B is BD F and
direction is along GH

(The ⊥ of BD with respect to F is OC). A
(ii) Torque about axis CD is zero (as F is P
parallel to CD). F
Torque about axis OC is zero (as F O′ r
intersects OC). O
Torque about axis AB is zero (as F is

parallel to AB). B

Torque about axis GH is ( OC ) × F and Figure 5.10. Torque about
direction is along GH. an axis is independent of origin
Identify the direction of torque in country press shown in picture

(in Tamil, ‘Marasekku’ IKÖY@Ô¤)

The torque of F about O’ is,
(
τ = mr 2 α) (5.14)

(
O′P × F = O′O + OP × F

) Hence, the torque of the force acting
(
= O′O × F + OP × F) ( ) on the point mass produces an angular
acceleration ( α ) in the point mass about the
axis of rotation.
As O′O × F is perpendicular to OcO , this
term will not have a component In vector notation,
along AB.
Thus, the
component
of O′P × F is equal to
that of OP u F.
G
( G
τ = mr 2 α) (5.15)
The directions of τ and α are along

5.2.3 RUTXHDQG$QJXODU
7 the axis of rotation. If the direction of τ is
Acceleration in the direction of α, it produces angular
Let us consider a rigid body rotating about acceleration. On the other hand if, τ is
a fixed axis. A point mass m in the body will opposite to α, angular deceleration or
execute a circular motion about a fixed axis retardation is produced on the point mass.
as
G shown in Figure 5.11. A tangential force The term mr 2 in equations 5.14 and 5.15
F acting on the point mass produces the
is called moment of inertia (I) of the point
necessary
G torque for this rotation. This force
G mass. A rigid body is made up of many such
F is perpendicular to the position vector r
point masses. Hence, the moment of inertia
of the point mass.
of a rigid body is the sum of moments of
τ inertia of all such individual point masses
α
F (
that constitute the body I = ∑miri 2 . )
Hence, torque for the rigid body can be
r m written as,
G
( G
τ = ∑mi ri 2 α ) (5.16)
G G
Figure 5.11. Torque and Angular τ = Iα (5.17)
acceleration
We will learn more about the moment of
The torque produced by the force on inertia and its significance for bodies with
the point mass m about the axis can be different shapes in section 5.4.
written as,
τ = r F sin90 = r F [' sin90 = 1] 5.2.4 Angular Momentum

τ = r ma ⎡⎣' ( F = ma ) ⎤⎦ The angular momentum in rotational
motion is equivalent to linear momentum
τ = r m rα = mr 2α ⎡⎣' ( a = rα ) ⎤⎦
in translational motion. The angular

momentum of a point mass is defined as EX AM P L E 5 . 1 1
the moment of its linear momentum. In
other words, the angular momentum L of a A particle of mass (m) is moving with
point mass having a linear momentum p at constant velocity (v). Show that its angular
a position r with respect to a point or axis is momentum about any point remains
mathematically written as, constant throughout the motion.
Solution
G G G
L = r×p (5.18)
Q θ
p
The magnitude of angular momentum could θ
be written as, d r
L = r p sin θ (5.19)
O
G G G
where, θ is the angle between r and p. L is Let the particle of mass m move with
G G
perpendicular to the plane containing r and constant velocity v. As it is moving with
G
p. As we have written in the case of torque, constant velocity, its path is a straight line.
G G
here also we can associate sin θ with either Its momentum ( p = mv ) is also directed
G G
r or p. along the same path. Let us fix an origin
(O) at a perpendicular distance (d) from
the path. At a particular instant, we can
L = r ( p sin θ ) = r ( p ⊥ ) (5.20) connect the particle which is at positon Q

L = ( r sin θ ) p = ( r ⊥ ) p (5.21)
(
with a position vector r = OQ . )
G G
Take, the angle between the r and p as θ.
The magnitude of angular momentum of
where, pA is the component of linear that particle at that instant is,
momentum p perpendicular to r, and rA is the
component of position r perpendicular to p. L = OQ p sin θ = OQ mv sin θ = mv ( OQ sin θ )
The angular momentum is zero ( L = 0 ),
if the linear momentum is zero (p = 0) or if
G G The term ( OQ sinθ ) is the perpendicular
the particle is at the origin ( r = 0 ) or if r and distance (d) between the origin and line
G
p are parallel or antiparallel to each other (θ along which the mass is moving. Hence,
= 00 or 1800). the angular momentum of the particle
There is a misconception that the angular about the origin is,
momentum is a quantity that is associated
only with rotational motion. It is not true. L mvd
The angular momentum is also associated
with bodies in the linear motion. Let us The above expression for angular
understand the same with the following momentum L, does not have the angle θ.
example. As the momentum (p = mv) and the
perpendicular distance (d) are constants,
L = rmrω
the angular momentum of the particle is also
constant. Hence, the angular momentum (
L = mr 2 ω ) (5.22)
is associated with bodies with linear motion
also. If the straight path of the particle The directions of L and ω are along the
passes through the origin, then the angular axis of rotation. The above expression can be
momentum is zero, which is also a constant. written in the vector notation as,
G
( G
L = mr 2 ω ) (5.23)
5.2.5 Angular Momentum
and Angular Velocity
As discussed earlier, the term mr 2 in
Let us consider a rigid body rotating about equations 5.22 and 5.23 is called moment of
a fixed axis. A point mass m in the body will inertia (I) of the point mass. A rigid body
execute a circular motion about the fixed is made up of many such point masses.
axis as shown in Figure 5.12. Hence, the moment of inertia of a rigid
L
body is the sum of moments of inertia of all
ω such individual point masses that constitute
( )
P
the body I = ∑miri 2 . Hence, the angular
momentum of the rigid body can be
r m
written as,
G
( G
L = ∑miri 2 ω ) (5.24)
G G
Figure 5.12. Angular momentum L = Iω (5.25)
and angular velocity
The study about moment of inertia (I) is
The point mass m is at a distance r from reserved for Section 5.4.
the axis of rotation. Its linear momentum
at any instant is tangential to the circular
G 5.2.6 RUTXHDQG$QJXODU
7
path. Then the angular momentum L is
G G Momentum
perpendicular to r and p. Hence, it is
directed along the axis of rotation. The angle We have the expression for magnitude of
G G
θ between r and p in this case is 90o. The angular momentum of a rigid body as,
magnitude of the angular momentum L L = I ω. The expression for magnitude of
could be written as, torque on a rigid body is, τ = I α
We can further write the expression for

D
L r mv sin90 r mv torque as,
where, v is the linear velocity. The relation

dω ⎛ dω ⎞
τ=I '⎜ α = (5.26)
dt ⎟⎠
between linear velocity v and angular velocity
ω in a circular motion is, v = r ω . Hence,
dt ⎝

Where, ω is angular velocity and α is there is no net force acting on the body.
angular acceleration. We can also write There is a lot of difference between the
equation 5.26 as, terms “no force” and “no net force” acting
on a body. The same argument holds good
d ( Iω ) for rotational conditions in terms of torque
τ= or moment of force.
dt
dL A rigid body is said to be in mechanical
τ= (5.27)
dt equilibrium when both its linear momentum
and angular momentum remain constant.
The above expression says that an
When the linear momentum remains
external torque on a rigid body fixed to
constant, the net force acting on the body
an axis produces rate of change of angular
is zero.
momentum in the body about that axis.
This is the Newton’s second law in rotational G
dp Fnet 0 (5.28)
motion as it is in the form of F which
dt
holds good for translational motion.
In this condition, the body is said to be in
Conservation of angular momentum: translational equilibrium. This implies
that
From the above expression we could the vector sum of different forces F1 , F2 , F3 …
conclude that in the absence of external acting in different directions on the body is
torque, the angular momentum of the rigid zero.
body or system of particles is conserved.

F1 + F2 + F3 + + Fn = 0 (5.29)
dL
If τ = 0 then, = 0; L = constant
dt
If the forces F1 , F2 , F3 … act in different
The above expression is known as law directions on the body, we can resolve them
of conservation of angular momentum. into horizontal and vertical components
We will learn about this law further in and then take the resultant in the respective
section 5.5. directions. In this case there will be horizontal
as well as vertical equilibria possible.
5.3 Similarly, when the angular momentum
EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID remains constant, the net torque acting on
BODIES the body is zero.
When a body is at rest without any motion

G
on a table, we say that there is no force τnet = 0 (5.30)
acting on the body. Actually it is wrong
because, there is gravitational force acting Under this condition, the body is said to
on the body downward and also the normal be in rotational equilibrium. The vector sum

force exerted by table on the body upward. of different torques W1 , W2 , W3 … producing
These two forces cancel each other and thus different senses of rotation on the body is zero.
As the forces and torques are vector
τ1 + τ2 + τ3 + + τn = 0 (5.31)
quantities, the directions are to be taken
with proper sign conventions.
Thus, we can also conclude that a rigid
body is in mechanical equilibrium when the
5.3.1 7\SHVRI(TXLOLEULXP
net force and net torque acts on the body is
zero. Based on the above discussions, we come to a
conclusion that different types of equilibrium
G G are possible based on the different conditions.
Fnet 0 and τnet = 0 (5.32)
They are consolidated in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Different types of Equilibrium and their Conditions.

Type of Conditions
equilibrium
Translational Linear momentum is constant.
equilibrium Net force is zero.
Rotational Angular momentum is constant.
equilibrium Net torque is zero.
Static Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero.
equilibrium Net force and net torque are zero.
Dynamic Linear momentum and angular momentum are constant.
equilibrium Net force and net torque are zero.
Stable Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero.
equilibrium The body tries to come back to equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
released.
The center of mass of the body shifts slightly higher if disturbed from
equilibrium.
Potential energy of the body is minimum and it increases if disturbed.
Unstable Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero.
equilibrium The body cannot come back to equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
released.
The center of mass of the body shifts slightly lower if disturbed from
equilibrium.
Potential energy of the body is not minimum and it decreases if disturbed.
Neutral Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero.
equilibrium The body remains at the same equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
released.
The center of mass of the body does not shift higher or lower if disturbed
from equilibrium.
Potential energy remains same even if disturbed.

EXA MPL E 5 .1 2 For rotational equilibrium:
Arun and Babu carry a wooden log of mass

28 kg and length 10 m which has almost
uniform thickness. They hold it at 1 m and
2 m from the ends respectively. Who will
bear more weight of the log? [g = 10 ms-2]
The net torque acting on the log
Solution must be zero. For ease of calculation,
we can take the torque caused by all the
Let us consider the log is in mechanical
forces about the point A on the log. The
equilibrium. Hence, the net force and net torque
forces are perpendicular to the distances.
on the log must be zero. The gravitational force
Hence,
acts at the center of mass of the log downwards.
It is cancelled by the normal reaction forces
RA and RB applied upwards by Arun and Babu ( 0R A ) + ( −4mg ) + ( 7R B ) = 0.
at points A and B respectively. These reaction
forces are the weights borne by them. Here, the reaction force RA cannot
produce any torque as the reaction forces
The total weight, W = mg = 28 × 10 =
pass through the point of reference A. The
280 N, has to be borne by them together.
torque of force mg produces a clockwise
The reaction forces are the weights borne
turn about the point A which is taken
by each of them separately. Let us show all
negative and torque of force RB causes
the forces acting on the log by drawing a
anticlockwise turn about A which is taken
free body diagram of the log.
positive.
For translational equilibrium:
The net force acting on the log must be 7R B 4mg
zero. 4
RB mg
7
R A + ( −mg ) + R B = 0
4
R B = × 28 × 10 = 160 N
7
By substituting for RB we get,
R A = mg − R B
Here, the forces RA an RB are R A = 28 × 10 − 160 = 280 − 160 = 120 N

taken positive as they act upward. The
gravitational force acting downward is As RB is greater than RA, it is concluded
taken negative. that Babu bears more weight than Arun.
The one closer to center of mass of the log
R A + R B = mg bears more weight.

cause the same sense of rotation in the
5.3.2 Couple
rod. Thus, the rod undergoes a rotational
Consider a thin uniform rod AB. Its center motion or turning even though the rod is in
of mass is at its midpoint C. Let two forces translational equilibrium.
which are equal in magnitude and opposite
A pair of forces which are equal in
in direction be applied at the two ends
magnitude but opposite in direction and
A and B of the rod perpendicular to it. The
separated by a perpendicular distance so
two forces are separated by a distance of 2r
that their lines of action do not coincide that
causes a turning effect is called a couple. We
come across couple in many of our daily
activities as shown in Figure 5.14.
A B
r C r
There are cases in which the
Note
two forces may not cancel
Figure 5.13. Couple each other. If the two forces
are not equal or the direction of the
As the two equal forces are opposite in forces is not exactly opposite, then the
direction, they cancel each other and the body will have both translational as
net force acting on the rod is zero. Now the well as rotational motion.
rod is in translational equilibrium. But, the
rod is not in rotational equilibrium. Let us
see how it is not in rotational equilibrium.
5.3.3 Principle of Moments
The moment of the force applied at the end
A taken with respect to the center point Consider a light rod of negligible mass
C, produces an anticlockwise rotation. which is pivoted at a point along its length.
Similarly, the moment of the force applied Let two parallel forces F1 and F2 act at the two
at the end B also produces an anticlockwise ends at distances d1 and d2 from the point
rotation. The moments of both the forces of pivot and the normal reaction force N at
F
F
r r r
Figure 5.14. Turning effect of Couple

the point of pivot as shown in Figure 5.15.
d2
If the rod has to remain stationary in Mechanical Advantage ( MA ) = (5.35)
d1
horizontal position, it should be in
translational and rotational equilibrium. There are many simple machines that
Then, both the net force and net torque work on the above mentioned principle.
must be zero.
N 5.3.4 Center of Gravity

Each rigid body is made up of several point
d1 d2 masses. Such point masses experience
gravitational force towards the center of
F1 F2
Earth. As the size of Earth is very large
Figure 5.15. Principle of Moments compared to any practical rigid body we
come across in daily life, these forces appear
For net force to be zero, −F1 + N − F2 = 0 to be acting parallelly downwards as shown
in Figure 5.16.
N = F1 + F2
C
For net torque to be zero, d1F1 − d 2F2 = 0
d1F1 d 2F2 (5.33)

W3 W1
W5
The above equation represents the principle of W2
W W4
moments. This forms the principle for beam
balance used for weighing goods with the
condition d1 = d2; F1 = F2. We can rewrite the Figure 5.16. Center of gravity
equation 5.33 as,
The resultant of these parallel forces
always acts through a point. This point
F1 d2
(5.34) is called center of gravity of the body
F2 d1
(with respect to Earth). The center of
gravity of a body is the point at which the
If F1 is the load and F2 is our effort, we entire weight of the body acts irrespective
get advantage when, d1< d2. This implies of the position and orientation of the
that F1> F2. Hence, we could lift a large load body. The center of gravity and center of
⎛d ⎞ mass of a rigid body coincide when the
with small effort. The ratio ⎜ 2 ⎟ is called gravitational field is uniform across the
⎝ d1 ⎠
mechanical advantage of the simple lever. body. The concept of gravitational field
The pivoted point is called fulcrum. is dealt in Unit 6.

We can also determine the center of gravity points like P, Q, R as shown in Figure 5.18,
of a uniform lamina of even an irregular the vertical lines PP', QQ', RR' all pass
shape by pivoting it at various points by trial through the center of gravity. Here, reaction
and error. The lamina remains horizontal force acting at the point of suspension and
when pivoted at the point where the net the gravitational force acting at the center
gravitational force acts, which is the center of of gravity cancel each other and the torques
gravity as shown in Figure 5.17. When a body caused by them also cancel each other.
is supported at the center of gravity, the sum
of the torques acting on all the point masses
of the rigid body becomes zero. Moreover the
weight is compensated by the normal reaction
force exerted by the pivot. The body is in static
equilibrium and hence it remains horizontal.
C
5.3.5 Bending of Cyclist in
Curves
Let us consider a cyclist negotiating a
circular level road (not banked) of radius r
with a speed v. The cycle and the cyclist are
considered as one system with mass m. The
center gravity of the system is C and it goes
Figure 5.17. Determination of
center of gravity of plane lamina by in a circle of radius r with center at O. Let us
pivoting choose the line OC as X-axis and the
vertical line through O as Z-axis as shown
There is also another way to determine in Figure 5.19.
the center of gravity of an irregular lamina.
If we suspend the lamina from different
P P
Q:
R C
R R:
Q
Q
P:
Figure 5.18. Determination of center of

gravity of plane lamina by suspending Figure 5.19. Bending of cyclist

The system as a frame is rotating The torque due to the gravitational force
about Z-axis. The system is at rest in about point A is ( mg AB ) which causes a
this rotating frame. To solve problems clockwise turn that is taken as negative.
in rotating frame of reference, we have The torque due to the centripetal force is
to apply a centrifugal force (pseudo
⎛ mv 2 ⎞
mv 2
⎜ BC ⎟ which causes an anticlockwise
force) on the system which will be . ⎝ r ⎠
r turn that is taken as positive.
This force will act through the center of
gravity. The forces acting on the system
mv 2
are, (i) gravitational force (mg), (ii) −mg AB + BC = 0
r
normal force (N), (iii) frictional force (f )
⎛ mv 2 ⎞ mv 2
and (iv) centrifugal force ⎜ mg AB BC
⎝ r ⎟⎠
. As the
r
system is in equilibrium in the rotational
frame of reference, the net external force From Δ ABC,
and net external torque must be zero. Let AB = AC sin θ and BC = AC cos θ
us consider all torques about the point A in
Figure 5.20.
mv 2
mg AC sin θ = AC cos θ
r
v2
tan θ =
mv2
rg
R
C ⎛ v2 ⎞
θ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ (5.36)
θ ⎝ rg ⎠
mg While negotiating a circular level road of

radius r at velocity v, a cyclist has to bend by
N an angle θ from vertical given by the above
θ expression to stay in equilibrium (i.e. to
A avoid a fall).
f B
Figure 5.20 Force diagrams for
the cyclist in turns
EX AM P L E 5 . 1 3
A cyclist while negotiating a circular path
For rotational equilibrium, with speed 20 m s-1 is found to bend an
angle by 30o with vertical. What is the
G radius of the circular path? (given,
τnet = 0
g = 10 m s-2)
Solution motion, moment of inertia is a measure
Speed of the cyclist, v = 20 m s-1 of rotational inertia. The unit of moment
Angle of bending with vertical, θ = 30o of inertia is, kg m2. Its dimension is M L2.
In general, mass is an invariable quantity
v2
Equation for angle of bending, tan θ = of matter (except for motion comparable
rg
to that of light). But, the moment of inertia
Rewriting the above equation for radius of a body is not an invariable quantity. It
v2 depends not only on the mass of the body,
r=
tan θ g but also on the way the mass is distributed
Substituting, around the axis of rotation.
To find the moment of inertia of a
( 20 )
2
20 × 20 uniformly distributed mass; we have to
r= =
( tan 30 ) × 10 (
D
)
tan 30D × 10 consider an infinitesimally small mass (dm)
400 as a point mass and take its position (r) with
= respect to an axis. The moment of inertia of
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ × 10 this point mass can now be written as,
⎝ 3⎠
r= ( 3 ) × 40 = 1.732 × 40 dI = ( dm ) r 2 (5.39)
r 69.28 m
We get the moment of inertia of the entire
bulk object by integrating the above
5.4 expression.
MOMENT OF INERTIA
In the expressions for torque and angular I = ∫dI = ∫ ( dm ) r 2

momentum for rigid bodies (which are
considered as bulk objects), we have come I = ∫r 2dm (5.40)
across a term 6mi ri2. This quantity is called
moment of inertia (I) of the bulk object. For We can use the above expression for
point mass mi at a distance ri from the fixed determining the moment of inertia of some
axis, the moment of inertia is given as, mi ri 2. of the common bulk objects of interest like
rod, ring, disc, sphere etc.
Moment of inertia for point mass,
I miri 2 (5.37) 5.4.1 Moment of Inertia of a

Uniform Rod
Moment of inertia for bulk object,
Let us consider a uniform rod of mass (M)
I = ∑miri 2
(5.38) and length (A) as shown in Figure 5.21. Let
us find an expression for moment of inertia
In translational motion, mass is a measure of this rod about an axis that passes through
of inertia; in the same way, for rotational the center of mass and perpendicular to
dm
A /2
M ⎡ x3 ⎤
A /2
M
A − ∫A/2
dx I= x 2
dx = ⎢ ⎥
O A ⎣ 3 ⎦ − A /2
M ⎡ A3 ⎛ A3 ⎞ ⎤ M ⎡ A3 A3 ⎤
x I = ⎢ − ⎜ − ⎟⎥ = ⎢ + ⎥
A ⎣ 24 ⎝ 24 ⎠ ⎦ A ⎣ 24 24 ⎦
−/2 /2
M ⎡ ⎛ A3 ⎞ ⎤
I = ⎢2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
A ⎣ ⎝ 24 ⎠ ⎦
Figure 5.21 Moment of inertia of
uniform rod 1
I= MA2 (5.41)
12
the rod. First an origin is to be fixed for

the coordinate system so that it coincides EX AM P L E 5 . 1 4
with the center of mass, which is also the
geometric center of the rod. The rod is now Find the moment of inertia of a uniform
along the x axis. We take an infinitesimally rod about an axis which is perpendicular
small mass (dm) at a distance (x) from the to the rod and touches any one end of
origin. The moment of inertia (dI) of this the rod.
mass (dm) about the axis is,
Solution
The concepts to form the integrand to find
dI = ( dm ) x 2
the moment of inertia could be borrowed
from the earlier derivation. Now, the origin
As the mass is uniformly distributed, the is fixed to the left end of the rod and the
M limits are to be taken from 0 to A.
mass per unit length (λ) of the rod is, λ
A
The (dm) mass of the infinitesimally dm
M
small length as, dm = λ dx = dx dx
A
The moment of inertia (I) of the entire
rod can be found by integrating dI, O
x

⎛M ⎞
I = ∫dI = ∫ ( dm ) x 2 = ∫ ⎜ dx ⎟ x 2
⎝ A ⎠
M 2
A ∫
A
I= x dx M
A
M ⎡ x 3 ⎤ M ⎡ A3 ⎤
I = ∫x 2 dx = ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
A 0 A ⎣ 3 ⎦0 A ⎣ 3 ⎦
As the mass is distributed on either side 1
of the origin, the limits for integration are I MA2
3
taken from A / 2 to A / 2.
distributed, the mass per unit length (λ) is,
mass M
Note
The moment of inertia of λ= =
the same uniform rod is length 2πR
different about different axes The mass (dm) of the infinitesimally
of reference. The reference axes could M
be even outside the object. We have two small length is, dm = λ dx = dx
2πR
useful theorems to calculate the moments
Now, the moment of inertia (I) of the
of inertia about different axes. We shall
entire ring is,
see these theorems in Section 5.4.5.
⎛ M ⎞
I = ∫dI = ∫ ( dm ) R 2 = ∫ ⎜ dx ⎟ R 2
⎝ 2πR ⎠
5.4.2 Moment of Inertia of a
Uniform Ring MR
2π ∫
I= dx
Let us consider a uniform ring of mass M
and radius R. To find the moment of inertia
To cover the entire length of the ring, the
of the ring about an axis passing through its
limits of integration are taken from 0 to 2πR .
center and perpendicular to the plane, let us
take an infinitesimally small mass (dm) of
2 πR
length (dx) of the ring. This (dm) is located MR
at a distance R, which is the radius of the
I=
2π ∫ dx
0
ring from the axis as shown in Figure 5.22.
MR 2 πR MR
I=
2π
[ x ]0 = 2π [2πR − 0]
I MR 2 (5.42)
dm
R dx
5.4.3 Moment of Inertia of a
Uniform Disc
Consider a disc of mass M and radius R. This
disc is made up of many infinitesimally small
Figure 5.22 Moment of rings as shown in Figure 5.23. Consider one
inertia of a uniform ring such ring of mass (dm) and thickness (dr)
and radius (r). The moment of inertia (dI)
The moment of inertia (dI) of this small of this small ring is,
mass (dm) is,
dI = ( dm ) r 2
dI = ( dm ) R 2
As the mass is uniformly distributed, the
The length of the ring is its circumference mass M
mass per unit area (σ) is, σ = =
( 2πR ). As the mass is uniformly area πR 2
5.4.4 Radius of Gyration
For bulk objects of regular shape with
uniform mass distribution, the expression
for moment of inertia about an axis involves
their total mass and geometrical features
like radius, length, breadth, which take care
of the shape and the size of the objects. But,
we need an expression for the moment of
inertia which could take care of not only
Figure 5.23 Moment of inertia of a the mass, shape and size of objects, but also
uniform disc its orientation to the axis of rotation. Such
an expression should be general so that it is
applicable even for objects of irregular shape
The mass of the infinitesimally small
and non-uniform distribution of mass. The
ring is,
general expression for moment of inertia is
given as,
M
dm = σ2πrdr = 2πrdr
πR 2
I M K2 (5.44)
where, the term ( 2πr dr ) is the area of this where, M is the total mass of the object and
elemental ring (2πr is the length and dr is K is called the radius of gyration.
2M The radius of gyration of an object is
the thickness). dm rdr
R2 the perpendicular distance from the axis of
rotation to an equivalent point mass, which
2M 3 would have the same mass as well as the same
dI r dr
R2 moment of inertia of the object.
As the radius of gyration is distance, its
The moment of inertia (I) of the entire unit is m. Its dimension is L.
disc is,
A rotating rigid body with respect to any
axis, is considered to be made up of point
I = ∫dI masses m1, m2, m3, . . .mn at perpendicular
R R
distances (or positions) r1, r2, r3 . . . rn
2M 2M
I = ∫ 2 r 3dr = 2 ∫ r 3dr respectively as shown in Figure 5.24.
0
R R 0
The moment of inertia of that object can
R
2M ⎡ r 4 ⎤ 2M ⎡ R 4 ⎤ be written as,
I = 2 ⎢ ⎥ = 2 ⎢ − 0⎥
R ⎣ 4 ⎦0 R ⎣ 4 ⎦ I = ∑mi ri 2 = m1r12 + m2r22 + m3r32 + " + m nrn 2
1
I MR 2 (5.43) If we take all the n number of individual
2
masses to be equal,
In fact, the moment of inertia of any object
could be expressed in the form, I = MK 2.
For example, let us take the moment
of inertia of a uniform rod of mass M and
m1 length A. Its moment of inertia with respect
m2
r1 to a perpendicular axis passing through the
r2 1
center of mass is, I = MA2
12
r4 m4
m3 r3 In terms of radius of gyration, I MK 2
1
C Hence, MK 2 = MA2
12
1
K 2 = A2
12
Figure 5.24 Radius of gyration
l l
K= A or K = A or K = (0.289) A
12 2 3
m = m1 = m2 = m3 = . . . = m n EX AM P L E 5 . 1 5
Find the radius of gyration of a disc of
then, mass M and radius R rotating about an axis
passing through the center of mass and
perpendicular to the plane of the disc.
I = mr12 + mr22 + mr32 + " + mrn 2
Solution
(
= m r12 + r22 + r32 + " + rn 2 )
The moment of inertia of a disc about an
⎛ r + r2 + r3 + " + rn ⎞
2 2 2 2
axis passing through the center of mass
= nm ⎜ 1
⎟ 1
⎝ n ⎠ and perpendicular to the disc is, I MR 2
2
I MK 2
In terms of radius of gyration, I MK 2
1 1 2
where, nm is the total mass M of the body Hence, MK 2 MR 2; K 2 R
2 2
and K is the radius of gyration.
l l
K R or K R or K = ( 0.707 ) R
2 1.414
r12 + r22 + r32 + " + rn 2
K= (5.45) From the case of a rod and also a disc, we
n
can conclude that the radius of gyration
of the rigid body is always a geometrical
The expression for radius of gyration feature like length, breadth, radius or their
indicates that it is the root mean square (rms) combinations with a positive numerical
distance of the particles of the body from the value multiplied to it.
axis of rotation.
If IC is the moment of inertia of the body
Obesity, torque and of mass M about an axis passing through the
Moment of Inertia! center of mass, then the moment of inertia I
about a parallel axis at a distance d from it is
given by the relation,
N N
I = IC + Md 2 (5.46)
r
Let us consider a rigid body as shown in
mg
Figure 5.25. Its moment of inertia about an
mg axis AB passing through the center of mass
is IC. DE is another axis parallel to AB at
a perpendicular distance d from AB. The
moment of inertia of the body about DE is
Obesity and associated ailments like back I. We attempt to get an expression for I in
pain, joint pain etc. are due to the shift terms of IC. For this, let us consider a point
in center of mass of the body. Due to this
mass m on the body at position x from its
shift in center of mass, unbalanced torque
center of mass.
acting on the body leads to ailments. As
the mass is spread away from center of the D A
body the moment of inertia is more and
turning will also be difficult.
5.4.5 Theorems of Moment d x

of Inertia P
C
As the moment of inertia depends on the
axis of rotation and also the orientation
of the body about that axis, it is different
for the same body with different axes of
rotation. We have two important theorems E B
to handle the case of shifting the axis of
rotation. Figure 5.25 Parallel axis theorem
(i) Parallel axis theorem: The moment of inertia of the point mass
about the axis DE is, m ( x + d ) .
2
Parallel axis theorem states that the moment
of inertia of a body about any axis is equal The moment of inertia I of the whole
to the sum of its moment of inertia about a body about DE is the summation of the
parallel axis through its center of mass and above expression.
the product of the mass of the body and the
square of the perpendicular distance between I = ∑m ( x + d )
2
the two axes.

This equation could further be written as, the body about X and Y-axes are I X and IY
respectively and IZ is the moment of inertia
(
I = ∑m x 2 + d 2 + 2 xd ) about Z-axis, then the perpendicular axis
theorem could be expressed as,
(
I = ∑ mx 2 + md 2 + 2dmx )
I = ∑mx 2 + ∑md 2 + 2d ∑mx IZ = I X + I Y (5.47)
To prove this theorem, let us consider a plane

Here, ∑mx 2 is the moment of inertia of
laminar object of negligible thickness on
the body about the center of mass. Hence,
which lies the origin (O). The X and Y-axes
IC = ∑mx 2 lie on the plane and Z-axis is perpendicular
to it as shown in Figure 5.26. The lamina is
The term, ∑mx = 0 because, x can take
considered to be made up of a large number
positive and negative values with respect to
(
the axis AB. The summation ∑mx will be ) of particles of mass m. Let us choose one such
particle at a point P which has coordinates
zero.
(x, y) at a distance r from O.
Thus, I = IC + ∑md 2 = IC + ( ∑m ) d 2
Z
Here, 6m is the entire mass M of the Y
(
object ∑m = M ) x p
m
r y
X
O
I = IC + Md 2
Hence, the parallel axis theorem is Figure 5.26 Perpendicular axis theorem
proved.
The moment of inertia of the particle
(ii) Perpendicular axis theorem: about Z-axis is, mr 2
This perpendicular axis theorem holds good The summation of the above expression
only for plane laminar objects. gives the moment of inertia of the entire
The theorem states that the moment of lamina about Z-axis as, IZ = ∑mr 2
inertia of a plane laminar body about an
axis perpendicular to its plane is equal to Here, r 2 = x 2 + y 2
the sum of moments of inertia about two (
Then, IZ = ∑m x 2 + y 2 )
perpendicular axes lying in the plane of the
body such that all the three axes are mutually
perpendicular and have a common point. IZ = ∑mx 2 + ∑my 2
Let the X and Y-axes lie in the plane and

Z-axis perpendicular to the plane of the In the above expression, the term 6mx 2 is
laminar object. If the moments of inertia of the moment of inertia of the body about the
Y-axis and similarly the term 6my 2 is the
moment of inertia about X-axis. Thus,
I X = ∑my 2 and IY = ∑mx 2
Substituting in the equation for Iz gives,
IZ = I X + IY
1
I MR 2
Thus, the perpendicular axis theorem is 2
proved. 1
I = × 3 × ( 0. 5 ) = 0 . 5 × 3 × 0. 5 × 0. 5
2
2
I 0.375 kg m2
(ii) The moment of inertia (I) about an axis

touching the edge and perpendicular
to the plane of the disc by parallel axis
theorem is,
EXA MPL E 5 .1 6
Find the moment of inertia of a disc of mass
3 kg and radius 50 cm about the following
axes.
(i) axis passing through the center
and perpendicular to the plane of
the disc,
(ii) axis touching the edge and
perpendicular to the plane of the disc
and I = IC + M d 2
(iii) axis passing through the center
and lying on the plane of the
1
disc. where, IC MR 2 and d = R
2
Solution
The mass, M = 3 kg, radius R = 50 cm = 1 3
I = MR 2 + MR 2 = MR 2
50 × 10−2 m = 0.5 m 2 2
(i) The moment of inertia (I) about an 3
I = × 3 × ( 0. 5 ) = 1. 5 × 3 × 0. 5 × 0. 5
2
axis passing through the center and 2
perpendicular to the plane of the
disc is, I 1.125 kg m2

(iii) The moment of inertia (I) about an Solution
axis passing through the center and
The structure is made up of three objects;
lying on the plane of the disc is, one thin rod and two solid spheres.
The mass of the rod, M = 3 kg and the
total length of the rod, ℓ = 80 cm = 0.8 m
The moment of inertia of the rod
1
about its center of mass is, Irod MA2
12
1 1
× 3 × ( 0.8 ) = × 0.64
2
Irod =
12 4
IZ = I X + IY
Irod 0.16 kg m2
where, I X IY I and IZ
1
MR 2 The mass of the sphere, M = 5 kg and the
2 radius of the sphere, R = 10 cm = 0.1 m
The moment of inertia of the sphere
1
IZ 2I; I IZ about its center of mass is, IC 2
2 MR 2
5
1 1 1
I = × MR 2 = MR 2 The moment of inertia of the sphere
2 2 4
about geometric center of the structure is,
1
I = × 3 × ( 0.5 ) = 0.25 × 3 × 0.5 × 0.5
2
Isph = IC + Md 2
4
I 0.1875 kg m2 Where, d = 40 cm + 10 cm = 50 cm = 0.5 m
About which of the above axis it is 2

Isph = MR 2 + Md 2
easier to rotate the disc? 5
2
Isph = × 5 × ( 0.1) + 5 × ( 0.5 )
2 2
It is easier to rotate the disc about 5
an axis about which the moment of Isph = (2 × 0.01) + (5 × 0.25) = 0.02 + 1.25
inertia is the least. Hence, it is case (iii). Isph 1.27 kg m2
As there are one rod and two similar solid

EXA MPL E 5 .1 7 spheres we can write the total moment of
Find the moment of inertia about the inertia (I) of the given geometric structure
geometric center of the given structure made as, I = Irod + (2 × Isph )
up of one thin rod connecting two similar
solid spheres as shown in Figure. I = (0.16) + (2 × 1.27) = 0.16 + 2.54
I 2.7 kg m2
5.4.6 Moment of Inertia of

Different Rigid Bodies
The moment of inertia of different objects
about different axes is given in the Table 5.3.
5.5 Solution
ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS
R
The relations among torque, angular
acceleration, angular momentum, m1
angular velocity and moment of inertia

were seen in Section 5.2. In continuation
to that, in this section, we will learn the
relations among the other dynamical
quantities like work, kinetic energy in
m2
rotational motion of rigid bodies. Finally
a comparison between the translational
and rotational quantities is made with a Let the mass of the disc be m1 and its
tabulation. radius R. The mass of the suspended
body is m2.
m1 = 500 g = 500×10−3 kg =0.5 kg

5.5.1 IIHFWRI7RUTXHRQ
(
Rigid Bodies m2 = 100 g = 100×10−3 kg = 0.1 kg
R = 10 cm = 10×10−2 m = 0.1 m
A rigid body which has non zero external
torque ( τ ) about the axis of rotation would
As the light inextensible string is wound
have an angular acceleration ( α ) about
around the disc several times it makes
that axis. The scalar relation between the
the disc rotate without slipping over it.
torque and angular acceleration is,
The translational acceleration of m2 and
tangential acceleration of m1 will be the
τ = Iα (5.48) same. Let us draw the free body diagram
(FBD) of m1 and m2 separately.
where, I is the moment of inertia of the rigid
body. The torque in rotational motion is FBD of the disc:
equivalent to the force in linear motion.
N
EXA MPLE 5 .1 8
A disc of mass 500 g and radius 10 cm
can freely rotate about a fixed axis as R
m1
shown in figure. light and inextensible
string is wound several turns around
it and 100 g body is suspended at its
free end. Find the acceleration of this
mass. [Given: The string makes the
disc to rotate and does not slip over it.
T m1 g
g = 10 m s-2.]
Table 5.3 Moment of Inertia of Different Rigid Bodies
244
Ratio
Moment of Radius of Gyration ⎛ K 2 ⎞
No. Object About an axis Diagram
Inertia (I) kg m2 (K) ⎜ 2⎟
⎝R ⎠
1 1
Thin Uniform Rod Passing through the center and perpendicular to the length M2
12 12
1. --
Mass = M 1 2 1
Length = A Touching one end and perpendicular to the length M
3 3
Thin Uniform 1
Rectangular Sheet Passing through the center and perpendicular to the plane of the M (2 b2 ) (2 b2 )
2. 12 --
Mass = M; Length = A; sheet 12
Breadth = b
Passing through the center and perpendicular to the plane MR 2 R 1
Touching the edge perpendicular to the plane (perpendicular 2 MR 2

Thin Uniform Ring tangent)
( 2)R 2
3. Mass = M
Radius = R 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
Passing through the center lying on the plane (along diameter) MR 2 ⎜ ⎟R
2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2
3 ⎛ 3⎞ 3
Touching the edge parallel to the plane (parallel tangent) MR 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ R
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
1 1 1
Passing through the center and perpendicular to the plane MR R
2 √2 2
Touching the edge perpendicular to the plane (perpendicular 3 3

MR R
Thin Uniform Disc tangent to the plane) 2 2
4. Mass = M
Radius = R 1 1 1
Passing through the center lying on the plane (along diameter) MR R
4 2 4
Touching the edge parallel to the plane (parallel tangent to the 5 5

MR R
plane) 4 4 4
Unit 5 Motion of System of Particles and R igid B odies

Passing through the center and along the axis of the cylinder MR R 1
Thin Uniform Hollow
Cylinder
5.
Mass = M
Length = A; Radius = R R 2 R 2
Passing perpendicular to the length and passing through the center M + + --
2 12 2 12
Uniform Passing through the center and along the axis of the cylinder 1 1 1
Solid Cylinder MR
2 √2 2
6.
Mass = M
Length = A; Radius = R Passing perpendicular to the length and passing through the center R 2 R 2
M + +
4 12 4 12 --
Passing through the center 2 2

Thin Hollow Sphere (along diameter)
MR R
3 3
(Thin Spherical Shell)
7.
Mass = M
Radius = R Touching the edge 5 5 5
(tangent)
MR R
3 3 3
Unit 5 Motion of System of Pa rticles and R igid B odies

Passing through the center 2 2
Uniform (along diameter)
MR R
5 5
Solid Sphere
8.
Mass = M
Radius = R Touching the edge 7 7
(tangent)
MR R
5 5
245
Its gravitational force (m1g) acts downward
and normal force N exerted by the fixed
(
m 2 g − m1K 2 ) Ra 2
= m2a
support at the center acts upward. The (

m 2 g = m1K 2 ) Ra
2
+ m2a
tension T acts downward at the edge. The
gravitational force (m1g) and the normal ⎡⎛ K 2 ⎞ ⎤
force (N) cancel each other. m1g = N m2g = ⎢⎜ m1 2 ⎟ + m2 ⎥ a
⎣⎝ R ⎠ ⎦
The tension T produces a torque (R T),
which produces a rotational motion in the m2
a= g
⎛ a⎞ ⎡⎛ K 2 ⎞ ⎤
disc with angular acceleration, ⎜ α = ⎟ . ⎢⎜ m1 2 ⎟ + m2 ⎥
⎝ R⎠ ⎣⎝ R ⎠ ⎦
Here, a is the linear acceleration of a point
at the edge of the disc. If the moment of
inertia of the disc is I and its radius of ⎛ K2 ⎞
The expression ⎜ 2 ⎟ for a disc rotating
gyration is K, then ⎝R ⎠
about an axis passing through the center
K2 1
R T = I α; (
R T = m1K 2 ) Ra and perpendicular to the plane is, 2
R 2
.
(Ref Table 5.3) Now the expression for

(
T = m1K 2 ) Ra 2 acceleration further simplifies as,
FBD of the body: m2 2m 2

a= g; a= g
Its gravitational force (m2g) acts downward ⎡⎛ m1 ⎞ ⎤ [m1 + 2m2 ]
⎢⎜ 2 ⎟ + m 2 ⎥
and the tension T acts upward. As ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦
(T < m2g), there is a resultant force (m2a)
acting on it downward.
substituting the values,
T
2 × 0. 1 0.2
a= × 10 = u 10
[ 0. 5 + 0. 2 ] 0.7
m2 m2a
a = 2.857 m s −2
5.5.2 Conservation of
m2g
Angular Momentum
When no external torque acts on the body,
m 2 g − T = m 2a the net angular momentum of a rotating
rigid body remains constant. This is
Substituting for T from the equation for known as law of conservation of angular
disc, momentum.
thus the angular velocity increases resulting
dL
τ= in faster spin.
dt
A diver while in air as in Figure 5.28
If τ = 0 then, L constant (5.49)
curls the body close to decrease the moment
As the angular momentum is L = I ω, the of inertia, which in turn helps to increase
conservation of angular momentum could the number of somersaults in air.
further be written for initial and final
situations as,
Ii ωi = I f ω f (or) IZ = constant (5.50)
The above equations say that if I increases

ω will decrease and vice-versa to keep the
angular momentum constant.
There are several situations where
the principle of conservation of angular
momentum is applicable. One striking
example is an ice dancer as shown in Figure 5.28 Conservation of angular
Figure 5.27. The dancer spins slowly when momentum for a diver
the hands are stretched out and spins faster
when the hands are brought close to the
body. Stretching of hands away from body
increases moment of inertia, thus the angular
velocity decreases resulting in slower spin.
When the hands are brought close to the
body, the moment of inertia decreases, and
I - large I - small
ω - small ω - large
Figure 5.27 Conservation of angular momentum for ice dancer

EXA MPLE 5 .1 9
A jester in a circus is standing with his
arms extended on a turn table rotating with
angular velocity ω. He brings his arms closer
to his body so that his moment of inertia is
reduced to one third of the original value.
Find his new angular velocity. [Given: There
is no external torque on the turn table in
the given situation.]
Solution
Let the moment of inertia of the jester
with his arms extended be I. As there is
no external torque acting on the jester Figure 5.29 Work done by torque
and the turn table, his total angular
momentum is conserved. We can write
the equation, dw F ds
As the distance ds, the angle of rotation dθ

Ii ωi = I f ω f
and radius r are related by the expression,
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Iω = Iωf '⎜ I f = I ⎟ ds = r dθ
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠
ωf = 3ω The expression for work done now becomes,
The above result tells that the final angular dw = F ds; dw = F r dθ

velocity is three times that of initial angular
velocity. The term (Fr) is the torque τ produced by
the force on the body.
dw = τ dθ (5.51)
5.5.3 :RUNGRQHE\7RUTXH
Let us consider a rigid body rotating This expression gives the work done by the
about a fixed axis. Figure 5.29 shows a external torque τ, which acts on the body
point P on the body rotating about an axis rotating about a fixed axis through an angle dθ.
perpendicular to the plane of the page. A The corresponding expression for work
tangential force F is applied on the body. done in translational motion is,
It produces a small displacement ds
dw F ds
on the body. The work done (dw) by the
force is,

2
5.5.4 Kinetic Energy in where, the term 6m r i i is the moment of
Rotation inertia I of the whole body. I = Σmiri2
Let us consider a rigid body rotating with Hence, the expression for KE of the rigid
angular velocity ω about an axis as shown body in rotational motion is,
in Figure 5.30. Every particle of the body
will have the same angular velocity ω and 1
different tangential velocities v based on its KE = Iω 2 (5.52)
2
positions from the axis of rotation.
This is analogous to the expression for
ω
kinetic energy in translational motion.
1
KE Mv 2
m 2
Relation between rotational kinetic energy

and angular momentum
Let a rigid body of moment of inertia I rotate
with angular velocity ω.
The angular momentum of a rigid body
Figure 5.30 Kinetic energy in rotation is, L = I ω
Let us choose a particle of mass mi The rotational kinetic energy of the rigid
situated at distance ri from the axis of 1
body is, KE = Iω2
rotation. It has a tangential velocity vi given 2
by the relation, vi = ri ω. The kinetic energy By multiplying the numerator and
KEi of the particle is, denominator of the above equation with I,
we get a relation between L and KE as,
1
KEi mi v i2
1 I2ω2 1 ( Iω)
2
2
KE = =
2 I 2 I
Writing the expression with the angular
velocity, L2
KE (5.53)
2I
1 1
KEi = mi ( ri ω) = mi ri2 ω 2
2
( )
2 2 EX AM P L E 5 . 2 0
For the kinetic energy of the whole body, which Find the rotational kinetic energy of a ring
is made up of large number of such particles, of mass 9 kg and radius 3 m rotating with
the equation is written with summation as, 240 rpm about an axis passing through its
center and perpendicular to its plane. (rpm
KE =
1
2
( ∑m r )ω
i i
2 2 is a unit of speed of rotation which means
revolutions per minute)
Solution work done with respect to time, we get the
1 instantaneous power (P).
The rotational kinetic energy is, KE = Iω 2
2
The moment of inertia of the ring is,
I MR 2 dw dθ
P= =τ '(dw = τdθ)
dt dt
I = 9 × 32 = 9 × 9 = 81 kg m2
P = τω (5.54)
The angular speed of the ring is,
The analogous expression for instantaneous
240 × 2π power delivered in translational motion is,
ω = 240 rpm = rad s −1
60
2
1 ⎛ 240 × 2π ⎞ 1 G G
= × 81 × ( 8π )
2
KE = × 81 × ⎜ ⎟ P = F⋅v
2 ⎝ 60 ⎠ 2
1
KE = × 81 × 64 × (π ) = 2592 × (π )
2 2
2
KE ≈ 25920 J ' (π ) ≈ 10
2 5.5.6 Comparison of
KE = 25.920 kJ Translational and
Rotational Quantities
Many quantities in rotational motion
5.5.5 Power Delivered by have expressions similar to that of
7RUTXH translational motion. The rotational
Power delivered is the work done per unit terms are compared with the translational
time. If we differentiate the expression for equivalents in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4 Comparison of Translational and Rotational Quantities

S.No Translational Motion Rotational motion about a fixed axis
1 Displacement, x Angular displacement, θ
2 Time, t Time, t
dx dθ
3 Velocity, v Angular velocity, ω =
dt dt
dv dω
4 Acceleration, a Angular acceleration, α =
dt dt
5 Mass, m Moment of inertia, I
6 Force, F = ma Torque, τ = I α
7 Linear momentum, p = mv Angular momentum, L = Iω
8 Impulse, F Δt = Δp Impulse, τΔt = ΔL
9 Work done, w = F s Work done, w = τ θ
10 1 1
Kinetic energy, KE m v2 Kinetic energy, KE = Iω 2
2 2
11 Power, P = F v Power, P = τω

5.6 undergo a path which has a combination
of the translational and rotational motion.
ROLLING MOTION
Especially the point on the edge undergoes
The rolling motion is the most commonly a path of a cycloid as shown in the
observed motion in daily life. The motion Figure 5.31.
of wheel is an example of rolling motion.
Round objects like ring, disc, sphere etc. are
most suitable for rolling .
Let us study the rolling of a disc on a
horizontal surface. Consider a point P on
the edge of the disc. While rolling, the point
undergoes translational motion along with
its center of mass and rotational motion As the center of mass takes only a
with respect to its center of mass. straight line path, its velocity vCM is only
translational velocity vTRANS (vCM = vTRANS).
All the other points have two velocities.
5.6.1 Combination of One is the translational velocity vTRANS,
Translation and (which is also the velocity of center of
Rotation mass) and the other is the rotational
We will now see how these translational and velocity vROT (vROT = rω). Here, r is the
rotational motions are related in rolling. If distance of the point from the center of
the radius of the rolling object is R, in one mass and ω is the angular velocity. The
full rotation, the center of mass is displaced rotational velocity vROT is perpendicular
by 2πR (its circumference). One would to the instantaneous position vector
agree that not only the center of mass, but from the center of mass as shown in
all the points on the disc are displaced by the Figure 5.32(a). The resultant of these two
same 2πR after one full rotation. The only velocities is v. This resultant velocity v is
difference is that the center of mass takes perpendicular to the position vector from
a straight path; but, all the other points the point of contact of the rolling object
Cycloid path followed Object rolls one revolution

by the point on the rim without slipping
R R
vcm vcm vcm
2πR
Figure 5.31 Rolling is combination of translation and rotation

with the surface on which it is rolling as
shown in Figure 5.32(b).
We shall now give importance to the
point of contact. In pure rolling, the point
of the rolling object which comes in contact
with the surface is at momentary rest. This
is the case with every point that is on the
edge of the rolling object. As the rolling
proceeds, all the points on the edge, one by
one come in contact with the surface; remain
at momentary rest at the time of contact and
(a) with respect to center of mass then take the path of the cycloid as already
mentioned.
Hence, we can consider the pure rolling
in two different ways.
(i) The combination of translational

motion and rotational motion about
the center of mass.
(or)
(ii) The momentary rotational motion
about the point of contact.
As the point of contact is at momentary

rest in pure rolling, its resultant velocity v
(b) with respect to point of contact is zero (v = 0). For example, in Figure 5.33,
at the point of contact, vTRANS is forward (to
Figure 5.32 Resultant velocity at a point right) and vROT is backwards (to the left).
Motion of ...motion of ...motion of individuals

the CM plus... the CM equals... points on the wheel..
vCM 2vCM
vCM vCM
++
==
These two velocity The bottom of

vectors sum to give the wheel is at v=0
−vCM
zero velocity at bottom. rest! But only
for an instant.
Figure 5.33 In pure rolling, the point of contact is at rest

That implies that, vTRANS and vROT are equal P′
2vCM
in magnitude and opposite in direction
(v = vTRANS– vROT = 0). Hence, we conclude
that in pure rolling, for all the points on the Q
edge, the magnitudes of vTRANS and vROT are vCM
equal (vTRANS= vROT). As vTRANS = vCM and CM
vROT = Rω, in pure rolling we have,
P
vCM = R ω (5.55)
We should remember the special feature Figure 5.34 Velocity of different

of the equation 5.55. In rotational motion, point in pure rolling
as per the relation v = rω, the center point
will not have any velocity as r is zero. But
in rolling motion, it suggests that the
center point has a velocity vCM given by 5.6.2 Slipping and Sliding
equation 5.55. When the round object moves, it always
For the topmost point, the two velocities tends to roll on any surface which has a
vTRANS and vROT are equal in magnitude coefficient of friction any value greater than
and in the same direction (to the right). zero (μ > 0). The friction that enabling the
Thus, the resultant velocity v is the sum rolling motion is called rolling friction. In
of these two velocities, v = vTRANS + vROT. pure rolling, there is no relative motion of
In other form, v = 2 vCM as shown in the point of contact with the surface. When
Figure 5.34. the rolling object speeds up or slows down,
Perfect wheels were made with percession using conventional tools

when sophisticated instruments were not avaliable

it must accelerate or decelerate respectively. from rest or the vehicle is stuck in mud. In
If this suddenly happens it makes the rolling this case, the point of contact has more of
object to slip or slide. vROT than vTRANS. It has a resultant velocity
v in the backward direction as shown in
Figure 5.36. The kinetic frictional force (fk)
Sliding
opposes the relative motion. Hence it acts
Sliding is the case when vCM > Rω
in the opposite direction of the relative
(or vTRANS > vROT). The translation is more
velocity. This frictional force reduces
than the rotation. This kind of motion
the rotational velocity and increases the
happens when sudden break is applied in a
translational velocity till they become equal
moving vehicles, or when the vehicle enters
and the object sets pure rolling. Slipping
into a slippery road. In this case, the point
is sometimes empahasised as backward
of contact has more of vTRANS than vROT.
slipping.
Hence, it has a resultant velocity v in the
forward direction as shown in Figure 5.35.
The kinetic frictional force (fk ) opposes
the relative motion. Hence, it acts in the
opposite direction of the relative velocity.
This frictional force reduces the translational
velocity and increases the rotational velocity
till they become equal and the object sets
vROT
on pure rolling. Sliding is also referred as vTRANS
forward slipping. v fk
Figure 5.36 Slipping
vROT vTRANS
fk v
Figure 5.35 Sliding
EX AM P L E 5 . 2 1
Slipping
Slipping is the case when vCM < Rω A rolling wheel has velocity of its center of
(or vTRANS < vROT). The rotation is more mass as 5 m s-1. If its radius is 1.5 m and
than the translation. This kind of motion angular velocity is 3 rad s-1, then check
happens when we suddenly start the vehicle whether it is in pure rolling or not.
Solution ICM MK 2 and vCM = Rω. Here, K is radius
Translational velocity (vTRANS) or velocity of of gyration.
center of mass, vCM = 5 m s-1
The radius is, R = 1.5 m and the angular 2
velocity is, ω = 3 rad s-1

1 1
KE = Mv CM + MK
2
2
2
(
2 v CM
R2
)
Rotational velocity, vROT = Rω
2 ⎛K ⎞
2
1 1
KE = Mv CM
2
+ Mv CM ⎜ 2⎟ (5.58)
vROT = 1.5×3 2 2 ⎝R ⎠
vROT = 4.5 m s-1 1 2 ⎛ K2 ⎞
KE = Mv CM ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟ (5.59)
2 ⎝ R ⎠
As vCM > Rω (or) vTRANS > Rω, It is not in
pure rolling, but sliding.
With point of contact as reference:

5.6.3 Kinetic Energy in Pure We can also arrive at the same expression by
Rolling taking the momentary rotation happening
with respect to the point of contact (another
As pure is the combination of translational
approach to rolling). If we take the point of
and rotational motion, we can write the total
contact as O, then,
kinetic energy (KE) as the sum of kinetic
energy due to translational motion (KETRANS)
and kinetic energy due to rotational motion 1
KE = Ioω2
(KEROT). 2
KE = KETRANS + KEROT (5.56) Here, Io is the moment of inertia of the object

about the point of contact. By parallel axis
theorem, Io = ICM + MR 2. Further we can
If the mass of the rolling object is M, the write, Io = MK 2 + MR 2. With vCM = Rω or
velocity of center of mass is vCM, its moment v
ω = CM
W
of inertia about center of mass is ICM and R
angular velocity is ω, then
v2
KE =
1
2
( )
MK 2 + MR 2 CM
R2
1 1
KE = Mv CM
2
+ ICM ω2 (5.57)
2 ⎛ K2 ⎞
2 2 1
KE = Mv CM ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟
(5.60)
2 ⎝ R ⎠
With center of mass as reference:
The moment of inertia (ICM) of a rolling As the two equations 5.59 and 5.60 are the
object about the center of mass is, same, it is once again confirmed that the

pure rolling problems could be solved by
considering the motion as any one of the ⎛ K2 ⎞ ⎛ K2 ⎞
KE : KETRANS : KEROT :: ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟ : 1 : ⎜ 2 ⎟
following two cases. ⎝ R ⎠ ⎝R ⎠
(i) The combination of translational motion
⎛ K2 ⎞
and rotational motion about the center of Now, KETRANS : KEROT :: 1 : ⎜ 2 ⎟
mass. (or) ⎝R ⎠
(ii) The momentary rotational motion about K2 2
For a solid sphere,
the point of contact. R2 5
2
EXA MPLE 5 .2 2 Then, KETRANS : KEROT :: 1 : or
5
A solid sphere is undergoing pure rolling. KETRANS : KEROT :: 5 : 2
What is the ratio of its translational kinetic
energy to rotational kinetic energy?
Solution
5.6.4 Rolling on Inclined
The expression for total kinetic energy in Plane
pure rolling is,
Let us assume a round object of mass m and
radius R is rolling down an inclined plane
KE = KETRANS + KEROT
without slipping as shown in Figure 5.37.
There are two forces acting on the object along
For any object the total kinetic energy as the inclined plane. One is the component of
per equation 5.58 and 5.59 is, gravitational force (mg sinθ) and the other is the
static frictional force (f). The other component
of gravitation force (mg cosθ) is cancelled by
2 ⎛K ⎞
2
1 1
KE = Mv CM + Mv CM ⎜ 2 ⎟
2
the normal force (N) exerted by the plane. As
2 2 ⎝R ⎠ the motion is happening along the incline, we
shall write the equation for motion from the
1 2 ⎛ K2 ⎞
KE = Mv CM ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟ free body diagram (FBD) of the object.
2 ⎝ R ⎠
N
Then,
R
f θ mg sinθ
2 ⎛ ⎞ 1 2 ⎛K ⎞
2 2
1 K 1
⎜1 + 2 ⎟ = Mv CM + Mv CM ⎜ 2 ⎟
2
Mv CM mg cosθ
2 ⎝ R ⎠ 2 2 ⎝R ⎠ mg
The above equation suggests that in pure θ

rolling the ratio of total kinetic energy,
Figure 5.37 Rolling on inclined
translational kinetic energy and rotational
plane
kinetic energy is given as,

For translational motion, mg sinθ is the v 2 = u 2 + 2as . If the body starts rolling from
supporting force and f is the opposing force, rest, u 0. When h is the vertical height of
the incline, the length of the incline s is,
mg sinθ _ f = ma (5.61) h
s=
sinθ
For rotational motion, let us take the
torque with respect to the center of the
object. Then mg sinθ cannot cause torque as g sinθ ⎛ h ⎞ 2gh
v2 = 2
⎛ K 2 ⎞ ⎜⎝ sinθ ⎟=⎛
it passes through it but the frictional force f ⎠ K2 ⎞
can set torque of Rf. ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟
⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ R ⎠
Rf = Iα By taking square root,
By using the relation, a = r D, and moment of

inertia I mK 2, we get, 2gh
v= (5.63)
⎛ K2 ⎞
⎜1 + 2 ⎟
a ⎛ K2 ⎞ ⎝ R ⎠
Rf = mK 2 ; f = ma ⎜ 2 ⎟
R ⎝R ⎠
The time taken for rolling down the incline
Now equation (5.59) becomes, could also be written from first equation of
motion as, v = u + at . For the object which
starts rolling from rest, u 0. Then,
⎛ K2 ⎞
mg sinθ − ma ⎜ 2 ⎟ = ma
⎝R ⎠
v
t
⎛K ⎞ 2
a
mg sinθ = ma + ma ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝R ⎠
⎛ K2 ⎞ 2gh K2
a ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟ = g sinθ 1
t K2 R2
⎝ R ⎠ 1
R2 g sin
After rewriting it for acceleration, we get,
⎛ K2 ⎞
2h ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟
g sinθ t= ⎝ R ⎠ (5.64)
a= (5.62) g sin2θ
⎛ K ⎞ 2
⎜1 + 2 ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
The equation suggests that for a given
We can also find the expression for final incline, the object with the least value of
velocity of the rolling object by using third radius of gyration K will reach the bottom
equation of motion for the inclined plane. of the incline first.
EXA MPLE 5 .2 3
⎛ K2 ⎞
Four round objects namely a ring, a disc, a 2h ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟
hollow sphere and a solid sphere with same t= ⎝ R ⎠
g sin2θ
radius R start to roll down an incline at
the same time. Find out which object will
reach the bottom first. The one with least value of radius of
gyration K will take the shortest time to
Solution reach the bottom of the inclined plane.
For all the four objects namely the ring, The order of objects reaching the bottom
disc, hollow sphere and solid sphere, the is first, solid sphere; second, disc; third,
hollow sphere and last, ring.
1 2
radii of gyration K are R, R, R,
2 3
2
R (ref Table (5.3)). With numerical
5
values the radius of gyration K are 1R,
0.707R, 0.816R, 0.632R respectively. The
expression for time taken for rolling has
the radius of gyration K in the numerator
as per equation 5.63
SUMMARY
A rigid body is the one in which the distances between different particles remain
constant.
For regular shaped bodies with uniform mass distribution, center of mass always
lies at the geometrical center.
Net torque produces turning motion in rigid object.
A rigid body is in translational equilibrium if the total external force on it is zero. It
is in rotational equilibrium if the total external torque on it is zero.
The center of gravity of an extended body is that point where the total gravitational
torque on the body is zero.
If the external torque acting on the body is zero, the component of angular
momentum along the axis of rotation is constant.
There are rotational equivalents for all the translational quantities.
Rolling motion is the combination of translational and rotational motions.
Rolling can also be treated as the momentary rotation about the point of contact.
In pure rolling, the total kinetic energy is the sum of kinetic energies of translational
and rotational motions.
In sliding the translational motion is more than rotational motion.
In slipping the rotational motion is more than translational motion.

CONCEPT MAP

EXERCISE
I. Multi Choice Question

1. The center of mass of a system of about a perpendicular
particles does not depend upon, bisector, its moment of inertia,
(a) position of particles (a) increases (b) decreases
(b) relative distance between particles (c) remains constant
(c) masses of particles (d) depends on direction of rotation.
(d) force acting on particle [IIT 1998]
[AIPMT 1997, AIEEE 2004] 6. A rigid body rotates with an angular
2. A couple produces, momentum L. If its kinetic energy is
halved, the angular momentum becomes,
(a) pure rotation
(a) L (b) L/2
(b) pure translation
(c) 2L (d) L/ 2
(c) rotation and translation
[AFMC 1998, AIPMT 2015]
(d) no motion
7. A particle undergoes uniform circular
[AIPMT 1997]
motion. The angular momentum of the
3. A particle is moving with a constant particle remain conserved about,
velocity along a line parallel to positive
(a) the center point of the circle.
X-axis. The magnitude of its angular
momentum with respect to the origin is, (b) the point on the circumference of
the circle.
(a) zero
(c) any point inside the circle.
(b) increasing with x
(d) any point outside the circle.
(c) decreasing with x
[IIT 2003]
(d) remaining constant
8. When a mass is rotating in a plane about
[IIT 2002]
a fixed point, its angular momentum is
4. A rope is wound around a hollow directed along,
cylinder of mass 3 kg and radius 40
(a) a line perpendicular to the plane of
cm. What is the angular acceleration of
rotation
the cylinder if the rope is pulled with a
force 30 N? (b) the line making an angle of 45° to
the plane of rotation
(a) 0.25 rad s–2 (b) 25 rad s–2
(c) the radius
(c) 5 m s–2 (d) 25 m s–2.
(d) tangent to the path
[NEET 2017]
[AIPMT 2012]
5. A closed cylindrical container is
partially filled with water. As the 9. Two discs of same moment of inertia
container rotates in a horizontal plane rotating about their regular axis passing
through center and perpendicular to

the plane of disc with angular velocities part of the disc about a perpendicular
ω1 and ω2. They are brought in to axis passing through it
contact face to face coinciding the axis (a) 15MR2/32 (b) 13MR2/32
of rotation. The expression for loss of (c) 11MR2/32 (d) 9MR2/32
energy during this process is, [NEET 2016]
1
(a) I(ZZ)2 (b) I(ZZ)2 13. The speed of a solid sphere after rolling
4
1 1 down from rest without sliding on an
(c) I(ZZ)2 (d) I(ZZ)2 inclined plane of vertical height h is,
8 2
[NEET 2017] 4 10
(a) gh (b) gh
3 7
10. A disc of moment of inertia Ia is rotating
in a horizontal plane about its symmetry 1
axis with a constant angular speed ω. (c) 2gh (d) gh
2
Another discinitially at rest of moment
of inertia Ib is dropped coaxially on to 14. The speed of the center of a wheel
the rotating disc. Then, both the discs rolling on a horizontal surface is vo. A
rotate with same constant angular point on the rim in level with the center
speed. The loss of kinetic energy due to will be moving at a speed of speed of,
friction in this process is,
(a) zero (b) vo
1 Ib2
(a) ω2
2 ( Ia + Ib ) (c) 2 vo (d) 2vo
Ib2
(b) ω2 [PMT 1992, PMT 2003, IIT 2004]
( Ia + Ib )
(I − I ) 15. A round object of mass M and radius
2
(c) b a ω 2 R rolls down without slipping along

( Ia + Ib ) an inclined plane. The fractional force,
1 Ib Ib
(d) ω2 [AIPMT 2001] (a) dissipates kinetic energy as heat.
2 ( I a + Ib )
(b) decreases the rotational motion.
11. The ratio of the acceleration for a solid (c) decreases the rotational and
sphere (mass m and radius R) rolling transnational motion
down an incline of angle θ without
(d) converts transnational energy into
slipping and slipping down the incline
rotational energy
without rolling is,
[PMT 2005]
(a) 5:7 (b)2:3 (c) 2:5 (d) 7:5
[AIPMT 2014] Answers:
12. From a disc of radius R a mass M, a 1) d 2) a 3) d 4) b
circular hole of diameter R, whose rim 5) a 6) d 7) a 8) a
passes through the center is cut. What is 9) a 10) d 11) a 12) b
the moment of inertia of the remaining 13) a 14) c 15) d

1. Define center of mass. 9. Define couple.
2. Find out the center of mass for the 10. State principle of moments.
given geometrical structures. 11. Define center of gravity.
a) Equilateral triangle 12. Mention any two physical significance
b) Cylinder c) Square of moment of inertia
3. Define torque and mention its unit. 13. What is radius of gyration?
4. What are the conditions in which force 14. State conservation of angular
can not produce torque? momentum.
5. Give any two examples of torque in 15. What are the rotational equivalents for
day-to-day life. the physical quantities, (i) mass and (ii)
force?
6. What is the relation between torque
16. What is the condition for pure rolling?
and angular momentum?
17. What is the difference between sliding
7. What is equilibrium?
and slipping?
8. How do you distinguish between stable
and unstable equilibrium?

1. Explain the types of equilibrium with axis passing through the center and
suitable examples. perpendicular to the plane.
2. Explain the method to find the center of 6. Derive the expression for moment
gravity of a irregularly shaped lamina. of inertia of a uniform disc about an
axis passing through the center and
3. Explain why a cyclist bends while
perpendicular to the plane.
negotiating a curve road? Arrive at the
7. Discuss conservation of angular
expression for angle of bending for a
momentum with example.
given velocity.
8. State and prove parallel axis theorem.
4. Derive the expression for moment of
9. State and prove perpendicular axis
inertia of a rod about its center and
theorem.
perpendicular to the rod.
10. Discuss rolling on inclined plane
5. Derive the expression for moment and arrive at the expression for the
of inertia of a uniform ring about an acceleration.
IV. Conceptual Questions

1. When a tree is cut, the cut is made on 3. Why is it much easier to balance a
the side facing the direction in which meter scale on your finger tip than
the tree is required to fall. Why? balancing on a match stick?
2. Why does a porter bend forward while 4. Two identical water bottles one empty
carrying a sack of rice on his back? and the other filled with water are
allowed to roll down an inclined plane.

Which one of them reaches the bottom by the table on the block depend
first? Explain your answer. on h?
5. Write the relation between angular 7. Three identical solid spheres move
momentum and rotational kinetic down through three inclined planes
energy. Draw a graph for the same. A, B and C all same dimensions. A is
For two objects of same angular without friction, B is undergoing pure
momentum, compare the moment of rolling and C is rolling with slipping.
inertia using the graph. Compare the kinetic energies EA, EB
6. A rectangle block rests on a horizontal and EC at the bottom.
table. A horizontal force is applied on 8. Give an example to show that the
the block at a height h above the table following statement is false. ‘any
to move the block. Does the line of two forces acting on a body can be
action of the normal force N exerted combined into single force that would
have same effect’.
V. Numerical Problems
1. A uniform disc of mass 100g has a 5. Two particles P and Q of mass 1kg and
diameter of 10 cm. Calculate the total 3 kg respectively start moving towards
energy of the disc when rolling along a each other from rest under mutual
horizontal table with a velocity of 20 cms-1. attraction. What is the velocity of their
(take the surface of table as reference) center of mass?
Ans: 0.1028 J Ans: Zero
2. A particle of mass 5 units is moving 6. Find the moment of inertia of a
with a uniform speed of v = 3 2 units hydrogen molecule about an axis
in the XOY plane along the line y = passing through its center of mass
x + 4. Find the magnitude of angular and perpendicular to the inter-atomic
momentum. axis. Given: mass of hydrogen atom
Ans: 60 units 1.7 × 10−27 kg and inter atomic distance
3. A fly wheel rotates with a uniform is equal to 4 × 10−10m.
angular acceleration. If its angular Ans: 1.36 × 10−46 kg m2
velocity increases from 20p rad/s to 7. On the edge of a wall, we build a brick
40p rad/s in 10 seconds. Find the tower that only holds because of the
number of rotations in that period. bricks’ own weight. Our goal is to build
Ans: 150 rotations a stable tower whose overhang d is
4. A uniform rod of mass m and length A greater than the length A of a single
makes a constant angle T with an axis brick. What is the minimum number
of rotation which passes through one of bricks you need?
end of the rod. Find the moment of (Hint: Find the center of mass for each
inertia about this axis. brick and add.)
Ans: 1 MA2 sin2 θ
12
How long a skid mark do the wing
wheels leave (assume their mass is
100 kg which is distributed uniformly,
radius is 0.7 m, and the coefficient of
friction with the ground is 0.5)?
8. The 747 boing plane is landing at a Ans: 2.1 m
speed of 70m s–1. Before touching the
ground, the wheels are not rotating.
BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
1. Michael Nelkon and Philip Parker, Advanced Level Physics, 7th Edition, CBS
Publishers & Distributers Pvt. Ltd, (2006).
2. David Halliday, Robert Resnick and Jearl Walker,Fundamentals of Physics, 6th Edition,
John Wiley & Sons Inc., (2004).
3. H.C. Verma,Concepts of Physics [Part 1], 1st Edition, BharathiBhawan Publishers &
Distributers Pvt. Ltd., (2008).
4. Igor Irodov, Problems in General Physics, 3rd Edition, Mir Publishers, Mascow,
(2006).
5. Roger A. Freedman, Hugh D. Young, Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics:
Mechanics, 12th Edition, Pearson, (2011).

ICT CORNER
Moment of inertia
Which is harder to rotate:

Circular ring or Circular disc?
STEPS:
• Open the browser and type the given URL to open the PhET simulation on Torque. Click the picture
link or the download button. Once downloaded, click ok to open the java applet.
• Set platform mass 0.1 kg, Outer radius 4 m. (Keep inner radius = 0). Now it is a circular disc. Click the
button ‘go’ to get the value of moment of inertia.
• Adjust the values of mass and radius and then observe how moment of inertia changes in the middle
graph.
• Keep the inner and outer radius same (say R = r = 4 m.) and mass 0.1 kg. Now it becomes circular ring.
Click the button ‘go’ to start the calculation.
• Observe the moment of inertia from the middle graph. Compare the moment of inertia of a circular disc
and circular ring with same mass and radius.
Hint:,IPRPHQWRILQHUWLDLVUHODWLYHO\ODUJHLWLVYHU\GLI¿FXOWWRDFFHOHUDWHLQDQJXODUGLUHFWLRQ
Step1 Step2
Step3 Step4

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/torque
*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

APPENDIX 1
By substituting in the given equation,

SOLVED EXAMPLE UNIT-1 = [ML 1T 2 ]5/6[ML3 ]1/2[ML 2 T 2 ]1/3
1. Find the dimensions of a and b in M 5/61/21/3 L5/63/22/3T 5/32/3
a
the formula [P + 2 ][V b] RT where M 0 L0T 1 [T ]
V
P is pressure and V is the volume of 3. Find the dimensions of mass in terms of
the gas Energy, length and time
Solution:
Solution:
By the principle of homogeneity,
a / V 2 is of the dimensions of Let the dimensions of Energy, Length
pressure and b is of the dimensions of and Time be [E],[L],[T ] respectively.
volume. We know that Force = mass x
acceleration
[a] = [pressure] [V2] = [ML−1T−2] [L6]
[ ML5T 2 ] Force
Mass
[b] = [V] = L3 acceleration
Workdone (or ) Energy

2. Show that (P 5/6 _1/2 E1/3 ) is of the acceleration displacement
dimension of time. Here P is the pressure,
Energy
U is the density and E is the energy of a [m] =
bubble) [acceleration][displacement ]
[ E] [ E]
Solution: = 2
2 2
[ EL2T 2 ]
[LT ][L] L T ]
Dimension of Pressure = [ML 1T 2 ]
Dimension of density = [ML 3 ]
4. A physical quantity Q is found to
Dimension of Energy = [ML T ]2 2
depend on quantities x,y,z obeying
266 Appendix 1
x2 y3 = 0.75% +0.2% = 0.95%
relation Q = . The percentage
z1
errors in x, y and z are 2%, 3% and 1%
6. Using a Vernier Callipers, the length of
respectively. Find the percentage error in a cylinder in different measurements is
found to be 2.36 cm, 2.27 cm, 2.26 cm,
Q.
2.28 cm, 2.31 cm, 2.28 cm and 2.29 cm.
Solution: Find the mean value, absolute error, the
relative error and the percentage error of
x2 y3
Let, Q = . the cylinder.
z
Solution:
'x 'y 'z
It is given, 2% 3% 1% The given readings are 2.36 cm, 2.27 cm,
x y z
2.26 cm, 2.28 cm, 2.31 cm, 2.28 cm and
'Q 4 'x 5 4 'y 5 4 'z 5 2.29 cm
26 7 36 7 1 6 7
Q 8 x 9 8 y 9 8 z 9
= 2(2%) + 3 (3%) + 1(1%) The Mean value l =
'Q 2.36 2.27 2.26 2.28 2.31 2.28 2.29

4% + 9% + 1% = 14% 7
Q
16.05
= 2.29 cm
5. The mass and volume of a body are 7
found to be 4r.03 kg and 5r.01 m 3
Absolute errors in the measurement are,
respectively. Then find the maximum
possible percentage error in density.
'l1 2.29 2.36 0.07
Solution:
'l2 2.29 2.27 0.02
Mass m = 4 r 0.03 kg (m + Δm) 'l3 2.29 2.26 0.03
Volume V = 5 r .01 m 3 (V + ΔV) 'l4 2.29 2.28 0.01
Density = ? 'l5 2.29 2.31 0.02
Δm 0.03 'l6 2.29 2.28 0.01
Error in mass = = × 100
m 4 'l7 2.29 2.29 0.00
= 0.75%
'V 0.01 Mean Absolute error
Error in volume 100
V 5
0. 2% 'lmean
0.07 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.00
mass
Density = . 7
volume
.16
Error in density = error in mass + error = .02
7
in volume
Appendix 1 267
Relative error 8. Calculate the number of times a
human heart beats in the life of
'lmean .02
` `8.7 103 100 years old man. Time of one heart
l 2.29
beat = 0.8s.
Percentage error = `8.7 10 3 100
0.87% 100 `(8.7 101 ) 0.9% Solution:
Life of the man = 100 years
7. The shadow of a pole standing on a level 100 years includes 76 normal years and
ground is found to be 45 m longer when 24 leap years
the sun’s altitude is 30° than when it was
Total no of days = 76 × 365 + 24 × 366
60°. Determine the height of the pole.
= 36524 days
[Given 3 1.73]
Number of seconds = 36524 × 24 ×
Solution: 3600 = 3.155 x 109 second
Let the height of the pole be h.
Number of heart beats =
Total no of Seconds
Time period of heart beat
h
3.155 109
= = 3.94 × 109
60° 30° 0.8s
x 45 m
9. The parallax of a heavenly body measured
x 45 x 45 from two points diametrically opposite
Solution cot 30 ° T h
h cot 30° on equator of earth is 2c. Calculate the
distance of the heavenly body. [Given
x
cot 60° T x hcot 60° radius of the earth = 6400km] [1″ = 4.85
h
x 10-6 rad]
Substituting the values of x in the above Solution:

equation Angle θ = 21 = 2 x 60″ = 120″ = 120 × 4.85
× 10-6 rad
h cot 60°
45 T = 5.82 × 10-4 rad;
h=
cot 30°
The distance of heavenly body
h cot 30° = h cot 60° + 45
h(cot 30°– cot 60°) = 45 d 12800 103

D=
3 5.82 104
45 45 D = 2.19 × 1010 m
h= = 38.97 m
cot 30° – cot 60° 1
3
3
268 Appendix 1
10. Convert a velocity of 72 kmh 1 into ms 1 According to the principle of
with the help of dimensional analysis. homogeneity,
Dimensions of LHS = Dimensions
Solution: of RHS
n1= 72 kmh−1 n2= ? ms−1 Substituting the dimensions in the
given formula
L1 = 1Km L2=1m
1
T1 = 1h T2= 1s 2
S = ut + 1/4 at , 4 is a number. It has
a b
no dimensions
n2 = n1 N L1 P N T1 P
R S R S [L] = [LT-1] [T1]+[LT-2] [T2]
O L2 Q O T2 Q
[L] = [L] + [L]
The dimensional formula for velocity is
As the dimensional formula of LHS
[L T 1 ]
is same as that of RHS, the equation is
a = 1 b = -1 dimensionally correct.
Comment:
1 1
N1Km P N1h P
n2 72 R S R 1s S But actually it is a wrong equation.
O 1m Q O Q We know that the equation of motion is
1 1
N1000m P N 3600s P s = ut +1/2 at2
n2 72 R S R S
O 1m Q O 1s Q So, a dimensionally correct
equation need not be the true (or)
= 72 × 1000 × 1/3600 = 20ms 1 ]
actual equation
72 kmh 1 = 20 ms 1 But a true equation is always
11. Check the correctness of the following
equation using dimensional analysis. 12. Round - off the following numbers as
Make a comment on it. indicated.
S = ut + 1/4 at 2 where s is the a) 17.234 to 3 digits
displacement, u is the initial velocity, b) 3.996 × 105 to 3 digits
t is the time and a is the acceleration c) 3.6925 × 10-3 to 2 digits
produced. d) 124783 to 5 digits.
Solution:
Solution:
Dimension for distance s = [L]
Dimension for initial velocity a) 17.2 b) 4.00 × 105
c) 3.7 × 10-3 d) 124780
v = [LT ] 1
13. Solve the following with regard to

Dimension for time t = [T]
significant figures.
Dimension for acceleration
a) 4.5 3.31
2
a = [LT ]
b) 5.9 × 10 5 2.3 104
Appendix 1 269
c) 7.18 + 4.3
d) 6.5 + .0136 [ML 2 T 2 ]= K [M] a [LT 1 ]b
Solution: By equating the dimensions,

a) Among the two, the least number of
significant after decimal is one a=1
b=2
4.5 3.31 = 1.19 =1.09 -b = -2
E = k.mc2
b) The number of minimum significant
figures is 2 The value of constant k = 1
5.9 × 10 5 2.3 104 E = mc2 This is Einstein’s mass

energy relation
= 5.9 × 10 5 0.23 105
= 5.67 × 10 5 = 5.7 × 10 5 15. The velocity of a body is given by the
equation v = b/t + ct2+dt3. Find the
c) The lowest least number of significant dimensional formula for b.
digit after decimal is one
Solution:
7.18 + 4.3 = 11.48 Rounding off we
get 11.5 (b/t) should have the dimensions of
velocity
d) The lowest least number of b has the dimensions of (velocity
significant digit after decimal is one x time)
6.5 +.0136 = 6.5136 = 6.5
[b] = [LT 1 ][T ] [L] [M 0 LT
1 0
]
14. Arrive at Einstein’s mass-energy relation
by dimensional method (E = mc2)
Solution: 16. The initial and final temperatures of

a liquid in a container are observed
Let us assume that the Energy E depends
to be 75.4 r 0.5°C and 56.8 r 0.2°C.
on mass m and velocity of light c.
Find the fall in the temperature of the
E α ma cb liquid.
Solution:
E =kmac b where K a constant
t1 = (75.4 ± 0.5)°C
Dimensions of E = [ML 2 T 2 ] t2 = (56.8 ± 0.2)°C
Dimensions of m = [M] Fall in temperature = (75.4 r 0.5°C) –
(56.8 r 0.2 °C)
Dimensions of c = [LT 1 ]
Substituting the values in the above
t = (18.6 r 0.7)°C
equation
270 Appendix 1
17. Two resistors of resistances R1 = 150 18. A capacitor of capacitance C =
r 2 Ohm and R 2 220 r 6 Ohm are 3.0 ` 0.1FF is charged to a voltage of
connected in parallel combination. V = 18 r 0.4Volt . Calculate the charge
Calculate the equivalent resistance. Q [Use Q= CV]
Solution:
1 1 1
Hint: (C + ΔC) = (3.0 ± 0.1) μf
R1 R1 R2
(V + ΔV) = (18 ± 0.4) V
Solution:
Q = CV
The equivalent resistance of a parallel

combination Q = 3.0 × 10-6 × 18 = 54 × 10-6 coulomb
R1R2 'C
R′ = Error in C 100
R1 R2 C
0.1
150 220 33000 100 3.3%
= 89.1 Ohm 3
150 220 370 'V
Error in V 100
V
1 1 1 0.4
We know that, 100 2.2%
Rʹ R1 R2 18
Error in Q = Error in C + Error in V
= 3.3% + 2.2% =5.5%
'R ʹ 'R1 'R2
= ? Charge Q = (54 × 10-6 r 5.5%) C
(R ʹ)2 R12 R22
'R1 'R
'R: (R:)2 2
+ (R′)2 22
R1 R2 SOLVED EXAMPLE UNIT-2
2 2
4 R’5 4 R’ 5 1. The position vector for a particle is
6 7 'R1 6 7 'R2
8 R1 9 represented be r = 3t 2iˆ + 5tjˆ + 6kˆ, find the
8 R2 9
velocity and speed of the particle at t = 3 sec?
Solution:
Substituting the value,

dr
89.1
2
89.1
2
v = 6tiˆ + 5 ˆj .
R ×2 ×6 dt
150 220
The velocity at any time ‘t’ is given by
= 0.070 + 0.098 = 0.168
v = 6tiˆ + 5 ˆj .
R′ = 89.1 ±0.168 Ohm. The magnitude of velocity is speed. The speed
at any time ‘t’ is then given by
Appendix 1 271
Then, Time taken to cover this
6t
2
Speed = 5 = 36t 25
2 2
distance =
1100
s = 66 s
150/9
Now the velocity at t = 3sec is given by 4. Draw the resultant direction of the two
unit vectors iˆ and ˆj. Use a 2-dimensional
Cartesian co-ordinate system. Is î + ˆj a
v = 6 ( 3 ) iˆ + 5 ˆj = 18 iˆ + 5 ˆj . unit vector?
By using the triangular law of addition
and speed at t = 3 sec, is given by î + ˆj as shown in the following figure,
y
speed = 349 m/s
∧
i ∧ ∧
i + j ∧ ∧
i + j
∧
j
2. A gun is fired from a place which is at x
∧ ∧
distance 1.2 km from a hill. The echo of j i
the sound is heard back at the same place
The definition of unit vector is Â.Â = 1
of firing after 8 second. Find the speed of
sound. But here,
Solution: (i + j ) . (i + j ) = iˆ.iˆ + iˆ. ˆj + ˆj.iˆ + ˆj. ˆj
The echo will be heard when the 1 0 0 1 2
sound reaches back at the place of
firing. So, the total distance travelled So, î + ˆj is not a unit vector.
by sound is 2 × 1.2 km = 2.4 km To make any vector to a unit vector,
= 2400 m. must divide the vector by its magnitude,

ˆ A
A=
2400 m A
speed = 300m s 1
8s The norm of the vector î + ˆj = 2.
3. A train 100 m long is moving with a iˆ + ˆj
Hence, the unit vector is
speed of 60 kmh−1. In how many seconds 2
will it cross a bridge of 1 km long? 5. A swimmer moves across the Cauvery
Solution: river of 750 m wide. The velocity of the
G
Total distance to be covered = 1 km + swimmer relative to water (v sw ) is 1.5ms-1
100 m = 1100 m (including both bridge and directed perpendicular to the water
and time) current. The velocity of water relative to
G
the bank (vwb) is 1 ms-1. Calculate the
Then, Speed = 60 km h−1 (a) velocity of the swimmer with respect
G
5 150 1 to the bank of the river (v sb).
= 60 × m s−1 = ms (b) time taken by the swimmer to cross
18 9
the Cauvery river.
272 Appendix 1
Solution: 6. A monkey hangs on a tree. A hunter
(a) We can draw the following picture aims a gun at the monkey and fires the
from the given data in the problem. bullet with velocity v0 which makes
angle D 0 with horizontal direction. At
the instant gun fires, monkey leaves the
branch and falls straight down to escape
from the bullet as shown in the figure.
Will bullet hit the monkey or will the
monkey escape the bullet? (ignore air
resistance)
The velocity of the swimmer relative to

G G G
the bank v sb v sw vwb
Since the swimmer travels in the
perpendicular direction against the
water current
θ
The magnitude is given by
G
v sb v sw
2
vwb
2
=
1.52 12 3.25ms 1 a 1.802 ms 1

As soon as the monkey begins to fall, it
will have downward vertical motion with
The direction of the swimmer relative to
acceleration due to gravity g.
the bank is given by
Its equation of motion at any time t is
v sw 1.5
tan3 1. 5 given by
vwb 1
3 tan1 1.5 56 1
ym h gt 2 (1)
2
(c) The time taken by the swimmer to
cross the river is equal to the total When the bullet comes out of the
distance covered by the swimmer gun, it has both vertical and horizontal
with velocity 1.802 ms-1. components of velocity given by
The total distance covered by him,
width of the river 750 v0 x v0 cos3 ; v0 y v0 sin3 (2)
d= D
= 904.7 m
sin56 0.829
The time taken by the swimmer, Let us assume the horizontal distance
between the monkey and hunter is ‘d’.
d 904.7 At time t, the horizontal distance
T 502 s
v sb 1.802 travelled by the bullet x = v0 cosθ t .
Appendix 1 273
When the horizontal position of is also located on Moon. If two people
bullet, x d , the time d v0 xT . It implies jump from the top of these buildings on
that T d / v0 x Earth and Moon simultaneously, when
At this time T, the vertical distance will they reach the ground and at what
covered by the bullet is speed? (g = 10 m s−2)
Solution:
1 v0 y d 1 2 g g/6
yb v0 yT gT 2 gT .
2 v0 x 2
Earth Moon
d v0 sin3
1
yb gT 2 For both persons, the Kinematic equations
v0 cos3 2
are the same, with u = 0, ae = g and
1 g
d tan3 gT 2 (3) amoon = . Then
2 6
g
ae g and am
h 6
But from the figure we can write, tan3 .
d
For a person on earth, Vearth 2 gh
h d tan3 .
2 g 100 2×10×100
By substituting this in the equation (3), Hence, Vearth 2000 m s−1 gives the
we get, velocity at the ground, on earth.
1 Similarly, for a person on the moon,

yb h gT 2 (4)
2
2 gh 2000
Vmoon m s−1
6 6
At this same time T, the vertical position
of the monkey can be calculated from The person on earth reaches ground
the equation (1) with greater velocity than the person on
the moon
1
ym h gT 2 (5) 8. The following graphs represent position
2
– time graphs. Arrange the graphs in
ascending order of increasing speed.
Note that at the time T, the y coordinate
of both monkey and bullet is same. x x
It implies that the bullet will hit the
monkey.
7. A three storey building of height 100m is

located on Earth and a similar building t t
(a) (b)
274 Appendix 1
x x y
x
F1
F1
t t F3 F4 F3 F4
(c) (d)
F2 F2
(a) (b)
The slope in the position – time graph
will give the speed of the particle. F1
F1
In the graph (a) slope is zero. Graph
(c) has higher slope than graphs (b) and F3 F4
F3 F4
(d). So we can arrange the speeds in F2 F2
ascending order as
(c) (d)
v a M v d M v b M vc Case (a):
The forces F1 and F2 have equal length but
opposite direction. So net force along
y-direction is zero. Since the force is zero,
acceleration is also zero along Y-direction
SOLVED EXAMPLE UNIT-3
(Newton’s second law). Similarly in the
1. A body of mass 100 kg is moving with x direction, F3 and F4 have equal length
an acceleration of 50 cm s2. Calculate the and opposite in direction. So net force
force experienced by it. is zero in the x direction. So there is no
acceleration in x direction.
Solution:
Case (b):
Mass m 100 kg The forces F1 and F2 are not equal in
Acceleration a 50 cms−2 = 0.5 ms−2 length and act opposite to each other.
Using Newton’s second law, The figure (b) shows that there are
unbalanced forces along the y-direction.
F = ma So the particle has acceleration in
F = 100 kg x 0.5 m s–2 = 50 N the -y direction. The forces F3 and F4
are having equal length and act in
opposite directions. So there is no
2. Identify the free body diagram that net force along the x direction. So the
represents the particle accelerating in particle has no acceleration in the x
positive x direction in the following. direction.
The relative magnitude of forces Case (c):
should be indicated when the free body The forces F1 and F2 are equal in
diagram for mass m is drawn. magnitude and act opposite to each
Appendix 1 275
other. The net force is zero in y direction. 4. A wooden box is lying on an inclined
So in y-direction there is no acceleration. plane. What is the coefficient of friction
The forces F3 and F4 are not equal in if the box starts sliding when the angle of
magnitude and F3 is greater than F4 . So inclination is 45°.
there is a net acceleration in negative x
Solution:
direction
Angle of inclination Θ = 45°
Case (d): ? Coefficient of friction m = tan Θ =
The forces F1 and F2 are equal in magnitude tan 45° = 1
and act opposite to each other. The net
force is zero in y direction. So there is no 5. Two masses m1 = 5 kg and m2 = 4 kg
acceleration in y-direction. The forces F3 tied to a string are hanging over a
and F4 are not equal in magnitude. The light frictionless pulley. What is the
force F4 is greater than the force F3. So acceleration of each mass when left free
there is a net acceleration in the positive to move? (g = 10ms 2 )
x direction.
m1 m2
3. A gun weighing 25 kg fires a bullet a= ug
m1 m2
weighing 30 g with the speed of
200 ms−1. What is the speed of recoil of
54 1
the gun. = 10 10 1.1ms 2
54 9
Solution:
Mass of the gun M = 25 kg
Mass of the bullet m = 30 g = 30 × 10−3 kg
Speed of bullet v = 200 ms−1
Speed of gun V = ?
The motion is in one dimension.
As per law of conservation of momentum,
MV + mv = 0 m2 = 4kg
mv
V=
M m1 = 5kg
30 10 3 200
V= 240 10 3 ms 1
25
6. A block of mass m is pushed momentarily
The negative sign shows that the gun along a horizontal surface with an initial
moves in the opposite direction of the velocity u. If μk is the coefficient of
bullet. Further the magnitude of the kinetic friction between the object and
recoil speed is very small compared to surface, find the time at which the block
the bullet’s speed. comes to rest.
276 Appendix 1
Solution: Solution:
m V 50 N
10 kg 7 kg 2 kg
When the block slides, the force acting We know that

on the block is kinetic friction which is
equal to f k Fk mg
N F P 50N
From Newton’s second law R
a = m m m S
O 1 3Q 10kg 7kg 2kg
ma Fk mg 2
50
The negative sign implies that 2.63 ms 2
19
force acts on the opposite direction of
motion.
8. The coefficient of friction between a
The acceleration of the block while 1
block and plane is . If the inclination
sliding a Fk g . 3
The negative sign implies that the of the plane gradually increases, at what
acceleration is in opposite direction of angle will the object begin to slide?
the velocity.
1
Since the coefficient of friction is
Note that the acceleration depends 3
only on g and the coefficient of kinetic
friction Pk
1
We can apply the following kinematic Tan Θ = Θ = 30°
3
equation
9. Find the maximum speed at which a car

v u at
can turn round a curve of 36 m radius
on a level road. Given the coefficient of
The final velocity is zero. friction between the tyre and the road
is 0.53.
0 u Fk gt Radius of the curve r = 36 m
u Coefficient of friction μ = 0.53
t
Fk g Acceleration due to gravity g = 10 ms−1
7. Three blocks of masses 10 kg, 7 kg vmax rg 0.53 36 10

and 2 kg are placed in contact with 1
13.81ms
each other on a frictionless table. A
force of 50 N is applied on the heaviest
mass. What is the acceleration of the 10. Calculate the centripetal acceleration
system? of the Earth which orbits around the
Appendix 1 277
Sun. The Sun to Earth distance is between the block and the inclined plane is
appriximately 150 million km. (Assume s and the coefficient of kinetic friction is k
the orbit of Earth to be circular)
v2
The centripetal acceleration ac
r T
V - velocity of Earth around the orbit
n
f frictio
r - radius of orbit or distance of in θ
gs
m1
Earth to Sun
m2 g
Velocity of Earth is written in terms
of angular velocity (Z ) as
What is the relation between the
v Ir masses of block 1 and block 2 such that
the system just starts to slip?
Solution:
By substituting in the centripetal
I 2r 2 For all parts of this problem, it will
acceleration formula, ac = Z 2r
r be convenient to use different coordinate
2π systems for the two different blocks. For
But Z = where T is time for the block 1, take the positive x -direction to be
T
Earth to orbit around the sun, which is up the incline, parallel to the plane, and the
one year. positive y -direction to be perpendicular to
the plane, directed with a positive upward
component. Take the positive direction of
T = 365 days = 365 × 24 × 60 × 60
the position of block 2 to be downward.
s = 3.1 × 107 s
The normal component N of the contact
force between block 1 and the ramp will be
I 2.02 107 rad per sec N m1g cos T . (1)

The net x -component of the force on

2
ac 2.02 107 150 108 block 1 is then
F1x = T− ffriction − m1 g sin θ (2)

4 2
ac 6.12 10 ms
where T is the tension in the string
For the just-slipping condition, the
11. A block 1 of mass m1, constrained to frictional force has magnitude
move along a plane inclined at angle T to
the horizontal, is connected via a massless ffriction = s N= s m1g cos θ. (3)
inextensible string that passes over a massless
pulley, to a second block 2 of mass m2. The tension in the string is the
Assume the coefficient of static friction gravitational force of the suspended mass,
278 Appendix 1
Since there is no motion along the
T = m2 g . (4)
vertical direction, magnitude of normal
force is equivalent to the magnitude of
For the just-slipping condition,
gravitational force.
the net force on block 1 must be zero.
Equations (2), (3) and (4) gives
N mg
0=m2g- s m1g cos θ – m1g sin θ
m2=m1( s cos θ + sin θ) Applying Newton’s second law along
the x direction
12. Consider two objects of masses 5 kg and
20 kg which are initially at rest. A force G
ma = − μk mgiˆ
100 N is applied on the two objects for
5 second. G
The acceleration is a = − μk mgiˆ
a) What is the momentum gained by Note that the acceleration is along the x
each object after 5 s. direction since the frictional force acts
b) What is the speed gained by each along the negative x direction.
object after 5 s.
Final momentum on each object Or a Fk g
'P F 't = 100X 5 = 500 kgms−1
Final speed on the object of mass Note that the acceleration is uniform
5 kg = 500 /5 =100 m s–1 during the entire motion. We can use
Final speed on the object of mass Newton’s kinematic equation to find the
20 kg =500/20 =25 m s–1 final velocity.
Note that momentum on each object

Along the x direction v 2 u2 2as
is the same after 5 seconds but speed
is not the same after 5 seconds. The
Here v = final velocity and u
heavier mass acquires lesser speed than
initial velocity to be given to travel a
the one with lower mass.
distance s.
13. An object of mass 5 kg is initially at rest In this problem s = 10 m
on the surface. The surface has coefficient Since the particle comes to rest, the
kinetic friction Fk 0.6. What initial final velocity v = 0
velocity must be given to the object so
that it travels 10 m before coming to rest?
0 u2 2 Fk gs
When the object moves on the
surface it will experience three forces.
u 2 Fk gs
a) Downward gravitational force (mg)
b) Upward normal force (N)
c) Frictional force opposite to the u 2 0.6 9.8 10 = 10.8 ms−1
motion of the object.
Appendix 1 279
14. In the section 3.7.3 (Banking of road)
we have not included the friction N cos 3 mg f sin 3
exerted by the road on the car. Suppose Or N cos 3 f sin 3 mg (2)
the coefficient of static friction between
the car tyre and the surface of the road Diving the equation (1) by equation (2), we
is , calculate the minimum speed with get
which the car can take safe turn?
N sin 3 f cos 3 v 2
When the car takes turn in the (3)
banked road, the following three forces N cos 3 f sin 3 rg
act on the car.
To calculate the maximum speed for the
(1) The gravitational force mg acting safe turn, we can use the maximum static
downwards friction is given by . By substituting this
(2) The normal force N acting relation in equation (3), we get
perpendicular to the surface of the
road
N sin 3 Fs N cos 3 v max 2
(3) The static frictional force f acting
on the car along the surface. N cos 3 F s N sin 3 rg
The following figure shows the forces By taking outside the bracket in L.H.S of
acting on the horizontal and vertical equation
direction.
b4 N sin 3 5 e
N cos 3 c6 7 Fs f
d8 N cos 3 9
2
g v max
4 N sin 3 5 rg
N cos 3 6 1 F s 7
8 N cos 3 9
tan3 Fs
v max 2
When the car takes turn with the 1 Fs tan 3 rg
speed v, the centripetal force is exerted
by horizontal component of normal
force and static frictional force. It is The Maximum speed for safe turn is given
given by
by v max rg
tan3 Fs (4)
mv 2
1 Fs tan3
N sin3 f cos 3 (1) Suppose we neglect the effect of friction
r
(μs = 0), then safe speed
In the vertical direction, there is no v safe rg tan 3 (5)
acceleration. It implies that the vertical Note that the maximum speed with which
component of normal force is balanced the car takes safe turn is increased by friction
by downward gravitational force and (equation (4)). Suppose the car turns with
downward vertical component of frictional speed v v safe , then the static friction acts up
force. This can be expressed as in the slope to prevent from inward skidding.
280 Appendix 1
If the car turns with the speed little greater 3. A body of mass 10kg at rest is subjected
than, then the static friction acts down the to a force of 16N. Find the kinetic energy
slope to prevent outward skidding. But if the at the end of 10 s.
car turns with the speed greater than then
Solution:
static friction cannot prevent from outward
skidding. Mass m = 10 kg
Force F = 16 N
time t = 10 s
16
a =F m 1.6ms 2
SOLVED EXAMPLE UNIT-4 10

1. A force F = î + 2jˆ + 3kˆ acts on a particle
we know that, v = u + at
and displaces it through a distance

S = 4iˆ + 6jˆ Calculate the work done. = 0 + 1.6 × 10 = 16 m s–1
1
Solution: Kinetic energy K.E = mv 2
2
1
10 16 16
Force F = î + 2jˆ + 3kˆ
2

Distance S = 4iˆ + 6jˆ 1280J
G G
ˆ .(4iˆ + 6j)
Work done = F " S (iˆ + 2jˆ + 3k) ˆ
4. A body of mass 5kg is thrown up
= 4+12+0 = 16 J vertically with a kinetic energy of 1000 J.
If acceleration due to gravity is 10ms−2,
2. A particle moves along X- axis from x=0
find the height at which the kinetic
to x=8 under the influence of a force
energy becomes half of the original value.
given by F= 3x 2 4 x 5. Find the work
done in the process. Solution:
Solution: Mass m = 5kg

Work done in moving a particle from K.E E = 1000J
x=0 to x=8 will be g = 10ms−2
8 8
E
W = ∫ Fdx = ∫ (3x 2 − 4 x + 5)dx − At a height ‘h’, mgh =
0 0
2
8
⎡ 3x 3 4 x 2 ⎤ 1000
⎢ − + 5x ⎥ 5 10 h
⎣ 3 2 ⎦0 2
500
h 10m
N (8)3 P 50
4 82 5
W R3 4 6 7 40 S
O 3 829 Q 5. Two bodies of mass 60 kg and 30 kg move
[512 128 40] 424 J
in the same direction along straight line
with velocity 40 cms−1 and 30 cms−1
Appendix 1 281
respectively suffer one dimensional
Force (N)
elastic collision. Find their velocities
A B
after collision. 10
Solution: Time (s)

Mass m1 = 60 kg 0 E D C
4 × 10−3 8 × 10−3 10−2
Mass m2 = 30 kg
Solution:
V1 40 cms 1
ௐ The area under the graph gives the impulse.

V2 30 cm s 1
Impulse I = area of ΔOAE+ area of

Solution: rectangle ABDE+ area of ΔDBC
m1 m2 2m2
v1 u1 u2 1
m1 m2 m1 m2 I 4 103 10 (8 4) 103
2
m2 m1 2m1 1
v2 u2 u1 10 10 10 2 (1 0.8)
m1 m2 m1 m2 2
2 10 4 10 2 1 102
2
Substituting the values, we get, 7 102 kgms 1
(60 30) 2 30 But Impulse = 2 × initial momentum

v1 40 30
90 90 of the particle= 2 × m × u
1 2mu = 7x10-2
v1 [ 1200 1800 ] 7 102 7 102
90 u 3
50cms 1
3000 2m 2 70 10
33.3cms 1
90
Hence the particle will reverse its
direction and move with its initial speed.
Likewise,
7. A particle strikes a horizontal frictionless
floor with a speed u at an angle θ with the
(30 60) 2 60 vertical and rebounds with the speed v at
v2 30 40
90 90 an angle f with an vertical. The coefficient
1 of restitution between the particle and
v2 [900 4800]
90 floor is e. What is the magnitude of v?
3900
43.3cms 1
90 u
v
6. A particle of mass 70 g moving at

50 cms−1 is acted upon by a variable force
θ φ
as shown in the figure. What will be its
speed once the force stops?
282 Appendix 1
Solution:
Applying component of velocities, x=0
Fs
u sin θ
x
u cos θ θ l x
v cos φ
u
v
θ φ Let ‘x’ be the increase in the length of
the spring.
v sin φ
The new length = (l+x) = r
The x - component of velocity is When the spring is rotated in a
horizontal circle,
usin q = vsin f (1)
Spring force = centripetal force.
The magnitude of y – component of
velocity is not same, therefore, using kx = mZ2(l+x)
coefficient of restitution, mω 2l
x=
v cos h k–mω 2
e (2)
u cos 3
9. A gun fires 8 bullets per second into a
Squaring (1) and (2) and adding we get target X. If the mass of each bullet is 3
g and its speed 600 ms−1. Then, calculate
v 2 sin2 h u2 sin2 3 the power delivered by the bullets.
v 2 cos2 h e 2u2 cos2 3 Solution:

adding Power = work done per second = total
v 2 u2 sin2 3 e 2u2 cos 2 3 kinetic energy of 8 bullets per second
v 2 u2 NOsin2 3 e 2 cos2 3 PQ
P 8 (kinetic energy of each
v u sin 3 e cos 3
2 2 2
bullet per second)
8. A particle of mass m is fixed to one end

1
2

8 3 10 3 600
2
of a light spring of force constant k and

P = 4320W
un-stretched length l. It is rotated with
an angular velocity w in horizontal P = 4.320 kW
circle. What will be the length increase
in the spring?
Solution: SOLVED EXAMPLE UNIT-5

Mass spring = m
Force constant = k 1. Three particles of masses m1 = 1 kg,
Un-stretched length = l m2 2 kg and m3 3 kg are placed at the
Angular velocity = ω corners of an equilateral triangle of side
Appendix 1 283
1m as shown in Figure. Find the position X Coordinate of center of mass,
of center of mass. m1x1 m2 x2 m3 x3
xCM
Solution: m1 m2 m3
1 √3 (1 0) (2 1) (3 0.5) 3.5
C m3 ( , ) xCM
2 2 1 2 3 6
7
xCM m
12
G
B Y Coordinate of center of mass,
A
D 1 m1 y1 m2 y2 m3 y3
m1 m2(1,0) yCM
2 m1 m2 m3
The center of mass of an equilateral
triangle lies at its geometrical center G. (1 0) (2 0) (3 0.5 3 ) 1.5 3
yCM
1 2 3 6
The positions of the mass m1, m2 and
m3 are at positions A, B and C as shown 3
yCM m.
in the Figure. 4
From the given position of the
masses, the coordinates of the masses ? The coordinates of center of mass G
m1 and m2 are easily marked as (0,0) and
4 7 35
(1,0) respectively. xCM , yCM is 6 ,
6 12 4 77
8 9
To find the position of m3 the
Pythagoras theorem is applied. As the
2. An electron of mass 9 1031 kg revolves
ΔDBC is a right angle triangle,
around a nucleus in a circular orbit
of radius 0.53 Å. What is the angular
BC 2 CD 2 DB 2 momentum of the electron? (Velocity of
electron is, v = 2.2 106 m s 1 )
CD 2 BC 2 DB 2
Solution:
2 Mass of the electron, m = 9 × 10−31 kg
415 415 3
CD 1 6 7 1 6 7
2 2
Radius of the electron, r = 0.53 Å =
829 849 4
0.53 1010 m
3
CD Velocity of the electron, v = 2.2 ×
2
10 m s 1
6
The position of mass m3 is Angular momentum of electron is,

L=Iω
41 3 5
66 ,
2 2

77 or 0.5, 0.5 3 Electron is considered as a point mass.
8 9 Hence, its moment of inertia is, I = m r2
284 Appendix 1
v In the first case,
The relation, I
could be used.
r
v potential energy = kinetic energy
Angular momentum, L = mr2 u
r
= mvr 1
mgh = mv 2
2
1
= 9.1 1031 2.2 106 0.53 1010 mg×2 = mv 2 (1)
2
L = 1.06 × 10−34 kg m2 s−1
In second case,
3. A solid sphere of mass 20 kg and radius
0.25 m rotates about an axis passing potential energy = translational kinetic
through the center. What is the angular energy + rotational kinetic energy
momentum if the angular velocity is
5 rad s 1 1 1
mghʹ = mv 2+ IZ 2
2 2
Solution:
Mass of the sphere, m = 20 kg 1 1 4 mr 2 5 4 v 2 5
mghʹ = mv 2 + 6 76 7
Radius r = 0.25 m 2 2 8 2 98 r2 9
Angular velocity ω = 5 rad s 1
3 2
Solution: ? mghʹ = mv (2)
4
2
Angular momentum L = Iω = mr 2Z
5
Dividing (2) by (1),
2
= 20 (0.25)2 5 40 (0.0625) = 2.5
5
L = 2.5 kg m 2s 1 3 2
mv
mgh ’ 4 3 2 3
4. A solid cylinder when dropped from a
mg 2 1 2 4 1 2
mv
height of 2 m acquires a velocity while 2
reaching the ground. If the same cylinder
hʹ = 3m
is rolled down from the top of an inclined
plane to reach the ground with same
velocity, what must be the height of the
1 2
inclined plane? Also compute the velocity. From equation (1), 2mg mv
2
Solution:
v 4g 2 g
2m h v 2 9.81
hʹ
v 6.3 m s 1
Appendix 1 285
5. A small particle of mass m is projected Solution:
with an initial velocity v at an angle θ with x Let R be the radius of the ring and M be
axis in X-Y plane as shown in Figure. Find the total mass of the complete ring.
the angular momentum of the particle.
Let m be the mass of the section
Solution: removed from the ring then, mass of the
incomplete ring is M-m
Mass, m
v sin θ
θ
θ
v cos θ Mass, M-m
Let the particle of mass m cross a

horizontal distance x in time t.
Let us introduce a positive integer (n),
G G 360
Angular momentum L C & dt such that, n3 360˚, or n =
3
G G G
But & r F
mass of incomplete ring M m
r = xiˆ + yjˆ and F = −mgjˆ
M
m 3
( ) (
∴τ = xiˆ + yjˆ × −mgjˆ ) 360

( )
τ = −mgx iˆ × ˆj = −mgxkˆ mass of incomplete ring M
M
3
L = −mg ∫ ( xdt ) kˆ = −mgv cos θ ( )
∫ tdt kˆ 360
mass of incomplete ring M

M
M
n 1
n n
Let initial time t = 0 and final time t = tf
360
For example, a) when 3 60; n 6
⎛tf ⎞ 60
1
∴ L = − mgv cosθ ⎜ ∫ tdt ⎟ kˆ = − mgv cosθ t 2 f kˆ
⎜0 ⎟ 2 n 1 5
⎝ ⎠
5
G mass of incomplete ring M
Negative sign indicates, L point inwards 6
6. From a complete ring of mass M and 360

b) when 3 30, n 12
radius R, a sector angle θ is removed. 30
What is the moment of inertia of the n 1 11
incomplete ring about axis passing
through the center of the ring and 11
mass of incomplete ring = M
perpendicular to the plane of the ring? 12
286 Appendix 1
The moment of inertia of the
100 × cos 53o = m × cos 37o
incomplete ring is, I = M
n 1 R2
3 4
n 100 m
5 5
7. A massless right tangled triangle is 3
m 100
suspended with its right angle corner. 4
A mass of 100 kg is suspended from
m 75 kg
another corner B which subtends an
angle 53o. Find the mass m that should be
8. If energy of 1000 J is spent in increasing
suspended from other corner C so that
the speed of a flywheel from 30 rpm to
BC (hypotenuse) remains horizontal.
720 rpm, find the moment of inertia of
Solution: the wheel.
A Solution:
90°
30
I1 30rpm = 2 rads 1 = S rads
60
53° 37°
I2 720rpm
B x1 D x2 C 720
=2 1
rads 24 rads
60
100 m
From the principle of moments, Change in kinetic energy,

1
ΔKE = I(I22 I12 )
100 × g x1 m g x2 2
100 × cos 53o = m × cos 37o (1)

2 'KE 2 1000
I=
(I2 I1 ) 24 2
2 2 2
Where, x1 and x2 are the arm lengths.
The right angle triangle with angles 2000
I= Remember:
37 , 53o and 90o is a special triangle which
o
25 23
has the respective sides in the ratio, 3:4:5 a2−b2 = (a + b) (a−b)
as shown in the diagram.
I ≈ 0.35 kg m 2 and 2 10
37°
9. Consider two cylinders with same
4 radius and same mass. Let one of the
4
cylinders be solid and another one
be hollow. When subjected to same
53°
3 torque, which one among them gets
more angular acceleration than the
Substituting the values in equation (1), other?
Appendix 1 287
Solution:
Moment of inertia of a solid cylinder
1
about its axis I s MR 2
2 O
A B
Moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder
about its axis I h MR 2
1
Is I h or I h 2 I s
2
When the insect moves towards the
torque & I a
center (from A to O), the moment of
W inertia (I) decreases. Thus, the angular
a=
I velocity (ω) increases. When it moves
& & away from center (from O to B), the
Us and U h
Is Ih moment of inertia (I) increases. Thus,
Ih the angular velocity (ω) decreases.
U s I s Uh Ih T U s Uh
Is
11. (i) What is the shape of the graph
I between Ekr and L? (Ekr is the
Ih i I s T h i 1
Since, Is rotational kinetic energy and L is
U s i U h angular momentum)
(ii) What information can you get
For the same torque, a solid cylinder gets
from the slope of the graph?
more acceleration than a hollow cylinder.
(iii) You are given the graph of Ekr
Note: The above two cylinders must be and L for two bodies A and B.
made up of materials of different Which one has more moment of
density. (Say why?) inertia?
Solution:
10. A thin horizontal circular disc is
rotating about a vertical axis passing i) We know that, Rotational kinetic
through its center. An insect goes Energy
from A to point B along its diameter
1 2
as shown in Figure. Discuss how the Ekr = IZ
2
angular speed of the circular disc
1 1 1 L2 'L II
changes? = II I .L.I
2 2 2 I IL I
Solution:
L2
As the disc is freely rotating, with the Ekr =
2I
insect on it, the angular momentum of
the system is conserved. L2 = 2IEkr
L I I = constant L = 2IEkr = 2I . Ekr
288 Appendix 1
acceleration along the inclined plane
Graph of Ekr and L:
if the angle of inclination is 45˚.
Solution:
√Ekr The linear acceleration along the inclined
plane can be computed by
g sin 3
a
L K2
1 2
R
The shape of the graph is a straight
line
For a thin uniform circular ring, axis
ii) The slope of the graph gives the
passing through its center is I MR 2
value of moment of inertia I.
iii) We know that the slope gives
the value of moment of Inertia. K2
K R T 2 1.
2 2
The line A has higher slope and R
hence more moment of Inertia.
And the angle of inclination, θ = 45˚
A
1
√Ekr (sin45˚ = )
B
2
Hence,
L g
a= 2
12. Consider a thin uniform circular ring 1+ 2
g
rolling down in an inclined plane a= ms −2
without slipping. Compute the linear 2 2
COMPETITIVE EXAM CORNER
Appendix 1 289
APPENDIX 2
Table A1.1 Systematic developments in Physics over centuries

Observation of motion of Sun, Stars, Planets Around 3000 BCE (Early Greeks)
and Moon
In the universe everything is changing. Around 500 BCE (Heraclitus).
Nothing remains in the same state
indefinitely. The idea of ‘time’ started with
this understanding.
Everything is composed of entirely End of 500 BCE (Democritus and Leucippus)
small indivisible elements called ‘atoms’.
Development of theory of ‘atomism’. But
that time it is a hypothesis. No experimental
proof.
Idea of natural laws behind every day Around 3rd century BCE (Aristotle)
phenomena
Idea of motion with gravity
Theory of four elements(Everything is
made up of Earth, water, fire, air able to
inter-transform into each other)
Earth is center of universe(Hypothesis)
Force is required to move the object
Heavier object falls faster towards Earth
than lighter object
Earth is sphere Around 240 BCE (Eratosthenes)
Measurement of radius of the Earth
almost accurately
290 Appendix 2
Table A1.1 Systematic developments in physics over centuries (Cont)
Sun is center of the solar system Around 2nd century BCE (Aristarchus of
(Hypothesis. Could not be proven by Samos)
experimental evidence)
Idea of Earth rotation around its own Around 2nd century BCE (Seleucia)
axis.
Foundation of hydrostatics Around 3rd century BCE (Archimedes)
Idea of lever
Mechanical work using pulleys
Law of Buoyancy known as a Archimedes
principle
First accurate value of the number ‘pi’
Focused on motion of planets and stars End of 2nd century BCE (Hippachrus)
Prediction of solar eclipses
Calculation of distance of Earth to Moon,
Earth to Sun
Astronomical observation were recorded
Geo centric model (Not hypothesis. Around 100 CE (Ptolemy)
Explained a lot of naked eye observation)
Explanation of Planets ‘retrograde
motion’
“Almagest”- First book on astronomy
Idea of Earth’s rotation about its own axis 5th Century CE (Aryabhatta-India)
Idea of zero
Contribution to mathematics
Understanding of early optics 9th century CE (Ibn al-Hayatham- Arabia)
Boon on ‘Treasury of astronomy’- 12th Century CE (Nasir al-Din- Persian
Accurate astronomical table than astronomer)
Ptolemy’s data
From 7th century to 14th century major
development in science happened
in muslim countries (Arabia, Persia,
Iran etc.)
Appendix 2 291
Copernicun Revolution 15th Century CE
Heliocentric model (Not hypothesis. CE 1543 (Copernicus)
It provides simplest explanation than
Ptolemy model for motion of stars and
Planets )
Accurate astronomical datas Tycho Brahe
Laws of Planetary motion Kepler
Law of inertia Gallieo Galilei (1564- 1642)
Telescope observation(Founder of
modern observational astronomy)
Calculation of time period of the Moons
of the Jupiter
Earth is not flat
All object fall to Earth at the same rate
(Disproved Aristotle’s argument)
Law of inertia(Force need not required
to maintain the motion- disproved
Aristotle’s argument)
Pendulum, inclined plane experiments
Study of projectile motion
Introduction of ‘controlled experiments’
Introduction of Cartesian coordinate Rane Descarte (1596-1650)
system
Idea of analytical geometry
17th and 18thcentury Development
Laws of motion Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
Quantitative idea of motion
Law of gravitation
Development of calculus independent of
Leibnitz
Founder of modern optics (reflection,
dispersion, prism)
Light consists of minute particles
‘corpuscules’
Derivation of Kepler laws
Greatest book ‘The principia
mathematica’(1687)
Wave theory of light
Christian Huygens
292 Appendix 2
Work on magnetism William Gilbert (Around 1600)
Behavior of gases Robert Boyle (1627- 1691)& Robert Hooke
Fluid dynamics - Bernoulli’s theorem Daniel Bernoulli(1700- 1782)
(1734)
Early ideas of kinetic theory of gases Daniel Bernoulli (1700 - 1782)
Study of spring motion(Hooke’s law) Robert Hooke
Derivation of frequency of vibration in Taylor
strings(1714)
Reformulation of Newtonian mechanics De Alembert, Lagrange
using Energy approach (Lagrangian
mechanics)
Invention of steam engine(1781)- James Watt
Force between charges (Coulomb’s law) Coulomb
19th century development
Early ideas of Thermodynamics(1840s) James Joule, Carnot
Caloric theory
Laws of thermodynamics(1850s) Kelvin, Clausius
Behavior of gases, velocity and James Clark Maxwell
speed(1860s)
Foundation of statistical mechanics and Boltzmann
entropy formula (around 1870s)
Wave nature of light- Experiments Young and Fresnel
Behavior of electric charges
Magnetic effect of electric current(1820s) Oersted
Force between two parallel currents Ampere
Principle of Least action, Hamilton William Hamilton
mechanics (1821)
Electric powered motor, electricity Micheal Faraday
demonstration
Theory of electromagnetism(1873)- James Clerk Maxwell
Bridge between electricity and
magnetism
Maxwell equations –Paved way to Tesla
modern technology
Alternating current
Appendix 2 293
20th century developments
Study of black body radiation Max planck(around 1900)
Discovery of an electron J.J.Thomson
Rutherford atomic model Rutherford(1910s)
Study on radioactivity Marie Curie(1920s and 30s)
Special theory of relativity, Photo electric Albert Einstein
effect, Existence of atom(1905), E=mc2
Revolution of physics after Newton
New Idea of space and time
The General theory of relativity(Greatest
theory of 20th century)- 1915
Study of specific heat capacities
Study of atoms
Bohr atom model (1912) Niels Bohr
Behavior of electron, proton – Schrodinger
Schrodinger equation
Uncertainty principle Heisenberg
Formulation of Quantum Mechanics Paul Dirac
Formulation of quantum field theory Dirac, Feynman, Schwinger
Particle physics, standard model Gellman, Weinberg, Abdus salam
X-ray diffraction(1930s)- Paved way to
understanding the materials
Raman effect C.V. Raman(India)
Study of stars and black holes Chandrasekhar(Indian origin)
Invention of transistor(1947) John Bardeen, Walter Brattain,William
Classification of stars using temperature Schokley
(Astro thermodynamics), Saha ionization Megnad Saha(India)
formula
Field of Cosmology (1920s) Eddington, Schwarchild
Expanding universe model(1922) Thomas Friedmann
Discovery of redshift Edwin Hubble
294 Appendix 2
Birth of materials science
Nanotechnology, Condensed matter
physics
Gravitational waves, Dark energy, Dark
matter, String theory
Taking logarithms on both sides, we get

APPENDIX A 1.2 log u log x m log y n log j p
vi) Error involving the division of two log u m log x n log y p log
quantities (using the method of
differentiation) Differentiating both sides, we get
n
Consider j Am du dx dy dz
B
m n p
Taking logarithms of both the sides, u x y z
log j log An log B m In terms of fractional error, the equation

log j n log A m log B maybe rewritten as,
Differentiating both sides, we get,
'u 'x 'y 'z
` `m `n `p
dj dA dB u x y z
n m
j A B
In terms of fractional error, this may be

written as,
APPENDIX A 2.1
'j 'A 'B
` `n Bm Parallelogram Law ofGVector
j A B G addition:
If two non-zero vectors A and B are represented
Maximum possible relative error in = is by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram
given by then the resultant is given by the diagonal of
the parallelogram passing through the point
'j 'A 'B
n m of intersection of the two vectors.
j A B
Consider the figure
G 2.19
G below. Here
vii) Error involving the product of three the two vectors A and B are connected
quantities (using calculus method) by a common tail at an angle θ. The
let u x m y n j p parallelogram OACB is next constructed.
Appendix 2 295
G Special cases:
Then the diagonal OC is the resultant ( R)
passing through the common tail O. When 3 0, then R = A+B
When 3 180, then R = A-B
B C
When 3 90, then R A2 B 2
R = A+B
B B sin θ (ii) Direction
B
θ
β θ G E be
Let G the angle between the vectors
A and B . Then
O A N
A B cos θ
Figure 2.19 Magnitude of resultant CN B sin 3

tan V
vector by parallelogram method ON A B cos 3
We next find the magnitude and direction

of this resultant vector.
(i) Magnitude:
First extend OA to the point N, so
that we get ON. Then CN is drawn
perpendicular to this ON, from C.
Then ONC is a right angled triangle.
We can write R 2 ON 2 CN 2
R 2 = (OA + AN )2 + CN 2
T R 2 A2 B 2 2 AB cos 3
G G G
R R A B A2 B 2 2 AB cos 3
296 Appendix 2
APPENDIX 3
5. If y = uv, where u and v are functions

Some important formulae for Integral
d of x then
(1) C dx x ; dx ( x) 1 dy d
uv u
dv
v
du
dx dx dx dx
4 x n 1 5 d 4 x n 1 5
(2) C 7x
n n
x dx 6 7; 6 dy
8 n 1 9 dx 8 n 1 9 6. If y is a function of x, then dy .dx
dx
d x
7. (e ) e x
(3) C cudx c C udx where c is a constant dx
d 1
(4) C (u ` v ` w)dx C udx ` C vdx ` C wdx 8.
dx
(ln x)
x
1
(5) C xdx ln x 9.
d
(sin 3 ) cos 3
d3
C e dx e
x x
(6) d
10. (cos 3 ) sin 3
d3
(7) C cos 3 d3 sin 3 11. If y is a trigonometric function of θ and θ
is the function of t, then
(8) C sin 3 d3 cos 3 d d3
(sin 3 ) cos 3
Some important formulae dt dt
in Differential calculus d d
(cos ) sin
d dt dt
1. (c) 0, if c is a constant
dx
2. If y = cu, where c is a constant
and u is a function of x then
dy d du
(cu ) c
dx dx dx
3. If y = u ±v ±w where u,v and w are

functions of x then
dy d du dv dw
= (u ± v ± w) = ± ±
dx dx ds dx dx
4. If y = xn, where n is the real number then

dy d n
( x ) nx n 1
dx dx
Appendix 3 297
APPENDIX 4
(THE GREEK ALPHABET)

xZKÔ>8µÚ«>ã
The Greek Alphabet Upper Case Lower Case

Alpha A α
Beta B β
Gamma Γ γ
Delta Δ δ
Epsilon E ε
Zeta Z ȗ
Eta H η
Theta Θ θ
Iota I ι
Kappa K κ
Lambda Λ λ
Mu M μ
Nu N ν
Xi € ξ
Omicron O ο
Pi ∏ π
Rho P ρ
Sigma ∑ σ
Tau T τ
Upsilon Y υ
Phi Φ φ
Chi Χ χ
Psi Ψ ψ
Omega Ω ω
298
SOME IMPORTANT CONSTANTS IN PHYSICS
Name Symbols Value
Speed of light in vacuum c 2.9979 u108 m s1

Gravitational constant G 6.67 u1011 N m2 kg2
Acceleration due to gravity

(sea level, at 45° latitude) g 9.8 m s2
Planck constant 6.626 u1034 J s

h
Boltzmann constant 1.38 u1023 J K1
k
Avogadro number NA 6.023 u1023 mol1
Universal gas constant R 8.31 J mol1 K1
Stefan – Boltmann constant V 5.67 u108 W m2 K4

Wien’s constant 2.898 u103 m K
b
Permeability of free space μ0 4π u107 H m1
Standard atmospheric pressure 1 atm 1.013 u105 Pa
Appendix 4 299
GLOSSARY
>[MÖY@Tä>ã
1. Acceleration - ¯©Ô>Ý
2. Angular Momentum - Z>TD 6ÛEÝ
3. Astro physics - PTJäJà
4. Average Velocity - @KT@Ú [@ZP>Ý
5. Angular displacement - Z>TD 4CÜYHJßÖz
6. Angular velocity - Z>TDÚ [@ZP>Ý
7. Angular acceleration - Z>TD ¯©Ô>Ý
8. Angle of friction - 6KTÞ¶Ô Z>TDÝ
9. Angle of repose - @²Ô¤Ô Z>TDÝ
10. Centripetal acceleration - [IJZFTÔ¤ ¯©Ô>Ý
11. Circular Motion - PØC 4JÔ>Ý
12. Concurrent forces - [IJ [@>ã
13. Coplanar force - ;± EN [@>ã
14. Centripetal force - [IJZFTÔ¤ [@
15. Centrifugal force - [IJMÔ¤ [@
16. Coefficient of friction - 6KTÞ¶Ô ¤D>Ý
17. Center of mass - [L [IJÝ
18. Couple - 4KØ[C
19. Center of gravity - 5ßÜ® [IJÝ
20. Circular Motion - PØC 4JÔ>Ý
21. Collision - ZITEà
22. Conservative force - 3äLàITäLT[@
23. Dimensional Analysis - HITD H¤ÜHTÞ¶
24. Displacement - 4CÜYHJßÖz
25. Escape -Speed - ©H© ZP>Ý
26. Elastic potential energy - ØzJµÚE 3äLà
27. Elastic collision - Øz ZITEà
28. Free body diagram - EÚE YHT±å [@ÜHCÝ
29. Gravitational Constant - 5ßÜJà IT
30. Gravitational field - 5ßÜ®Ü®MÝ
31. Gravitational potential - 5ßÜHµÚEÝ
32. Gravitational Potential energy - 5ßÜHµÚE 3äLà
33. Gross Error - YITÚE [O
34. Geo stationary satellite - ® [MÚ «[DÔZ>Tã/
Y@Jä[>ÔZ>Tã
35. Horizontal plane - x[CÚENÝ
36. Horse power - ¤[KÚLå
300
37. Instantaneous Velocity - 6CG} / >DÚ [@ZP>Ý
38. Inclined plane - @TÞENÝ
39. Inertial frame - [MIÔ¤ÜHTJÝ
40. Impulse - >DÚETÔ¤
41. Instantaneous power - 6CG}ÚLå
42. Kinetic friction - 4JÔ> 6KTÞ¶
43. Linear motion - ZFßZ>TØ© 4JÔ>Ý
44. Linear density - ã 2CßÚ
45. Linear momentum - ZFßZ>TØ© 6ÛEÝ
46. Least Count error - ÖzäLN¶ [O
47. Motion - 4JÔ>Ý
48. Moment of inertia - [MIÚ±Ü®Ú Lå
49. Non conservative force - 3äLàITä²Ý [@
50. Orbital speed - ¦äJÔ> ZP>Ý
51. One dimensional motion - ;± HITD 4JÔ>Ý
52. accuracy - «àJÚEå[I
53. Parallax Method - 4CIT² ZETäL¯[L
54. Projectile - 8JÝ
55. Point mass - ®ã [L
56. Precison - ¬ØHÚEå[I
57. Planetary Motion - Z>Tã>å 4JÔ>Ý
58. Polar satellite - «±P [IJ «[DÔZ>Tã/
Y@Jä[>ÔZ>Tã
59. Precession - 2Ö¦Ö¦Oäz
60. Pulley - >Ü
61. Rolling - 6±Éà
62. Random error - @IPTÞÜ® [O
63. Rounding off - ¯µ[IH©Ú«Eà
64. Rest - <Þ¶
65. Retardation - 8ß ¯©Ô>Ý
66. Relative velocity - @Tß®Ú[@ZP>Ý
67. Range - x[CÚEN ¾KÝ
68. Rolling friction - 6±ãEà 6KTÞ¶
69. Rigid body - ÙIÜYHT±ã
70. Radius of gyration - ¦Oäz 3KÝ
71. Rotational Motion - ¦Oäz 4JÔ>Ý
72. Spring Constant - ¦±ã IT
73. Sliping - Fµ¶Eà
74. Sliding - @²Ô¤Eà
75. Systematic error - ¯[LJTG [O
76. Static friction - [M 6KTÞ¶
77. Significant Number - ¯ÔxJ 8Ùª±
78. Time of flight - HLÔ¤ÝZFKÝ
79. Torque - ±Ü® [@
80. Translational Motion - 4CÝYHJß¶ 4JÔ>Ý
81. Tension - 4µ[@
82. Velocity - [@ZP>Ý
GLOSSARY 301
LOGARITHM TABLE
Mean Difference
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.0 0.0000 0.0043 0.0086 0.0128 0.0170 0.0212 0.0253 0.0294 0.0334 0.0374 4 8 12 17 21 25 29 33 37
1.1 0.0414 0.0453 0.0492 0.0531 0.0569 0.0607 0.0645 0.0682 0.0719 0.0755 4 8 11 15 19 23 26 30 34
1.2 0.0792 0.0828 0.0864 0.0899 0.0934 0.0969 0.1004 0.1038 0.1072 0.1106 3 7 10 14 17 21 24 28 31
1.3 0.1139 0.1173 0.1206 0.1239 0.1271 0.1303 0.1335 0.1367 0.1399 0.1430 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29
1.4 0.1461 0.1492 0.1523 0.1553 0.1584 0.1614 0.1644 0.1673 0.1703 0.1732 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
1.5 0.1761 0.1790 0.1818 0.1847 0.1875 0.1903 0.1931 0.1959 0.1987 0.2014 3 6 8 11 14 17 20 22 25
1.6 0.2041 0.2068 0.2095 0.2122 0.2148 0.2175 0.2201 0.2227 0.2253 0.2279 3 5 8 11 13 16 18 21 24
1.7 0.2304 0.2330 0.2355 0.2380 0.2405 0.2430 0.2455 0.2480 0.2504 0.2529 2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22
1.8 0.2553 0.2577 0.2601 0.2625 0.2648 0.2672 0.2695 0.2718 0.2742 0.2765 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21
1.9 0.2788 0.2810 0.2833 0.2856 0.2878 0.2900 0.2923 0.2945 0.2967 0.2989 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20
2.0 0.3010 0.3032 0.3054 0.3075 0.3096 0.3118 0.3139 0.3160 0.3181 0.3201 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
2.1 0.3222 0.3243 0.3263 0.3284 0.3304 0.3324 0.3345 0.3365 0.3385 0.3404 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
2.2 0.3424 0.3444 0.3464 0.3483 0.3502 0.3522 0.3541 0.3560 0.3579 0.3598 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17
2.3 0.3617 0.3636 0.3655 0.3674 0.3692 0.3711 0.3729 0.3747 0.3766 0.3784 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
2.4 0.3802 0.3820 0.3838 0.3856 0.3874 0.3892 0.3909 0.3927 0.3945 0.3962 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
2.5 0.3979 0.3997 0.4014 0.4031 0.4048 0.4065 0.4082 0.4099 0.4116 0.4133 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 15
2.6 0.4150 0.4166 0.4183 0.4200 0.4216 0.4232 0.4249 0.4265 0.4281 0.4298 2 3 5 7 8 10 11 13 15
2.7 0.4314 0.4330 0.4346 0.4362 0.4378 0.4393 0.4409 0.4425 0.4440 0.4456 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 14
2.8 0.4472 0.4487 0.4502 0.4518 0.4533 0.4548 0.4564 0.4579 0.4594 0.4609 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
2.9 0.4624 0.4639 0.4654 0.4669 0.4683 0.4698 0.4713 0.4728 0.4742 0.4757 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
3.0 0.4771 0.4786 0.4800 0.4814 0.4829 0.4843 0.4857 0.4871 0.4886 0.4900 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
3.1 0.4914 0.4928 0.4942 0.4955 0.4969 0.4983 0.4997 0.5011 0.5024 0.5038 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 12
3.2 0.5051 0.5065 0.5079 0.5092 0.5105 0.5119 0.5132 0.5145 0.5159 0.5172 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
3.3 0.5185 0.5198 0.5211 0.5224 0.5237 0.5250 0.5263 0.5276 0.5289 0.5302 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
3.4 0.5315 0.5328 0.5340 0.5353 0.5366 0.5378 0.5391 0.5403 0.5416 0.5428 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11
3.5 0.5441 0.5453 0.5465 0.5478 0.5490 0.5502 0.5514 0.5527 0.5539 0.5551 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11
3.6 0.5563 0.5575 0.5587 0.5599 0.5611 0.5623 0.5635 0.5647 0.5658 0.5670 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
3.7 0.5682 0.5694 0.5705 0.5717 0.5729 0.5740 0.5752 0.5763 0.5775 0.5786 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.8 0.5798 0.5809 0.5821 0.5832 0.5843 0.5855 0.5866 0.5877 0.5888 0.5899 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.9 0.5911 0.5922 0.5933 0.5944 0.5955 0.5966 0.5977 0.5988 0.5999 0.6010 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
4.0 0.6021 0.6031 0.6042 0.6053 0.6064 0.6075 0.6085 0.6096 0.6107 0.6117 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
4.1 0.6128 0.6138 0.6149 0.6160 0.6170 0.6180 0.6191 0.6201 0.6212 0.6222 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.2 0.6232 0.6243 0.6253 0.6263 0.6274 0.6284 0.6294 0.6304 0.6314 0.6325 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.3 0.6335 0.6345 0.6355 0.6365 0.6375 0.6385 0.6395 0.6405 0.6415 0.6425 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.4 0.6435 0.6444 0.6454 0.6464 0.6474 0.6484 0.6493 0.6503 0.6513 0.6522 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.5 0.6532 0.6542 0.6551 0.6561 0.6571 0.6580 0.6590 0.6599 0.6609 0.6618 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.6 0.6628 0.6637 0.6646 0.6656 0.6665 0.6675 0.6684 0.6693 0.6702 0.6712 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8
4.7 0.6721 0.6730 0.6739 0.6749 0.6758 0.6767 0.6776 0.6785 0.6794 0.6803 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
4.8 0.6812 0.6821 0.6830 0.6839 0.6848 0.6857 0.6866 0.6875 0.6884 0.6893 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
4.9 0.6902 0.6911 0.6920 0.6928 0.6937 0.6946 0.6955 0.6964 0.6972 0.6981 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
5.0 0.6990 0.6998 0.7007 0.7016 0.7024 0.7033 0.7042 0.7050 0.7059 0.7067 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
5.1 0.7076 0.7084 0.7093 0.7101 0.7110 0.7118 0.7126 0.7135 0.7143 0.7152 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
5.2 0.7160 0.7168 0.7177 0.7185 0.7193 0.7202 0.7210 0.7218 0.7226 0.7235 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
5.3 0.7243 0.7251 0.7259 0.7267 0.7275 0.7284 0.7292 0.7300 0.7308 0.7316 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
5.4 0.7324 0.7332 0.7340 0.7348 0.7356 0.7364 0.7372 0.7380 0.7388 0.7396 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
302 GLOSSARY
LOGARITHM TABLE
Mean Difference
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.5 0.7404 0.7412 0.7419 0.7427 0.7435 0.7443 0.7451 0.7459 0.7466 0.7474 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
5.6 0.7482 0.7490 0.7497 0.7505 0.7513 0.7520 0.7528 0.7536 0.7543 0.7551 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
5.7 0.7559 0.7566 0.7574 0.7582 0.7589 0.7597 0.7604 0.7612 0.7619 0.7627 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
5.8 0.7634 0.7642 0.7649 0.7657 0.7664 0.7672 0.7679 0.7686 0.7694 0.7701 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
5.9 0.7709 0.7716 0.7723 0.7731 0.7738 0.7745 0.7752 0.7760 0.7767 0.7774 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
6.0 0.7782 0.7789 0.7796 0.7803 0.7810 0.7818 0.7825 0.7832 0.7839 0.7846 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
6.1 0.7853 0.7860 0.7868 0.7875 0.7882 0.7889 0.7896 0.7903 0.7910 0.7917 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
6.2 0.7924 0.7931 0.7938 0.7945 0.7952 0.7959 0.7966 0.7973 0.7980 0.7987 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6
6.3 0.7993 0.8000 0.8007 0.8014 0.8021 0.8028 0.8035 0.8041 0.8048 0.8055 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.4 0.8062 0.8069 0.8075 0.8082 0.8089 0.8096 0.8102 0.8109 0.8116 0.8122 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.5 0.8129 0.8136 0.8142 0.8149 0.8156 0.8162 0.8169 0.8176 0.8182 0.8189 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.6 0.8195 0.8202 0.8209 0.8215 0.8222 0.8228 0.8235 0.8241 0.8248 0.8254 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.7 0.8261 0.8267 0.8274 0.8280 0.8287 0.8293 0.8299 0.8306 0.8312 0.8319 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.8 0.8325 0.8331 0.8338 0.8344 0.8351 0.8357 0.8363 0.8370 0.8376 0.8382 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
6.9 0.8388 0.8395 0.8401 0.8407 0.8414 0.8420 0.8426 0.8432 0.8439 0.8445 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
7.0 0.8451 0.8457 0.8463 0.8470 0.8476 0.8482 0.8488 0.8494 0.8500 0.8506 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
7.1 0.8513 0.8519 0.8525 0.8531 0.8537 0.8543 0.8549 0.8555 0.8561 0.8567 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
7.2 0.8573 0.8579 0.8585 0.8591 0.8597 0.8603 0.8609 0.8615 0.8621 0.8627 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
7.3 0.8633 0.8639 0.8645 0.8651 0.8657 0.8663 0.8669 0.8675 0.8681 0.8686 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
7.4 0.8692 0.8698 0.8704 0.8710 0.8716 0.8722 0.8727 0.8733 0.8739 0.8745 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
7.5 0.8751 0.8756 0.8762 0.8768 0.8774 0.8779 0.8785 0.8791 0.8797 0.8802 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
7.6 0.8808 0.8814 0.8820 0.8825 0.8831 0.8837 0.8842 0.8848 0.8854 0.8859 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
7.7 0.8865 0.8871 0.8876 0.8882 0.8887 0.8893 0.8899 0.8904 0.8910 0.8915 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
7.8 0.8921 0.8927 0.8932 0.8938 0.8943 0.8949 0.8954 0.8960 0.8965 0.8971 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
7.9 0.8976 0.8982 0.8987 0.8993 0.8998 0.9004 0.9009 0.9015 0.9020 0.9025 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.0 0.9031 0.9036 0.9042 0.9047 0.9053 0.9058 0.9063 0.9069 0.9074 0.9079 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.1 0.9085 0.9090 0.9096 0.9101 0.9106 0.9112 0.9117 0.9122 0.9128 0.9133 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.2 0.9138 0.9143 0.9149 0.9154 0.9159 0.9165 0.9170 0.9175 0.9180 0.9186 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.3 0.9191 0.9196 0.9201 0.9206 0.9212 0.9217 0.9222 0.9227 0.9232 0.9238 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.4 0.9243 0.9248 0.9253 0.9258 0.9263 0.9269 0.9274 0.9279 0.9284 0.9289 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.5 0.9294 0.9299 0.9304 0.9309 0.9315 0.9320 0.9325 0.9330 0.9335 0.9340 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.6 0.9345 0.9350 0.9355 0.9360 0.9365 0.9370 0.9375 0.9380 0.9385 0.9390 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.7 0.9395 0.9400 0.9405 0.9410 0.9415 0.9420 0.9425 0.9430 0.9435 0.9440 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
8.8 0.9445 0.9450 0.9455 0.9460 0.9465 0.9469 0.9474 0.9479 0.9484 0.9489 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
8.9 0.9494 0.9499 0.9504 0.9509 0.9513 0.9518 0.9523 0.9528 0.9533 0.9538 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.0 0.9542 0.9547 0.9552 0.9557 0.9562 0.9566 0.9571 0.9576 0.9581 0.9586 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.1 0.9590 0.9595 0.9600 0.9605 0.9609 0.9614 0.9619 0.9624 0.9628 0.9633 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.2 0.9638 0.9643 0.9647 0.9652 0.9657 0.9661 0.9666 0.9671 0.9675 0.9680 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.3 0.9685 0.9689 0.9694 0.9699 0.9703 0.9708 0.9713 0.9717 0.9722 0.9727 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.4 0.9731 0.9736 0.9741 0.9745 0.9750 0.9754 0.9759 0.9763 0.9768 0.9773 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.5 0.9777 0.9782 0.9786 0.9791 0.9795 0.9800 0.9805 0.9809 0.9814 0.9818 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.6 0.9823 0.9827 0.9832 0.9836 0.9841 0.9845 0.9850 0.9854 0.9859 0.9863 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.7 0.9868 0.9872 0.9877 0.9881 0.9886 0.9890 0.9894 0.9899 0.9903 0.9908 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.8 0.9912 0.9917 0.9921 0.9926 0.9930 0.9934 0.9939 0.9943 0.9948 0.9952 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.9 0.9956 0.9961 0.9965 0.9969 0.9974 0.9978 0.9983 0.9987 0.9991 0.9996 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
GLOSSARY 303
ANTI LOGARITHM TABLE
Mean Difference
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.00 1.000 1.002 1.005 1.007 1.009 1.012 1.014 1.016 1.019 1.021 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
0.01 1.023 1.026 1.028 1.030 1.033 1.035 1.038 1.040 1.042 1.045 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
0.02 1.047 1.050 1.052 1.054 1.057 1.059 1.062 1.064 1.067 1.069 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
0.03 1.072 1.074 1.076 1.079 1.081 1.084 1.086 1.089 1.091 1.094 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
0.04 1.096 1.099 1.102 1.104 1.107 1.109 1.112 1.114 1.117 1.119 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
0.05 1.122 1.125 1.127 1.130 1.132 1.135 1.138 1.140 1.143 1.146 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
0.06 1.148 1.151 1.153 1.156 1.159 1.161 1.164 1.167 1.169 1.172 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
0.07 1.175 1.178 1.180 1.183 1.186 1.189 1.191 1.194 1.197 1.199 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
0.08 1.202 1.205 1.208 1.211 1.213 1.216 1.219 1.222 1.225 1.227 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
0.09 1.230 1.233 1.236 1.239 1.242 1.245 1.247 1.250 1.253 1.256 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
0.10 1.259 1.262 1.265 1.268 1.271 1.274 1.276 1.279 1.282 1.285 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
0.11 1.288 1.291 1.294 1.297 1.300 1.303 1.306 1.309 1.312 1.315 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
0.12 1.318 1.321 1.324 1.327 1.330 1.334 1.337 1.340 1.343 1.346 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
0.13 1.349 1.352 1.355 1.358 1.361 1.365 1.368 1.371 1.374 1.377 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
0.14 1.380 1.384 1.387 1.390 1.393 1.396 1.400 1.403 1.406 1.409 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
0.15 1.413 1.416 1.419 1.422 1.426 1.429 1.432 1.435 1.439 1.442 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
0.16 1.445 1.449 1.452 1.455 1.459 1.462 1.466 1.469 1.472 1.476 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
0.17 1.479 1.483 1.486 1.489 1.493 1.496 1.500 1.503 1.507 1.510 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
0.18 1.514 1.517 1.521 1.524 1.528 1.531 1.535 1.538 1.542 1.545 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
0.19 1.549 1.552 1.556 1.560 1.563 1.567 1.570 1.574 1.578 1.581 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3
0.20 1.585 1.589 1.592 1.596 1.600 1.603 1.607 1.611 1.614 1.618 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3
0.21 1.622 1.626 1.629 1.633 1.637 1.641 1.644 1.648 1.652 1.656 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
0.22 1.660 1.663 1.667 1.671 1.675 1.679 1.683 1.687 1.690 1.694 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
0.23 1.698 1.702 1.706 1.710 1.714 1.718 1.722 1.726 1.730 1.734 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
0.24 1.738 1.742 1.746 1.750 1.754 1.758 1.762 1.766 1.770 1.774 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
0.25 1.778 1.782 1.786 1.791 1.795 1.799 1.803 1.807 1.811 1.816 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
0.26 1.820 1.824 1.828 1.832 1.837 1.841 1.845 1.849 1.854 1.858 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
0.27 1.862 1.866 1.871 1.875 1.879 1.884 1.888 1.892 1.897 1.901 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
0.28 1.905 1.910 1.914 1.919 1.923 1.928 1.932 1.936 1.941 1.945 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
0.29 1.950 1.954 1.959 1.963 1.968 1.972 1.977 1.982 1.986 1.991 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
0.30 1.995 2.000 2.004 2.009 2.014 2.018 2.023 2.028 2.032 2.037 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
0.31 2.042 2.046 2.051 2.056 2.061 2.065 2.070 2.075 2.080 2.084 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
0.32 2.089 2.094 2.099 2.104 2.109 2.113 2.118 2.123 2.128 2.133 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
0.33 2.138 2.143 2.148 2.153 2.158 2.163 2.168 2.173 2.178 2.183 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
0.34 2.188 2.193 2.198 2.203 2.208 2.213 2.218 2.223 2.228 2.234 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
0.35 2.239 2.244 2.249 2.254 2.259 2.265 2.270 2.275 2.280 2.286 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
0.36 2.291 2.296 2.301 2.307 2.312 2.317 2.323 2.328 2.333 2.339 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
0.37 2.344 2.350 2.355 2.360 2.366 2.371 2.377 2.382 2.388 2.393 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
0.38 2.399 2.404 2.410 2.415 2.421 2.427 2.432 2.438 2.443 2.449 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
0.39 2.455 2.460 2.466 2.472 2.477 2.483 2.489 2.495 2.500 2.506 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
0.40 2.512 2.518 2.523 2.529 2.535 2.541 2.547 2.553 2.559 2.564 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
0.41 2.570 2.576 2.582 2.588 2.594 2.600 2.606 2.612 2.618 2.624 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
0.42 2.630 2.636 2.642 2.649 2.655 2.661 2.667 2.673 2.679 2.685 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
0.43 2.692 2.698 2.704 2.710 2.716 2.723 2.729 2.735 2.742 2.748 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
0.44 2.754 2.761 2.767 2.773 2.780 2.786 2.793 2.799 2.805 2.812 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
0.45 2.818 2.825 2.831 2.838 2.844 2.851 2.858 2.864 2.871 2.877 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
0.46 2.884 2.891 2.897 2.904 2.911 2.917 2.924 2.931 2.938 2.944 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
0.47 2.951 2.958 2.965 2.972 2.979 2.985 2.992 2.999 3.006 3.013 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
0.48 3.020 3.027 3.034 3.041 3.048 3.055 3.062 3.069 3.076 3.083 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
0.49 3.090 3.097 3.105 3.112 3.119 3.126 3.133 3.141 3.148 3.155 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
304 GLOSSARY
ANTI LOGARITHM TABLE
Mean Difference
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.50 3.162 3.170 3.177 3.184 3.192 3.199 3.206 3.214 3.221 3.228 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
0.51 3.236 3.243 3.251 3.258 3.266 3.273 3.281 3.289 3.296 3.304 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
0.52 3.311 3.319 3.327 3.334 3.342 3.350 3.357 3.365 3.373 3.381 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
0.53 3.388 3.396 3.404 3.412 3.420 3.428 3.436 3.443 3.451 3.459 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
0.54 3.467 3.475 3.483 3.491 3.499 3.508 3.516 3.524 3.532 3.540 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
0.55 3.548 3.556 3.565 3.573 3.581 3.589 3.597 3.606 3.614 3.622 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
0.56 3.631 3.639 3.648 3.656 3.664 3.673 3.681 3.690 3.698 3.707 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
0.57 3.715 3.724 3.733 3.741 3.750 3.758 3.767 3.776 3.784 3.793 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
0.58 3.802 3.811 3.819 3.828 3.837 3.846 3.855 3.864 3.873 3.882 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
0.59 3.890 3.899 3.908 3.917 3.926 3.936 3.945 3.954 3.963 3.972 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
0.60 3.981 3.990 3.999 4.009 4.018 4.027 4.036 4.046 4.055 4.064 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8
0.61 4.074 4.083 4.093 4.102 4.111 4.121 4.130 4.140 4.150 4.159 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.62 4.169 4.178 4.188 4.198 4.207 4.217 4.227 4.236 4.246 4.256 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.63 4.266 4.276 4.285 4.295 4.305 4.315 4.325 4.335 4.345 4.355 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.64 4.365 4.375 4.385 4.395 4.406 4.416 4.426 4.436 4.446 4.457 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.65 4.467 4.477 4.487 4.498 4.508 4.519 4.529 4.539 4.550 4.560 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.66 4.571 4.581 4.592 4.603 4.613 4.624 4.634 4.645 4.656 4.667 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
0.67 4.677 4.688 4.699 4.710 4.721 4.732 4.742 4.753 4.764 4.775 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
0.68 4.786 4.797 4.808 4.819 4.831 4.842 4.853 4.864 4.875 4.887 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
0.69 4.898 4.909 4.920 4.932 4.943 4.955 4.966 4.977 4.989 5.000 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.70 5.012 5.023 5.035 5.047 5.058 5.070 5.082 5.093 5.105 5.117 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 11
0.71 5.129 5.140 5.152 5.164 5.176 5.188 5.200 5.212 5.224 5.236 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
0.72 5.248 5.260 5.272 5.284 5.297 5.309 5.321 5.333 5.346 5.358 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11
0.73 5.370 5.383 5.395 5.408 5.420 5.433 5.445 5.458 5.470 5.483 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11
0.74 5.495 5.508 5.521 5.534 5.546 5.559 5.572 5.585 5.598 5.610 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
0.75 5.623 5.636 5.649 5.662 5.675 5.689 5.702 5.715 5.728 5.741 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 12
0.76 5.754 5.768 5.781 5.794 5.808 5.821 5.834 5.848 5.861 5.875 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
0.77 5.888 5.902 5.916 5.929 5.943 5.957 5.970 5.984 5.998 6.012 1 3 4 5 7 8 10 11 12
0.78 6.026 6.039 6.053 6.067 6.081 6.095 6.109 6.124 6.138 6.152 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 13
0.79 6.166 6.180 6.194 6.209 6.223 6.237 6.252 6.266 6.281 6.295 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
0.80 6.310 6.324 6.339 6.353 6.368 6.383 6.397 6.412 6.427 6.442 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
0.81 6.457 6.471 6.486 6.501 6.516 6.531 6.546 6.561 6.577 6.592 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
0.82 6.607 6.622 6.637 6.653 6.668 6.683 6.699 6.714 6.730 6.745 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
0.83 6.761 6.776 6.792 6.808 6.823 6.839 6.855 6.871 6.887 6.902 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 14
0.84 6.918 6.934 6.950 6.966 6.982 6.998 7.015 7.031 7.047 7.063 2 3 5 6 8 10 11 13 15
0.85 7.079 7.096 7.112 7.129 7.145 7.161 7.178 7.194 7.211 7.228 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15
0.86 7.244 7.261 7.278 7.295 7.311 7.328 7.345 7.362 7.379 7.396 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15
0.87 7.413 7.430 7.447 7.464 7.482 7.499 7.516 7.534 7.551 7.568 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 16
0.88 7.586 7.603 7.621 7.638 7.656 7.674 7.691 7.709 7.727 7.745 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
0.89 7.762 7.780 7.798 7.816 7.834 7.852 7.870 7.889 7.907 7.925 2 4 5 7 9 11 13 14 16
0.90 7.943 7.962 7.980 7.998 8.017 8.035 8.054 8.072 8.091 8.110 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
0.91 8.128 8.147 8.166 8.185 8.204 8.222 8.241 8.260 8.279 8.299 2 4 6 8 9 11 13 15 17
0.92 8.318 8.337 8.356 8.375 8.395 8.414 8.433 8.453 8.472 8.492 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17
0.93 8.511 8.531 8.551 8.570 8.590 8.610 8.630 8.650 8.670 8.690 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.94 8.710 8.730 8.750 8.770 8.790 8.810 8.831 8.851 8.872 8.892 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.95 8.913 8.933 8.954 8.974 8.995 9.016 9.036 9.057 9.078 9.099 2 4 6 8 10 12 15 17 19
0.96 9.120 9.141 9.162 9.183 9.204 9.226 9.247 9.268 9.290 9.311 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
0.97 9.333 9.354 9.376 9.397 9.419 9.441 9.462 9.484 9.506 9.528 2 4 7 9 11 13 15 17 20
0.98 9.550 9.572 9.594 9.616 9.638 9.661 9.683 9.705 9.727 9.750 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20
0.99 9.772 9.795 9.817 9.840 9.863 9.886 9.908 9.931 9.954 9.977 2 5 7 9 11 14 16 18 20
52
GLOSSARY 305
NATURAL SINES

] ] ] ] ]

[

[

[

[

306 GLOSSARY
NATURAL SINES

[

[

[

[

GLOSSARY 307
NATURAL COSINES
[

[

[

[

[

308 GLOSSARY
NATURAL COSINES

[

[

[

[

] ] ] ] ]
] ] ] ] ]
GLOSSARY 309
NATURAL TANGENTS
[
] ] ] ] ]

[

[

[

[

310
NATURAL TANGENTS

[

[

[

[

311
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UNIT I Nature of Physical World and Measurement 01

UNIT III Laws of motion 105

UNIT IV Work, Energy and Power 167

UNIT V Motion of System of Particles and Rigid Bodies 208

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Physics learning - Correct method Value addition of the book

x M.Sc. (Physics) (In Central and State

Research Institutions in various areas of science

In this unit, the student is exposed to

1.1 (Physics and Chemistry), and that dealing

2 Unit 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement

Thermodynamics & Nuclear Physics

Optics Molecular Physics

Electricity & Magnetism High Energy

Figure 1.1 Branches of Physics

Unit 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement 3

 Range of time scales: astronomical scales

Unit 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement 5

6 Unit 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement

Unit 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement 7

8 Unit 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement

In SI, there are seven fundamental units as FPO

Table 1.2 SI Base Quantities and Units

thermodynamic temperature of the triple point* of

Unit 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement 9

Table 1.3 Derived Quantities and their Units

Moment of inertia mass × (distance)2 kg m2

10 Unit 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement

Unit 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement 11

i) Measurement of small distances: the circular motion of a screw. The least

(c) - ve error (d) screw gauge reading (d) Vernier reading

Figure 1.2 Screw gauge and vernier caliper with errors

12 Unit 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement

Triangulation method for the height of an

height h = x tan θ h = 86.6 m

Unit 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement 13

Figure 1.4 Parallax

Radius of the Earth = 6.4 × 10 6 m

Figure 1.6 RADAR method

Unit 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement 15

Distance to the boundary of observable 1026 (i) Fermi = 1 fm = 10−15 m

universe (ii) 1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10−10 m

Range of time scales: astronomical scales

7DEOH Rules for Rounding Off

Physics is an experimental science in which measurements made must be expressed

A particle falling vertically downwards

An insect crawling over the floor of a

Random motion of a gas molecule. The length of a vector is called magnitude

A Then Axiˆ Ay ˆj Az kˆ Bxiˆ B y ˆj Bz kˆ