INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1

In general, a structure is designed such that safety and serviceability requirements must be
satisfied. Safety relates to extreme loadings that have a low probability of occurring during
a structure’s service life. The concerns are major damage to the structure or collapse of
the structure and its contents, and loss of life. Serviceability is performance of the structure
under moderate loadings that may occur several times during a structure’s lifetime. The
structure should not exceed specified comfort limit for humans and motion-sensitive
equipment mounted on the structure. For example, human comfort limit on acceleration is
about 0.02g. Recent development in construction materials and design technology led to
construction of more slender and light structures, which are more vulnerable to dynamic
loads like moving loads, wind loads and seismic loads. Large deflections and vibrations
induced by heavy and high-speed vehicles significantly affect the safety and serviceability
of bridges. Vibrations induced by heavy moving loads may significantly increase the
maximum internal stresses of bridges and deteriorate serviceability.

1.1 Sources of Vibration on a bridge structure:

1.1.1 Moving vehicle

Vehicle-bridge interaction is a complex dynamic phenomenon, depending

on many parameters. These parameters include the type of bridge and its
natural frequencies of vibration, vehicle characteristics, vehicle speed and
traversing path, the number of vehicles and their relative positions on the
bridge, roadway surface irregularities, the damping characteristics of
bridge and vehicle, etc.

1.1.2 Humans:

Masses of people stomping in unison on the deck of the bridge can cause
resonance in the bridge. For example, The Millennium bridge at London in
2001 due to vertical and lateral vibration was required to be stopped for use
shortly after completion to ensure the comfort and safety of the Millennium
bridge.

1
 1.1.3 Earthquake

The seismic inertia force of a bridge is mainly concentrated on the

superstructure and is transmitted to the pier columns through the bearings
and finally passed on to the foundations and ground by the piers. Upper
structure of the bridge is not generally affected in an earthquake. However,
the RC bridge piers which supports the upper and bear seismic inertia force
will produce large bending moment and shear force under the action of an
earthquake.

1.1.4 Wind

When the frequency of vortex-shedding matches with one of the natural

frequencies of the bridge, Vortex-induced vibrations (VIVs) of the bridge
deck happens which is a resonant-type vibration dominated by a single
mode of vibration and has been observed on many bridges. For example,
Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapsed primarily due to the aeroelastic flutter
that was caused by high-speed winds that matched with the natural
frequency of the structure. Large amplitude VIV may occur in a relatively
low wind speed range about 5–10 m/s for the long-span bridges with small
damping and more flexible configurations.

1.2 Vibration control systems

Vibration in structures is mainly controlled by using different types of dampers.

There are mainly three types of dampers viz. a) Active dampers b) Passive
Dampers c) Semi-active dampers and d) Hybrid vibration control. An active
control system is one in which an external power source the control actuators are
used that apply forces to the structure in a prescribed manner. These forces can be
used to dissipate energy from the structure. In an active feedback control system,
the signals sent to the control actuators are a function of the response of the system
measured with physical sensors. However, semi-active systems require only
nominal amounts of energy to adjust their mechanical properties and, unlike fully
active systems; they cannot add energy to the structure. A passive control system
does not require an external power source. Passive control devices impart forces

2
that are developed in response to the motion of the structure. Total energy cannot
increase, hence inherently stable.

1.2.1 Active vibration control (AVC)

In an AVC system, the essential information of structural behaviour under dynamic
loading is received by a controller through sensors, and actuators generate control
forces to counter external motions [16, 26].

Figure 1: AVC Configuration

AVC in bridges
Inordinate and unforeseen cable vibration of bridges is deleterious for the long-term
serviceability and safety of bridge structures. It may cause premature failure of
connections as a result of fatigue or collapse of cable-corrosion-protection systems.
Furthermore, vibration of stay cables will decrease public confidence. To eliminate
or reduce destructive vibration of cable-stayed bridges, application of
supplementary devices installed close to the cable anchorages has been used for
quite some time. More recently, control strategies have been proposed to actively
suppress vibrations of cables.

1.2.2 Passive vibration control (PVC)

In contrast to AVC, PVC systems are not operated by any external force or source.
In the passive control approach, control devices are embedded or connected to the
structural members to improve the structural damping or increase the stiffness
without any use of external force.

3
 Figure 2: Components of a PVC

Passive vibration control in bridges

Applications of passive control systems in bridge engineering has attracted many

attentions in terms of proposing innovative control devices. Passive control
systems have proven to be effective in reducing the cable vibrations as the control
system can be adjusted for maximum damping ratio.

Figure 3 Negative stiffness device (NSD) investigated by Attary et al. (2015)

1.2.3 Semi-active vibration control (SVC)

A semi-active device is usually defined as an active device with small energy
requirement such as that of a battery. As such, an advantage of this system is
providing protection when the power sources fail under extreme excitations, unlike
an entirely active system’s in bridges.

4
 MR dampers have been used as a popular solution for vibration control of cables
in bridge structures because of their real-time tuning ability.

Figure 4: Vibration control of railway bridges in the transverse direction subjected to high-speed
traffic through MR dampers (2014)

To mitigate vibration response of the bridges, a few other devices and control
approaches have been developed. Electromagnetic dampers (EMD) are another
type of dampers that can generate electrical energy from kinetic energy over
electromagnetic infusion.

Figure 5: Components of an HVC system

1.2.4 Hybrid vibration control (HVC)

An HVC system is usually a combination of active, semi-active and passive
vibration control systems with two distinct advantages: it provides redundancy and
it needs less energy.

5
 Figure 6: SMA-LCD in a SDOF system proposed by Gur et al. (2014)

1.3 Tuned Mass Damper

Understanding exact bridge behaviour is must before designing adequate vibration

control devices. One of such devices is called tuned mass damper (TMD). TMD
operation is based on dynamic vibration absorbers invented by Frahm in 1909.
Application of TMD systems are observed for mitigation of excessive vibration of
bridge-structures targeting either wind loading or vehicle loading. In 1956, Den
Hartog completed and corrected Frahm’s work and later investigated damped and
undamped dynamic absorber systems with damping of the original system. With
the aim of improving the performance of dynamic vibration absorbers, Snowdon
(1960) investigated solid absorber behaviour in reducing the main system
response. Tuned mass dampers are mainly used in tall and slender free-standing
structures (Skyscrapers, bridges, chimneys, TV towers), bridges and pedestrian
bridges.

Advantages of tuned mass damper:

 They do not depend on an external power source for their operation.

 They can respond to small level of excitation.
 Their properties can be adjusted in the field.
 They can also be introduced in upgrading structure.
 They require low maintenance.
 They can be cost effective

6
Disadvantages of tuned mass damper:

 A large mass or a large space is needed for their installation.

 The effectiveness of a tuned mass damper is constrained by the maximum
weight that can be practically placed on top of the structure.
 Their effectiveness depends on the accuracy of their tuning, but natural
frequencies of a structure cannot be predicted with great accuracy.

1.3.1 Types of tuned mass Damper

1. Translational Tuned Mass Dampers:

Figure illustrates the typical configuration of a unidirectional translational tuned

mass damper. The mass rests on bearings that function as rollers and allow the
mass to translate laterally relative to the floor. Springs and dampers are inserted
between the mass and the adjacent vertical support members, which transmit the
lateral “out-of-phase” force to the floor level and then into the structural frame.
Bidirectional translational dampers are configured with springs/dampers in two
orthogonal directions and provide the capability for controlling structural motion
in two orthogonal planes.

Figure 7: Translational tuned mass Damper

2. Pendulum Tuned Mass Damper

The problems associated with the bearings can be eliminated by supporting the
mass with cables which allow the system to behave as a pendulum. Figure below
shows a simple pendulum attached to a floor. Movement of the floor excites the
pendulum. The relative motion of the pendulum produces a horizontal force that

7
opposes the floor motion. This action can be represented by an equivalent SDOF
system that is attached to the floor.

Figure 8: Pendulum Tuned Mass Damper

8
SCOPE OF WORK CHAPTER 2

2.1 Present Scope of Work

The objective of the present work is to study experimentally and numerically the
application of TMD to control vibration of bridges under moving loads. The scope
of the work includes experimental modelling and analysis of 3 span bridge with
span of 40 m each under moving train load with and without TMD considering
different parameters like mass ratio, frequency ratio, tuning ratio. Free vibration
analysis of bridge deck has been done and natural frequency has been determined
considering distributed properties.

2.2 Future Scope of Work

It is intended to design a tuned mass damper to cater to the vibration mitigation of

the example bridge, both in frequency domain & time domain. Optimal
characteristics will be determined. Multi- TMD system for control of multiple
modes will also be studied.

9
LITERATURE REVIEW CHAPTER 3

In this chapter a review of literatures on tuned mass dampers for bridges under moving
loads, under pedestrian induced vibration and under vortex induced vibration, Fluid
Viscous damper and dynamic analysis of train-bridge interaction system under moving
load has been presented.

3.1 TMD for bridges under moving load

Kwon, Kim and Lee (1996) have studied the vibration response of three-
span bridge induced by high speed train considering mass effects of vehicle by vehicles
modelled as a moving mass model, which consists of the vehicle body and wheel. They
designed a TMD to suppress the vibration of a three-span bridge induced by high speed
train and found out that subcritical speed can occur within the bridge design speed.
Bridge impact factors must be modified to adequate level when the high-speed train
travelling at a subcritical speed. Due to TMD maximum vertical displacement is
reduced by 21% and free vibration dies out quickly.

Debnath, Dutta and Deb (2015) studied vibration response of bridge

under both vertical and transverse loading and the same bridge structure is subjected
to loading along both the directions for robust design. A modal frequency response
function (FRF) system is applied to an existing truss bridge to carry out analytical
design of TMD. After designing MTMD individually for various target modes it is
shown that only 1% of the total superstructure mass can reduce the peak frequency
responses quite significantly.

Klasztornyj and Langer (1990) studied dynamic response of single-span

beam bridges to a series of moving loads and solved the problem of dynamic stability
and steady state response of a bridge carrying a periodic stream of inertial loads. Using
Lagrange-Ritz method the explicit equations are formulated.

Benčat and Papán (2016) collected information from full-scale dynamic

testing consists of observed quantities obtained by experimental tests, theoretical
analysis, numerical computations and their comparison. Structural parameters during
normal bridge traffic may consists of relative change of Eigen frequencies, damping
parameters, fatigue parameters, vibration effective amplitudes value in time histories.
10
Experimental finding shows that Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF) is related to
the fundamental frequency (which varies between 2-5 Hz), general bridge resonance
may lie near to this value which will cause resonance condition. DAF obtained by
analytical numerical modes and bridge dynamic loading tests may not be reliable to
work with. Full scale testing under traffic loading is the only economical and practical
way to evaluate the DLF with reasonable confidence. It is also reliable method for
determining bridge structural dynamic properties and can be also useful for inspection
purpose.

Yau (2004) investigated the dynamic response of a compound beam (a

simple beam and a two-member truss connected by a set of rigid bars at the midpoint)
subjected to moving loads at high speeds. This study shows dynamic response of a
simple beam with a two-member truss system under a moving train load. Based on the
nonlinear theory of a symmetric two-member truss subjected to a vertical tip load and
by iteration solving a nonlinear dynamic system, the dynamic response of a compound
beam under moving load excitations is computed. This study presents the dynamic
response of a simple beam with a two-member truss system to moving-train loads.
Based on the nonlinear theory of a symmetric two-member truss subjected to a vertical
tip load and the incremental-iterative solution procedures for solving a nonlinear
dynamic system, the dynamic response of a compound beam under moving load
excitations can be computed. Although the nonlinear effect of vibration is not so
obvious to the response of the beam, but the numerical examples demonstrated that
increasing the aspect ratio h/L could effectively reduce the main resonant response of
the compound beam due to moving loads.

Akif, Ismail, Yusuf and others (2017) have investigated on the vehicle-
bridge-interaction and the effects of different types of dampers on the bridge dynamics.
Vibration of any beam can be calculated by super positioning the mode shapes of
consecutive modes but first fundamental mode and the second mode compromises
almost 80 percent of the response even in very flexible systems. The anti-node points
of the two first nodes can be used as the location of the absorbers which are midpoint
in first mode and 0.25L,0.75L in the second mode shape.

Klasztorny and Langer (1990) have studied series moving loads crossing
a single span bridge considered as stream of fixed amplitude forces, unsprang masses

11
 and viscoelastic oscillators. The problem of dynamic stability and steady-state
response of a bridge carrying a periodic stream of inertial loads is formulated and
solved. They also studied vibration of a long-span suspension bridges under steady
wind load. The additional damping introduced by the TMDs can overcome a narrow
range of wind speeds past the flutter condition of the uncontrolled structure but cannot
overcome the negative damping due to the aeroelastic loads. The aeroelastic response
of the bridge was investigated by quasi-steady and the unsteady theory and found that
the introduction of linear TMDs can only mildly shift the flutter speed when hard-type
flutter is involved. Hysteretic TMDs can effectively control post flatter response
reducing the amplitude of the LCOs to within very low levels but cannot shift the
flutter condition appreciably.

Latifi and Rajani (2015) have found out that effectiveness of TMD is the
dominance of a mode in the structure (first mode), for which the TMD is designed and
installed. TMD is activated after the first maximum input load (or acceleration) and
can control the next maximums, the ratio of maximum displacement of the system with
TMD to that of a system without TMD depends on the shape of the input record
(earthquake). In a second case study, TMD is used to suppress the vibration of Shazand
Railway Bridge under passing train. The performance of TMD with parameters of the
tuned frequency, damping ratio and mass ratio are investigated. The resonant effect
will occur and cause excessive vibrations of the bridge when natural frequencies of the
bridge are multiples of the frequency of the train excitation. The bridge has two close
natural modes that cause two close resonant speeds which are 32 km/hr and 40 km/hr.
TMD with optimum parameter can reduces acceleration of the bridge significantly but
it is not very effective in suppressing deflection of the bridge.

2.2 FVD for bridges under moving load

Gangopadhyay and Ghosh (2016) have investigated on seismic

retrofitting of an existing steel railway bridge by fluid viscous dampers. They have
done seismic assessment and possible retrofitting by orifice FVDs to an existing thirty
years old plate girder railway bridge of Indian Railways. From analysis it is shown
that peak deformation and acceleration of the structure in both longitudinal and
transverse directions, are reduced significantly using FVDs. Deformation of the
structure is reduced by 62.5 to 75%. Acceleration is reduced by 54%.

12
3.3 TMD for bridges under pedestrian induced vibration

Tubino (2014) analyses the TMD design for the mitigation of pedestrian-
induced vibration. The optimum TMD design for mitigating pedestrian-induced
vibrations of footbridges in the vertical direction has been studied. Two loading
scenarios have been considered: the single pedestrian modelled as a quasi-resonant
moving harmonic load, and normal unrestricted pedestrian traffic modelled
probabilistically through an equivalent spectral model.

Sadek et al. (1997) reviewed the previous studies on the use of TMDs for
seismic applications and proposes a method for selecting the TMD parameters by
providing equal and large damping ratios in the complex modes of vibration. It was
found that the equal damping ratios in the first two nodes are greater than the average
of the damping ratios of the lightly damped structure and the heavily damped TMD.
Consequently, the fundamental modes of vibration are more heavily damped. It also
concluded that for TMDs to be effective, large mass ratios must be used.

Reiterer and Ziegler (2005) have studied control of pedestrian-induced

vibrations of long-span bridges. To increase the effective structural damping of bridges
vibrating in the low-frequency band, up to about 5 Hz, sealed tuned liquid column
dampers, with a gas-spring effect considered are ideally suited. Modal tuning in
analogy to the classical mechanical damper followed by fine-tuning in state space,
render the parameter optimal and the control more robust. Sufficient conditions are
presented to prevent parametric resonance of vertical motions of the TLCD and to
avoid the synchronization effect of densely walking pedestrians on the lateral bridge
vibrations. Numerical simulations are experimentally checked for a novel laboratory
model. Effective structural damping of the Millennium Bridge by five TLCD and of
the Toda Park Bridge by a single TLCD are worked out in detail.

Wirtsch, Saige, Engelhardt and Katz (2017) investigated on application

of eddy current damper technology for passive tuned mass damper systems within
footbridges. Depending on the natural frequency of footbridge they are prone to
vibration induced by pedestrians. Eddy current dampers can be tuned accurately.
Constant damper behaviour is achieved for long TMD travels and for changing
environmental conditions. The designed tuned mass damper for the footbridge was
installed in real life.

13
 Daniel (2012) This paper deals with the allocation and sizing of multiple-
tuned mass dampers (MTMDs) to retrofit footbridges with multiple critical modes
resulting from the excitation of pedestrian traffic to retrofit an existing footbridge
using an iterative analysis that converges to a given allowable level of accelerations
using MTMDs By splitting each TMD into a group of smaller TMDs at the same
location, each tuned to a slightly different frequency detuning problem of TMDs
caused by fewer crowds crossing the bridge can be overcome.

Lievens, Lombert and others (2017) have compared TMD designs for a
footbridge subjected to human-induced vibrations accounting for structural and load
uncertainties. The response is calculated by simulating realistic walking scenarios of
continuous flows of pedestrians on the structure. Solving an optimization problem for
the TMD mass, stiffness and damping using design constraints for instantaneous peak
acceleration aiming at a minimal mass. A TMD is tuned for different levels of
uncertainty and according to different methods for a steel footbridge. The minimum
required TMD mass, stiffness and damping decreases considering design constraints
in both nominal and uncertain circumstances for a decreasing range of uncertainty on
the modal parameters of the footbridge illustrating the trade-off between cost and
robustness. If all TMD parameters are tuned independently from each other a strong
reduction of the TMD mass can be achieved.

Lai and Mulas (2018) have investigated on response of a lively footbridge

to walking pedestrians is computed with an uncoupled approach. The low ratio
between permanent and variable loads makes them more sensitive to dynamic loads,
such as the forces transmitted by pedestrians. The description of the human being as a
mechanical system as bipedal pedestrian mass-spring-damper (MSD) model is
adopted. The numerical response is determined by the dynamic properties of the
bridge. The pattern of maximum acceleration follows the bridge modes excited by
pedestrians’ walking. Acceleration time histories show a beat phenomenon which can
be explained by observing that the bridge has nine frequencies within the walking
frequency range 1–4 Hz. The effect of the second harmonic of the load on the response
of the bridge at study is not negligible. Eccentric transits produce larger accelerations
than those induced by a group of pedestrian walking without eccentricity. The
eccentric transit induces a torsional behaviour in the bridge response. The vertical
accelerations increase with the longitudinal distance among pedestrians, although this

14
 is not a linear trend, the acceleration increment tends to become negligible or null for
distances exceeding 3 m.

3.4 TMD for bridges under vortex induced vibration

Xu, Bi Han and others (2019) analysed tuned mass damper to mitigate
vortex-induced vibration of long-span bridges. The TMDI system can reduce 94% of
the vortex induced vibration of the main deck. Applying TMDI system for VIV control
is more practical instead of TMD system as the TMDI system can significantly reduce
the static deformation and oscillation of the mass block in the system. The control
performance of the TMDI system is less sensitive to the TMDI damping while more
sensitive to the TMDI frequency.

3.5 Dynamic analysis of train-bridge interaction system

Wang, Xia, Xu and Guo (2015): Lighter vehicles are used in high-speed
trains and urban rail transit trains, which leads to lesser stiffness of car-bodies, so car-
body flexibility should be considered in dynamic analysis of the train-bridge system.
Vehicle model is established based on flexible multi-body dynamics, in which the car-
body is simulated with a Euler beam, and the movement of the car-body is the
superposition of its rigid displacement and the generalized displacement of vibration
mode of the Euler beam with free boundaries. The dynamic analysis model of train-
bridge model is established using the flexible car-body model. A case study is
performed of an ICE3 train running on three-span (48+80+48 m) continuous girder
bridge. Consideration of car-body flexibility has little influence on the bridge response
and running safety indices of vehicles, while increases the car-body acceleration and
induces a peak value at a certain train speed. The car-body accelerations increase with
the bridge settlement and the train speed, and they become greater when the car-body
flexibility is considered. At train speed 360km/h, the car-body acceleration exceeds
the allowance given by the Chinese code when the bridge settlement reaches 22mm,
so car-body flexibility was considered when studying the influence of additional
bridge settlement on vehicle responses.

Salcher and Adam (2015): Influence of rail irregularities and modal

analysis is done on a train bridge. The train is modelled as a sequence of multibody
mass–spring–damper systems. A linear interaction model in the context of a

15
component mode synthesis method is used for coupling the two substructures. In a
numerical example, the dynamic response of a single-span steel bridge subjected to a
high-speed train is analysed showing the efficiency of the proposed approach. For each
of the subsystems bridge and train, a linear three-dimensional numerical model
including rail irregularities is created independently and Kalker’s linear creep theory
based on a simplified kinematic model of the vehicle’s wheel set movement is used to
describe the interaction between both subsystems. The subsystems are coupled through
a modified component mode synthesis method. Application of modal analysis on the
model of the bridge substructure yields a substantial reduction of the number of
degrees of freedom. The presented approach keeps the computation of this complex
interaction system relatively simple and still efficient, and it allows its implementation
in any common finite element software that is capable to conduct modal analysis.

Nassif, Wang and Lou (2018) This study focuses on the dynamic response
of stepped beam under moving trains. The train is composed of a certain number of
railcars, and each railcar is consisted of oscillators with three masses representing the
railcar body, bogie and wheel sets, respectively. The connects among components is
simulated by spring and dashpot units. Meanwhile, finite element method with Euler
Bernoulli beam element is used to model the stepped beam with variational sections.
The contact force between the wheel and rail is simulated by the Hertzian spring. The
interaction of train-bridge system is assumed to be nonlinear and is solved by an
iterative algorithm. At last the developed model is verified using the data from field
testing. The maximum strain (100-110μζ at mid span) doesn’t change a lot under
different velocities and dynamic influence on the steel girder is low. There is a shift of
maximum strain at the cut off location which is attributed to the variable cross section
parameters due to plate girder cut off design. Usually for the girder with constant
section, mid span is usually concerned where the max strain occurs. For the girder with
cut off design, the mid span and cut off locations should be considered together.

16
METHODOLOGY CHAPTER 4

4.1 Free Vibration analysis of bridge deck with distributed properties

4.1.1 Flexural Vibration of Uniform Beams

Taking a short segment of beam dx the forces and moments which act on the
element are shown in the Fig 9.

Figure 9 Simple beam with distributed mass and load

𝑚
̃ = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑝 = 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
If deflection of the beam is small the equation of motion perpendicular to the
X-axis of the deflected beam is obtained by equating to zero the sum of the
forces in the free body diagram
𝜕𝑉 𝜕 2𝑦
𝑉 − (𝑉 + 𝑑𝑥) + 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑡)𝑑𝑥 − 𝑚
̃ 𝑑𝑥 2 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
After simplifying
𝜕𝑉 𝜕 2𝑦
+𝑚
̃ 2 = 𝑝(𝑥. 𝑡)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
From simple bending theory,
𝜕2 𝑦 𝜕𝑀 𝜕3 𝑦
𝑀 = 𝐸𝐼 𝜕𝑥 2 − − − − − −(1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉= = 𝐸𝐼 𝜕𝑥 3
𝜕𝑥

and
𝜕4 𝑦 𝜕2 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 𝜕𝑥 4 + 𝑚
̃ 𝜕𝑡 2 = 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑡)-----------------------------(2)

It can be seen that EQ (2) is a partial differential equation of fourth order. Only
lateral flexural deflections are considered while deflection due to shear forces
and inertial forces caused by the rotation of the cross section were neglected.

17
4.1.2 Solution of the equation of motion in free vibration
For free vibration [𝑝(𝑥, 𝑡) = 0] reduces to the homogeneous differential equation
𝜕4 𝑦 𝜕2 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 𝜕𝑥 4 + 𝑚
̃ 𝜕𝑥 2 = 0--------------------------(3)

By method of separation of variables

𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜙(𝑥)𝑓(𝑡)-------------------------(4)
The substitution of EQ (4) in differential EQ (3) leads to
𝑑4 𝜙(𝑥) 𝑑 2 𝑓(𝑡)
𝐸𝐼𝑓(𝑡) +𝑚̃ 𝜙(𝑥) =0
𝑑𝑥 4 𝑑𝑡 2
𝐸𝐼 𝜙 𝐼𝑉 (𝑥) −𝑓̈(𝑡)
=
𝑚
̃ 𝜙(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑡)
𝜙 𝐼𝑉 (𝑥) − 𝑎4 𝜙(𝑥) = 0----------(5) and 𝑓̈(𝑡) + 𝜔2 𝑓(𝑡) = 0------------(6)
̃ 𝜔2
𝑚
Where 𝑎4 = ------(7)
𝐸𝐼

𝐸𝐼
So, 𝜔 = 𝐶√𝑚̃𝐿4 where C=(𝑎𝐿)2 -----------------------(8)

EQ (6) is free vibration equation of undamped SDOF system and its solution
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑡 --------------------(9)
A and B are integration constants
𝜙(𝑥) = 𝐶 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑠𝑥 -------------------(10)
Substituting EQ (10) into EQ (5) results in
(𝑠 4 − 𝑎4 )𝑐 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑠𝑥 = 0
For non-trivial solution
𝑆 4 − 𝑎4 = 0---------------------(11)
The roots of EQ (11) are
𝑠1 = 𝑎1 𝑠2 = −𝑎1 𝑠3 = 𝑎𝑖 𝑠4 = −𝑎𝑖
Substitution of each of these roots into EQ (10) provides a solution of EQ (5).
The general solution is then given by the superposition of these four possible
solutions, namely
𝜙(𝑥) = 𝐶1 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶2 ⋅ 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶3 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶4 ⋅ 𝑒 −𝑖𝑎𝑥 ------------------(12)
We know that
𝑒 ±𝑎𝑥 = cosh 𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑖 sinh 𝑎𝑥
𝑒 ±𝑖𝑎𝑥 = cos 𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑖 sin 𝑎𝑥
Substituting of these relationships into EQ (12) yields

18
 𝜙(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶 sinh 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐷 cosh 𝑎𝑥--------(9)
4.1.3 Natural frequencies and mode shapes for uniform beams
Both Ends Simply Supported
In this case displacements and bending moments must be zero at both ends of
the beam; hence boundary conditions for the simply supported beams are
𝑦(0, 𝑡) = 0, 𝑀(0, 𝑡) = 0
𝑦(𝐿, 𝑡) = 0, 𝑀(𝐿, 𝑡) = 0
In view of EQ (1) and EQ (6), these boundary conditions imply the following
conditions on the shape function 𝜙(𝑥)
𝑥 = 0, 𝜙(0) = 0, 𝜙′′(0) = 0 -----------------(13)
𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝜙(𝐿) = 0, 𝜙′′(𝐿) = 0 -----------------(14)
The substitution of the first two of these boundary conditions into EQ (9) yields
𝜙(0) = 𝐴 × 0 + 𝐵 × 1 + 𝐶 × 0 + 𝐷 × 1 = 0
𝜙′′(0) = 𝑎2 (−𝐴 × 0 − 𝐵 × 1 + 𝐶 × 0 + 𝐷 × 1) = 0
Which reduces to
𝐵+𝐷 =0
−𝐵 + 𝐷 = 0
Hence
𝐵=𝐷=0
Similarly, substituting the last two boundary conditions into EQ (9) and setting
B=D=0 leads to
𝜙(𝐿) = 𝐴 sin 𝑎𝐿 + 𝐶 sinh 𝑎𝐿 = 0
𝜙 ′′ (𝐿) = 𝑎2 (−𝐴 sin 𝑎𝐿 + 𝐶 sinh 𝑎𝐿) = 0 ---------(15)
Which when added give
2𝐶 sinh 𝑎𝐿 = 0
From this last relation, 𝐶 = 0 since the hyperbolic sine function cannot vanish
except for a zero argument. The EQ (15) reduce to
𝐴 sin 𝑎𝐿 = 0
Excluding the trivial solution (𝐴 = 0), we obtain the frequency equation
sin 𝑎𝐿 = 0
Which will be satisfied for
𝑎𝑛 𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋, n=0,1,2……-------------(16)

19
Substitution of the roots, EQ (16), into EQ (8) yields

𝐸𝐼
𝜔𝑛 = 𝑛2 𝜋 2 √ 4
𝐿

Where the subscript n serves to indicate the order of the natural frequencies.
Since 𝐵 = 𝐶 = 𝐷 = 0, it follows that EQ (9) reduces to
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜙𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝐴 sin
𝐿
𝑛𝜋𝑥
Or simply 𝜙𝑛 (𝑥) = sin --------------(17)
𝐿

The constant A is absorbed by the other constants in the modal response given
below by EQ (18)
From EQ (6) a modal shape or normal mode of vibration is given by
𝑦𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜙𝑛 (𝑥)𝑓𝑛 (𝑡)
Or from EQ (9) and by EQ (17)
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑦𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = sin [𝐴𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑛 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡]--------------------------(18)
𝐿

The general solution of the equation of motion in free vibration that satisfies the
boundary conditions, EQ (13) and EQ (14), is the sum of all the normal modes
of vibration, EQ (18), namely
∞
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∑ sin (𝐴𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑛 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡) ----------------(19)
𝑛=1 𝐿

The constants 𝐴𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑛 are determined, as usual, from the initial condition. If
at t = 0, the shape of the beam is given by
𝑦(𝑥, 0) = 𝜌(𝑥)
And the velocity by
𝜕𝑦(𝑥, 0)
= 𝜓(𝑥)
𝜕𝑡
For 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿, it follows from EQ (19) that
∞
𝑛𝜋𝑥
∑ 𝐴𝑛 sin = 𝜌(𝑥)
𝐿
𝑛=1

and
∞
𝑛𝜋𝑥
∑ 𝐵𝑛 𝜔𝑛 sin = 𝜓(𝑥)
𝐿
𝑛=1

20
 Fourier coefficients are expressed as
𝐿
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐴𝑛 = 𝐿 ∫ 𝜌(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥
𝐿
0
𝐿
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐵𝑛 = 𝜔 ∫ 𝜓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥
𝑛𝐿 2
0
𝐿
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝐿
𝐿 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑑𝑥 −
∫0 𝜙(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 0 𝑛𝜋 [cos 𝐿 ]0
𝐼𝑛∗ = 𝐿 = 𝐿 = 𝐿
∫0 𝜙 2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑛𝛱𝑥 1 𝐿 𝐿 𝑛 𝜋𝑥
∫ sin 2 𝑑𝑥 2 {[𝑥]0 − 2𝑛𝜋 [sin 2 ]0 }
0
2
𝐿
− (cos 𝑛𝜋 − 1) 2
= 𝑛𝜋 = (1 − cos 𝑛𝜋)
1 𝑛𝜋
(𝐿 − 0)
2

The first five values for the natural frequencies and normal modes for the simply supported
beam are presented below

NATURAL FREQUIENCIES NORMAL MODES

𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐸𝐼 𝜙𝑛 = sin
𝜔𝑛 = 𝐶𝑛 √ 𝐿
̃ 𝐿4
𝑚

n 𝐶𝑛 𝐼𝑛∗ SHAPE
1 𝜋2 4
𝜋

2 4𝜋 2 0

3 9𝜋 2 4
3𝜋

4 16𝜋 2 0

5 25𝜋 2 4
5𝜋

21
Geometry of the bridge section

Elastic modulus Mass density Damping Cross-section area Second

(𝑁/𝑚2 ) (N−𝑠 2 /𝑚2 ) ratio (%) (𝑚2 ) moment of
inertia (𝑚4 )
3.303× 1010 38520 0.3 11.332 18.638

Figure 10 Geometry of the bridge section

𝐸𝐼
𝜔1 = 𝜋 2 √ ̃ = 7.3254 rad/sec = 1.166 cps
𝑚𝐿4

𝐸𝐼
𝜔2 = 4𝜋 2 √𝑚̃𝐿4 = 29.302 rad/sec = 4.666 cps

𝐸𝐼
𝜔3 = 9𝜋 2 √𝑚̃𝐿4 = 65.929 rad/sec = 10.498 cps

𝐸𝐼
𝜔4 = 16𝜋 2 √𝑚̃𝐿4 = 117.207 rad/sec = 18.663 cps

𝐸𝐼
𝜔5 = 25𝜋 2 √𝑚̃𝐿4 = 183.135 rad/sec = 29.162 cps

22
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