STUDY OF EMBANKMENT CRACKING FOR SMALL DAMS

Ana Avendano (Msc.)1

Guillermo Ávila (PhD)2

ABSTRACT

In Colombia small dam embankments have mainly been used as irrigation water supplies
in dry seasons and flood control in rain seasons. These dams generally constructed with
compacted cohesive soil, constituting the impervious barrier themselves, tend to
experience cracking and seepage issues throughout their useful life, which affects
performance and threatens overall stability of the embankment. First, this paper aims to
identify cracking characteristics and evolution in this embankment type. The
investigation was carried out based on observations of a physical scale model of a small
embankment dam in a laboratory setting. The scale model was constructed from an
acrylic die cast. Bi-dimensional flow was forced through the embankment model, with a
substitute fluid at first, whose viscosity was changed to meet scaling requirements, and
after with water in order to review the effects of the substitute fluid over the
embankment. The embankment compaction operation went under a very high-quality
control particularly in each layer density. Along construction, initial reservoir filling, and
operation stages cracking evolved into the embankment model. Findings showed the
major cracks appear during end construction stage and specific in the upper third of
embankment, these are related to matric suction by dessication. Complementary to
physical model was carried out numerical modelling which identified that highest suction
areas matching the greatest cracking ones. From this investigation could say it is possible
to reduce cracking by desiccation and improve dam embankments behaviour with a more
thoroughly careful construction process that keeping in mind local weather

INTRODUCTION

Small dam embankment construction for irrigation has risen ultimately in Colombia due
to government development plans thought to improve agricultural productivity and a
basic cleansing of rural areas. (Silva et al. 2014). These dams help significantly also to
flood control during high rain seasons.

This research focuses on dam homogenous embankments, where the imperviousness

element covers the whole embankment body (hard to tell the difference between the core
and shell) and is made out of cohesive compacted soils. This sort of small homogenous
dam embankments are quite common in Colombia for irrigation purposes but show high
rates of cracking and seepage avoiding proper functioning even to the point of flood risk
and turbulent flows (Wagner & Lanoix, 1959, Caro y Ávila, 1994).

1
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Ciudad Universitaria, Ave 30 # 45-03, Bogotá, Colombia,
amavendanofl@unal.edu.co.
2
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Ciudad Universitaria, Ave 30 # 45-03, Bogotá, Colombia,
geavila@unal.edu.co

Copyright © 2019 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 1

Causes to embankment cracking are linked to compaction deficiencies (Fell & Foster,
2000, Farias & Cordão, 2010); failure at slope geotechnical designs (Locke, 2001
Charles, 2011); earthquakes (Locke, 2001, Foster, 1999, Vanicek. & Vanicek, 2008,
Richards & Reddy, 2007); Differential settlements (Moayedi et al., 2010, Indraratna &
Vafai, 1997, Locke, 2001 Sherard, 1973 Vanicek. & Vanicek, 2008); Filling material
shrinking (Locke, 2001); biological activities (Richards & Reddy K 2007); Overtopping
(Hassan et al. 2004); failures along construction (Indraratna & Vafai, 1997); and issues at
embankment settlement (Locke, 2001, Foster, 1999). This phenomenon has been widely
studied in the last years identifying as main causes desiccation, overcoming traction
resistance and environment conditions (Dounias et al. (1996), Miller et al. (1998),
Yesiller et al. (2000), Liu & Siming. (2011), Vardon, 2015, Vanicek & Vanicek (2008)).

Transversal, longitudinal, and horizontal cracking exist within embankments and can
easily identify when appear (Sherard et al. ,1963, Lowe, 1970). Furthermore, cracks
within embankments can result of cavitation process (Gudehus, 2011). The cracking
morphology features its length, opening, and lean angle. Seepage cross embankment
could affect with the cracks, because hydraulic conductivity increases, and cracks are the
first stage of the piping by concentrated leakage (Fell y Foster, 1999, Locke, 2001).

Is regular, that the spatial distribution of the cracking within embankments present in
thirds. The first third is upper part of the embankment, and second third is the mid part
one, and third thirds is lower part (Figure 1). After the study of many embankments with
cracks caused for different sources, such as: After the study of many embankments with
cracks developments for different sources such as: seismic; local fails; piping,
overtopping…, Foster (1999) and Delgado (2006) report 85% of cracks are on first third
of embankments, 13% cracks are in second third, and 2 % on lowest third.; local fails;
piping, and overtopping, Foster (1999) and Delgado (2006) reports 85% of cracks are on
first third of embankments, 13% cracks are in second third, and 2 % on lowest third.

Physical model allowed to observe the cracking evolutions along the construction, the
end of construction, the initial reservoir filling, and the operation stages. The
investigation findings show the biggest cracking were in the end construction stage and
located in the upper third of the embankment, these are related with suction by evaporate
process. In this case, the desiccation cracks development caused for evaporate could be
avoided with numerical modelling of seepage because the modelling results allow makes
operational protocols.
The maximum value of cracking intensity factor (CIF) was 0.6% by the end construction
stage, and 0.03% by operational stage. The spatial distribution of the cracks also related
with dam stage the hydraulic fracture does not occurred as a result of the initial reservoir
filling control, despite to critical cracks on upstream slope. Finally, the piping neither
occurred, it was contrasted with width variance of the cracks.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The methodology of the present small dam embankment cracking study focusses on the
regular case, the real prototype design and the lab model. From the each one was selected

Copyright © 2019 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 2

some variable for the present study. The embankment filling, its location, meaning
weather, and its seismic conditions were chosen from the regular case. From the second
one was chosen the standardized design yielding the required geometry and compaction
specs; and the third being a scale model of the second one, it showed the cracking along
construction, end of construction, filling and operation stages.

The regular case concept comes from the small dam irrigation systems located in Abrego,
La Playa and Ocaña municipalities in Santander North, Colombia (Garcia 2012), those
dam embankments popped cracks before their initial reservoir filling that is, at the end of
construction phase. Homogenous small dam embankments for irrigation that currently
cracked prior their initial reservoir filling like the case of Higuanojos, Cuba (Armas,
2003), may generate water leakage and important structure deterioration implying, social,
tech and economic issues. Construction investments are high regarding the improvement
budget, assigned to Colombian rural production (Amaya, Caro & Ramírez, 2015) thus,
when there is damage prior to the operative phase, implies remediation works and not
budgeted over costs as well as losses for producers for lack of crop irrigation. Social
problems, since the most benefitted communities are those dwelling in the dams
neighbouring areas, with lower labour opportunities, low income and high insecurity
rates. The technical problem was seen because there is are a lot of possible causes of this
problem but any certain not explanation that may lead to prevent effectively the cracking
phenomenon into embankments.

Indicated causes in literature for the dam embankments failures are: design, and
construction deficiencies; and the physical processes within the dam embankment
without control consideration (Ellam y Taylor, 1976). The criteria selection for the small
dam design and construction specifications is an investigation goals, some type of design
deficiency is the utilization of the design guides without a judgment, the current design
guide in Colombia is HIMAT, (1984); and frequently the case of construction deficiency
is the bad compaction.

The physical factors were the main cracking cause was kept after establishment of the
design and the construction specifications with high controls. In addition, the impervious
foundation was assumed allow discard the conception of the differential settlement and
piping into the foundation and consequently the investigation was focus on study of the
cracks into the body of the embankment..

Based on literature, the dam embankments failures are caused for: design and
construction deficiencies and for do not cared of the physical processes within the dam
embankment (Ellam y Taylor, 1976). The criteria selection for the small dam design and
construction specifications are part of these investigation aims.

Materials

Table 1 shown a summary the main properties the fill material for the embankment
model.

Copyright © 2019 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 3

 Table 1. the fill material properties of the embankment model.

Property Value
Description Fill-Lean clay with sand and fine gravel (CL)
LL (%) 30 to 35
PL (%) 19 to 24
PI (%) 8 to 14
LC (%) 16 to 17
GS 2.8
A (activity number) 0.3 to 0.18
Ks (m/s) 1.1e-6
Water content of crack 2.0%

Design real prototype

Some cracking in embankments were because of design deficiencies, for this reason, the
first step was checked the existent design of the real case type and main findings was
identify necessity of a new design due to the national guide HIMAT, (1984) did not met
with International specifications, particularly in design criteria, in freeboard, in stability
analysis, in seepage analysis and in risk analysis.

The parts of the embankment are presented in Figure 1. More of one guide was utilized to
design the real prototype such as: size of dam was employed the charts of Degoutte
(1997); crest width embankment used NRCS (2005); freeboard base on USBR (1981),
DSO (1993) and USBR (2011); settlements after construction and long time in the crest
were Hunter, (2003), and Hunter & Fell, (2003d); the stages of dam where stabilities
asses and safety factors values Wilson & Marsal (1979); Spencer method of method limit
equilibrium reported by USBR (2011); stability analysis of the rapid drawdown were
with Romero et al. (2009) and Huzjak et al. (2013).

Copyright © 2019 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 4

 STUDY OF EMBANKMENT CRACKING FOR SMALL DAMS

Ana Avendaño (Msc.)1

Guillermo Ávila (PhD)2

ABSTRACT

In Colombia small dam embankments have mainly been used as irrigation water supplies
in dry seasons and flood control in rain seasons. These dams generally constructed with
compacted cohesive soil, constituting the impervious barrier themselves, tend to
experience cracking and seepage issues throughout their useful life, which affects
performance and threatens overall stability of the embankment. First, this paper aims to
identify cracking characteristics and evolution in this embankment type. The
investigation was carried out based on observations of a physical scale model of a small
embankment dam in a laboratory setting. The scale model was constructed from an
acrylic die cast. Bi-dimensional flow was forced through the embankment model, with a
substitute fluid at first, whose viscosity was changed to meet scaling requirements, and
after with water in order to review the effects of the substitute fluid over the
embankment. The embankment compaction operation went under a very high-quality
control particularly in each layer density. Along construction, initial reservoir filling, and
operation stages cracking evolved into the embankment model. Findings showed the
major cracks appear during end construction stage and specific in the upper third of
embankment, these are related to matric suction by dessication. Complementary to
physical model was carried out numerical modelling which identified that highest suction
areas matching the greatest cracking ones. From this investigation could say it is possible
to reduce cracking by desiccation and improve dam embankments behaviour with a more
thoroughly careful construction process that keeping in mind local weather

INTRODUCTION

Small dam embankment construction for irrigation has risen ultimately in Colombia due
to government development plans thought to improve agricultural productivity and a
basic cleansing of rural areas. (Silva et al. 2014). These dams help significantly also to
flood control during high rain seasons.

This research focuses on dam homogenous embankments, where the imperviousness

element covers the whole embankment body (hard to tell the difference between the core
and shell) and is made out of cohesive compacted soils. This sort of small homogenous
dam embankments are quite common in Colombia for irrigation purposes but show high
rates of cracking and seepage avoiding proper functioning even to the point of flood risk
and turbulent flows (Wagner & Lanoix, 1959, Caro y Ávila, 1994).

1
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Ciudad Universitaria, Ave 30 # 45-03, Bogotá, Colombia,
amavendanofl@unal.edu.co.
2
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Ciudad Universitaria, Ave 30 # 45-03, Bogotá, Colombia,
geavila@unal.edu.co

Copyright © 2019 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 5

 Notes:
Wc: crest width of the dam;
H: high of the dam;
S upstream: upstream slope;
S downstream: downstream slope and
Freeboard: level difference between dam high and water level.
Figure 1: Dam embankment parts.

Embankment design has close relationship with site conditions, hydrologic and seismic
conditions are main site conditions. Geotechnical characterization program carried out for
material fill and allowed determine geotechnical parameters (Table 1), and them were use
into the real prototype design. Table 2 is presented a summary of real prototype design, it
was achieved after follow guide design and stability analysis, also static and pseudo
statics in the stages of dam: end construction; rapid drawdown, parcel fill reservoir with
stationary state, stationary state with extraordinary maximum level and sismic under
before conditions both upstream and downstream slope.

Table 2: real prototype design characteristics.

Parameter Type High Crest Slope upstream Slope downstream

(m) Width (m) (V:H) (V:H)
Design Homogenous 9 4.5 1:3 1:2.5

About the compaction was carry out lab tests and the plan of the field compaction for
physical model tried to warranty tree recommendations: the values of minimum density
find in the Proctor tests, minimum and maximum values for CL material recommended
by USBR (1993), and general compaction recommendations for CL soil by NRCS
(1988).

Methodology to Scale a Lab Model

The importance of physical modelling in geotechnics goes beyond the simple scale
phenomenon reproduction, which is the behavioural understanding in the big picture
(White, 2008), meaning, getting grip of the issue in spite of the associated uncertainty.
Dam embankments physical modelling has been studied under many different physical,
lab scales and field ways (Rotte & Viswanadham, 2002 Hassan, Morris, Hanson &
Lakhal, 2004, Hanson, Tejral, Hunt & Temple, 2010 y Billstein, Svensson & Johansson,
1999).

Copyright © 2019 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 6

The chosen physical model was vertical Hele Shaw, which is two vertical parallel plates
with at least one sees through one, called so, honouring professor Hele Shaw (Bear,
1972) who was the first to propose this sort of arrangement through 1987 and 1898. The
advantages of this model are listed below, Sternberg & Scott (1963):

-Water surface is free and seen clearly, allowing an easy record on camera.

-Speed may be determined, measuring movements with a tracker or discharge volumetric

measures.

-The area moderately saturated on the free surface is represented in the model by the
capillary area calculation.

Two-dimensional experimentation with the homogenous dam embankment scale physical

model allows the modelling along three stages at the end of construction of the
embankment, reservoir filling and operation. We scaled a design of the real prototype
under the concept of mechanics similarity, which implies a full similarity between lab
model and real prototype, fulfilling the geometric, kinematic and dynamic similarities
(Lin, 2001, Heller, 2012, Konkol, 2014 and Sulaeman, Wan & Ghazali, 2015)
Geometric similarity talks about the embankment shape, being in the model
longitudes N times smaller in the prototype, equations (1) through (3) must fulfil

xr = (dx)m/(dx)p (1)

yr = (dy)m/(dy)p (2)

zr = (dz)m/(dz)p (3)
Where:
xr, yr, zr: lengths in directions x, y, and z;
(dx)m, (dy)m, (dz)m: delta of x, y, and z model (m) and
(dx)p, (dy)p, (dz)p: delta x, y and prototype (m).
Two-dimensional models are distorted; thus, x_r=y_r≠z_r, mechanical similarity just
happens in directions x and y.

The dynamic similarity points at the fulfilment of those two last similarities since all
relating forces are identical between both systems. Forces involved are inertia and
viscosity. Inertia resists an object speed change, equal or opposite to applied force.
Viscosity is the force between a body and the fluid passing through it, this force acts on
the object along its fluid. Viscosity relates between both systems with a substitute fluid.
Reynolds (Re) number between both systems should be the same, guaranteeing the
dynamic similarity, since it reflects inertia and viscosity (Equation 4).

Copyright © 2019 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 7

 (fi)m/(fi)p=(fv)m/(fv)p then (fi/fv)m=(fi/ fv)p= (Vlr/m)m=( Vlr/m)p =(Re)m=(Re)p (4)

Where:
(fi)m and (fi)p: Prototype & Model Inertia forces (N);
fv)m and (fv)p: Prototype & Model Viscosity forces (N);
V: Fluid speed regarding an object (m/s);
l: Characteristic Longitude (m);
rf and rw: Substitute fluid & Water densities (kg/m3);
m: Dynamic Viscosity (kg/m3).

The scaling factor is defined through the characteristic longitudes relation between both
systems (prototype & physical model), as Equation 5 shows.

N=Lp/Lm (5)

Where:
Lp: Real Prototype Characteristic Length (m);
Lm: Physical Prototype Characteristic Length (m).

For this research a N=44.5 is adopted, after its right viscosity concentration for
modelling, scaled geometrical dimensions and model compaction. The Hele Shaw
vertical model widened the gap between plates in 6 cm, this wider gap was relevant to
compact the filling material according to compaction constructive specifications and
compaction control recommendations (Noorany, 1990; Davis,1966). Figure 2 shows the
physical installation, with a 2 by 2 cm grid, 1.2 m length, and 0.4m height, where
embankment height goes up to 0.22 m.

Fig. 2: Lab Physical Model.

The compaction processes

The compaction into the physical model of the embankment was guaranty with moisture
content control into a broad 1% or 2% below optimal moisture content, for this control
was make with a volumetric moisture content sensor, the construction process was layers,

Copyright © 2019 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 8

and these were compacted with light equipment with cylindrical form, this was designed
with mathematical solution of Herziana theory developed by Kim (2010). Coupled with
recommendations of Converse (1957) and NRCS (1988) about compact this type of fill
soil. The goal relates to compaction process was reproducer into physical model the same
standards of real prototype.

Fill reservoir and operational processes

The fill reservoir was made with substitute pore fluid, metathycellulose, this meet with
characteristics of substitute ideal fluid (Dewoolkar et al., 1999). The ideal characteristics
of ideal fluid is the following: the overall constitutive behaviour of the soil is unalterated,
the substitute pore fluid should have the same surface tension as water, the pore fluid
should be available in a wide range of viscosities, properties of the substitute fluid should
not change in the time, and the fluid should be nontoxic and soluble in water, in so on
(Dewoolkar et al., 1999). the physical model is N times smaller than the real prototype,
excess pore pressure relation into both systems is 1:1.

The fill reservoir process was made with the discharge scale N times from the field
watershed discharge, and this allow control the fill. The fill reservoir was after end
construction stage until stationary fluid into the embankment, is meant seepage arrive
downstream slope and was stable in the time.

CRACKING FOLLOW-UP

Cracking measuring occurred by taking pictures of the physical model and its processing.
Cracking assessment is based on area with cracking intensity factor (CIF) (Mi, 1995),
which is defined in Equation 6 and complements with the cracking severity scale
proposed by Kleppe & Olson (1985), which refers to its length and width. Table 3 shows
severity classification along with, its lab model scale.

CIF (%) = Acracking/Atotal (6)

Where:
Acracking: Total Sum of Cracking Area (m2) and
Atotal:Total area (m2).

Copyright © 2019 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 9

 Table 3: Cracking Severity Scale. Kleppe & Olson (1985).
No. Denomination Description in the real Description in the physical
prototype model
0 No Cracking - -
1 Minor Cracking Width Greater than 1 Width greater than 0.03 mm &
Cracking mm & 5 mm Depth 0.14 mm Depth
2 Moderate 3 to 10 mm Open Cracks & 30 0.08 to 0.3mm Open Cracks &
Cracking mm Depth 0.8 mm Depth
3 Major Cracking Width Greater than 10 Cracking Width Greater than
Cracking mm & Depth Greater than 30 0.3 mm & Depth Greater than
mm 0.8 mm
4 Severe Cracking Width Greater than 20 Cracking Width Greater than
Cracking mm & Depth Greater than 30 0.6 mm & Depth Greater than
mm 0.8 mm
These assessments outcomes were referred before the embankment thirds, along with the
operation stage, lab weather conditions, which measured dry bulb and wet bulb
temperature; these data provided an estimated relative humidity. Actual evaporation (AE)
(Wilson, Fredlund & Barbour, 1994), depends on potential evapotranspiration & soil
characteristic curve.

AE = PE [(hs-hr)/(1-hr)] (1)

Where:
AE and PE: Potential & Actual soil evaporation (mm);
hs and hr: Air & Soil relative humidity (-).

Research and development are about construction and data taking throughout end of
construction and operation stages. Cracking data registration occurred through
photographs and forms; there were more than 480 processed records and make part of the
assessment analysis.

The cracking moisture content is where, this was determined according to Ávila (2004),
as shown in Table 1.

FINDINGS AND ANALYSES

In the embankment appear cracks in the end construction stage, these were not
development for instabilities or bad compaction process. The cracks appear into the
embankment has relate with weather conditions surround the physical model: the
evaporation into the embankment was estimated with Equation 7. Graphing CIF on x-axis
and the ratio actual evaporation and potential cumulative (AE/AP) on y-axis, in this graph
shows indirect way wetting front in the embankment. Figure 3 represents CIF and
evaporation soil relationship so cracking into the embankment is the desiccation. Also,
this graph is seen the different behavior between right and left side, in the left side was
locate the piezometer generate more cracks.

Copyright © 2019 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 10

 18

The cumulative ratio of actual evaporation and potential 16

14

12
evaporation (AE/PE)

10

6
The end construction stage - Right side y = 5.3ln(x) + 36.8
R² = 0.9
4 The end construction stage - Left side y = 5.9ln(x) + 33.6
R² = 0.9
The operation stage - Right side y = 3.2ln(x) + 16.1
2 R² = 0.7
The operation stage - Left side y = 3.2ln(x) + 20.1
R² = 0.7
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
The crack intensity factor (CIF)- [%]

Figure 3: AE/PE and CIF for each stage: end construction and the operation

The cracks behavior during the end of construction and the operation stages show that
after maximum cracking appear a tensional rearrangement that allow low cracking and
later exists one new maximum cracking. In the end construction stage this tension
rearrangement is bigger that the operation stage.

The end construction stage is similar to the investigation performed by Yesiller et al

(2000), where they simulate a cycle of dry and compaction CL soil and finding maximum
CIF of 0.5 %, in the present study is the 0.6 %.

The desiccation process how the cracking cause is ratified through the relation between
the wetting front and the crack appeared and grew, such as show in Figure 4. The wetting
front into the embankment represents the areas where exists suction and where does not
exists. Figure 4 presents the seepage simulations for the end construction and operation
stages, the seepage conditions are very different: the end of construction presents
negative flow –evaporation—, transitory state and unsaturated condition because of
wetting front was moved from upper part of the embankment to embankment foundation.
The seepage during the operation stage was in stationary state, the boundary conditions is
maximum pond level so then the suction only present in the embankment freeboard.
These simulations were carried out with Geostudio’s (2012???) finite element software
SEEP/W. The Richard equation allow estimate the evaporation from soil with finite
elements because unsaturated properties are pretty not lineal (Lee et al. 2005;
Karthikeyan, Tan, & Phoon, 2001) (Freeze, 1971), time of modelling and size cell were
adjusting according with the advisers of (Karthikeyan, Tan, & Phoon, 2001).

Copyright © 2019 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 11

During filling reservoir stage was observed cracks close and wetting front pattern
responded to Richard equation bellow unsaturated soil.
12
11
10 The wedding front (a)
Elevación (m)

9
-1e+012
011
8 -8e+
011
-6e+
7 011
-4e+
6 1
-2e+01
5
4

0
3
2
1
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.30
Distancia (m) Borde del Terraplén

The wedding front (b) Límite del Modelo

8/12/2015
0.20
18/12/2015
Eje y (m)

01/11/2016

0.10 8/12/2015
18/12/2015

01/11/2016

0.00
-0.08 0.02 0.12 0.22 0.32 0.42 0.52 0.62 0.72 0.82 0.92 1.02 1.12 1.22 1.32 1.42 1.52
Eje x (m)

The wedding front

(c)

The wedding front

0.30

24/02/2016
(e) Límite del Modelo
0.20
Eje y (m)

Nivel del Fluido

Frente Húmedo
0.10

The capillary barrier

0.00
-0.08 0.02 0.12 0.22 0.32 0.42 0.52 0.62 0.72 0.82 0.92 1.02 1.12 1.22 1.32 1.42 1.52
Eje x (m)

Figure 4: Wetting Front during end construction and operation stage (a) Element finite
simulation of the end of construction stage (b) sketch from observations of the end
construction stage (b) element finite simulation of the operational stage and (d) sketch
from observations of the operational stage.

The cracks spatial distributions changed with embankment stages: major cracking in end
of construction was in the first and third third while in operation stages was just in first
stage, and these had relation with wedding front (Figure 4). The wedding front in end of
construction stage was moved from the first third almost to third of thirds consequently
appear cracks in whole embankment. The present investigation statistics are consistent in
accordance with the reported findings by Foster (1999), there is a 2.5 % difference
between the both statistics in first third of the embankment (See Figure 5). The difference
findings in the statistics could interpret as the cracks in this investigation obey only to
desiccations and in the study of Foster (1999) obeys also to instabilities, settlements,
seismic and others.

Copyright © 2019 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 12

The embankment cracking by desiccation could be handled from operational and
maintenance activities, avoiding the soil to reach cracking moisture content. Which could
be done keeping up the appropriate reservoir levels or irrigating the embankments. Thus,
filtering models turn into a decision tool.

Figure 4(d) shows no standard wetting front pattern in right side, it could be explained as
capillary barrier, hydraulic interphase in unsaturated soil where finest layer is above
coarsest layer, that create at suspended water level and water do not increase to coarsest
layer. The possible reasons to the presence of finest layer are the grain size curve
difference or this layer support more compaction strength and seepage affected because it
depends on contact radio between the particles at the same time depends also on the
particle size. This phenomenon was not foreseen into seepage modelling.

a) end of construction & operation stages

results

b) average between end of construction

& operation stages

(c) Foster’s estimates (1999)

Fig. 5: Cracking location into body of embankments comparing the three results

As for the cracking geometry, depth was recorded but length and width were not possible.
In both stages, the cracking length was greater than its width (Figure 6). At end of
construction width measures were greater than operation. When scores are at variance in
the crack width (s2) it means low or no piping at all.

Copyright © 2019 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 13

 The operation stage - Width (s2=0)

The operation stage - Lenght (s2=14.9)

The end construction stage - Width (s2=0.02)

The end construction stage - Lenght (s2=8.2)

0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 100.000

Linear dimension (cm)

Fig. 6: the cracking length, width Statistics by stage where s2 is the data variance.

Cracking severity concept was adopted of the Kleppe & Olson, 1985. The major cracks
were classified as moderate, following for critics in the end of construction (Figure 7).
100 % were moderate cracking in the operation stage. The difference between upstream
slope cracks and downstream slope cracks was 1-point percentage and 2 points
percentage into the severity categories.

100%
Cracking severity percentage

90%
80%
70%
60%
48%
50%
40%
30%
20% 13% 15%
10% 5% 5% 7% 5%
1% 2%
0%
1/3 2/3 3/3
Embankment thirds

Moderate cracking Major cracking Severe cracking

Fig. 7: The incidence percentage by severity category during the end of construction.

The incidence by cracks type is difference for each stage. The incidence in the end
construction from highest to lowest were longitudinal, horizontal and cavitation, this type
was exclusive of this stage. The highest incidence in the operational stage was
transversal incidence.

Copyright © 2019 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 14

Hydraulic fractures were not had occurrence as result of controlling reservoir filling but
despite upstream slope cracks. These findings are in the same way to indicate by Wang
(2014).

The critical cracking time is the time to begin the cracking in embankments. This can be
estimate through the embankment seepage simulation as transition time unsaturated
condition. Input of this simulation is the soil evaporation could estimate with soil
characteristic curve and climatic conditions, and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
curve. The critical cracking time permit determine if the date of the beginning the end
construction time is adequate or required operational maintenance handles.

CONCLUSION

A cause of embankment cracking is desiccation, which relates with both, the weather
conditions surrounding the embankment and seepage; thus, every stage in the
embankment shows a seepage condition,than, it is possible to know the cracking start
critical time through numeric modelling in each dam stage. Consequently, desiccation
cracking may be prevented by simulating seepage, taking operating measures to avoid
future moisture contents like embankment cracking moisture. Cracking severity is greater
in end of construction stage than it is in operation. Critical cracking was found in the
upper third as a 13%. Cracking spatial distribution varies regarding the dam stage. At
end of construction stage, there was cracking all over the dam, mostly in the upper third,
while at operation, it only happened in the upper third.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to offer my special thanks to Universidad Nacional de Colombia.

Copyright © 2019 U.S. Society on Dams. All Rights Reserved. 15

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