TURBOMACHINE SCALING LAWS

8. TURBOMACHINE SCALING LAWS

1

Discussions in this section pertain to testing of models while designing new turbomachines, or when modifying
existing turbomachine designs. Testing of models at these stages can unearth design deficiencies that could
later prove costly. Techniques of dimensional analysis help reduce effort, time, and cost involved in
experiments on turbomachines. Also, the scaling laws introduced here help predict performance of
turbomachines under varying operating conditions.
8.1 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS APPLIED TO TURBOMACHINES
Design of turbomachines involves a large number of variables. It is often not easy to accurately correlate these
analytically. An appropriate example is the theoretical relationship between head and capacity of centrifugal
pumps. While the simple theory correlates these variables linearly for any given impeller running at constant
speed, in reality this relationship is significantly non-linear. Design must rely on experiments to reveal true
relationships between variables involved in such cases.
Dimensional analysis a mathematical procedure in which physical quantities are expressed in terms of their
fundamental dimensions and is often used when there is not enough information to set up precise equations.
Dimensional analysis is a method of comparing the dimensions of variables in an equation governing a physical
phenomenon to find relationships between these quantities without having to solve the problem completely.
In the process of dimensional analysis, the number of variables of the problem is also reduced, which makes
experimental work much simpler.
BUCKINGHAM’S π-THEOREM
Buckingham’s π-theorem (1914) attributed to E. Buckingham, the American physicist, states that
“Every physically meaningful equation involving n variables can be equivalently rewritten as an equation of (n
– m) dimensionless parameters, in a combination of these n variables, m being the number of fundamental
dimensions among them.”
The theorem also provides a method of computing these (n – m) dimensionless parameters from the given n
variables.
IMPORTANT VARIABLES OF TURBOMACHINES
The variables that are most significant in dimensional analysis of turbomachines are listed in Table-8.1.
Table 8.1 The Most Common Variables in the Design of Turbomachines

Type Variable Symbol Dimension

-1
Mass flow rate ṁ MT
3 -1
Flow Volume flow rate (Discharge) Q LT
-1
Speed N (or ω) T
1
Geometry Rotor diameter D L
2 -2
Fluid specific energy e (= gH) LT
2 -2
Shaft power (input or output) Ps ML T
-3
Property Mass density of fluid ρ ML
-1 --1
Dynamic viscosity μ ML T
-1 -2
Inlet and exit pressures p01, p02, p1, p2 ML T
2 -2
Specific enthalpy at inlet and exit h01, h02, h1, h2 LT

TURBOMACHINES 2015
 TURBOMACHINE SCALING LAWS

DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS OF INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBOMACHINES

The technique of dimensional analysis can be applied to compressible as well as incompressible flow 2
turbomachines. The present discussion is limited to incompressible flow turbomachines such as pumps and
hydraulic turbines. Consider such a machine operating with shaft power Ps (as input or output), with a
discharge of Q, and running at a speed N. The fluid energy change is gH, where H is the change in head of the
fluid passing through the machine. The fluid’s density and dynamic viscosity are represented by ρ and μ. We
may relate the variables mentioned above as
(8.1)
where f is some function. It is clear that the number of variables in this function is seven, containing three
primary dimensions—i.e., n = 7 and m = 3. Therefore the number of the independent π-terms will be four. By
means of dimensional analysis it can be shown that (EN 20),

(8.2a)

(8.2a)

(8.2a)

(8.2a)
2
When the variable μ/ρND is re-written as μ/ρuD, where u is some characteristic velocity in the problem, it is
then recognized as reciprocal of the Reynolds number (Re). The new variables are, therefore,

Flow coefficient, (8.3a)

Head coefficient, (8.3b)

Power coefficient, (8.3c)

Note that these coefficients are themselves variables, and are unlike, for example, the discharge coefficient of
a venturi meter, which is almost constant for a given meter in a given range of discharge.
Reynolds number is used to characterize flows as laminar or turbulent. Flow through hydraulic machines is
7
usually turbulent to a high degree, with Re ≅ 10 . This means that the inertia forces by far exceed the viscous
forces, and therefore viscosity effects can be ignored without much concern. Therefore, Reynolds number has
only a small effect on flow through pumps and hydraulic turbines and can be ignored. So Eq. 8.1 is now

(8.4a)

It is thus seen that the flow coefficient, head coefficient, and power coefficient are in some way related to
each other. This relationship can be determined through experiment. Conducting experiments on the basis of
Eq. 8.4 is much simpler than using Eq. 8.1 because the number of variables involved is reduced from seven to
three. This is one of the major uses of dimensional analysis. If we maintain any one of the three coefficients
constant the other two can be related as:

(8.4b)

(8.4c)

where g1 and g2 are certain functions.

Overall efficiency also can be expressed in terms of these coefficients. Thus, for pumps,

(8.5a)

Similarly for turbines,

(8.5b)

TURBOMACHINES 2015
 TURBOMACHINE SCALING LAWS

BEST EFFICIENCY POINT 3

CH h
CH
CH*
hmax
h

CQ* CQ
Fig. 8.1 Typical Centrifugal Pump Non-dimensional Characteristics

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS OF TURBOMACHINES

Formally, the flow coefficient is numerically equal to the volume flow rate through a turbomachine runner of
unit diameter (i.e., 1 m) while running at unit of speed (i.e., 1 rad/s). It can be shown that the flow coefficient
is inversely proportional to the speed ratio φ (EN 21). Similarly, the head coefficient is proportional the ratio of
the kinetic energy of the working fluid spouting under a head of H to the kinetic energy of the same mass of
fluid having a velocity of u. The flow coefficient, head coefficient, power coefficient, and the overall efficiency,
together with specific speed (Sec. 8.3) are considered important dimensionless parameters of incompressible
flow turbomachines. Their inter-relationship for a typical centrifugal pump is shown in Fig. 8.1.
8.2 MODEL TESTING APPLIED TO TURBOMACHINES
It is difficult to design turbomachines relying only on analytical or numerical methods. Engineers therefore
usually resort to tests and experiments while designing turbomachines. Dimensional analysis makes
conducting these experiments easier by reducing the number of the design variables to a few non-dimensional
ones. Conducting experiments at the true size is also often difficult, so these are carried out at another, usually
smaller, scale. The true-size machine is called the prototype, and the scaled-down machine is called a model.
For tests conducted on a model to provide useful results for the prototype, the conditions of geometric,
kinematic and dynamic similarities (EN 22) must be met.
For dynamic similarity to exist between two systems of flow their Reynolds number should match (EN 23). For
various reasons it is usually not possible to exactly match the Reynolds numbers between the model and the
prototype. When this happens the dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype is only
approximate. (We have seen in the previous section that this is not a serious concern.) The kinematic similarity
of flow between the model and the prototype is easier to achieve. Kinematic similarity is attained when the
inlet and exit velocity triangles the prototype and the model are similar. The condition for similar velocity
triangles for two geometrically similar turbomachines is that their flow coefficients CQ should match (EN 24).
When geometrically similar turbomachines run with similar velocity triangles at the inlet and exit of the vanes
they are said to be in the same homologous state.
Dimensional analysis does not give any clue on the nature of function g, g1, and g2 in Eq. 8.4. These functions
should be determined through experiments. Experiments show that for geometrically similar turbomachines
these are approximately the same; for example, a given machine and another geometrically similar machine
will have the same function relating the flow coefficient and the head coefficient. Therefore, we need
determine g1 for only one machine—all other geometrically similar machines will have the same g1. Thus, for
any given value of CQ, both machines will have the same value for CH. Suppose the model CH is related to the
model CP as

TURBOMACHINES 2015
 TURBOMACHINE SCALING LAWS

Then
4
The same is true for g2 also.
Thus, when

(8.6a)

Then

(8.6b)

(8.6c)

where suffices P and M represent the prototype and model. The above relations are called the scaling laws (or
similarity rules) of turbomachines.
Scaling laws help predict prototype performance using results from tests carried out on models. For any given
machine, scaling laws can also be used to generate performance curves for different conditions from tests
conducted under a single condition (EN 6).
Further, since any given turbomachine is geometrically similar to itself, while operating at dynamically similar
states 1, 2 … etc.

This follows from Eq. 8.6. The above results signify that discharge of an ideal pump is proportional to its speed;
and that the head generated by a pump is proportional to the square of speed, and that the shaft power is
proportional to the third power of speed. These statements are called, respectively, the first, the second, and
the third fan laws.
EFFECT OF REYNOLDS NUMBER
In the absence of complete dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype, for which the Reynolds
number must be equal for both, the scaling laws give approximate results. Discrepancy arising out of this is
called the Reynolds number effect. Certain factors contributing to these errors are
 Surface finish: It is difficult to achieve the same relative roughness on the model as it is on the
prototype, especially when the same method is used to fabricate both.
 Clearance variations: Clearances cannot be controlled in the same ratio as the ratio of the
prototype and the model sizes.
 Geometric dissimilarities: Because of slight dimensional mismatches arising from fabrication
tolerances, the scale factor may vary over the model geometry.
 Hydrodynamic reasons: Smaller the machine, smaller the flow passage widths. A smaller machine
thus can be expected to have smaller Reynolds numbers and hence relatively larger viscous losses and
therefore lower efficiency.
The value of efficiency (obtained from Eq. 8.5) is often measurably different between the prototype and the
model owing to the Reynolds number effect. An empirical relation given below, known as the Moody formula,
is often used to compensate for this anomaly.

(8.7)

The value of n is usually between 0.20 and 0.25. The difference in the model and prototype efficiencies is
usually in the range of 1% to 4%.

TURBOMACHINES 2015
 TURBOMACHINE SCALING LAWS

8.3 THE SPECIFIC SPEED

The geometric design of a turbomachine is determined by its operating conditions. The major operating 5
parameters include speed (N), discharge (Q), and head (H) for pumps and power (P), speed, and head for
turbines. The size, represented by its diameter (D), is usually not a major design factor compared to the other
ones mentioned. It is therefore useful to define a dimensionless number without involving the diameter of the
turbomachine rotor.
From Eq. 8.5a, we obtain

From Eq. 8.5b,

Eliminating D in the above two equations can be done through division, as

Hence, in terms of the first power of N,

(8.8a)

Similarly,

(8.8b)

The left side of both Eq. 8.8a and Eq. 8.8b are clearly dimensionless, and so must be the quantities on the
right. Both are variables, like the coefficients defined by Eq. 8.3. It has been shown that the values of the
capacity coefficient, head coefficient, and the power coefficient are the same between ideal homologous
machines; therefore, the RHS variables also would match for homologous machines. When the homologous
state considered is the best efficiency point (BEP) of the machines, then

Pump specific speed, (8.9a)

Turbine specific speed, (8.9b)

To repeat, it must be borne in mind that the pump referred to in Eq. 8.9a is operating at maximum efficiency
at the given values of Q, H, and N; and the turbine of Eq. 8.9b is exhibiting maximum efficiency at the values of
Ps, H, and N used in that equation. Thus, for the pump with characteristics as in Fig. 8.1

Specific speed is a concept widely used in incompressible fluid turbomachinery, and often in relation to
turbomachines working with water. Therefore, removing the obvious constant quantities of Eq. 9,

Pump specific speed, (8.10a)

Turbine specific speed, (8.10b)

TURBOMACHINES 2015
 TURBOMACHINE SCALING LAWS

Clearly, ns and Ns are not non-dimensional quantities. While calculating the dimensionless specific speed in SI
units, all quantities of Eq. 8.9 must be accounted in SI units, with speed N measured in rad/s. In Eq. 8.10 Q, N,
3
6
P, and H must be in terms of m /s, rpm, W (for pump specific speed) or kW (for turbine specific speed), and m,
respectively. Conversion between these two types thus can be done as follows:
(8.11a)
(8.11b)
A given turbomachine will have infinitely many discharge, head, and power coefficients (Fig. 8.1). However,
these will have certain definite values at the machine’s BEP. At this state all homologous machines (i.e.,
geometrically similar machines operating with similar velocity triangles) will have the same coefficients, and
hence all such machines will have the same value for specific speed.

Fig. 8.2 Specific Speed of Various Classes of Pumps

Alternatively, specific speed of a given pump may be defined as the speed of an ideal pump geometrically
similar to the actual pump, which when running at this speed will raise a unit of volume, in a unit of time
through a unit of head. Similarly, the turbine specific speed may be viewed as the speed of that hypothetical
turbine, geometrically similar to the first and working under unit head produces one unit of power. What is not
directly stated is that the actual and the imaginary machines are operating at peak efficiency and that the
value of the efficiency is the same for both. (In reality, the larger turbomachine will be usually more efficient.)

Ns
4 65 265 385 900
1 5 10 50 100 500 1000

FRANCIS
PELTON WHEELS TURBINES

PROPELLER,
KAPLAN
TURBINES

Fig. 8.3 Specific Speed of Various Types of Turbines

TURBOMACHINES 2015
 TURBOMACHINE SCALING LAWS

8.4 UNIT QUANTITIES

The method of unit quantities is useful to estimate a turbomachine’s new operating parameters under off- 7
design conditions. The unit method is applicable to both turbines and pumps. The following discussion is based
on the example of turbines.
The unit quantities are calculated for a particular turbine under a (hypothetical) head of one unit (say, 1m)
assuming that the efficiency is the same under this condition as it is under the normal operating head. There
are three important unit quantities as
i. Unit speed
ii. Unit power
iii. Unit discharge
The unit speed (Nu) of a turbine is the speed at which it will operate when its head is brought to one unit of
head, efficiency unaffected. (Note that the turbine stays homologous to itself after this change of head.) The
head coefficient CH is the same before (at state (1)) and after (at state (2)). Hence,

from which it is clear that

Since H = 1 m at state (2), we have

Unit speed,

Or, in general,

Unit speed, (8.12)

The unit discharge (Qu) of a turbine is its discharge when its head is brought to one unit of head, the efficiency
remaining unchanged.
Since the discharge of a turbomachine is proportional to its speed (the first fan law),

Since the head of a turbomachine is proportional to the square of its speed (the second fan law), we may re-
write the above as

As before, since H = 1 m at state (2),

Unit discharge, (8.13)

The unit power (Pu) of a turbine is the power output when its head is one unit, with the same efficiency.
Proceeding as before,

Unit power, (8.14)

TURBOMACHINES 2015
 TURBOMACHINE SCALING LAWS

TUTORIAL PROBLEMS

1. A Centrifugal pump delivers 2.5 lps of water under a head of 14 m while running at a speed of 2010 rpm.
8
The impeller diameter of the pump is 125 mm. If a geometrically similar pump having an impeller
diameter of 104 mm runs at 2210 rpm, what is the volume flow rate of this pump? Also, determine its
head. [Ans. Q2 = 1.58 lps, H2 = 11.72 m]
5 2
2. A centrifugal pump rotates at 1770 rpm and at the best efficiency has a pressure rise of 4.5 x 10 N/m
3
when pumping water at the rate of 0.28 m /s. Predict the corresponding best efficiency flow rate and
pressure rise when rotating at 80% of the design speed. If efficiency is 85% in both cases, estimate the
5 3
input power required. [Ans. Δp2 = 2.88 x 10 Pa, Q2 = 0.22 m /s, Ps,1 = 148 kW, Ps,2 = 74.5 kW]
3. The specified duty for a hydraulic turbine is 37.5 MW at 90 rpm under a head of 18 m with an efficiency of
93%. The factory test bay can give a head of 6 m and absorb 45 kW. Suggest the necessary scale ratio for a
3
model, its rotational speed, and flow rate. [Ans. Dp/Dm = 12.7, NM = 660 rpm, Q = 0.8666 m /s, ηM = 0.88]
4. The following data refer to a prototype and its model. Find the diameter ratio of the prototype to the
model, power, and the conventional and non-dimensional specific speeds. Is this machine a pump or a
turbine?
3
H (m) Q (m /s) N (rpm) P (kW)
Prototype 60 60 300 --
Model 6 0.12 1200 6
[Ans. DP/DM = 12.57, ηM = 0.85, ηP = 0.91, Ps,P = 32.1 MW, Ns = 321.9, Ω = 1.94]
5. A model operates at a head of 5 m at 1200 rpm. The power in the test laboratory is limited to 8 kW.
Predict the power and diameter ratio of the prototype turbine which operates under a head of 40 m at
240 rpm. What type turbine is the prototype? [Ans. DP/DM = 14.14, PP = 36.2 MW, Ns = 454,
Francis/Propeller]
3
6. The quantity of water available for a hydroelectric power station is 260 m /s under a head of 1.73 m.
Assuming that the speed of the turbine to be 50 rpm, an efficiency of 82.5%, find the number of turbines
required. Assume a specific speed of 890. [Ans. P = 1.246 MW per turbine, plant power = 3640 kW,
number of turbines required = 3]
7. The following data were obtained from the main characteristics of a Kaplan turbine of 1 m diameter. Pu =
3
30.695 kW, Qu = 108.6 m /s, Nu = 63.6 rpm. Estimate the runner diameter, discharge, and speed of a
similar turbine runner working under a head of 30 m developing 2000 kW, and the specific speed of the
turbines.
8. A water turbine develops 3240 kW at 120 rpm under a head of 36 m. What would be its speed and output
under a head of 25 m (assuming no change in efficiency) under dynamically similar conditions? [Ans. Nu =
20 rpm, N25 = 100 rpm, Pu = 15 kW, P25 = 1875 kW]
ASSIGNMENT
DESCRIPTIVE

1. Explain the meaning of dynamic similarity in model analysis of turbomachines.

2. * Give the significance of the dimensionless terms flow coefficient, head coefficient and power
coefficient with respect to turbomachines.
3. * Briefly explain the effect of Reynolds’ number on a turbomachine.
4. * Briefly explain the significance of specific speed related to fluid machines.
5. * Define specific speed of a turbine. Derive an expression for specific speed of a turbine from
fundamentals.
6. * Define specific speed of a pump. Show that the specific speed of a pump is given by the equation Ns =
3/4
N√Q/H .
7. * Explain unit quantities. How are they useful?
8. Using dimensional analysis show that the performance of a turbocompressor is given by Po2/Po1 =
f[mo√To1/Po1, N/√To1], where the symbols have the usual meanings.

TURBOMACHINES 2015
 TURBOMACHINE SCALING LAWS

NUMERICAL

1. Two geometrically similar pumps are running at the same speed of 1000 RPM. One pump has impeller
9
diameter of 0.3 m and lifts water at the rate of 20 lps against a head of 15 m. Determine the diameter and
head of the other pump while delivering half the other pumps discharge.
2. A model pump delivers 100 litres per minute of water at a head of 12 m running at 3600 rpm, the
temperature of water being 15°C. Find the temperature of water if the pump is to be run at 1800 rpm and
dynamic similarity is to be maintained. The kinematic viscosity of water can be estimated from the
equation γ = 0.0195 – 0.00012(9T/5 + 32) where T is temperature in °C.
3
3. * An axial flow pump with a rotor diameter of 30 cm handles water at the rate of 2.7 m /min while
operating at 1500 rpm. Corresponding energy input is 125 J/kg, the total-to-total efficiency being 75%. If a
second geometrically similar pump with a diameter of 20 cm operates at 3000 rpm, predict its flow rate,
change in total pressure, and input power.
3
4. * A blower delivers 2 m /s of air at a head of 10 mm of water while running at 1470 rpm. Find the
discharge of a geometrically similar blower which runs at 360 rpm developing the same head. Also find the
3
dimensionless specific speed of the blower. Take density of air as 1.25 kg/m .
5. A Francis turbine model is built to the scale of 1:5. The data for the model is: P = 4 kW, N = 3500 rpm, H =
2 m, and for the prototype, H = 6 m. Assume the overall efficiency of the model to be 70%. With the aid of
Moody formula, calculate the speed and the power of the prototype.
6. * A turbine model 1:10 develops 2.0 kW under a head of 6 m at 500 rpm. Find the power developed by
the prototype under a head of 40 m. Also find the speed of the prototype and its specific speed. Assume
turbine efficiencies are the same.
7. A hydraulic turbine has a head of 9 m and average discharge of 11,200 lps for a generator speed of 200
rpm. What is the specific speed of the turbine? Assume efficiency of 92%.
8. * A small scale model of a hydraulic turbine runs at a speed of 350 rpm under a head of 20 m and
produces 8.5 kW as output. Determine the unit discharge, unit speed and unit power. Assume a turbine
efficiency of 0.79.

TURBOMACHINES 2015
 TURBOMACHINE SCALING LAWS

EXAMPLE OF SIMILARITY, DIMENSIONLESS NUMBER, AND MODEL TESTING

One of the first examples of similarity that we learned in school was the geometric similarity of triangles. We 10
know that when angles of one triangle are equal to the corresponding angles of another, the two triangles are
similar. We apply this to the right-angled triangles ABC and ADE in Fig. 1, and say that there is a unique
dimensionless number associated with any angle θ and call it tangent of that angle, tanθ. In the figure below
.

Fig. 1 Similar Triangles

We determine the value of tanθ for several angles between 0° and 90° by drawing one right-angled triangle for
each value of θ and finding the ratio of altitude to base.
An immediate practical application of this idea is in measuring heights of inaccessible objects—for example, a
tall tree (Fig. 2). All that is required to be done to estimate this height h is to measure the angle φ at a small
known height y from a known distance s from the base of the tree. (We may use for this purpose a pole of our
height, a 30-cm long plastic tube of small diameter, a protractor from our school geometry box, and a plumb
line.) After carrying out the measurements, apply the results to the equation

The only unknown in the above equation is h, which can be solved for using the measurements of s, y, φ and
the table of the non-dimensional number (i.e., tanθ) which we prepared previously.
There is yet another method to solve this problem once we have the measurements of s, y, and φ. Note that
the true distances constitute the two sides of a trapezium. We call the actual trapezium the prototype
trapezium. We draw a scaled-down trapezium on a piece of paper with a scale ratio λ so that

keeping the angle φ same in the second trapezium and call it the model trapezium. We then measure the side
RS of the model and estimate the height of the tree as

Fig. 2 Model (PQRS) and Prototype Trapeziums

Thus, the measurement on the geometrically similar model yields us information on the prototype.

TURBOMACHINES 2015