Ai St

Air Standard
d dC Cycles
l
Air-Standard cycle differs from the actual by the
following :
1. The gas mixture in the cylinder is treated as air
for the entire cycle, and property values of air
are used in the analysis.
2. The real open cycle is changed into a closed
cycle
y by
y assuming
g that the g
gases beingg
exhausted are fed back into the intake system.
3. The combustion process is replaced with a heat
addition term Q
Qin of equal
q energy
gy value. Air
alone cannot combust.
4. The open exhaust process, which carries a large
amount of enthalpy Qout of the equal energy
value
5. Actual engine processes are approximated with
id l processes:
ideal
a. The almost-constant-pressure intake and
exhaust strokes are assumed to be constant
pressure.
pressure
b. Compression strokes and expansion strokes
are approximated by isentropic processes.
c. The combustion process is idealized by a
constant-volume process (SI cycle), a
constant-pressure process (CI cycle), or a
combination of both (CI Dual cycle).
cycle)
d. Exhaust blow down is approximated by a
constant-volume process.
e. All processes are considered
id d reversible.
ibl
B l ’ L
Boyle’s Law
{ The pressure off an ideal
Th id l gas iis inversely
i l
proportional to the volume it occupies if
the moles of g
gas and the temperature
p re
constant.

1
{ Boyle’s Law P ∝ if n and T are constants
V
{ Decreased
ec eased volume
ou e Increased
c eased pressure
p essu e
{ Increased volume Decreased pressure
G L
Gay-Lussac’s
’ LLaw
{ The pressure off an ideal
Th id l gas is
i directly
di l
proportional to the Kelvin temperature of
the g
gas if the volume and moles of g
gas are
constant

P ∝T if n and V are constant

{ Increased temperature Increased pressure
{ Decreased temperature Decreased pressure
Ch l ’ L
Charles’ Law
{ For an ideal
F id l gas, volume
l and
d temperature
described in Kelvin's are directly
proportional
p p if moles of ggas and p
pressure
are constant.

V ∝T If n and P are constant

Increased temperature Increased volume
Decreased temperature Decreased volume
Id l G
Ideal Gas L
Law
{ Combiningg Boyle’s
y and Charles’ laws allows for
developing a single equation:

Pv = R T
{ Where the constant of proportionality R is called
the gas constant.
{ Th gas constant
The t t R iis diff
differentt for
f each
h gas and d is
i
determined from:

R=
RU
[kJ kg.K ]
M

{ Ru is the Universal gas constant and M is the

molar mass (molecular weight)
P l t i Process
Polytropic P
{ During
g Expansion
p and compression
p process,,
p
pressure and volume are often related by:

PV n = C or P = CV − n
{ Where C is a constant, and n is a value
between 1.0
1 0 and 1.4.
14
{ Assuming the combustion chamber is
perfectly insulated (adiabatic), n=k=1.4.
F an isothermal
For i th l process, n=1.0.
10
S
Specific
ifi heat
h t constants
t t
{ When analyzing
Wh l i what
h t occurs within
ithi engines
i
during the operating cycle and exhaust flow,
the following air property values are used:

C P = 1.108 [ kJ / kg − K ]
CV = 0.821 [ kJ / kg − K ]
k = C P CV = 1.108 0.821 = 1.35
R = C P − CV = 0.287 [ kJ / kg − K ]
{ For processes such
F h as inlet
i l t fl
flow in
i superchargers,
h
turbochargers, and carburetors, and air flow
through the engine radiator, the following air
property
t values
l are used:
d

C P = 1.005 [ kJ / kg − K ]
CV = 0.718 [ kJ / kg − K ]
k = C P CV = 1.005 0.718 = 1.4
R = C P − CV = 0.287 [ kJ / kg − K ]
I
Isentropic
t i process
{ F an ideal
For id l gas k is
i constant.
t t
k
p 2 ⎛ V1 ⎞
pV = C
k
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
p1 ⎝ V2 ⎠

{ Using the
h equation off state for
f an ideal
d l gas,

pV = mRT

k −1
{ TV k −1
= C and TP k
=C
M i B
Moving Boundary
d W
Work
k
{ The differential work done when a
Force F moves a piston area A, a
distance of ds is given as:

δWb = Fds
Fd = PAds
PAd = PdV
{ The total boundary work done
d i
during th entire
the ti process as the
th
piston moves is obtained by adding
all the differential works form the
i iti l state
initial t t to
t the
th final
fi l state.
t t

2
Wb = ∫ PdV
1
 I
Isentropic
t i workk
{ Work
W k done
d during
d i isentropic
i i Process
P
becomes:
− k +1 − k +1
2 2 V − V P2V2 − P1V1
W = ∫ PdV = ∫ −n
CV dV = C 2 1
=
1 1 − k +1 1− k

{ For an ideal gas this equation can be written as:

mR(T2 − T1 )
W=
1− k
 Ott Cycle
Otto C l
{ Point
P i 6 to 1 - Intake
I k
{ Point 1 to 2 - Isentropic Compression
{ Point 2 to 3 - Constant-Volume
Constant Volume Heat Input
{ Point 3 to 4 – Isentropic Expansion
{ Point 4 to 5 – Blow Down
{ Point 5 to 6 - Exhaust
Fig. 3.1: Theoretical Otto Cycle
I t k Stroke
Intake St k
{ St t with
Starts ith the
th piston
i t att TDC
{ constant pressure process at the inlet pressure of
one atmosphere.
p
{ In real engine process 6-1 will be slightly less
than atmospheric due to pressure losses in the
inlet air flow.
flow
{ The temperature of the air during the inlet stroke
is increased as the air passes through the hot
intake mainfold.
C
Compression
i StStroke
k
{ It is
i an iisentropic
t i compression
i ffrom BDC tto TDC
(process 1-2)
{ In real engine,
g , the beginning
g g of the stroke is
affected by the intake valve not being fully closed
until slightly after BDC.
{ The end of compression is affected by the firing of
the spark plug before TDC.
{ In addition to increase in pressure there is also
increase in temperature due to compressive
heating.
C b ti Process
Combustion P
{ IIt is
i a constant-volume
l h
heat i
input process
2-3 at TDC.
{ In real engines combustion starts slightly
bTDC, reaches its maximum speed near
TDC, is terminated a little aTDC.
{ Peak cycle pressure and temperature is
reached at point 3 due to energy added to
the air within the cylinder.
cylinder
P
Power (Expansion)
(E i ) Stroke
St k
{ High
g ppressure on the p
piston face forces the p
piston
back towards BDC and produces the work and
power output of the engine.
{ The power stroke of the real engine cycle is
approximated with an isentropic process in the
Otto cycle.
{ The beginning of the power stroke is affected by
the last part of the combustion process.
{ The end of the power stroke is affected by the
exhaust valve being opened before BDC.
{ Values of both the temperatue and pressure
within
ithi th
the cylinder
li d d decrease as volume
l increases
i
from TDC to BDC.
E h
Exhaust
t Blowdown
Bl d
{ Exhaust valve is opened
p near the end of the
power stroke
{ A large amount of exhaust gas is expelled from
the cylinder,
cylinder reducing the pressure to that of the
exhaust manifold
{ The exhaust valve is opened by bBDC to allow for
the finite time of blowdown to occur.
{ The Otto cycle replaces the exhaust blowdown
open-system
open system process of the real cycle with a
constant–volume pressure reduction, closed-
system process 4-5.
{ Enthalpy
E th l lloss d
during
i thi
this process is
i replaced
l d with
ith
heat rejection in the engine analysis.
E h
Exhaust
t Stroke
St k
{ Occurs as the
O h piston
i travels
l from
f BDC to
TDC.
{ Process 5-6
5 6 is the exhaust stroke that
occurs at a constant pressure of one
atmosphere due to the open exhaust valve.
 Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-
Standard Otto Cycle
{ Process 6
6-1-Constant-pressure
1 Constant pressure intake of air at Po.
{ Intake valve open and exhaust valve closed:

P1 = P6 = Po
w6−1 = Po (v1 − v6 )
 Process 1-2- Isentropic
Compression Stroke

{ All valves
l closed:
l d

T2 = T1 (v1 v2 ) = T1 (V1 V2 ) = T1 (rc )

k −1 k −1 k −1

P2 = P1 (v1 v2 = P1 (V1
) ) (
V2 = P1 rc )
k k k

1 2 =0
q1−

w1− 2 =
( P2 v2 − P1v1 ) R(T2 − T1 )
=
(1 − k ) (1 − k )
= (u1 − u2 ) = cv (T1 − T2 )
Process 2-3- Constant – volume heat
input (combustion).

{ All valves
l closed:
l d

v3 = v 2 = vTDC
w2 − 3 = 0
Q 2 − 3 = Qin = m f Q HV η C = m m c v (T3 − T2 )
= (m a + m f )c v (T3 − T2 )
Q HV η C = ( AF + 1)c v (T3 − T2 )
q 2 − 3 = q in = c v (T3 − T2 ) = (u 3 − u 2 )
T3 = Tmax
P3 = Pmax
 Process 3-4: Isentropic power or
expansion stroke.

{ All valves
l closed:
l d

q3− 4 = 0
T4 = T3 (v3 v 4 ) = T3 (V3 V 4 ) = T3 (1 rC )
k −1 k −1 k −1

P4 = P3 (v3 v 4 ) = P3 (V3 V 4 ) = P3 (1 rC )
k −1 k −1 k −1

w3− 4 =
( P4 v4 − P3v3 ) R(T4 − T3 )
=
(1 − k ) (1 − k )
= (u3 − u4 ) = cv (T3 − T4 )
 Process 4-5: Constant-volume heat
rejection (exhaust blowdown)

{ E h
Exhaust valve
l open and
d intake
i k valve
l closed:
l d

v5 = v 4 = v1 = v BDC
w4 − 5 = 0
Q 4 − 5 = Qout = m m c v (T5 − T4 ) = m m c v (T1 − T4 )
q 4 − 5 = q out = c v (T5 − T4 ) = (u 5 − u 4 ) = c v (T1 − T4 )
 Process 5-6: Constant-pressure
exhaust stroke at Po

{ Exhaust
E h valve
l open and
d intake
i k valve
l
closed:

P5 = P6 = Po
w5 − 6 = Po (v 6 − v5 ) = Po (v 6 − v1 )
Thermal efficiency of Otto Cycle:

wnet q out
(η t )OTTO = = 1−
q in q in
c v (T4 − T1 )
= 1−
c v (T3 − T2 )

= 1−
(T4 − T1 )
(T3 − T2 )
{ For isentropic compression and expansion strokes
and recognizing that v1 = v4 and v2 = v3

(T2 T1 ) = (v1 v 2 )
k −1
= (v 4 v3 )
k −1
= (T3 T4 )
{ Rearranging the temperature terms gives:

(T4 T1 ) = (T3 T2 )
{ Rearranging the above equation gives:

(ηt )OTTO = 1 − (T1 T2 ){(T4 T1 − 1) (T3 T2 − 1)}

{ Thus efficiency
y becomes:
(ηt )OTTO = 1 − (T1 T2 )
{ Combing this with:

T2 = T1 (v1 v2 ) = T1 (V1 V2 ) = T1 (rc )

k −1 k −1 k −1

(ηt )OTTO = 1 − (1 (v1 v2 )

k −1
)
(ηt )OTTO = 1−
1 (1 rc )
k −1
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
{ By
y definition,, mean effective pressure
p can be
written as,

Wnet
imep =
VD
{ Where:
( P2V2 − P1V1 ) (P4V4 − P3V3 )
Wnet = W1− 2 + W3− 4 = +
(1 − k ) (1 − k )
{ And displaced volume is given as:

VD = V1 − V2
Closing Thoughts on the Otto Cycle

{ The Otto-cycle efficiency

ff serves as
an upper limit to the efficiency of SI
engines.
engines
{ In practice this efficiency is never
achieved.
achieved
{ This theoretical analysis is flawed in
that it ignores friction and heat
transfer.
Fig. 3.2: p-V Diagram of a SI Engine
Di
Diesel
lCCycle
l
{ Fuell is
F i iinjected
j t d iinto
t th
the combustion
b ti chamber
h b very
late in the compression stroke
{ Due to ignition
g delayy and the finite time required
q
to inject the fuel, combustion lasted into the
expansion stroke
{ This keeps the pressure at peak levels well past
TDC.
{ Combustion process is approximated as
constant-pressure heat input in an air
standard cycle
Fig.3.3: Indicator diagram of CI engine
Fig.3.4: Air–Standard diesel cycle
 Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-
Standard Diesel Cycle
{ Process 6
6-1-Constant-pressure
1 Constant pressure intake of air at Po.
{ Intake valve open and exhaust valve closed:

P1 = P6 = Po
w6−1 = Po (v1 − v6 )
 Process 1-2- Isentropic
Compression Stroke

{ All valves
l closed:
l d

T2 = T1 (v1 v2 ) = T1 (V1 V2 ) = T1 (rc )

k −1 k −1 k −1

P 2 = P1 (v1 v2 = P1 (V1
) ) (
V2 = P1 rc )
k k k

1 2 =0
q1−

w1− 2 =
( P2 v2 − P1v1 ) R(T2 − T1 )
=
(1 − k ) (1 − k )
= (u1 − u2 ) = CV (T1 − T2 )
 Process 2-3- Constant – Pressure
heat input (combustion).

{ All valves
l closed:
l d

Q 2 − 3 = Qin = m f Q HV η C = m m c p (T3 − T2 )
= (m a + m f )c p (T3 − T2 )
Q HV η C = ( AF + 1) c p (T3 − T2 )
q 2 − 3 = q in = c p (T3 − T2 ) = (h3 − h2 )
w2 − 3 = q 2 − 3 − (u 3 − u 2 ) = P2 (v3 − v 2 )
T3 = Tmax
Cut of Ratio: The change
g in volume that occurs
during combustion, given as a ratio:

β = V3 V2 = v3 v2 = T3 T2
 Process 3-4: Isentropic power or
expansion stroke.

{ All valves
l closed:
l d

q3− 4 = 0
T4 = T3 (v3 v 4 ) = T3 (V3 V 4 )
k −1 k −1

P4 = P3 (v3 v 4 ) = P3 (V3 V 4 )
k −1 k −1

w3− 4 =
( P4 v4 − P3v3 ) R(T4 − T3 )
=
(1 − k ) (1 − k )
= (u3 − u4 ) = cv (T3 − T4 )
 Process 4-5: Constant-volume heat
rejection (exhaust blowdown)

{ E h
Exhaust valve
l open and
d intake
i k valve
l closed:
l d

v5 = v 4 = v1 = v BDC
w4 − 5 = 0
Q 4 − 5 = Qout = m m c v (T5 − T4 ) = m m c v (T1 − T4 )
q 4 − 5 = q out = c v (T5 − T4 ) = (u 5 − u 4 ) = c v (T1 − T4 )
 Process 5-6: Constant-pressure
exhaust stroke at Po

{ Exhaust
E h valve
l open and
d intake
i k valve
l
closed:

P5 = P6 = Po
w5 − 6 = Po (v 6 − v5 ) = Po (v 6 − v1 )
Thermal efficiency of diesel Cycle:

wnet q out
(η t )DIESEL = = 1−
q in q in
c v (T4 − T1 )
= 1−
c p (T3 − T2 )

= 1−
(T4 − T1 )
k (T3 − T2 )
{ With
Wi h rearrangement, this
hi can be
b shown
h to
equal:
k −1
⎛1⎞ ⎡ β k −1 ⎤
(ηt )DIESEL = 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢ ⎥
⎝ rc ⎠ ⎣ k (β − 1) ⎦
{ Where:
rc = Compression ratio
k = C P CV
β = cutoff
t ff ratio
ti
D lC
Dual Cycle
l
{ Fuell is
F i iinjected
j t d earlier
li iin th
the compression
i stroke,
t k
around 20o bTDC

{ Ignition is late in the compression stroke

stroke, and
some of the combustion occurs almost at constant
volume at TDC similar to Otto Cycle

{ The fuel is being injected at TDC, and combustion

of this fuel keeps the pressure high into the
expansion stroke.

{ The heat input process of combustion is

approximated by a dual process of constant
volume
ol me followed
follo ed b
by constant pressure
p ess e
Fig 3.5: Indicator diagram of Dual cycle engine
Fig 3.6: Air Standard Dual cycle
 Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-
Standard Dual Cycle
{ The analysis
y of an air-standard Dual cycle
y is the
same as that of the Diesel cycle except for the
heat input process (combustion) 2-x-3
{ Process
ocess 2-x: Co
Constant-volume
s a o u e heat
ea inputpu
(first part of combustion)
{ All valves closed:

V x = V 2 = VTDC
w2 − x = 0
Q 2 − x = m m c v (T x − T2 ) = (m a + m f )c v (T x − T2 )
q 2 − x = c v (T x − T2 ) = (u x − u 2 )
Px = Pmax = P2 (T X T2 )
{ Pressure ratio is defined as the rise in pressure
d
during combustion,
b given as a ratio:
α = PX P2 = P3 P 2 = T X T2 = 1 rc (P3
( ) P1 )
K

{ Process x-3- Constant-Pressure heat input

(Second part of combustion)
{ All valves are closed:
P3 = PX = Pmax
w2 − x = 0
Q x − 3 = m m c p (T3 − T x ) = (m a + m f )c p (T3 − T x )
q x − 3 = c p (T3 − Tx ) = (h3 − h x )
w x − 3 = q x − 3 − (u 3 − u x ) = Px (v3 − v x ) = P3 (v3 − v x )
T3 = Tmax
Thermal efficiency of Dual Cycle:
wnet qout
(ηt )DUAL = = 1−
qin qin
cv (T4 − T1 )
= 1−
[cv (Tx − T2 ) + c p (T3 − Tx ) ]
= 1−
(T4 − T1 )
[(Tx − T2 ) + k (T3 − Tx )]
{ This can rearranged to give:

(η t )DUAL
⎛1
= 1 − ⎜⎜
⎞
⎟⎟
k −1
⎡ { }
αβ k − 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎝ rc ⎠ ⎣ {kα (β − 1) + α − 1}⎦
 Comparison of OTTO,DIESEL, and
DUAL Cycles
{ For the same inlet conditions,, the same
compression ratios and same heat removal:
(η t )OTTO > (η t )DIESEL > (η t )DUAL
{ For the same inlet conditions,, the same peak
p
pressure and same heat removal :
(ηt )DIESEL > (ηt )DUAL > (ηt )OTTO
{ For the same inlet conditions,
conditions the same
compression ratios and same heat addition:

η Otto > η Dual > η Diesel

{ For the
F th same inlet
i l t conditions,
diti the
th same
compression ratios and same heat addition:

η Diesel > η Otto

 Two-Stroke CI Engine Cycle
{ Fuel is added with injectors late in the compression
process.
{ Heat input or combustion can be approximated by a
two-step(dual) process.
process
 Process 7-x: Constant-volume heat input
p
(first part of combustion)
{ All ports closed:
V7 = V x = VTDC
w7 − x = 0
Q7 − x = m m c v (Tx − T2 ) = (m a + m f )c v (Tx − T7 )
Px = Pmax = P7 (T X T7 )

Process x-1:
P 1 constant
t t pressure heath t input
i t
(second part of combustion)
{ All ports closed
P1 = Px = Pmax
w x −1 = P1 (V1 − V x )
Q x −1 = m m c p (T1 − Tx )
Px = Pmax = P7 (T X T7 )
T1 = Tmax
{ Pressure in Otto and Diesel cycle is in order of
three to five atmospheres when the exhaust valve
opens

{ If the exhaust valve is not opened until the gas in

the cylinders allowed to expand down to
atmospheric pressure a greater amount of work
can be obtained in the expansion stroke
Fig 3.7: Air Standard Atkinson Cycle

{ Such an air standard cycle is called an Atkinson

Cycle or Over expanded Cycle
{ Mechanical Linkage of some kind is needed to
achieve
h this
h cycle
l
MILLER CYCLE

{ It is modification of Atkinson cycle

{ Has an expansion ratio greater than the

compression ratio.

{ It uses unique time valve timing

{ Air intake in a Miller cycle is unthrottled

{ Closing
g the intake valve at the p
proper
p time long
g
before BDC controls the amount of air ingested
y
into each cylinder
Fig 3.8: Air standard Miller Cycle
{ Cylinder pressure is
reduced along process
7-1
{ When the piston
reaches BDC and
starts back towards
TDC cylinder pressure
increases during
process 1-7
{ The resulting cycle is
6-7-1-7-2-3-4-5-6
{ The net indicated work is the area within loop 7-
2 3
2-3-4-5-7
{ The compression ratio is:
V7
rc =
V2

{ Th larger
The l expansion
i ratio
ti is:
i
V4 V4
re = =
V2 V3

{ The miller cycle engine has essentially no pump

work resulting in higher thermal efficiency.
efficiency
LENOIR CYCLE
{ The L
Th Lenoir
i cycle
l iis approximated
i t d by
b the
th air-
i
standard cycle with two strokes
{ The first half of the first stroke was intake with
air-fuel entering the cylinder at atmospheric
pressure (process 1-2)
{ Halfway through the first stroke the intake valve
was closed and the air-fuel mixture was ignited
without any compression
 Fig
g 3.9: Air standard approximation
pp
for Lenoir Engine Cycle

There was essentially

y no clearance volume !
{ Combustion
C b ti raised
i d th
the ttemperature
t and
d pressure
in the cylinder almost at constant volume
(process 2-3)
{ The second half of the first stroke the became
then became the power or expansion process 3-4.
{ Near BDC
BDC, the exhaust valve opened and
blowdown occurred (4-5).
{ This is followed by the exhaust stroke 5-1,
completing the two stroke cycle.
 Thermodynamic
y Analysis
y of Air-
Standard Lenoir Cycle

{ Process 2-3:
P 2 3 Constant-volume
C t t l h
heatt iinputt
(combustion)
{ All valves closed:

P2 = P1 = P0
v3 = v2
w2−3 = 0
q2−3 = qin = cv (T3 − T2 ) = (u3 − u2 )
Process 3-4: Isentropic
p power
p or
expansion stroke.

{ All valves
l closed:
l d

q3− 4 = 0
k −1
⎛ v3 ⎞
T4 = T3 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ v4 ⎠
k
⎛v ⎞
P 4 = P3 ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟
⎝ v4 ⎠
(P v − P v ) R(T4 − T3 )
w3− 4 = 4 4 3 3 =
(1 − k ) (1 − k )
= cv (T3 − T4 ) = (u3 − u4 )
Process 4-5: Constant-volume heat
rejection (exhaust blowdown)

{ E h
Exhaust
t valve
l open and
d intake
i t k valve
l closed
l d

v5 = v4 = vBDC
w4−5 = 0
q4−5 = qout = cv (T5 − T4 ) = (u5 − u4 )

Process 4-5: Constant-volume heat rejection

(exhaust blowdown)

P5 = P2 = P1 = P0
w5− 2 = P0 (v2 − v5 )
q5− 2 = qout = c p (T2 − T5 ) = (h2 − h5 )
Thermal Efficiency of Lenoir Cycle:

wnet qout
(ηt )LENOIR = = 1−
qin qin

= 1−
[c (T
v 4 ]
− T5 ) + c p (T5 − T2 )
cv (T3 − T2 )

= 1−
[(T4 − T5 ) + k (T5 − T2 )]
(T3 − T2 )