Laith Hamid

Ahmed Mohammed
Hawraa Ali
- The principle radionuclide imaginge system currently available is
the gamma camera .

- The principle of the gamma camera was described by Hal Anger about 40 years
ago . Anger camera formed images using analog circuitry. Modern gamma
camera make extensive use of digital circuitry , but the underlying principle
are still close to those of the original camera .

- However , the intervening years have seen steady improvement in the

resolution of gamma cameras and improvement's in the linearity and
uniformity , cossets described below .

- The method of image formation dependes on wether the radioisotope being

imaged emits a single gamma ray , such as 99Tc (Technetium 99 is an isotope of
technetium), or two opposed photons via the emission of positron, such as those
form 11 c
1- The collimator : which focuse the gamma source into the NaI crystal.

2- The crystal : which detects incoming gamma rays.

3- photomultiplier (pm) tubes and preamplifiers : which convert the light produced
by the interaction of the gamma ray and the crystal into an electronic signal .

4- Amplifiers and summation circuits : which combine individual signals and allow
calibration of the gamma camera output.

5- discriminator : which insures that only detected gammas with the appropiate
energies are displayed .The discriminator emits a z-puls ,which caries that
information to the display.

6- X and Y positioning circuit : which examine signals from individual (Pm)

assemblies and determine the position of the gamma on the crystal
.thsi position information is carried to the display via +X ,-X,+Y,-Y signals

7- A visual display with display electronics : which depiotscor responding position of

the gamma on screen
Consists of a large black of absorbing material usually lead through which a set of
parallel holes has been driven . The thickness of the collimator is typically 50 mm ir so,
with holes of a few mm diameter . For a 400 nm field of view there are therefore Manu
thousand of holes .gamma rays emitted from the patient can only pass through a
collimator hole if they are travelling parallel or almost parallel to the axes of the holes ,
otherwise they strike the side of the hole and are absorbed.

The PM tube is the first component necessary for measuring the energy of the
individual incoming gammas. At diagnostic nuclear energies , the gamma or x-ray
usually deposits all its energy in the sodium Iodide crystal via photoelectric
interaction . The energy transferred to the crystal produces exitaion the cause the
emission of many lower energy light photons .The number of light photons released
is proporational to the energy of the incident gamma or X-ray .
Some light photons fall on the light sesitive front surface of the photo multiplier (PM)
tube. The number of photon that fall on this surface depends upon this size of the PM and
its proximity ti the area where the gama ray hit the crystal . The mor light photons the
were produced in the crystal ,the morw will be detected by the PM tube .the photons that
impact the surface of the PM tube knock electrons off. The number of pm tube
photoelectrons is therefore proporational to the energy of the incident gamma or
X-ray .

Gamma Energy Determination PM Tube Signal Amplification The photomultiplier tube as

several stages, the first of which is the photocathode. Each stage is at a positive voltage
relative to the stage before it. Electrons are ejected from one stage surface and are
accelerated to the next u higher stage. The energy each electron gathers during
acceleration allows it to knock out additional electrons from the next surface. This
produces an electron amplification factor for each stage. At each stage, the electron
multiplication original is repeated. Therefore, the total signal stage is calculated as
electron signal multiplied by the amplification factor as many times there are stag The
primary number of photoelectrons times the amplification factor for each stage is
proportional to the energy of the gamma. (symbol for proportional is oo
of primary electrons * AF1 *AF2* AF3 nth stage porporational to gamma
electron

For example,

with amplification factor of 5 for each stage, after 8 stages the total
amplification factor is Einl Because so many electrons are involved, the output
of the PM tube is characterized as a current pulse, J, rather than individual el
The current pulse is a measure of the energy of the original gamma or X-ray The
gamma camera uses a large number of PM tubes, each placed on a large crystal.
Each performs measurements that are specific to its location on the crystal.
The magnitude of the current-pulse emerging from the PM tubes and the preamplifier
can be adjusted with an electronic amplifier. The measure of the output of the
amplifier is given as the maximum voltage or peak of the pulse. This peak voltage is
therefore a measure of the original incidence gamma or X ray energy. For example, the
amplifier can be adjusted so that a detected 140 key gamma results in a pulse of 1.4 volts.
Other detected gamma energies will result in corresponding voltage pulses.

Gammas with known energies are used to energy calibrate the gamma detection system.
The amplifier is adjusted so that detected energies have a voltage signal-value that is
standard for that particular energy(For example, 1.40 volts for 140 keV). If the height of
the voltage pulse is too high o o low the amplifier is adjusted to standardize the height
of the pulse. This process determines the energy scale. Any other energies detected will
be proportional to this calibration energy(For example, 3. volts for 361 keV)
although photons have the same energy, they do not all produce the same energy
measurement. As shown previously, the photopeak detected fro a given gamma
energy is spread over a range of energies centered on the peak Therefore, an
electronic window can be set with maximum and minimum-energies. Each
detected photon can be stored as to whether it is within or-outside the window

The gamma camera uses a crystal with large area. The a crystal may be found or
rectangular and may range from 8 to 20 inches in size. The surface of the crystal is
uniformly covered with PM tubes, ranging from 37 to over 100 in number.
 When a gamma ray is absorbed by the crystal, the crystal releases a flash of.
light photons that emanate in all directions. The PM tubes closest to this event
intercept most bf these photons ecause the PM tubes are distributed evenly over
the crystal's surface, the signal generated by summing the output of all the
photomultiplier tubes is independent of the gamma's position on the crystal.
The exception to this rule occurs at the edge of the crystal, where light
reflections increase signal size or create edge effects. These are examples of
flood images in which the crystal is uniformly irradiated. They demonstrate the
phenomenon known as edge packing. A gamma camera will cut off the image at
0edge a dimension smaller than the crystal to eliminate the appearanc of
packing
;,;.’.;’
 Radiosurgery

- is a medical procedure that allows non-invasive treatment of benign

and malignant tumors and other brain pathologies, such as trigeminal
neuralgia and some cases of epilepsy.

- The initial application of radiosurgery was in treatment of lesions in

the brain, a technique also known as stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS).
This method is usually referred to as radiosurgery and is used for
treating small volumes within the head, Small tumors and arteriovenous
malformations can be evaluated in this way.

- A treatment volume as small as 4 mm diameter can be produced.

Obviously very good control of patient position is required if the
irradiated volume is to be coincident with the treatment volume.
 The collimator confines the radiation beam to the appropriate size and
direction The primary collimator sets the maximum field size, and the
secondary collimator adjusts the field size to that required for each
individual treatment The primary collimator is a thick metal block with a
conical hole through the center. In an x-ray unit, the primary collimator
will be part of the tube housing in a liner acceleration the primary
collimator will be close to the x-ray target and in a cobalt unit it will be
part of shielding or the shutter mechanism

Two types of secondary collimator are used. For low photon energies (less
than 500 kW) and a source to- skin distance (SSD) of less than 50 cm, an
applicator will be used. At higher energies, or if the head of the treatment
machine is to be rotated, a diaphragm is used.
- The applicator has a thick base (flange) which is attached to the treatment
head, and which reduces the intensity outside the useful beam to less than 2%.
The end of the applicator rests on the skin, and therefore defines the source-
to-skin distance

- The area in contact with the skin defines the useful area of ​the beam. The
walls of a parallel-sided applicator are not irradiated, and may therefore be
made of steel. The Fulfield applicator has lead-lined walls parallel to the edges
of the beam and a Perspex e ate to absorb the secondary electrons from the
lead. The Perspex can be marked to show the position of the beam axis

- A large thickness of heavy metal is needed to reduce megavoltage beams to

less than 2% outside the useful beam, so that an applicator would be
excessively heavy, the diaphragm must be placed well away from the skin, as
the energetic secondary electrons have considered runmo in air on would give
a large
dose to skin. The diaphragm is constructed from a number of lead
sheets which can be moved in and out to define the edges of the beam.
Several different arrangements are used but they all give a rectangular
beam. In the absence of an applicator, some means of visually defying
the beam must be provided. This is done by placing a mirror in the
beam, and shining a light beam through the diaphragm onto the
patient.