Porphyry copper

Location: El Salvador, Chile

This deposit is associated with the intrusion of Tertiary

porphyritic granodiorite stocks into Cretaceous lavas and
sediments and Tertiary volcanics. Hypogene copper
mineralization is associated with the X and K porphyries as A-
quartz veins and disseminated sulphides, and shows zoning with
chalcopyrite-bornite in the centre passing outwards into
chalcopyrite-pyrite; and potassic alteration surrounded by
propylitic alteration. Molybdenite mineralization (found in B-
quartz veins) is associated with a later porphyritic stock. Yet
later mineralization is pyrite-dominated and occurs as
disseminations in pyrite-bornite or pyrite zones or within D-
veins. It is accompanied by phyllic alteration and is the result of
remobilization of earlier sulphides and anhydrite.Supergene
enrichment, associated with argillic alteration, has replaced
primary bornite and chalcopyrite to produce secondary copper
sulphides of the chalcocite blanket.
Major Minerals: Pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, molybdenite, supergene chalcocite,
djurleite, digenite
Minor Minerals: Enargite, tennantite, sphalerite, galena, supergene covelline,
cuprite, native copper
Trace Minerals: Include pyrrhotite, magnetite, ilmenite, rutile, haematite
Textures: Sulphides occur within veinlets and healed veinlets and so look
disseminated. Rutile crystals often form the cores to copper
sulphides. Bornite-chalcopyrite intergrowths are symplectite-like
or occur as crystallographically oriented lamellae due to
exsolution or replacement. Pyrite carries minor pyrrhotite and
magnetite inclusions. In supergene enrichment zones, chalcocite,
digenite, djurleite and covelline form replacement rims about
bornite and chalcopyrite
References: Swayne and Trask, 1960; Gustafson and Hunt, 1975
 Chalcopyrite and rutile. El Salvador, Chile

250µm

Anhedral chalcopyrite (yellow, top right) is intergrown with quartz (light

grey, right centre). Pounded to euhedral rutile (grey-white, centre left) is
disseminated throughout the host rock. The poorly polished dark grey
gangue is phyllosilicate.

Polished block, plane polarized light, x 80, air

 Pyrite, chalcopyrite and covelline. El Salvador, Chile

500µm

Subhedral to anhedral pyrite (pale yellow-white, left) carries silicate

inclusions (left centre) and is surrounded by chalcopyrite (yellow, centre),
which is extensively altered to fine-grained covelline (blues, centre right).
Covelline shows bireflectance and reflection pleochroism from dark to light
blue (centre). Quartz is the main silicate (top centre).

Polished block, plane polarized light, x 40, air

 Chalcopyrite and covelline. El Salvador, Chile

250µm

Anhedral chalcopyrite (yellow) has been replaced by covelline (dark blue)

along crystal boundaries and cleavage. The gangue comprises coarse crystals
of quartz (dark grey, bottom right) and euhedral basal sections and tabular
crystals of tourmaline (higher reflectance, centre). Black areas are polishing
pits.

Polished block, plane polarized light, x 80, air

 Chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, covelline and molybdenite. El
Salvador, Chile

250µm

Chalcopyrite (yellow, centre left) is intergrown with bornite (brown-orange,

left centre) and lath-shaped molybdenite (light grey, top right). Both copper-
iron sulphides have altered to chalcocite (light blue, left and bottom right),
which itself has a covelline rim (dark blue) associated with malachite (grey,
poorly polished, left). Thin chalcopyrite spindles along (100) of the host
bornite (left) have been preserved in chalcocite replacing bornite (left
centre). Chalcopyrite (top right) has altered about its margin and along a
fracture to covelline which shows strong bireflectance and reflection
pleochroism (light and dark blue, centre right).

Polished block, plane polarized light, x 80, air

 Chalcocite, bornite. chalcopyrite and covelline. El Salvador, Chile

125µm

Bornite (red-brown, centre) contains abundant chalcopyrite (yellow) as

spindles parallel to (100) and as rounded inclusions (centre right). Bornite
has extensively altered to blue chalcocite (light blue), but chalcopyrite has
been preserved. Chalcocite itself has altered to covelline (dark blue, centre
bottom) along its margin. Quartz (dark grey, bottom centre) is the main
gangue. A single crystal of malachite (medium grey, centre right) has grown
into a void.The bornite-chalcopyrite intergrowth is a replacement or
exsolution texture but can be seen to be earlier than the replacement of
bornite by chalcocite.

Polished block, plane polarized light, x 160, oil

Location: Los Bronces, Chile

In many porphyry deposits the internal vapour pressure builds

up until it exceeds the tensile strength of the solidified carapace
and the resulting hydrofracturing produces crackle breccias.
Where this takes place explosively, breccia pipes and pebble
dykes are formed. At Los Bronces a granodiorite with porphyry-
style mineralization has intruded Tertiary andesites. Locally, the
granodiorite is cut by hydrothermal breccia pipes that carry a
quartz-tourmaline-sulphide-oxide assemblage. Later mineralized
veins carry a more diverse assemblage which includes enargite
group minerals, tennantite, galena and sphalerite in a quartz,
tourmaline, baryte and siderite gangue.

Major Minerals: Chalcopyrite, pyrite, haematite, molybdenite, chalcocite

Minor Minerals: Magnetite, bornite, secondary delafossite, covelline,

chalcanthite, malachite, ferrimolybdite, native copper

Trace Minerals: Include luzonite, enargite, tennantite, valleriite

Textures: Chalcopyrite is massive, intergrown with quartz and tourmaline,

and cements and replaces pyrite along its cleavage and fractures.
Haematite forms acicular crystals and locally is replaced by
magnetite. Chalcopyrite is replaced by bornite and chalcocite,
enargite replaces haematite.

References: Holmgren and Marti, 1984; Warnaars et al., 1985; Stoiser, 1986
 Hematite, chalcopyrite, pyrite and rutile. Los Bronces Mine. Chile

250µm

Coarse-grained haematite (light grey-blue, left), chalcopyrite (yellow, centre

left) and pyrite (light yellow-white, high reflectance, centre left) are
intergrown with radiating laths of tourmaline (light grey, left). An aggregate
of rutile crystals (grey-white, centre right) is enclosed within a mosaic of
coarse-grained quartz crystals (dark grey with faint internal reflections,
right). Black areas are polishing pits.

Polished block, plane polarized light, x 80, air

 Chalcopyrite, hematite and pyrite. Los Bronces Mine, Chile

250µm

Tabular haematite (blue) and subhedral pyrite (pale yellow-white, centre

bottom) are intergrown with chalcopyrite (yellow). The relief difference
between the harder haematite and softer chalcopyrite can be seen clearly
(centre right). Pyrite carries small chalcopyrite (centre bottom) and
haematite inclusions (centre). Radiating prismatic crystals of tourmaline
(dark grey, bottom left) form the main gangue. Black areas are polishing pits
and the section shows relief.

Polished block, plane polarized light, x 80, air

 Chalcopyrite, enargite group mineral, haematite and pyrite. Los
Bronces Mine, Chile

250µm

Chalcopyrite (yellow, bottom left) and an enargite group mineral (brown,

top right) enclose relict crystals of haematite (blue). Subhedral pyrite
(yellow-white, high reflectance, left) carries small chalcopyrite inclusions
(top left). Chalcopyrite shows incipient alteration next to haematite (grey,
centre top, centre bottom), which at higher magnification is seen to be
bornite. Quartz (bottom left) and tourmaline (top left) are the main silicate
phases. Abundant black areas are polishing pits. The relict haematite grains
within enargite are in optical continuity showing that enargite has replaced
haematite.

Polished block, plane polarized light, x 80, air

Location: Henderson Mine, Colorado, USA

This belongs to the Climax-type class of porphyry molybdenite

deposits. The Henderson orebody is associated with the
Henderson granite and Primos and Urad porphyries. A central
potassic zone carries a major silicified zone and the orebody is
coincident with both of these. Quartz-topaz, phyllic, argillic and
propylitic zones lie at progressive distances from the central
potassic zone.

Major Minerals: Molybdenite, pyrite, magnetite

Minor Minerals: Haematite, sphalerite, galena, hubnerite

Trace Minerals: Include ilmenorutile, columbite, uraninite, uranothorite,

brannerite, xenotime, monazite, zircon (within the associated
igneous rocks)

Textures: Molybdenite occurs in thin quartz veins where it lies along the
vein walls or within the vein as discrete laths, polycrystalline
clots or rosette-shaped aggregates. Magnetite associated with
minor haematite occurs in quartz veins and is rimmed and cross-
cut by pyrite. Hubnerite occurs with pyrite and topaz in quartz
veinlets. Pods of molybdenite, magnetite, pyrite, topaz and
muscovite are present

Reference: Wallace et al., 1978

 Molybdenite. Henderson Mine, Colorado, USA

250µm

A molybdenite veinlet cross-cuts quartz (dark grey, internal reflections,

bottom). Individual molybdenite laths show their basal cleavage along
(0001) and bireflectance and reflection pleochroism (light grey when east-
west and dark grey-brown when north-south).

Polished block, plane polarized light, x 80, air

 Molybdenite. Henderson Mine, Colorado, USA

250µm

Stubby crystals of molybdenite show cleavage along (0001) (centre) and

marked bireflectance (grey to grey-brown). Lath-shaped crystals are well
polished but basal sections are poorly polished (centre). The gangue is
quartz showing diffuse internal reflections. Black areas are polishing pits.

Polished block, plane polarized light, x 80, air

 Magnetite, molybdenite and pyrite. Henderson Mine, Colorado, USA

125µm

Subhedral magnetite crystals (brown-grey, centre right) enclose small

rounded pyrite crystals (white, high reflectance) and a cube of pyrite (centre
left). Curved laths of molybdenite show strong bireflectance from dark grey
(when oriented north-south, bottom left) to light grey (oriented east-west,
top left). Quartz shows strong internal reflections.

Polished block, plane polarized light, x 160, oil

Location: Albitites associated with biotite granite. Ririwai, Nigeria.

Major Minerals: Columbite, haematite, zircon

Minor Minerals: Ilmenite, magnetite, uranothorite, cassiterite, monazite,

xenotime

Trace Minerals: Include TiO2 minerals, bästnasite, fluocerite group minerals,

sphalerite, galena, pyrite, molybdenite

Textures: The opaque and accessory minerals are euhedral to subhedral

and coarse-grained. Zircon is zoned with inner inclusion-rich
zones containing thorite and haematite and an outer inclusion-
free zone. Compositional zoning, especially in the outer zone, is
marked and seen by reflectance variations. Ilmenite and
columbite are optically and compositionally zoned. Coarse-
grained haematite overgrows zircon, and complex intergrowths
between ilmenite-haematite and columbite-haematite are
common. Primary sulphides are very minor in amounts.

References: Ixer et al., 1987; Pointer et al., 1988a,b

 Pyrite, rutile, columbite and zircon. Greisenized granite. Ririwai,
Nigeria

250µm

Rutile (pale blue-grey, centre right) encloses slightly lower reflectance

columbite (brown-grey, centre right) cores in a characteristic association.
The blue surface colour of rutile is associated with its deep blue internal
reflections. Subhedral to euhedral pyrite (yellow, high reflectance, centre)
surrounds rutile and shows alteration to limonite (poorly polished areas of
pyrite, bottom right). Zircon (medium grey, slightly higher reflectance than
quartz) is rounded to subhedral and two grains lie within rutile crystals
(centre right) or discretely between pyrite and rutile (centre bottom).
Although the reflectance of zircon is lower than columbite, it is higher than
the silicates. The main silicate is quartz (left) accompanied by phyllosilicates
(poorly polished, lower reflectance, centre top).

Polished block, plane polarized light, x 80, air

 Columbite, pyrite and zircon. Greisenized granite. Ririwai, Nigeria

125µm

Two columbite crystals (brown, centre left and right) have small zircon
crystals (medium grey) growing around them. A discrete zircon (centre top)
with a thin pyrite rim lies between the columbites. Fine-grained secondary
pyrite (yellow, high reflectance, centre) infills voids in fluorite (dark grey
with polishing pits, centre). Chlorite (green-grey, bottom centre) and quartz
(medium grey, right) are the main silicates. Finely disseminated haematite is
responsible for the 'high' reflectance of chlorite. Black areas are polishing
pits.

Polished block, plane polarized light, x 160, air

 Cassiterite and zircon. Microclinized granite. Ririwai, Nigeria

250µm

Cassiterite crystals (light grey, highest reflectance, many polishing pits) are
twinned (centre right) as shown by their bireflectance variations. Cassiterite
is intergrown with subhedral to euhedral zircon (medium grey), which is
zoned with thin lower reflectance outer rims (centre left, left). A little pyrite
(pale yellow, high reflectance, bottom) is present. The main silicates are
quartz (right) and feldspar (bottom left). Black areas are polishing pits.

Polished block, plane polarized light, x 80, air

 Zircon, rutile and columbite. Greisenized granite. Ririwai, Nigeria

125µm

A typical association of ore and accessory minerals in altered mica. Zircon

crystals (dark grey, centre left, right centre) are euhedral to subhedral and
show faint internal reflections and zoning with lower reflectance outer
zones. Rutile grains (light grey, highest reflectance) enclose lower
reflectance cores of rounded columbite (brown-grey, centre top). An
aggregate (centre top left) comprises two rounded zircon crystals (grey, low
reflectance) surrounded by rutile on their left and columbite on their right.
The main matrix is altered brown mica. Black areas are polishing pits.

Polished block, plane polarized light, x 160, air

Location: Glen Gairn diorite. Scotland, Britain

A biotite and amphibole-bearing diorite surrounds a zinnwaidite

granite.

Major Minerals: Haemoilmenite, sphene, magnetite, pyrite

Minor Minerals: Pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, TiO2 minerals

Trace Minerals: Include pentlandite

Textures: Exsolution has occurred between ilmenite-haematite to form

haemoilmenite. Sphene forms overgrowths on iron-titanium
oxides or as large discrete crystals. Pounded inclusions of
pyrrhotite and pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite (due to the breakdown of
iss) are present within sphene and amphibole

Reference: Tindle et al., 1987

 Ilmenite. Glen Gairn, Scotland

125µm

A diorite has lobate crystals of ilmenite that show reflection pleochroism

from brown (centre) to grey-brown (left centre). They occur within coarse-
grained biotite (black).

Polished thin section, plane polarized light, x 160, oil

 Sphene, magnetite and ilmenite. Glen Gairn, Scotland

125µm

A diorite has euhedral rhombs of sphene (light grey with brown internal
reflections, centre left) showing faint zoning (top left) and associated with
oxidized subhedral magnetite (light brown, centre). Anhedral ilmenite
(brown, bottom left) occurs within biotite. One crystal of ilmenite has a
sphene rim (blue-grey, centre bottom) which has a lower reflectance than
euhedral sphene. The silicate matrix is biotite (bottom left) and feldspar
(faint internal reflections, bottom right).

Polished thin section, plane polarized light, x 160, oil

 Ilmenite, sphene, pyrite, limonite and haematite. Glen Gairn, Scotland

125µm

A diorite contains haemoilmenite that has coarse-grained haematite (white)

exsolution discs in an ilmenite (brown, top centre) host. Sphene (light grey)
rims the iron-titanium oxides. Pyrite (yellow-white, high reflectance, centre)
has oxidized to limonite (blue-grey, higher reflectance than sphene, centre).
Biotite (dark green-black) is intergrown with quartz (bottom left) that carries
fluid inclusions (bottom left).

Polished thin section, plane polarized light, x 160, oil

Location: Greisen. Ririwai, Nigeria

The greisen comprises quartz and lithium micas, together with

minor amounts of fluorite, chlorite, sericite and topaz.

Major Minerals: Cassiterite, wolframite, columbite, sphalerite, galena

Minor Minerals: Zircon, thorite, monazite, molybdenite, chalcopyrite

Trace Minerals: Include stannite group minerals, marcasite, pyrrhotite, ilmenite,

TiO2, minerals, xenotime, REE minerals, coffinite

Textures: The accessory minerals form discrete coarse-grained crystals or

aggregates comprising intergrowths of cassiterite, zircon, thorite,
TiO2 minerals and molybdenite associated with fluorite in
altered micas. Zircon is embayed and corroded when in
association with fluorite. Zircon has successive overgrowths of
thorite and xenotime. Thorite has fine-grained haematite
inclusions that give it red internal reflections, and has pyrite or
haematite rims. Monazite forms discrete lath-shaped crystals and
is altered to bästnasite group minerals. Subhedral columbite
crystals form the cores to Nb-rich TiO2. mineral (rutile)
overgrowths. Primary sulphides, other than molybdenite, are not
associated with the accessory minerals. They comprise separate
intergrowths of galena and sphalerite

References: Ixer et al., 1987; Pointer et al., 1988a,b

 Sphalerite, cassiterite, thorite and zircon. Greisenized granite. Ririwai,
Nigeria

500µm

Sphalerite (light-grey, left) is inclusion-free and has a reflectance slightly

greater than cassiterite (light-grey, centre right). Two irregular thorite
crystals (dark grey, centre bottom, one with a central polishing pit, bottom
centre) have low reflectance; higher reflectance areas are due to fine-grained
haematite inclusions. Zircon crystals are euhedral (bottom left) and have a
reflectance greater than thorite but less than cassiterite. Quartz (dark grey,
well polished, bottom left) and micas (lower reflectance and poorly
polished) are the main silicates. Black areas are polishing pits, some of
which contain grinding grit (centre top). At this magnification the
identification of the accessory phases is difficult.
Polished thin section, plane polarized light, x 40, air
 Cassiterite, thorite and zircon. Greisenized granite. Ririwai, Nigeria

250µm

Cassiterite crystals (light grey) show very faint bireflectance variations due
to twinning (top centre). Small zircon crystals (medium grey) are enclosed
within, and surround, cassiterite. Discrete zircons (centre, centre top left)
show zoning, with thin lower reflectance zones about a higher reflectance
core. Thorite (bottom centre) has low reflectance with haematite-rich areas
showing slightly higher reflectance. Quartz is the main silicate with some
feldspar (bottom right) showing red internal reflections due to very finely
disseminated haematite. Much of the mica is poorly polished and shows
parallel striations due to microprobe damage. Black areas are polishing pits,
often infilled with grinding grit (top right and left). The angular shape, low
reflectance that is similar to rutile and restricted size distribution of the grit
are all characteristic. Brass (yellow, high reflectance, centre) is present in a
triangular-shaped pit.
Polished thin section, plane polarized light, x 80, air
 Cassiterite, zircon and thorite. Greisenized granite. Ririwai, Nigeria

125µm

Cassiterite crystals (light grey, right) show bireflectance along twin planes
(top centre). Enclosed zircons (medium grey, centre and bottom right) show
strong zoning with a lower reflectance zone about a higher reflectance core.
Discrete euhedral zircons are also strongly zoned (bottom left). Thorite
crystals (centre, centre bottom) have lower reflectance than the zircon cores
and are characterized by faint red internal reflections due to very fine-
grained haematite inclusions. They occur about the main cassiterite
aggregate. Brass (yellow, high reflectance, centre) and polishing pits (black)
are present, some of which carry angular grinding grit (top left).

Polished thin section, plane polarized light, x 160, air

 Cassiterite, zircon and thorite. Greisenized granite. Ririwai, Nigeria

125µm

Under oil immersion the twinning of cassiterite is distinct (top centre), as are
faint brown-orange internal reflections (centre right). Although the light-
coloured internal reflections of zircon are clear, its zoning is less apparent
than in air (left centre). It is very difficult to see any surface features of the
thorite but its presence is indicated by its strong orange-red internal
reflections (centre), due to fine-grained haematite within it. The zircon
above the upper thorite (centre top) encloses haematite (reflectance higher
than that of cassiterite). The polishing pit (upper left) has trapped an air
bubble (dark circle) in the immersion oil. Yellow high reflectance areas arc
brass (bottom centre).
Polished thin section, plane polarized light, x 160, oil