Immunology

Immunology is the branch of biomedical science that deals with the response of an organism to
antigenic challenge. OR It is the study of how the body defends itself against invasion of
pathogens.

An infectious disease is caused by pathogens, where they are said to be parasitic. Pathogens are
organisms that live on or in their host, and gain nutrients from that host. There are two types of
pathogens:

 Ectoparasites (i.e. bed bugs, louse, mites, ticks and fleas) attach themselves to
the outside of the host. With the aid of specialised mouthparts they penetrate the skin
and feed on their hosts blood. The parasites must have efficient structures for ‘hanging’
on because usually the host is quite mobile.

 Endoparasites (i.e. bacteria, viruses, roundworm, tapeworm, flukes and protozoa) –

live inside the host. Therefore they have developed different ways of gaining nutrients
from the host. Endoparasites inhabit the human gut, blood vessels, blood cells, muscles,
liver and lungs. Their lifecycles are usually very complex, and have adapted highly
specialised features in order to live a ‘life on the inside’.

Many pathogens are unable to affect us because of our defense mechanism called the
Immune System. This system causes an immune response which destroys the pathogen
before it can cause any harm.

The way in which white blood cells respond when pathogens enter the body is called
immune response.

When a pathogen enter the body our immune system can prevent them from spreading
through the body. The immune system is involved in the recognition and rejection of
foreign cells and tissues.

The immune system has two main components the non-specific and specific immune response

Non-specific immune response :

 Physical, chemical and cellular defenses that prevent microbes from entering the body.
 Present from birth.
 A quick-response system effective against a wide range of pathogens and foreign
substances.
 This system does not distinguish between different pathogens.
 It always gives the same response.

E.g. foreign substance entering the skin

  mast cells release histamine at the damaged tissue which cause acute inflammation
involving pain, heat, redness, swelling, and sometimes loss of function of the affected
part of the body. This increases blood flow to the area.
 Histamines cause capillaries to leak, releasing phagocytes (large white blood cells) which
engulf the foreign material
 Platelets move out of capillary to seal the wounded area
 cytokines can also be produces if a virus infects the body. Cytokines small proteins that
inhibit the production of viruses.

Phagocytes

If pathogens do get through the body’s outer defenses, they may be destroyed by phagocytic
leucocytes; neutrophils and macrophages (monocytes). They engulf and digest foreign particles
of most any type or size.

Neutrophils are non-specific but they can be specific when directed by antibody targeting,
monocytes are non-specific. Both cells stay in the blood vessels and engulf invaders and debris
by phagocytosis.

How phagocytosis occurs

1. Attraction (chemotaxis)- phagocytic leucocyte moves towards the pathogens.

2. Recognition and attachment due to antigens. An antigen is any substance (such as an

immunogen or a hapten) foreign to the body that evokes an immune response either alone or
after forming a complex with a larger molecule (such as a protein) and that is capable of binding
with a product (such as an antibody or T cell) of the immune response

3. Endocytosis occurs and a phagocytic vacuole (phagosome) is formed.

4. Lysosome enters the phagosome and starts to digest the pathogen.

5. Any chemical that are not absorb into the cells are egested.

For phagocytosis to take place, the microorganisms must first adhere to the plasma membrane of
the phagocyte. This process is helped by a group of proteins called complement which are
always present in the blood plasma and also by chemicals called cytokines, which are produced
by other leucocytes in response to the presence of particular antigens. Cytokines make
phagocytes more efficient at killing any microorganisms that they have engulfed.
Specific immune response :

Specific immune response occurs when a particular antigen passes the body’s passive defenses.
It involves cells and proteins within the blood and lymph that attach, disarm, destroy and remove
foreign bodies. The specific system gives a highly effective, long lasting immunity against
anything the body recognise as foreign. It responds to specific microorganisms and enhances the
activity of the non-specific system.

The central feature of the specific immune system is the ability to distinguish between self and
non-self. Every cell has complex molecules (proteins and glycoproteins) on its surface
membrane which act as recognition devices and have specific shapes. These molecules are
called antigens or immunoglobins. The immune system is usually tolerant to the body’s own
antigens (self antigens) and does not attack against them. However, breakdown of the
recognition system can lead to autoimmune disease such as AIDS and rheumatoid arthritis,
which result in self-destruction of body parts.

When a foreign organism (bacteria, viruses or even another person’s cells) enters the body, the
foreign antigens on the invading cells activate an immune response. The foreign antigens are
called non-self antigens. The immune system (lymphocytes) produces antibodies and specialised
cells that attempt to destroy foreign cells and particles that have entered the body.

Differences between B and T Lymphocytes

Characteristics B Lymphocytes T Lymphocytes

Origin Bone marrow Bone Marrow
Maturation Thymus Bone marrow
Like span Long (70 days) Short (24hrs)
Specific surface markers Immunoglobulin T cell receptor
CD4 and CD8
Mobility High Fair \ stationary
Receptors for antigen B cells receptors T cell receptors
Antibodies synthesis No Yes
Mode of action Cellular and Humoral Humoral

Types of T lymphocytes

1. Helper T cells assist other cells in the immune system. For example, they stimulate B
lymphocytes to divide into antibody producing cells. If these helper cells are not present, the b
lymphocytes cannot go into action. They also enhance the action of phagocytes. It is primarily
the helper cells which are invaded by HIV and this explains why people with AIDS are
susceptible to infections.
2. Suppessor T cells inhibit other cells in the immune system. For example, they inhibit the
production of antibodies by the B lymphocytes and suppress the action of phagocytes. They act
as brakes in the immune system, dampening it down and preventing it from over-reacting.
3. Killer T cells or cytotoxin T cells- they destroy body cells infected with viruses and other
intracellular pathogens ( such as the bacteria that causes tuberculosis Mycobacterium
tuberculosis) before the pathogen have time to proliferate. They also attack cells from other
individuals if they get into the body, so they cause the rejection problems associated with skin
grafts and transplant surgery. The killer T cells are regulated in the say way as B cells, by helper
and suppressor T cells.

Types of B cells
1. Memory cells- these survive for a long time. If antigen appears later, the memory cells are
stimulated, divide and produce many plasma cells very quickly.
2. Plasma cells- these secrete large amounts of antibody.

There are two types of responses: Humoral (antibody) response (involving B cells) and cell
mediated immunity (involving T cells).

Home-work – Briefly explain the role of memory cells in long-term immunity.