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The British Vaccination Act of 1840 was the first incursion of the state, in the name of public health,
into traditional civil liberties. The activities of today’s propagandists against immunisations are
directly descended from, indeed little changed from, those of the anti-vaccinationists of the late
nineteenth century, say Robert Wolfe and Lisa Sharp
North America
vaccination in the courts and instigating riots in
Anti-vaccination activity also increased in the United Montreal and Milwaukee.1
States towards the end of the 19th century; widespread
vaccination in the early part the century had contained
smallpox outbreaks, and vaccination fell into disuse.
Anti-vaccinationists in two centuries
However, in the 1870s the disease became epidemic Towards the end of the 20th century, a wave of
owing to the susceptibility of the population. As states anti-vaccination activity led to an increase in media
attempted to enforce existing vaccination laws or pass interest in the arguments attacking childhood immuni-
new ones, vigorous anti-vaccination movements arose. sations. We have culled arguments from the present-
In 1879, after a visit to New York by William Tebb, the day anti-vaccination movement and compared them
leading British anti-vaccinationist, the Anti-Vaccination with those of its 19th century counterparts (box A on
Society of America was founded. Subsequently, the New bmj.com) which the anti-vaccination headings are
England Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League was taken chiefly from a study by Leask and Chapman of
formed in 1882 and the Anti-Vaccination League of anti-vaccination themes as expressed in the press.10
New York City in 1885. Using pamphlets, court battles, Box B on bmj.com summarises the characteristics and
and vigorous fights on the floors of state legislatures, the impact of the anti-vaccination movement, comparing
anti-vaccinationists succeeded in repealing compulsory the late 19th century with late 20th century. These
vaccination laws in California, Illinois, Indiana, Minne- show uncanny similarities, suggesting an unbroken
sota, Utah, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. A continual transmission of core beliefs and attitudes over time.
battle was waged between public health authorities and These comparisons emphasise that, regardless of
anti-vaccinationists, with the anti-vaccinationists battling how the medical establishment feels about anti-
Cooperation between academic institutions and the private sector does not always run smoothly.
Gill Walt, Ruairi Brugha, and Andy Haines from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical
Medicine point up the need for guidance on entering into partnership with a commercial partner
and describe the school’s experience in formulating guidelines for its staff
London School of One of the most striking changes in the research envi-
Hygiene and
Tropical Medicine,
ronment over the past 10 years has been the marked Summary points
London expansion of links between the private and public sec-
WC1E 7HT tors. While certain research groups in universities and
Gill Walt Links between the private and public sectors have
research institutes have long received some funding
professor of expanded over the past decade
international health from the private sector, such sponsorship is growing
policy and is often now described as “partnership.” The Such links are broadly welcomed, but the potential
Ruairi Brugha
increasing frequency and complexity of interactions for conflicts of interest is a matter of concern
senior lecturer in
public health between research and industry suggest that institutions
Andy Haines require policies, especially when dealing with potential Conflict could affect research priorities; the quality,
dean conflicts of interest. A number of academic institutions, outcome, and dissemination of results; and public
Correspondence to: mainly in the United States, have developed policies trust in science and research institutions
G Walt
gill.walt@
and procedures to guide staff in developing relation-
lshtm.ac.uk ships with the private sector (box 4), as have many of Draft guidelines on public-private collaboration
BMJ 2002;325:432–5
the organisations of the United Nations. Research cover prerequisites for considering a
institutions in the United Kingdom are beginning to collaboration, terms and conditions of contracts,
look at this issue. For example, the Confederation of and screening and monitoring procedures
British Industry has collaborated with a number of
bodies to produce general guidelines to better practice Such guidelines are needed if the academic
Additional community is to fulfil its privileges of “self
acknowledgments
for industry and universities — Partnerships for Research
and Innovation.1 In this paper we argue that academic governance and academic freedom”
and sources appear
on bmj.com institutions, in consultation with their staff, should