Construction is a vast and an active sector, which is a backbone of the world’s economy in

general and Ethiopia in particular; mobilizing an enormous amount of various resources and
budgets and embracing huge manpower by creating a large job opportunity. The construction
industry is divided into three major segments. Construction of buildings contractors or general
contractors builds residential, industrial, commercial, and other buildings [2].
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The improvement of safety, health and working conditions depends ultimately upon people
working together, whether government, employers or workers. Safety management involves the
functions of planning, identifying problem areas, coordinating, controlling and directing the
safety activities at the work site, all aimed at the prevention of accidents and ill health. Effective
safety management has three main objectives: to make the environment safe; to make the job
safe; and to make worker safety conscious [6].

The causes of accident and ill health in the industry are well known. Falling from heights, such
as scaffolding, is one of the biggest problems, along with accidents involving transport, both on
and off site. Dermatitis, occupational deafness, and asbestosis are among many occupational
diseases that continue to cause long term suffering for many workers in the industry.

There is a good reason construction workers are asked to wear hard hats, gloves, safety goggles,
and various other safety equipment while on the job; construction sites are dangerous, filled with
heavy and sharp objects, platforms of varying heights, flying sparks and debris, and a number of
other potentially dangerous elements. It is no wonder so many injuries occur on construction
sites unfortunately, too many workers are either unaware of the risks, or exhibit a high risk
tolerance, often coupled with an opposition to what they see as burdening or cumbersome safety
equipment [4].
The construction industry, employing the largest labor force, has accounted for about 11% of all
occupational injuries and 20% deaths resulting from occupational accidents. International Labor
Organization estimates that at least 60,000 fatalities occur at construction sites around the world
every year. This means that one fatal accident occurs every ten minutes in the sector. Most of
these accidents are created due to unsafe behavior and unsafe conditions [8]. Hence, health and
safety problem in building construction is the major and worldwide issue which needs strong
consideration since it affects the life of the workmen (manpower), project time, project cost and
also project quality. Safety consideration in construction building has not yet been studied and
evaluated as problem in Ethiopia. The selected area of this study is in Addis Ababa due to a lot
of construction and consulting
companies and building construction found here. This research dealt with the current situation of
safety consideration and the ways of achieving free of injury and zero accident environment of
building construction. The objectives of this research work were to answer the following
questions: What are those Health and safety issues concerning building construction in Addis
Ababa? What are the roles of the Client, Consultant and Contractor in health and safety
consideration during project implementation stage? What are the factors that affect health and
safety performance of laborers? Is health and safety issues are used as criteria in selecting
contractor during prequalification phase for public bidding? And what can be proposed to
overcome safety problems in building construction?

From: evaluation of health and safety practice in building construction case study in Addis Ababa.

Site health and safety in construction

The main health and safety site requirements in construction relate to tidy sites and decent
welfare, falls from height, manual handling, and transport on site. Site operatives are normally
required to plan and organize their operations, ensure that they are trained and competent and
know the special risks of their trade and raise problems with their site supervisor or safety
representative (HSE, 2009).
The main personal protective equipment (PPE) in construction (including clothing affording
protection against the weather) which is intended to be worn or held by a person at work and
which protects him against one or more risks to his health or safety. PPE should be regarded as a
‘last resort’ when considering control measures. Other methods should be considered and used
that will reduce or eliminate risk to injury. However, where PPE is the only effective means of
controlling the risks of injury or ill health, then employers must ensure that PPE is available. PPE
should be worn at all construction sites. A typical construction site may require workers to wear
a hard hat, coveralls, safety footwear, gloves, eye protection and high visibility vest. These must
be provided to all employees.

Construction health and safety responsibilities

Construction health and safety should be of primary concern to employers, employees,
governments and project participants (Kheni, 2008). Thus the main parties responsible for
construction health and safety are the client, main contractor, regulatory agencies and employees.
The main duties of construction parties is summarized in Table 2 and explained.
Health and safety duties of state and regulatory agencies: Government regulatory agencies often
enact regulations to help ensure that a construction project is safe to build, safe to use, and safe to
maintain and delivers you good value. Good health and safety planning also helps to ensure that
a project is well managed and that unexpected costs and problems are minimized. Health and
safety duties of employer: Clients have a big influence over how work is done. Where potential
health and safety risks are low, clients are required to do little. Where they are higher, clients
need to do more.
Employers must assess the work being undertaken and the environment his employees will
operate in when determining the appropriate PPE to be worn.
Health and safety duties of main contractor: Main Contractors must check that all subcontractors
are conforming by providing PPE for all their employees (those who are self-employed for tax
reasons, but who otherwise work in an employee – employer relationship are also entitled to
receive PPE) free of charge. Health and safety duties of employees: Employees should be made
aware of their responsibility to wear the PPE appropriately, take care of equipment and report
any defects. They should also be informed that if they do not wear or misuse any PPE that has
been appropriately issued that this could lead to disciplinary action. This equipment is provided
for their protection.

Causes of accidents in construction

The Department for Work and Pensions in the UK commissioned a research into construction
health and safety practices to ascertain the underlying causes of construction fatal accidents in
the UK. The underlying causes of construction accidents identified were categorized under
societal and industrywide influences (macro); project and process factors (mezzo) and
worker/supervisor/workplace causes (micro). The causes of construction accidents at the macro
level were identified to include immature corporate systems, inappropriate enforcement, lack of
proper accident data, lack of leadership from ‘Government’ as a key client and a lack of
influence of trades unions in practice on most sites, especially for smaller projects. Mezzo factors
were identified as immature project systems and processes, inappropriate procurement and
supply chain arrangements, lack of understanding and engagement by some of the design
community, lack of proper accident investigation/data and consequently, a lack of organizational
learning. Micro factors included a shortage of competent supervisors; a lack of individual
competency and understanding of workers and supervisors; the ineffectiveness or lack of training
and certification of competence; a lack of ownership, engagement and empowerment of,
communication with and responsibility for workers and supervisors. These factors were also
exacerbated by poor behavior, cost pressures; poor equipment or misuse of equipment, including
personal protective equipment; site hazards; poor employment practices; an itinerant workforce
and inadequate management of and provision for vulnerable workers such as younger, older or
migrant workers. The study was based on an international consultation with 15 overseas
construction industry expert stakeholders; phone/email interviews/consultation with 27 UK
senior construction industry expert stakeholders; in-depth face to face interviews with 15
practitioners from the UK construction industry; and phone interviews with 15 workers
representing the UK’s smaller organizations/sole-traders (Brace et al., 2009).

Health and safety problems on construction sites

There are health and safety problems on almost all construction sites which relate to reporting
accidents, employing and subcontracting. Employing: all personnel who are employed to carry
out construction work on site must be trained, competent and fit to do the job safely and without
putting their own or others’ health and safety at risk; properly supervised and given clear
instructions; have access to washing and toilet facilities; have the right tools, equipment, plant
and protective clothing; educated about health and safety issues with them (or their
representatives); have arrangements for employees’ health surveillance where required.
Accidents: all accidents or work-related illness should be reported to the appropriate authorities
within a reasonable or stipulated timeframe. Subcontracting:
main contractors should ensure that they check the health and safety performance of the
subcontractors they plan to use; give subcontractors the health and safety information they need
for the work; talk about the work with them before they start; make sure that you have provided
everything agreed (e.g. safe scaffolds, the right plant, access to welfare, etc); and check their
performance and remedy shortcomings.
The study by Kheni (2008) on health and safety practices among construction SMEs in Ghana
revealed serious problems. The main problems identified by Kheni included lack of skilled
human resources, inadequate government support for regulatory institutions and inefficiency in
institutional frameworks responsible for health and safety standards. Another problem
highlighted was the significance of the Ghanaian socio-cultural value systems particularly, the
extended family system and traditional religious value systems in health and safety management
within Ghanaian construction SMEs. The research also provided insights into difficulties posed
by the internal environment of SMEs to the effective management of health and safety. Kheni
(2008) provides a broad understanding of health and safety in the construction sector in Ghana.
However, the following questions relating to the actual health and safety conditions on
construction sites in Ghana should be addressed:
1. Is work on construction sites in Ghana carried out by skilled trained personnel?
2. Do construction workers in Ghana wear Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) on site?
3. Is there adequate first aid and first aider(s) on construction sites in Ghana?
4. Do construction sites in Ghana have a Safety Officer?
5. Do construction workers in Ghana get a H&S induction on site hazards and rules?
6. Are standard site rules and hazard signs displayed on construction sites in Ghana?
7. Are holes and other dangerous areas on construction site in Ghana protected?
8. Is basic health and safety equipment (fire) available on construction sites in Ghana?
9. Do regulatory bodies in Ghana go round to ensure compliance with health and safety rules?
10. Are there clear directions to contractors in Ghana on environment and waste disposal?
11. Are there mechanisms for ensuring basic hygiene on site?
12. Do contractors in Ghana ensure site tidiness?
13. Are construction workers in Ghana examined for drugs and alcohol?
14. Are formal site risk assessments conducted on construction sites in Ghana?
15. Are clear working-at-height precautions provided to construction workers in Ghana?
16. Are construction workers in Ghana provided with clear directions on manual handling?

From: health and safety of construction sites of Ghana

Basic definitions:
 Health – the protection of the bodies and minds of people from illness resulting from the
materials, processes or procedures used in the workplace.
 Safety – the protection of people from physical injury. The borderline between health and
safety is ill-defined and the two words are normally used together to indicate concern for the
physical and mental well-being of the individual at the place of work.
 Accident – defined by the Health and Safety Executive as ‘any unplanned event that results
in injury or ill health of people, or damage or loss to property, plant, materials or the
environment or a loss of a business opportunity’. Other authorities define an accident more
narrowly by excluding events that do not involve injury or ill-health. This book will always
use the Health and Safety Executive definition.
 Hazard and risk:
a hazard is the potential of a substance, activity or process to cause harm. Hazards take many
forms including, for example, chemicals, electricity and working from a ladder. A hazard can
be ranked relative to other hazards or to a possible level of danger.
A risk is the likelihood of a substance, activity or process to cause harm. A risk can be
reduced and the hazard controlled by good management.
It is very important to distinguish between a hazard and a risk – the two terms are often
confused and activities such as construction work are called high risk when they are high
hazard. Although the hazard will continue to be high, the risks will be reduced as controls
are implemented. The level of risk remaining when controls have been adopted is known as
the residual risk. There should only be high residual risk where there is poor health and
safety management and inadequate control measures.

ABSTRACT
In recent years in developed country the health & safety of workers has improved but
it is not improved in developing country like Ethiopia, specifically Addis Ababa public
construction projects hence, the actual number of accident higher in reality than the
reported number and much data on health & safety. The construction industry in
Addis Ababa is characterized by high incidents rate of accidents. The objective of this
research is an assessment of safety practice involving workers in public building
project in the case Addis Ababa public building construction projects. Accordingly,
survey research design was used to accomplish the objectives of the study. Mainly a
five point Likert scale questionnaire was distributed to engineers and professionals
who are working in public building construction projects as a contractor and
consultants to may help collect the data for knowing the levels of health and safety
conditions in public building construction projects activities used SPSS (Statically
Package for Social Science) software, view software for Descriptive analysis and
analytical tools used to identify the importance and relative significance of the safety
factors that were ultimately utilized to develop the proposed safety framework or
safety model. The results show that the safety of workers in Addis Ababa public
building construction projects are classified as unsafe practice and required high
improvement that is due to a major five causes factors of accidents on the response
failure to use Personal Protective Equipment’s (PPE), Lack of safety training, Unsafe
loading arranging and placing, Lack of education, Negligence & carelessness,
Inadequate management of work environment, Taking unsafe positions or postures
and Lack of experience. Most of construction companies don’t have safety training,
safety meeting, safety policies, safety officer, medical and first aid facilities and
reporting system. Moreover, the roles of government towards safety are almost
minimal under implementation of the General Condition Contracts and Occupational
Safety & Health rules.

1. Background
Construction Industry plays a great role on the national scene. Not only does it touch
the lives of virtually everyone on a daily basis, it also occupies a fundamental position
in the national economy. It is one of the sectors that Provides crucial ingredients for
development of an economy. One cannot think of widespread investment in
manufacturing, agriculture or service sectors unless the construction results of
infrastructure facilities are in place. Thus periods of national prosperity are usually
associated with high levels of construction activity. One is the natural result of the
other [Clough and G.A. Sears, 1979].
According to [Seifedin.s ,2014], the Safety of a construction is one of an essential
components in the processes of construction when it can have been preferred as a
mitigation measurement before an incidence occurring. However, in all over Ethiopia,
millions of daily laborers work in big constructions through unsafe working
environment and without supportive and protective equipment. They do not have
protective caps, hand gloves, eye glasses, working clothes, shoes and others. They
work on high rise buildings standing on old and inclined wooden scaffolds and
ladders; they even transport heavy construction materials on them. Moreover, the
constructions do not have safety nets, restraint and fall arrest systems. As a result, a
dozens of daily laborers get different serious injuries. Many, in fact, lose their lives.
Hence, the purpose of this research is that to assessment of safety practice involving
worker in public building project in case of Addis Ababa city construction office
projects.
 Related research questions
To conduct the research, the following research questions are listed.
 What are the causes of accident occurred in public building construction project of Addis
Ababa?
 What are the factors that affects a safety practice of public building construction project
in Addis Ababa?

BACKGROUND
Construction is a hazardous industry whether in developed or developing countries and
contributes to significant numbers of occupational accidents and ill health globally (Takala
1999). While developed nations have demonstrated commitment to achieving a reduction in
accident numbers in industrial settings, the same cannot be said of developing countries,
particularly Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Accident rates in these developing economies are
unacceptably high and it is predicted that the numbers will increase in parallel with the pace of
industrialization (Hämäläinen et al. 2006). Many construction businesses operating in market
economies have embraced a zero accident policy as their goal and implemented effective health
and safety practices (Hinze and Wilson 2000). The attention paid to the construction industry
and the risks posed by its activities has contributed to these achievements. However, despite the
significance of the industry in developing countries, policy makers pay very little attention to it
(Anaman and Osei-Amponsah, 2007).
The institutional and legal governance frameworks on occupational health and safety in
developing countries have little impact (LaDou 2003). The majority of contractors are SMEs
operating within their domestic markets where enforcement of health and safety standards and
labor standards is very lax. Enforcement of health and safety regulations remains a problem due
to lack of adequate resources available to government institutions responsible for occupational
and safety administration. For example, Clarke (2005) has revealed the limited resources
available to enforcement agencies and prevention services as the main factor contributing to poor
health and safety conditions at Ghanaian workplaces. Also, there remains an acute need for
contract provisions to support the enforcement of labor laws in developing countries
(Cotton et al., 2005). These problems are compounded by shortages of skilled labor and qualified
staff which confronts the industry in both developing and developed countries (Dainty et al.
2004; Mitullah and Wachira 2003). These factors combine to make the construction industry in
developing countries unsafe.
___________________ about Ethiopia ____________________________
Objectives of the study
This paper reports on research which examined the health and safety practices of Ghanaian SME
building contractors. The aim was to reveal the factors which might contribute to accidents
within these firms and to identify possible policy measures which could mitigate the prevalence
of accidents within the sector.

From: Kheni.pdf
 Data collection

Safe and healthy working conditions do not happen by chance. Employers need to have a written
safety policy for their enterprise setting out the safety and health standards which it is their
objective to achieve. The policy should name the senior executive who is responsible for seeing
that the standards are achieved, and who has authority to allocate responsibilities to management
and supervisors at all levels and to see they are carried out [6]. Nearly 6.5 million people work at
approximately 252,000 construction sites across the nation on any given day. The fatal injury
rate for the construction industry is higher than the national average in this category for all
industries. Potential hazards for workers in construction include: • Scaffold collapse • Falls (from
heights) • Trench collapse • Electric shock and arc flash/arc blast •Failure to use proper personal
protective equipment and, repetitive motion injuries [5].
2.2 Construction health and safety rules in Ethiopia
The fundamental law of the state which is the Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic
of Ethiopia, the Civil Code (Proclamation # 165/1960) together with the Labor Code
(Proclamation No 377/20003) are the general legal basis for health and safety rules in Ethiopia.
Numerous articles/provisions are provided under these general laws regarding health and safety
of people. Labor Code ensures worker-employer relations and enables workers and employers to
maintain industrial peace. It strengthens and defines the powers and duties of the organ charged
with the responsibility of inspecting labor administration, particularly labor conditions,
occupational safety, health and environment. The following provisions are set: Article 92 clearly
spells out the fundamental obligations of an employer with regard to putting in place of all the
necessary measures in order to ensure, workplaces are safe, healthy and free of any danger to the
well-being of workers. In the same article the employer is obliged to take, in particular the
following measures to safeguard the health and safety of the workers:
 To comply with the occupational safety and health requirements provided for in the
proclamation; take appropriate steps to ensure that workers are properly instructed is notified
concerning the hazards of their respective occupations and the pre cautions necessary to avoid
accident and injury to health. Ensure that directive are given and also assign safety officer,
establishes an occupational, safety and health committee, provides workers with protective
equipment, clothing and other materials and instruct them of its use, obliged to register and
notify to the nearest labor inspection services occupational accident and diseases) arrange
according to the nature of the work at his/her own expense, for the medical examination of
newly employed workers, and for those workers engaged in hazardous work as may nearly,
take appropriate pre-executions to ensure that all processes of work shall not be a source or
cause of physical, chemical, biological, agronomical and psychological hazards to the health
and safety of the workers.
Article 93 provides the obligations of workers pertaining to the required co-operation and putting
into practice of the regulation and instruction given by the employer in order to ensure safety health
and working conditions at work places. The law has clearly stipulated about occupational injuries
with all other related provisions.

From: Evaluation of Health and Safety Practice in Building Construction: A Case Study in Addis
Ababa

Arrangements for health and safety

The arrangements section of the health and safety policy comprises details of the means used to carry out
then policy statement. This will include health and safety rules and procedures and the provision of
facilities, such as a first aid room and wash rooms. It is common for risk assessments (including COSHH,
manual handling and PPE assessments) to be included in the arrangements section, particularly for those
hazards referred to in the policy statement. It is important that arrangements for fire and other
emergencies and for information, instruction, training and supervision are also covered. Local codes
of practice (e.g. for fork lift drivers) should be included. The following list covers the more common
items normally included in the arrangements section of the health and safety policy:
 employee health and safety code of practice
 accident and illness reporting and investigation procedure
 fire drill procedure
 electrical equipment (maintenance and testing)
 first aid
 machinery safety (including safe systems of work)
 permits to work procedures
 health and safety inspection and audit procedures
 procedures for contractors and visitors
 catering and food hygiene procedures
 terms of reference and constitution of the safety committee.
The three sections of the health and safety policy are usually kept together in a health and safety
manual and copies distributed around the organization.
Review of health and safety policy
It is important that the health and safety policy is monitored and reviewed on a regular basis. For this to
Safety policies
Safe and healthy working conditions do not happen by chance. Employers need to have a written safety
policy for their enterprise setting out the safety and health standards which it is their objective to
achieve. The policy should name the senior executive who is responsible for seeing that the standards
are achieved, and who has authority to allocate responsibilities to management and supervisors at all
levels and to see they are carried out.
The safety policy should deal with the following matters:
– arrangements for training at all levels. Particular attention needs to be given to key workers such as
scaffolders and crane operators whose mistakes can be especially dangerous to other workers;
– safe methods or systems of work for hazardous operations: the workers carrying out these
operations should be involved in their preparation;
– the duties and responsibilities of supervisors and key workers;
– arrangements by which information on safety and health is to be made known;
– arrangements for setting up safety committees;
– the selection and control of subcontractors.

Who has health and safety duties relating to construction work?

Everyone involved in construction work has health and safety duties when carrying out
the work.
The primary duty under the WHS Act requires a person conducting a business or
undertaking to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, that workers and other
persons are not exposed to health and safety risks arising from the business or
undertaking.
The complexity of construction work, however, means that there are a number of
businesses or undertakings with duties relating to construction work, ranging from a
person conducting a business or undertaking who:
 designs the building or structure
 commissions the construction work
 is a principal contractor
 has management or control of a workplace at which construction work is carried out
 carries out high risk construction work.

There are also other duty holders that have responsibilities under the WHS Act and Regulations
including:
 officers (e.g. company directors)
 workers
 other persons (e.g. visitors to construction sites).

Validity and Reliability of data collection instruments

Validity and reliability of data collection instruments is essentially to minimize bias in the
study findings.

3.6.1 Reliability of data collection instruments

Reliability of data collection instruments refers to the accuracy and precision of the
measuring procedures. In order to ensure reliability of the data collection instruments, the
researcher carried an out pre-test by randomly selecting a few building construction firms 10
in number, administered the questionnaire and observed the response to note if the
questions were understood, and if the answers given were relevant to the study. Observed
weaknesses in the data collection instrument were and noted corrections made.

3.6.2 Validity of the data collection instruments

This refers to the relevance of the data collection instruments in relation to the anticipated
outcome of the study. To ensure validity of the data collection instruments the researcher
formulated simple easy to understand questions whose answers had a critical bearing to
the variables under investigation so as to guide the study achieve its purpose.

Ethical considerations
This concerned the confidentiality of the information obtained from the respondents for
the purpose of this study. It was important that the respondents were guaranteed of
confidentiality of the information they divulged in case they felt the questions were
personal or sensitive in nature. The researcher had to bring to light the fact that the study
was basically academic for the purpose of fulfilling the requirements of the degree, and
that the report will not be published for public consumption. In this respect an introduction
letter from the university administration was a necessity.