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• Microstructure development.
• Types of metals & metal alloys – ferrous & non-ferrous, properties and
applications.
• Diffusionless transformation –
metastable phase, interphase
transformation – example martensite
to tempered martensite – changes in
microstructure and properties.
• The process of phase transformations:
• Nucleation and growth occur simultaneously upon the formation of stable nucleus
– numerous new nuclei formed as the existing nuclei undergo growth stage.
• Growth continuous until 2 or more nucleus are large enough and collide at the
boundary (grain boundary) – growth stops.
Rate of phase transformations
• The rate of transformation induced by cooling is a product of the nucleation rate
and growth rate.
• If ΔT is low (close to TT) – nucleation rate is low and growth rate is high - resulting
in coarse microstructure with large grains.
• If ΔT is high (large gap to TT) – strong undercooling, high nucleation rate and low
growth rate result in fine structure with small grains.
E.g.: Transformation of austenite to pearlite at Eutectoid temperature (Tm) – 540-727°C
5
Kinetic consideration of solid state transformation
• The time dependence of solid-state phase transformations at a fixed
temperature is often described in terms of the time dependence of the
fraction of transformation (y):
Rate = 1 / t0.5
• This time dependence of the fraction of transformation follows the Avrami
equation:
y 1 exp( ktn )
Where k and n are time-independent constant for the particular transformation.
• Temperature has a strong effect on the kinetics of the phase transformation and.
Therefore on the rate of the phase transformation.
• E.g. recrystallization of pure copper at different temperature.
Rate = 1 / t0.5
• However, the rate to reach equilibrium very slow that true equilibrium structure
or properties rarely achieved.
Martensite
T Martensite
Strength
Ductility
bainite
fine pearlite
coarse pearlite
spheroidite
General Trends
Time Temperature
Transformation(TTT) curves
Iron-Iron Carbide phase diagram Eutectic
L → + Fe3C
Peritectic L
L+→ 1493ºC
L+
0.1 %C 2.06 1147ºC
Eutectoid + Fe3C
→ + Fe3C
723ºC
0.025 %C + Fe3C
T →
Fe Fe3C
0.16 0.8 4.3 6.7
%C →
WHAT ARE TTT CURVES
• T (Time) T(Temperature) T(Transformation) diagram is a plot of
temperature versus the logarithm of time for a steel alloy of definite
composition.
400 Bainite
300 Ms
Austenite
Not an isothermal 200
transformation
Mf
100
Martensite
0.1 1 10 102 103 104 105
t (s) →
The dependance of transformation to temperature and time can be
analyzed best using the diagram below:
Three types of curves are there depending on the carbon content of steel:
TTT diagram (dotted curve) is modified for a CCT diagram (solid curve).
For continuous cooling, the time required for a reaction to begin and end is
delayed.
The isothermal curves are shifted to longer times and lower temperatures.
In the above figure moderately rapid and slow cooling curves are
superimposed on a continuous cooling transformation diagram of a
eutectoid iron-carbon alloy.
• The tie-line method still works for the liquid phase, where diffusion is
fast.
Microstructure Development (E.g. Cu-Ni system)
Uniform C:
35 wt% Ni First to solidify:
46 wt% Ni
Last to solidify:
< 35 wt% Ni
Development of Microstructure (E.g. Fe-C system)
• Microstructure depends on
composition (carbon content)
and heat treatment.
• In the discussion below we
consider slow cooling in which
equilibrium is maintained.
• The layers of alternating phases in pearlite are formed for the same
reason as layered structure of eutectic structures: redistribution of
C atoms between ferrite (0.022 wt%) and cementite (6.7 wt%) by
atomic diffusion.
Photomicrograph of a eutectoid
steel showing the pearlite Schematic representation of the
microstructure consisting of formation of pearlite from austenit;
alternating layer of -ferrit and direction of carbon diffusion
Fe3C indicated by arrows
• Transformation occur upon cooling from
eutectoid temperature (727°C) – austenite
(C) transformed into ferrite (low C) phase
and cementite (high C) phase.
(quenching).
• Austenite can transform into various products depending on the
composition and cooling rates.
Rapid cooling /
Slow
Moderate quenched
cooling
cooling
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How are metal alloys classified and what are their common
applications?
Ferrous Nonferrous
Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C
+Fe3C
800 727ºC Fe3C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 +Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C
Ferrous Alloys
Iron-based alloys: Steels (< 1.4wt% C) & Cast Irons (3 – 4.5 wt% C).
Important engineering construction materials especially Fe-C alloy.
Highly demand due to:
Low cost and abundant within earth crust.
Easier to be produced.
Good strength, toughness and ductility – can be tailored / modified.
Versatile – wide range of mechanical and physical properties.
Ductile iron
• add Mg and/or Ce
• graphite as nodules not flakes
• matrix often pearlite – stronger but
less ductile
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
White iron
• < 1 wt% Si
• pearlite + cementite
• very hard and brittle
Malleable iron
• heat treat white iron at 800-900ºC
• graphite in rosettes
• reasonably strong and ductile
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
molten
solidified
Metal Fabrication Methods (iii)
a) Full Annealing
b) Quenching A
B
c) Tempering
b)
a)
c)
Influences of Quenching Medium & Specimen Geometry
• Effect of quenching medium:
• Heat treatment – annealing (stress relieve, spheroidize, full anneal, normalizing &
process anneal), quenching, tempering & precipitate hardening.