TAXONOMY OF MATERIALITY

Nancy Rae O’Connor

 Table of Contents
Naturals:
-Cork Page 4
-Bamboo Page 5
-Yulex Page 6

Synthetics:
-Silicone Page 8
-Ecopoxy Page 9
-Polylactic Acid (PLA) Page 10
-Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPU) Page 11

Composites:
-Solidwool Page 13
-Fiberglass Page 14
-Corian Page 15

Manufacturing processes:
-Compression moulding Page 17
-Injection moulding Page 18
-Extrusion Page 19
-Blow moulding Page 20
-Rotational moulding Page 21
-3D printing Page 22
-Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) Page 23
-Milling Page 24
-Turning Page 25
-Casting Page 26

Bibliography
Pages 28-31
Naturals
Cork

-Honeycomb cell structure

-Comes from the bark of the cork oak tree (grown in

Portugal)

-“Portugal alone produces more cork than all the other

cork producers in the world”1

-“Cork bark is about 89% air, giving it a very love density,

but when it is compressed the air is not squeezed out,
because the cell membranes will not release it, which
is why it will return to its original shape when the
compression is removed.”
Figure 1 Cork oak tree bark Figure 2 Variety of bottle stoppers
Properties: Source: Google Images Source: commons.wikimedia.org
-Very flexible and elastic – will always return to its
original shape
-Very low density – allowing it to float on water
-Very strong watertight cell membranes – will not absorb
water
-Low conductivity of heat, sound and vibration
-In its natural form it works as a fire retardant, however
cork dusty is extremely flammable (cell structure has
been broken)
-Impermeable to liquids and gases
-Very durable –will survive repeated impact
-Hypoallergenic – does not absorb dust and is also very
easy to clean
Figure 3 Polished cork flooring Figure 4 Cork wash basin
Source: trustedpeople.ie Source: www.corkway.com
-Extraction of the bark is a non-harmful process and is
renewable

-Used for bottle stoppers, flooring, décor, floats

4
Bamboo

-Bamboo fibre travel cups, trying to combat the

problems with single use plastics and other products

-Naturally sterile

-Biodegradable- as a natural cellulose fibre it can be

100% biodegraded in soil by microorganisms and
sunshine

-Very high growth rate- can be harvested four times in

the same period

-Used for: clothing, socks, more recently cups and plates

etc Figure 1 Natural harvested bamboo Figure 2 Bamboo fiber Source:https://
Source: Google Images www.btn-europe.com/organic-bamboo-
-“A bamboo grove also releases some 35 percent more fiber-manufacturing.php
oxygen into the air than a similar-sized stand of trees,
because of this, planting bamboo is a great way to
reduce your carbon footprint and help fight global
warming, a perfect selection for going green and it
matures (and can be replanted) within seven years
(compared to 30-50 years for a stand of trees), helping
to improve soil conditions and prevent erosion along
the way. Bamboo is so fast-growing that it can yield 20
times more timber than trees on the same area.”1

Figure 3 Bamboo Socks Figure 4 Bamboo Scaffolding

Source: Notonthehighstreet.com Source: flickr.com

5
Yulex

- “In the UK alone, it’s estimated that surfers

discard about 400 tonnes of wetsuits each and
every year.”1

-“Yulex’smission is to protect and improve the health of

people and the planet by replacing
petroleum-based and toxic materials with safe, plant-
based specialty natural rubber and energy.”2

-Creating plant based biomaterials made from guayule

- Produced and refined in USA using environmentally

and socially responsible manufacturing processes Figure 1 Guayule plant Figure 2 Raw rubber - guayule
Source: www.wur.nl Source: http://fortune.com/2015/08/28/
- Used by Finisterre and Patagonia to make wetsuits american-grown-rubber/
which are more eco friendly and have a smaller carbon
footprint to those made from neoprene without
compromising durability, longevity or quality of product

- Yulex also creates other products which can be

used for fabric coatings and foams which act as fire
retardants

- The creation of Yulex has offered designers a more

eco-friendly, sustainable alternative to neoprene

Figure 3 Yulex rubber harvesting Figure 4 Niewland 3e wetsuit

Source: https://www.patagonia.com.au/ Source: finisterre.com

6
Synthetics
Silicone

-Silicones are polymers, which are large molecules

composed of many repeated sub-units. These polymers
are made up of siloxane – a chain of alternating silicon
atoms and oxygen atoms frequently combined with
carbon and/or hydrogen.

-Silicon is an element found in sand, where it is

extracted from and passed through hydrocarbons.

-Non-reactive, stable and resistant to extreme

environments and temperatures

-Very wide range of temperatures that it can withstand;

“ideal for use in continuous temperatures as low as -60C Figure 1 Silicon element Figure 2 Molecular structure of silicon
to as high as around 230C”1. However silicone cannot Source: www.thinglink.com Source: Google images
withstand the extreme highs or lows for extended
periods.

-Used for; cook ware, ice trays, sealants

Figure 3 Silicone sealant Figure 4 Silicone spatulas

Source: Google Images Source: vibranthome.co.uk

8
EcoPoxy

- “ECOPOXY Resins are manufactured by ECOPOXY,

a leader in the research and development of high bio
content epoxy resins.”1

-No VOC’s

-Plant based as opposed to petroleum based

- “...for extreme performance and demanding visual

applications including carbon fiber skinning, board
manufacturing and wood finishing.”2

-Used to make a feature of joints or wood grains e.g live

edge river tables and one off pieces Figure 1 Ecopoxy Clear Resin Figure 2 Ecopoxy surfboard
Hardener Kit Source: pinterest.com
-The material is said to still give some flex so that it is Source: ecopoxy.com
suitable for use in surfboards and skateboards

Figure 3 Live edge river table Figure 4 Ecopoxy skateboard

Source: Twitter (@amwoodinc #ecopoxy) Source: instagram.com (@ecopoxy)

9
PLA (Polylactic Acid)

- “Thermoplastic derived from 100% renewable

resources such as corn”1

-Biocompatible and so is used in for healing processes

and gauze

- “PLA fiber is derived from annually renewable crops,

it is 100% compostable, and its life cycle potentially
reduces the Earth’s carbon dioxide level.”2

-Used in food packaging and biomedicine

- “It is highlighted as the best material to replace non-

degradable polymers” Figure 1PLA fiber Figure 2 PLA combiuned with cotton
Source: http://www.tjlpla.com Source: http://www.futerro.com

LOOK AT

http://www.fibersource.com/
fiber-products/pla-fiber/

Figure 3 3D printing using PLA Figure 4 PLA filament spools

Source: Google Images Source: http://www.eumakers.com

10
Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPU)

-Suitable for 3D printing and injection moulding

- “its hardness can be highly customized. TPU can be as

soft as rubber or as hard as rigid plastics”1

-“High wear resistance, good resistance to oils, greases

and solvents, and extremely good weather stability,
combined with high elasticity”2

-Closing the gap between a hard plastic and rubber:

more flex than if you were to print with PLA (Plant
based polymer used for 3D printing)

Figure 1TPU pellets Figure 2 Reel of TPU

Source: Wikipedia Source: http://toner-plastics.com

Figure 3 Flexible phone case Figure 4 Adidas football boot - TPU

Source: purpatents.com Source: utech-polyurethane.com

11
Composites
Solidwool

- “Think fibreglass, but with wool”1

-A completely new way of working with wool, by

combining wool with bio-resins

-Making use of wool, a material which had dramatically

lost its value in recent years. “Historically used in the
UK carpet industry, demand had declined and the wool
was now considered almost worthless, a by-product of
sheep farming.”2

-Works in a similar way to fibreglass but using wool as a

reinforcement as opposed to glass
Figure 1Herdwick sheep Figure 2 Hembury chair
-’We believe Solidwool can be considered in place of Source: http://www.solidwool.com/ Source: http://www.solidwool.com/material/
Injection Moulded Plastics and fibreglass.’3

-Designed to have the lowest environmental impact

possible

Figure 3 Solidwool placemat Figure 4 Solidwool x Fanoptics

Source: http://www.solidwool.com/rituals sunglasses
Source: http://lumberjac.com

13
Fiberglass

- “Fibreglass or glass fibre is a reinforced plastic

material which is composed of a woven material that
is embedded with glass fibres which are randomly laid
across each other and held together with a binding
substance.”1

- “Fibreglass is combined with resin to form an

extremely strong and durable composite.”2

-Lightweight

-Resistant to corrosion and UV damage

-Can be supplied as matting or woven into a fabric Figure 1 Fiberglass matting Figure 2 Fiberglass moulding
Source: www.fibreglast.com Source: http://www.acecompositeslimited.
co.uk/
Used in: construction, housing, automotive, aviation,
marine, electronics and leisure

Used in the following processes:

Hand lay up
Spray operation
Compression moulding

Figure 3 Fiberglass kayaks Figure 4 Fiberglass seating

Source: http://forrestpaint.com Source: http://out-sider.dk/se/content/
fiberglass-product

14
Corian

- ‘Corian® is a densely mineral-filled methyl

methacrylate with the durability and rugged
characteristics of stone combined with the workability
of hardwood.’1

-Surface material

-Created to last a lifetime

- “Created to last a lifetime it is a unique blend of

minerals and acrylic which creates a stone-hard surface
that can be shaped to meet any design or dimension.”2

-Composite of natural minerals and pure acrylic polymer Figure 1Corian work surface Figure 2 Corian kitchen sink
Source: www.wickes.co.uk Source: http://www.designcurial.com
Benefits of Corian:
-High resilience - non-porous surface
-Temperature resistance
-Consistency - colours and patterns run all the way
through
-Versatility
-Hygenic
-Longevity
-Environmentally friendly -renewable
-Safe - inert and non-toxic

Figure 3 Corian tablewear Figure 4 Corian cupboards

Source: www.cdukltd.co.uk Source: http://www.corianfurniture.net

15
Manufacturing Processes
Compression molding

- “Compression molding is the act of using compression

(force) and heat to shape a raw material by means of a
mold”1

-Two types of raw plastics used in this process are

thermoplastics and thermoset plastics

The process of injection molding:

- Raw material is placed into the mold and then heated
until it is pliable, a hydraulic tool pushes the material
against the tool. The mold is then held together for a
period of time in order to form the part. Some parts
may have excess material surrounding them known
as ‘flash’, which will then need to be cut away, whilst Figure 1Compression molding diagram
others will be ready immediately after being removed Source: http://www.moldex3d.com
from the mold.

-Plastics made from both natural and synthetic bases

can be used in this production process
Uses: Household appliances such and clothing fasteners
are made using compression molding

Advantages: Cost effective and efficiency - leaves very

little material or energy to waste

Figure 2 Compression molded bottle Figure 3 Compression molded plates

tops Source: http://www.moldex3d.com
Source: http://cap-machine.imould.com

17
Injection molding

-Most thermoplastics can be processed using injection

molding:
-Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene ABS
Nylon PA
Polycarbonate PC
Polypropylene PP
Polystyrene GPPS

- “Injection mouldings count for a significant proportion

of all plastics products from micro parts to large
components such as bumpers and wheelie bins”1
-Uses: electrical switches, wheelie bins, battery casings,
disposable razors and washing up bowls
Figure 1Injection molding diagram
How it works: Source: http://www.daviesmolding.com

Polymer pellets are put into the hopper, which are then
introduced into the barrel which is heated and inside
has a reciprocating screw which slowly feeds the molten
polymer into a temperature controlled split mould. The
screw plasticises the material, the screw action also
provides additional heatinng and then the polymer is
injected into the mould tool which defines the part.

Figure 2 Childrens building bricks Figure 3 Trunki ride-on suitcase

Source: Google Images Source: www.trunki.co.uk

18
Extrusion

-Extrusion is the process of material being pushed

through a die, shaped in the cross section of a product

-Length of extrusion will vary - could go on forever!

-Can be cut to any length

-The cross section produced will be consistent across the

whole length of the extrusion

-Used to produce hosepipes, drainpipes, window seals,

window frames

-Can be used for both metals and plastics

Figure 1Extrusion diagram
Source: Google Images

Figure 2 Die for extrusion Figure 3 Extruded pipes

Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/ Source: Google images

19
Blow moulding

-Used to create hollow plastic parts

-Works by “inflating a heated plastic tube until it fills a

mold and forms the desired shape”1

-Thermoplastics used in the form of pellets or granules

-Materials used:
-Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
-High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
-Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET)
-Polypropylene (PP)
-Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

-Three types; extrusion, injection and stretch

-Extrusion blow moulding is used to manufacture large

quantities of simple parts

-Injection blow moulding is used to produce small

complex bottles, often for medical purposes

-Stretch blow moulding is used to create parts that can

withstand internal pressure such as bottles used for Figure 1 Blow moulding diagram
carbonated drinks Source: http://www.custompartnet.com

20
Rotational moulding

-Used to create seamless, hollow items

-High temperature, low pressure

-Can be used to create containers, childrens toys,

medical equipment and canoes

-Low production cost

-Creates a uniform wall thickness

-Offers designers the possibility to manufacture

complex shapes (with overall consistency)

-Very little waste produced as the weight of the plastic

required in the end product is used

-Often has quite long cycle times

The Process:
- “...begins with filling a hollow mould with a quantity Figure 1Rotational moulding diagram
of powder resin (polymer). The mould is then heated at Source: http://www.pentasmoulding.com
high temperatures in an oven and bi-axially rotated as
the polymer melts and coats the inside of the mould.”1

-Polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC and nylons can be

used in this manufacturing process

21
3D Printing (Rapid Prototyping)

-Additive manufacturing
- “Every 3D printer builds parts based on the same
main principle: a digital model is turned into a physical
three-dimensional object by adding material a layer at a
time”1
-No special tools are required
-The part is built straight on to the plate of the 3D
printer
-In order to print, a drawing must be done using CAD
and then exported as an STL file
-Plastics are usually used, however metals, ceramics and
even organs can be 3D printed
- Depending on the printer used and size of part, prints
can take from minutes to hours to be completed Figure 1 3D printing close-up Figure 2 3D printing using PLA
Source: Google images Source: Google images
Used for: aerospace, automotive, robotics, tooling,
healthcare, design, cinema, education and DIY

Benefits:
-Low cost
-Relatively quick
-Perfect for rapid prototyping
-Customisation of all parts
-Large range of speciality materials

Limitations:
-Limited accuracy and tolerances
-Post processing and support removal (depending on
complexity of part) Figure 3 Hairy lion 3D print Figure 4 Hairy troll 3D print
Source: toms3d.org Source: www.youtube.com
-Less cost-effective at high volumes (much more
appropriate for rapid prototyping rather than batch
production)
22
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) (Rapid Prototyping)

-Very similar to 3D printing

-Additive manufacturing

- “During SLS, tiny particles of plastic, ceramic or glass

are fused together by heat from a high-power laser to
form a solid, three-dimensional object.”1
Figure 1SLS diagram part 1
Source: www.livescience.com
-Starts with a CAD drawing, which is then converted in
to a .STL file

-Made with powdered materials, most commonly

plastics such as nylon

-A laser controlled by a computer which tells it what to

print. Pulsing down on to the platform, tracing cross
sections of the part

- “The laser heats the powder either to just below

its boiling point (sintering) or above its boiling point
(melting), which fuses the particles in the powder
together into a solid form.
Figure 2 SLS diagram part 2
Source: www.livescience.com
-Once the initial layer is formed, the platform of the
SLS machine drops — usually by less than 0.1mm —
exposing a new layer of powder for the laser to trace
and fuse together. This process continues again and
again until the entire object has been printed.”2

-Can be used on plastics, glass, ceramics and even metal

23
Milling

-Most common material removal process

-Used for material removal

- “used to produce parts that are not axially symmetric

and have many features, such as holes, slots, pockets,
and even three dimensional surface contours”

The process:
- “The milling process requires a milling machine,
workpiece, fixture, and cutter. The workpiece is a piece
of pre-shaped material that is secured to the fixture,
which itself is attached to a platform inside the milling
machine. The cutter is a cutting tool with sharp teeth
that is also secured in the milling machine and rotates at
high speeds. By feeding the workpiece into the rotating
cutter, material is cut away from this workpiece in the
form of small chips to create the desired shape.”

-Useful for creation of parts in small quantities, such as

for prototypes and custom brackets

-Moulds are often milled Figure 1 Dental lab metal milling

Source: www.datron.com
-Used to refine features on existing parts

-Ideal for precision

24
Turning

-Metal turning is a material removal process (similar to

milling)

-Used to create rotational parts

-Used in order to reduce the size or shape of a part, so

that it reaches the desired size

-Carried out using a lathe or turning machine,

workpiece, fixture and cutting tool

The Process:
- “The workpiece is a piece of pre-shaped material that
is secured to the fixture, which itself is attached to the
turning machine, and allowed to rotate at high speeds.
The cutter is typically a single-point cutting tool that is
also secured in the machine, although some operations
make use of multi-point tools. The cutting tool feeds
into the rotating workpiece and cuts away material in
the form of small chips to create the desired shape.”1
Figure 1Metal lathe diagram
-Allows us to produce parts that have many features Source: http://www.custompartnet.com
such as holes, grooves, threads, tapers and even
contoured surfaces

Figure 2 Screw being turned on a

lathe
Source: www.ucl.ac.uk

25
Casting

-The process of pouring liquid metal into a mould to

create the desired shape

-Can be done on both a small scale for jewelery making

and also on a much larger scale for industrial parts

-Much higher precision now than 100 years ago, as

we are using machines to create the moulds from CAD
drawings and have a much higher accuracy rate when
casting the metals

-Oldest known example of casting dates back to

3200BCE

-The process:

-Patternmaking, where the object is designed; only

Figure 1Casting diagram
necessary for industrial part making where precise Source: interpromodels.com
calculations are needed

-Core making, where the pattern is sculpted into a 3D

shape

-Pouring of the liquid metal into the mould

-Final stage, where the cast metal object is removed

from the mould and then fettled

-Fettling is the process of cleaning the object of any

excess moulding material

Figure 2 Small scale casting

Source: flickr.com
26
Bibliography
Naturals

-Cork
1
S, Sheppard. ‘Cork: A Sustainable, Eco-friendly,
Innovative Material for the Home’. [Online] https://
freshome.com/2012/11/28/cork-sustainable-eco-
frindly-innovative-material-for-home/ . [22nd October
2018].

Corklink. ‘The amazing natural properties of cork’.

[Online]. http://www.corklink.com/index.php/the-
amazing-natural-properties-of-cork/ . [22nd October
2018]

-Bamboo
1
UK Essays. ‘Physical And Chemical Properties Of
Bamboo Environmental Sciences Essay’. [Online]
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/environmental-
sciences/physical-and-chemical-properties-of-bamboo-
environmental-sciences-essay.php?vref=1. [9thOctober
2018]

-Yulex
1
Finisterre. ‘Fabric of Finisterre - The Niewland Works
Wetsuit Programme’. [Online]. https://finisterre.com/
blogs/fabric-of-finisterre/wetsuits . [30th September
2018]
2
Yulex. ‘About’. [Online]. http://yulex.com/about/ .
[30th September 2018]

28
Synthetics

-Silicone
1
Jenkins, K. ‘An Introduction to Silicone’. [Online].
https://silicone.co.uk/news/an-introduction-to-silicone/
. [30th September 2018].

-Ecopoxy
Ecopoxy. ‘Ecopoxy Clear Resin Hardener Kit’. [Online].
1,2

https://www.ecopoxy.com/ecopoxy-resin-and-clear-
hardener/ . [30th September 2018]

-Polylactic Acid (PLA)

Lee C, Hong S. ‘An Overview of the Synthesis and
1,2

Synthetic Mechanism of Poly (Lactic acid)’. https://

www.omicsonline.org/open-access/an-overview-of-
the-synthesis-and-synthetic-mechanism-of-poly-lactic-
acid-2329-6798.1000144.php?aid=36512 . [23rd
October 2018]

D.W.Farrington. Polyesters and Polyamides. Woodhead

Publishing. 2018

-Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPU)

1
The Lubrizol Corporation. ‘What is Thermoplastic
Polyurethane (TPU)?’. [Online]. https://www.lubrizol.
com/Engineered-Polymers/Overview/What-is-TPU .
[22nd October 2018]
2
Covestro. ‘What are Thermoplastic Polyurethanes?’.
[Online]. https://www.tpu.covestro.com/en/Products/
What-are-TPUs . [22nd October 2018]

29
Composites

-Solidwool
Solidwool. ‘About’ [Online] http://www.solidwool.
1,2

com/about/ [17th October 2018]

3
Solidwool. ‘The material’. [Online]. http://www.
solidwool.com/material . [17th October 2018]

-Fiberglass
FiberGlassDirect. ‘What is Fibreglass or Fiberglass?’.
1,2

[Online]. https://www.fibreglassdirect.co.uk/blog/post/
what-is-fibreglass-or-fiberglass/ . [17th October 2018]

-Corian
CDUK. ‘Corian’. [Online] https://www.cdukltd.co.uk/
1,2

page.php?p=corian [24th October 2018]

30
Manufacturing Processes

-Compression molding -3D printing

1
T, Johnson. ‘Compression molding - What Is
Compression Molding and How Is It Used?’ [Online]
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-compression-
molding-820345 [19th October 2018 ]
V, Ryan. ‘Moulding through compression’. [Online].
http://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/hypress1.
htm . [19th October 2018]
1
3D Hubs. ‘What is 3D Printing? The definitive guide.’
[Online]. https://www.3dhubs.com/guides/3d-printing/
[19th October 2018]
-Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
1
E, Palermo. ‘What is Selective Laser Sintering?’.
[Online]. https://www.livescience.com/38862-selective-
laser-sintering.html . [24th October 2018]

-Injection molding
-Milling
1
British Plastics Federation. ‘Injection Moulding’. 1
Custompart.net . ‘Milling’. [Online]. http://www.
[Online]. http://www.bpf.co.uk/plastipedia/processes/
custompartnet.com/wu/milling . [25th October]
injection_moulding.aspx . [19th October]

-Extrusion
The Library of Manufacturing. ‘Metal extrusion’.
[Online]. http://thelibraryofmanufacturing.com/
extrusion.html . [24th October 2018]
-Blow moulding
1
CUSTOMPART.NET . ‘Blow Molding’. [Online]. http://
www.custompartnet.com/wu/blow-molding . [24th
October 2018]
-Turning
1
Custompart.net. ‘Turning’. [Online]. http://www.
custompartnet.com/wu/turning . [25th October 2018]
-Casting
General Kinematics. ‘The Metal Casting Process
Explained’. [Online] https://www.generalkinematics.
com/blog/metal-casting-process-explained/.
[25thOctober 2018]

-Rotational moulding
1
D & M Plastics Inc. ‘What is Rotational Moulding?’.
[Online] http://www.rotationalmoulding.ca/ [25th
October 2018]

31