Biology 11/Part V /Lecture 1 SDJ/TLS/JPQ

Biology 11 (Fundamentals of Biology I) ANIMALS : Form and Function

A. Animal Cell Types and Tissues
Part V. ANIMALS: Form and Function B. Animal Systems and Processes
1. Support and Protection
Instructor: EAA, IKCF, SDJ, JPQ 2. Movement
3. Digestion and Nutrition
Main References: 4. Gas Exchange
(1) Biology by Campbell and Reece 5. Transport/Circulation
6. Excretion and Osmoregulation
(2) Integrated Principles of Zoology
by Hickman et al. 7. Regulatory Mechanisms

Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity

• Life is 1. Protoplasmic grade of organization
characterized by – unicellular organisms
hierarchical
– all life functions are confined within the boundaries
levels of of a single cell
organization, – protoplasm is differentiated into organelles
each with
emergent
properties.

Paramecium

Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity

2. Cellular grade of organization 3. Cell-tissue grade of organization

– aggregation of cells that are functionally – aggregation of similar cells into definite patterns of
differentiated layers, thus becoming a tissue
– a division of labor is evident

Volvox

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Biology 11/Part V /Lecture 1 SDJ/TLS/JPQ

Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity

4. Tissue-organ grade of organization 5. Organ-system grade of organization

– an aggregation of tissues into organs – organs work together to perform some function
– systems are associated with basic body functions

Ribbon
Planaria worm

Animal Cell Types Four main categories of animal tissues

1. Epithelial Tissue

2. Connective Tissue

3. Muscular Tissue

4. Nervous Tissue

1. Epithelial Tissue 1. Epithelial Tissue

• covers the outside of the body and lines organs • the free surface of the epithelium is exposed to air or
and cavities within the body fluid
• structures on free surfaces: microvilli, cilia, flagella
• compact; occurs in sheets of tightly packed cells
• the cells at the base
• little intercellular substance of the barrier are
attached to a
• polarized
basement
membrane, a dense
mat of extracellular
matrix (now called
basal lamina)

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Biology 11/Part V /Lecture 1 SDJ/TLS/JPQ

1. Epithelial Tissue

– cells are closely joined and in many epithelia, the

cells are riveted together by tight junctions

– animals have 3 main types of intercellular links:

tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions

• fasten cells together into

Tight junction strong sheets, much like
rivets

• reinforced by intermediate
filaments of keratin

• attach muscle cells to each

0.5 µm
other in a muscle
• membranes of adjacent cells are fused, forming
continuous belts around cells Desmosome
1 µm
• prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across a layer of
epithelial cells

1. Epithelial Tissue

Function Organ Tissue/cell

protection skin squamous
absorption intestine columnar
Gap junction secretion stomach glandular
excretion kidney cuboidal

0.1 µm

• provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells

• salt ions, sugar, amino acids, and other small

molecules can pass

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Biology 11/Part V /Lecture 1 SDJ/TLS/JPQ

1. Epithelial Tissue

Types:
• simple epithelium
• stratified epithelium
Types of epithelial cells:
• composed of flattened cells
• Cuboidal – like dice
• form a continuous delicate lining of blood
capillaries, lungs, and other surfaces
• Squamous – flat like tiles
• permits the passive diffusion of gases and tissue
• Columnar – like bricks fluids into and out of cavities
on end

• consists of 2 to many
layers of cells
• adapted to withstand mild
mechanical abrasion
• basal layers of cells
undergoes continuous • short, boxlike cells collecting duct in kidney
mitotic divisions • usually lines small ducts and tubules
• lines the oral cavity, • may have active secretory and absorptive
esophagus, anal canal, functions
vagina of mammals; skin

stratified columnar
epithelium (salivary duct)
roof of mouth of toad

• like cuboidal epithelium but cells are taller • consists of at least two layers of cells
• found on highly absorptive surfaces such as • found along some areas of the anorectal
intestinal tract and female reproductive tract region and salivary duct
• in some organs cells may be ciliated

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Biology 11/Part V /Lecture 1 SDJ/TLS/JPQ

Glandular epithelia, absorb or secrete chemical

• a type of stratified epithelium
• specialized to accommodate
great stretching
• found in the urinary tract and
bladder
solutions
Types based on how products are released:
a. exocrine (unicellular or multicellular)
b. endocrine
c. mixed (e.g., pancreas)

2. Connective Tissue
Special names of some epithelial tissue:
a. mesothelium – squamous cells lining serous
cavities such as peritoneal and pleural cavities and • mechanical support
lining of visceral organs • bind structures to preserve integrity of organization
• exchange of metabolites between blood and
b. endothelium – lining of blood and lymph
tissues
vessels
• storage of energy reserve in adipose tissues
• protection against infection
• repair

2. Connective Tissue 2. Connective Tissue

• paucity of cells; more intercellular substance

• amorphous ground substance
(fibers and ground substance)
- glycosaminoglycans such as chondroitin sulfate
• the extracellular matrix generally consists of a
web of fibers embedded in a uniform foundation - permit diffusion of nutrients, substances, water,
that may be liquid, jellylike, or solid gases, and wastes
- important in areas where small blood vessels are
absent

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2. Connective Tissue Three kinds of connective tissue fibers:

• Collagenous fibers (white)
Types of cells:
– made of collagen
A. fixed
– nonelastic and do not tear easily when pulled
- fibroblast/fibrocyte lengthwise
- mesenchymal • Elastic fibers (yellow)
- adipose – long threads of elastin
- fixed macrophage – elastin fiber provides a rubbery quality

B. wandering (from blood) •Reticular fibers (branching)

– very thin and branched
- monocyte - plasma cell - mast cell
– composed of collagen
- lymphocyte - eosinophil – they form a tightly woven fabric that joins
connective tissue to adjacent tissues

Diagram of Fibrous Connective Tissue Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

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Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

B. Loose connective tissue

A. Fibrous connective tissue
– binds epithelia to underlying tissues
– dense due to its large
number of collagenous – functions as packing materials, holding organs in
fibers place
– the fibers are organized into – has all three fiber types
parallel bundles
– forms tendons and • two cell types
ligaments predominate in its
fibrous mesh
- fibroblasts
- macrophages

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Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

C. Adipose tissue D. Cartilage

– specialized form of loose – has an abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in
connective tissue a rubbery matrix made of a substance called
chondroitin sulfate, a protein-carbohydrate complex
– store fat in adipose cells
– chondrocytes secrete collagen and chondroitin
– pads and insulates the body
sulfate

• Hyaline cartilage • Elastic cartilage

– bluish white, translucent, and homogenous
– has significant proportion of collagen fibers
– covers joint surfaces and rib ends
– present in the nose, larynx, and trachea
– skeletal cartilage in the embryos of all vertebrates
– skeletal cartilage of adults sharks and rays
– support and reinforcement
– contains fine collagenous fibers and many elastic
fibers
– external ears, eustachian tube, epiglottis
– maintains a structure’s shape while allowing great
flexibility

• Fibrocartilage Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

– contains many large collagenous fibers
– intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis, disks of knee E. Bone
joint, and pads between femur and tibia – the skeleton supporting most vertebrates
– absorbs compression shock – mineralized connective tissue
– Osteoblasts deposit a matrix of collagen
– then, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions
combine and harden within the matrix into the
Collagen fiber
mineral hydroxyapatite
Chondrocyte in
lacuna

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Biology 11/Part V /Lecture 1 SDJ/TLS/JPQ

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

F. Blood
– the matrix is a liquid called plasma, consisting of
water, salts, and a variety of dissolved proteins
– suspended in the plasma are erythrocytes,
leukocytes and cell fragments called platelets

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Blood Blood

Plasma (55 %) Formed elements (45 %)

1. water (90% of plasma) 3. gases (O2, CO2, N)
1. red blood cells (erythrocyte)
2. dissolved solids
- biconcave
a. proteins
- transport of O2 and CO2
– fibrinogen (synthesized by the liver)
- nucleated in fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds
– albumin (synthesized by the liver)
2. white blood cells (leukocyte/leucocyte)
– globulin
- granular leukocyte/granulocyte/polymorphonuclear
b. supplies for cells (glucose, fats and fat-like leukocyte/polymorph
substances, amino acids, salts)
- agranular leukocyte/agranulocyte/non-glanular
c. cell products (enzyme, hormones, antibodies) leukocyte/mononuclear
d. cellular waste products (urea, uric acid)

Blood Types of White Blood Cells

Type % Nucleus Cytoplasmic Other
Formed elements (45 %) granule/cytoplasm features/
functions
3. platelets A. granulocyte
- found within the confines of blood vessels 1. neutrophil 60-75 2-5 or more thin lobes, fine; don’t stain phagocytic
connected by slender well at neutral pH
- for blood coagulation chromatic threads with either acid or
basic stain
- no nucleus; formed from megakaryocyte
- called thrombocyte in amphibian, reptile, and bird 2. eosinophil 2-5 2 oval lobes linked by granules, coarse; against
thread-like chromatin stain pinkish red helminthic
with acid stain infections

3. basophil 0.5-2 nuclei stain very faintly, stain blue with inflammatory
often obscured by basic dye reaction
cytoplasmic granules; U
or J-shaped

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Biology 11/Part V /Lecture 1 SDJ/TLS/JPQ

Types of White Blood Cells 3. Muscle Tissue

Type % Nucleus Cytoplasmic Other

granule/cytoplasm features/ • composed of long cells called muscle fibers that
functions
are capable of contracting when stimulated by
B. agranulocyte
1. lymphocyte 20-25 large, somewhat narrow rim of smallest;
nerve impulses
spherical with some cytoplasm antibody
indentations and only
slightly concentric
production
• most abundant tissue in most animals
position

2. monocyte 3-8 nuclei vary slightly, large amount of biggest; • muscle contraction accounts for most of the
indented ovals to horse- cytoplasm becomes energy-consuming cellular work in active animals
shoe shaped structure macrophage;
phagocytic

smooth muscle

• spindle-shaped cells, each with a single nucleus

• cells have no striations
• double innervation by parasympathetic and
sympathetic nervous sytem; involuntary
• blood vessel walls and walls of the digestive tract
• functions in movement of substances in lumens of
body
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

cardiac muscle

skeletal muscle

• has cylindrical and striated cells with multiple nuclei • has cylindrical but branching striated cells, each with a
(syncitial) single nucleus

• occurs in muscles attached to skeleton • double innervation by parasympathetic and

sympathetic nervous system; involuntary
• single innervation by motor nerve
• occurs in the wall of the heart
• functions in voluntary movement of body
• functions in the pumping of blood

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4. Nervous Tissue
Types of neurons:
• irritability and conductivity; senses stimuli and • sensory (afferent)
transmits signals from one part of the animal to • motor (efferent)
• interneuron
another
• neuron – functional unit of nervous tissue

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Animal Body Plans Symmetry

– refers to balanced proportions
– correspondence in size and shape of parts on
opposite sides of a median plane

Spherical Symmetry Radial Symmetry

• any plane passing through • body can be divided into
the center divides a body similar halves by more than
into equivalent or mirrored two planes passing through
halves the longitudinal axis

• found chiefly among some • found in some sponges and

unicellular forms hydras, jellyfish, sea urchins
• rare in animals • usually sessile, free floating
or weakly swimming
• best suited for floating and
rolling

Biradial Symmetry Bilateral Symmetry

• only two planes passing • body can be divided along a
through the longitudinal axis sagittal plane into mirrored
produce mirrored halves portions – right and left
because of some part that is halves
single or paired • much better suited for
• comb jellies directional (forward)
movement
• strongly associated with
cephalization

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Biology 11/Part V /Lecture 1 SDJ/TLS/JPQ

Segmentation

• metamerism

• serial repetition of
similar body segments
along the longitudinal
axis of the body

• segment (metamere or
somite)

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