PHEngg Handouts and Workbook 4

Public Health Engineering
Engr Muhammad Anwar

National University of Science & Technology
Islamabad
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CONTENTS
Environmental Engineering
Major Environmental Problems
Environmental Legislation and Regulations
WHO (World Health Organization)
NEQS (National Environmental Quality Standards)
Major Sources of Drinking Water
Water Crisis and Major Water Pollution Problems of Pakistan
Planning a Water Works Scheme
Collection of Water (and Basic Terminologies)
Important Conversions
Water and wastewater Quality Parameters
Forms of Water Impurities
Important Design Parameters
Mass-Loading Factor
Reaction Rates
Reactors or Treatment Units
Selection of the Treatment Processes
Water Treatment Processes
Wastewater Treatment
Objectives of Wastewater Treatment
Design of Pre-Requisites Units (sanitary sewer, pumping station, approach
channels, flow equalization tank)
Pre-Treatment of Water (screening, neutralization/pH adjustment, aeration,
chemical pre-treatment, grit chamber, communitors and skimming tank)
Primary Treatment (coagulation and flocculation, lime-Soda water softening
process, sedimentation, solids-contact units)
Secondary Treatment of Water (Filtration)
Concept of Biological Wastewater Treatment of Wastewater
Classification of Biological Wastewater Treatment Processes
Design of an Activated Sludge Process
Design of UASB Reactor (Anaerobic Digestion)
Design of a Trickling Filter (or Percolating Filter)
Design of an Oxidation Ponds (or Waste Stabilization Ponds)
Concept of Disinfection
Preamble of Advance Treatment Processes
Sludge Treatment
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LESSON 1
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
It is the application of science and engineering principles to improve the environment
(air, water, and/or land resources), to provide healthy water, air, and land for human
habitation and for other organisms, and to remediate polluted sites.
Environmental engineering involves water and air pollution control, recycling, waste
disposal, and public health issues as well as a knowledge of environmental engineering
law. It also includes studies on the environmental impact of proposed construction
projects.
MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

This is a list of environmental issues that are due to human activities. These articles are
related to the anthropogenic effects on the natural environment.
 Population growth; degrade quality of life; population density of Pakistan is
1.54person/hectare, i.e. 4 times more than the global population density of
0.4persons/hectare. Urban settlement occupies less than 0.75% of Pakistan‘s land but
contain 30% of its population. Karachi alone accounts for 21% of urban population,
whereas, Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Gujranwala, Hyderabad, Multan and
Peshawar contain another 30% of the population. By the end of 2050, Pakistan will be
among the nine nations of the world, where half of the world‘s population would
exist. The present population of the world is about 6.7 billion and that would reach to
9 billion in 2050.
Water pollution problems; the available water resources has been depleted from
5650m3/capita/day in 1960 to 1000m3/capita/d in 2010 due to rapid growth of
population, expansion of business activities, lack of proper water resources
management etc. And on the other hands the available water is being polluted at
alarming rate, mostly due to the disposal of untreated domestic and industrial effluent.
The main water quality problems of Pakistan are microbial contamination (63%),
arsenic contamination (20%), nitrates contamination (12%) and fluoride
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contamination (5%). Approximately, 82% of the people in Pakistan are getting

contaminated water for their drinking usage. Unfortunately, we are among the top
five nations of the world, where 25-30% of the hospitalized patients are affected due
to water borne diseases. Pakistan generates 12.5million tones of excrete per year.
Only 53% of the population in Pakistan has access to safe water, 40% of the urban
deaths are caused by water-borne diseases. About 45% of Pakistan‘s industries are
located in Karachi, and most of the industrial effluent is being untreated into the sea.
Air pollution problem; emission of air pollutants from industry, power plants,
transportation etc are growing rapidly. The major air pollution problems are the acid
rain (a rain with pH< 5.5) global warming, O3 depletion, formation of the
photochemical smog etc. They are responsible for a variety of skin, lungs infections.
Approximately, 2.4million people per year from the air pollution and
1.5millionpeople per year from the indoor air pollution pass away in the world. The
average vehicular emission in Pakistan is 20-25times more than the USA in terms of
HC and CO concentrations.
 Global climate change (Greenhouse effect); the greenhouse gases, namely carbon
dioxide (50%), CFCs (20%), methane (16%) etc, absorbs the outgoing earths
radiation (> 4µm) and the incoming radiation of the sun (< 4µm), thus forming a
thermal blanket surrounding the earth. The present average temperature of the earth is
15oC, which would increase to about 18oC by the end of 21th century. The
temperature of earth is likely to be 1-2oC warmer by the end of 2030, expected to
cause rise in sea level by 10-20cm within next 40-50 years, flooding, effect on coastal
communities.
Ozone layer depletion; the ozone layer in the upper stratosphere blocks the UV
radiations (270-315nm) reaching the sun. But due to the release of CFCs into the
atmosphere the ozone layer is depleted. Chlorine is freed from CFCs by the process
of photolysis by short-wave radiation and drifts upwards to damage the ozone layer,
due to the chain reaction of chlorine radical with the ozone; this depletion of ozone
layer allows the UV radiations to reach the earth. This causes a number of skin
diseases to man, like skin cancer. But know as per the Montreal Protocol 1987, the
usage of CFCs has been banned; it is now replaced by HCFCs, called Green gases.
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 Transboundary shipment of hazardous wastes; industrial countries generate majority

of the world‘s wastes (99% of the 400million tones of waste generate annually), risk
to man from illegal disposal sites, contamination of coastal fishers etc.
Loss of biodiversity; biodiversity is both an asset and a resources, we depends on
biological resources for food, medicine, clothing, research etc, that plays a vital role
in their population loss, and due to which a number of plant and animal species are
extinct now.
Soil loss; Pakistan has 88.2million hectare of land that is 0.67% of worlds land area
(13079million hectare), approximately 20% are used for agricultural, and the
agricultural land is being used at much below level of its productivity capacity, 66%
low sugarcane production than in India. Of the total land surveyed in Pakistan 17% is
effected by water erosion, 7.6% by wind erosion, and 8.6% by salinity etc. 96% of
arable soil suffers from less amount of organic matter.
Desertification; loss of rangeland that leads to the destruction of biological potential
of the land, 70% of Fort Abbas (Cholistan) area have entered into desert class.
 Deforestation; the forest area in Pakistan is about 4.58million hectare (almost 0.11%
of the world‘ forest area) and the rate of deforestation is 0.2% annually, which is
mostly due to its usage by the local people for fueling. It also leads to watershed
deterioration, loss of wildlife etc.
Destruction of wetlands; biomass productivity of wetlands is assumed to be high. In
Pakistan mangroves depletion is partially attributed to the withdrawal of water for
irrigation, the production of carbon per in coastal water is about 572gm/m2/yr (almost
4-5 time more than that without mangroves)
Solid waste management problem; about 17.5 million tones of solid waste is
generated annually in Pakistan, out of which 63% of the wastes has no collection
system. About 0.6kg/capita/day of municipal solid wastes is produced that typically
consists food wastes (9%), paper/cardboard (40%), plastic (7%), glass (8%), metals
(9.5%) etc. And 40% of the solid waste is recyclable, whereas more than 30% could
be composted.
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ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS
The NEQS are set by the Pak-EPA in reference to the EPA Act 1997 to control the
disposal of untreated domestic and industrial effluent. It compels to treat all kind of
wastes as in integral part of production.
The Clean Water Act 1972 established the goals of eliminating releases of high
amounts of toxic substances into water, and ensuring that surface waters would meet
standards necessary for human sports and recreation. The Clean Water Act does not
directly address groundwater contamination. Groundwater protection provisions are
included in the Safe Drinking Water Act 1974, Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act and the Superfund Act.
The Clean Air Act 1955 assists on air pollution issues like smoke and particulate
matters due to coal burning. The criteria air pollutants defined by USA, EC and WHO
includes; CO, NOx, O3, SOx, PM and lead.
The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol on climate change, aimed at fighting global
warming; with the goal of achieving "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations
in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference
with the climate system."
The Montreal Protocol 1987 on substances that deplete the ozone layer; designed to
protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances
believed to be responsible for ozone depletion.
The Solid Waste Disposal Act 1965 to addresses both the municipal and hazardous
wastes disposal, and set up management guidelines for collection, separation,
transportation, recycling and disposal; through a series of research projects,
investigations, experiments, training, demonstrations, surveys, and studies.
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act 1986 (SARA) addresses the
hazardous wastes disposal.
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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

It is the assessment of the possible impact that a proposed project may have on the
environment, together consisting of the natural, social and economic aspects.
Stages of EIA
Screening (to decide which project)
 Scoping (define key issues)
 EIS preparation (analysis/conclusion; impacts identified)
 Review (independently; advises/guides decision makers)
EIA Format
 Project description
 Environmental factors
 Possible mitigation measures
WHO (World Health Organization)

Drinking water quality guideline values as per WHO standards;
Parameter Limits
pH 6.5-8.5
Turbidity 5NTU
Chlorides 250mg/L
Hardness 500mg/L
Nitrates 10mg/L
Sulfates 250mg/L
Fluoride 1.5mg/L
Arsenic 1.0ppb (µg/L)
Iron 0.3mg/L
Total Coliform Nil/100mL
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NEQS (National Environmental Quality Standards)

Pak-EPA wastewater quality standards for industrial and domestic effluent;
Parameter Limits
pH 6-10
BOD 80 mg/L
COD 150 mg/L
TSS 150 mg/L
TDS 3500 mg/L
Phenols 0.1 mg/L
Pesticide, etc 0.15 mg/L
Lead 0.5 mg/L
Mercury 0.01 mg/L
Sulfates 600 mg/L
Chloride 1000 mg/L
Arsenic 1.0 mg/L
Total toxic metals 2.0 mg/L
ISO STANDARDS
The NGO was established in Switzerland (Geneva) during 1974, its main function is to
develop voluntary technical standards for better services, based on consensus-approach.
The ISO 14000 (Sep 1996) refers to environmental issues that include seventeen main
requirements of it, like environmental policy, impacts, objectives, training,
documentations, safety, environmental auditing etc. A few examples of ISO 14000 series
are given below;
 ISO 14001: Environmental management systems

 ISO 14015: Environmental assessment
 ISO 14031: Environmental performance evaluation
 ISO 14040: Life cycle assessment
 ISO 14064: Greenhouse gases emissions
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LESSON 2
WATER SUPPLY
It is the provision by public utilities, commercial organizations, community endeavors or
by individuals of water, usually by a system of pumps and pipes. A water supply system
provides water to the locations that need it. This term has several contexts:
 Municipal water supply system for household and commercial use;
 Firefighting water supplies;
 Any water stored for later use
WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

A branch of civil engineering concerned with the development of sources of supply,
transmission, distribution, and treatment of water. The term is used most frequently in
regard to municipal water works, but applies also to water systems for industry,
irrigation, and other purposes.
Water obtained from subsurface sources, such as sands and gravels and porous or
fractured rocks, is called ground water. Ground water flows toward points of discharge in
river valleys and, in some areas, along the seacoast. The flow takes place in water-
bearing strata known as aquifers. In an unconfined stratum the water table is the top or
surface of the ground water. It may be within a few inches of the ground surface or
hundreds of feet below.
WATER CRISIS
It is a term used to refer to the world‘s water resources relative to human demand. The
major aspects of the water crisis are associated with overall scarcity of usable water and
water pollution. Majority of the planet is composed of water, 97% of this water is
constituted of saltwater; the freshwater used to sustain humans is only 3% of the total
amount of water on Earth. Therefore, the competition for water in an overpopulated
world would pose a major threat to human stability. More 2 billion people have gained
access to a safe water source since 1990. The proportion of people in developing
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countries with access to safe water is calculated to have improved from 30 percent in
1970 to 84 percent in 2004, parallel with rising population, and this trend is projected to
continue.
There are several principal manifestations of the water crisis.

 Inadequate access to safe drinking water for about 884 million people.
 Inadequate access to water for sanitation and waste disposal for 2.5 billion people.
 Groundwater overdrafting (excessive use) leading to diminished agricultural
yields.
 Overuse and pollution of water resources harming biodiversity
 Regional conflicts over scarce water resources sometimes resulting in warfare
MAJOR SOURCES OF DRINKING WATER

Groundwater: The water emerging from some deep ground water may have fallen as
rain many decades, hundreds, thousands or in some cases millions of years ago. Soil
and rock layers naturally filter the ground water to a high degree of clarity before it is
pumped to the treatment plant. Such water may emerge as springs, artesian springs, or
may be extracted from boreholes or wells. Deep ground water is generally of very
high bacteriological quality (i.e., pathogenic bacteria or the pathogenic protozoa are
typically absent), but the water typically is rich in dissolved solids, especially
carbonates and sulfates of calcium and magnesium. Depending on the strata through
which the water has flowed, other ions may also be present including chloride, and
bicarbonate. There may be a requirement to reduce the iron or manganese content of
this water to make it pleasant for drinking, cooking, and laundry use. Disinfection
may also be required. Where groundwater recharge is practiced; a process in which
river water is injected into an aquifer to store the water in times of plenty so that it is
available in times of drought; it is equivalent to lowland surface waters for treatment
purposes.
Upland lakes and reservoirs: Typically located in the headwaters of river systems,
upland reservoirs are usually sited above any human habitation and may be
surrounded by a protective zone to restrict the opportunities for contamination.
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Bacteria and pathogen levels are usually low, but some bacteria, protozoa or algae
will be present. Where uplands are forested or peaty, humic acids can colour the
water. Many upland sources have low pH which require adjustment.
Rivers, canals and low land reservoirs: Low land surface waters will have a
significant bacterial load and may also contain algae, suspended solids and a variety
of dissolved constituents.
Rainwater harvesting or fog collection which collects water from the atmosphere can
be used especially in areas with significant dry seasons and in areas which experience
fog even when there is little rain.
Desalination of seawater by distillation or reverse osmosis.
WATER POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN PAKISTAN

Generally, water pressure is low in Pakistani supply systems. Together with leaky pipes,
this has led to infiltration of contaminated water. As a result of sewage and industrial
waste, this leaked into drinking water through damaged pipes, which causes major
outbreaks of waterborne disease epidemics mostly in the major cities. Approximately,
more than three million people per year in Pakistan are infected with waterborne diseases.
In several areas, increased arsenic, nitrate and fluoride contamination was detected in
drinking water. About percentage of microbial, arsenic, nitrates and fluoride
contamination drinking water sample of Pakistan is about 63, 20, 12 and 5, respectively.
That accounts that more than 82% of the people in Pakistan are taking unsafe water for
their drinking purposes.
SANITARY ENGINEERING
Sanitary engineering is the application of scientific or mathematical principles with to the
field of sanitation, especially in regards to its effect on public health.
SEWAGE (WASTEWATER)
It is the mainly liquid waste containing some solids produced by humans which typically
consists of washing water, faeces, urine, laundry waste and other material which goes
down drains and toilets from households and industry.
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SEWER (CONDUITS)
It may refer to:
Sanitary sewer, a system of pipes used to transport human waste
Storm sewer, a collection and transportation system for storm water
Combined sewer, a system performing both the functions of a sanitary sewer and
a storm sewer
WASTE MANAGEMENT
It is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal of waste materials. The
term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and is generally undertaken
to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics. Waste management is also
carried out to recover resources from it. Waste management can involve solid, liquid,
gaseous or radioactive substances, with different methods and fields of expertise for each.
The general trend in developed countries is to reduce the quantities of waste material
produced. The 3Rs concept is widely used, i.e. reduce, recycle and reuse the wastes
material.
METHODS OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL

There are two main methods of sewage disposal, i.e,
Dry or conservatory system; in this system different types of wastes/refuse are
collected separately and disposed off. This system is mainly used in rural areas where
there is shortage of water.
Water carriage system; in this system water is used as a medium to carry wastes to its
final point if disposal. The quantity of water is so large (99.9%) that the wastes
become liquid which is carried by the sewers. The garbage is collected separately as
in the dry system.
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LESSON 3
PLANNING A WATER WORKS SCHEME

Collection of water
First the source of water is identified on the basis of water quantity estimations,
i.e. whether ground source (well/tube well etc.) or surface sources
(rivers/canals/spring etc.) that can fulfill the requirements till the life of the
project.
Purification of water
It means, whether the selected water is fit for its intended use or not. The various
parameters of water quality are tested and the analyses are compared with the
drinking water quality guideline values (e.g. the WHO guidelines).
Transmission of water
Transmit/supply the unpurified water from the source to the community via
treatment plant, and the purified water from the treatment plant or source to the
community. It may be pressure of gravity flow depending upon the topography of
the location. But preferably, it should be a gravity flow.
Distribution of water
It is the supply of water either from the transmission system or from the storage
system within the community to the consumers in adequate quantity and under
adequate pressure. The WASA (Water and Sanitation Agency of Pakistan)
recommends 20-30psi of minimum residual pressure in the distribution system.
COLLECTION OF WATER
The quantity of water depends upon the following factors
Design period
Design population
Design Flow
Design Area
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Design Period
It is the number of years in future for which the existing facility and the excess capacity
are provided.
Factors Affecting Design Period
Physical life of the structure
Ease and difficulty of work
Rate of population growth
Rate of interest o borrowed money
Lead time of project
Economic of scales
Some common examples of design period;

Large Dams, Conduit -------------- (20-50) years
Distribution system (10-15) years
(20-25) years
Design Population
It is the number of people residing in a certain area at any particular time. While
forecasting population the following points must be kept in mind;
Knowledge of the city and its environment
State of development in the surrounding area
The communication system, business and commercial activities etc
The population of an area may suddenly be disturbed by, some extra ordinary
events such as discovery of oil, development of an industrial state etc.
Method of Forecasting Population

Arithmetic Growth Method
Geometric Growth Method
Curvilinear Method
Logistic Method
Declining Growth Method
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Ratio Method
Arithmetic Growth Method

It is based on the assumption that the rate of growth of population is fixed/constant.
Mathematically; If Po is the present population of a city and Pf is its future population
after a time period of Δt then; Pf = Po + Ka Δt
Geometric Growth (Uniform percentage) Method
It is based on the assumption that the rate of growth of population is proportional to the
existing population.
Mathematically; If Po is the present population of a city and Pf is its future population
Δt
after a time period of Δt then; Pf = Po * eKg
Problem [Population forecasting using Arithmetic Growth Method and Geometric

Growth Method]
The following data has been obtained from the census department of city ―A‖
Year 1970 1980 2000
Population 80,000 110,000 227,000
Forecast the population of the city in the year 2010, 2020 and 2035, using
Arithmetic Growth Method
Geometric Growth Method
Solution
According to AGM; Pf = Po + Ka Δt
In the above equation Pf is required. Taking 1980 as Po than Δt is 30 yrs for P2010, 40 yrs
for P2020 and 55 yrs for P2035 and so on………..(if needed). But Ka = ?
Assuming/considering 1980 as Po and 2000 as Pf,
Thus, P2000 = P1980 + Ka Δt
227,000 = 110,000 + Ka (20)
Ka = 5850 persons/yr
Now, P2010 = P1980 + Ka Δt
P2010 = 110,000 + (5850)(30)
= 285, 500 = 286, 000 persons (say)
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Also, P2020 = 110,000 + (5850)(40)

P2020 = 344,000 persons and so on……..
And according to GGM; Pf = Po * eKgΔt [but Kg =?]
Considering, Po = P1980 and Pf = P2000
227,000 = 110,000 * eKg (20)
eKg (20) = 2.06
Kg (20) = 0.314 or Kg = 0.0157 (no units)

Thus; Pf = Po * eKg Δt
P2010 = P1980 * eKg Δt
P = 110,000o * e(0.0157)(30)
P = 110,000 * 1.601 = 176, 175
P = 176,200 persons (say)
Also, P2020 = P1980 * eKg Δt
P2020 = 110,000 * e(0.0157)(40)

P2020 = 206, 000 persons (say) and so on……..
Design Flow
The discharge required for an area is known as design flow. It is classify according to
• Domestic Use
• Commercial and Industrial Use
• Public Use
• Losses (and wastes)
Domestic Use (44%)

It varies according to living condition of the consumer from 75-380 lpcd (liters per capita
per day)
Flushing toilet 41 %
Washing and batting 37%
Kitchen uses 6%
Washing clothes 4%
General (house) cleaning 3%
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Gardening 3%
Drinking 5% (0.3–0.5 gpcd)
Car washing 1%
Commercial (15%) and Industrial (24%) Use

Water required for commercial purpose is often related to the floor area of the building.
Symom, proposed an average value of 12.2m3/1000m2 of floor area per day (0.3gal per
ft2 of floor area per day).
The industrial required is normally expressed as, water required for producing a unit mass
(kg or tone per product), e.g. 45tones of water per tone of steel is required in steel mills,
or 160tones of water per tone of paper production, in paper mills
Public Use (9%)

It includes mosques, school, jail, hospitals, fire fighting, city halls etc.
Loses and wastes (8%)

It is the unaccounted water, i.e. the water which is lost due to leakage, unauthorized
connections, wrong metering (if provided) and so on …….
Factors Affecting Water Consumption

The average daily water consumption per capita varies from 130 to 200 liters, depending
upon the following factors;
Size of city
Characteristics of population
Industrial and commerce
Climate of the area
Quality of water
Cost of water/metering system
Pressure in the distribution system
Air conditioning in the area
System of the water supply
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Sewerage facility
Efficiency of the water works administration
FIRE DEMAND
―The quantity of water required to extinguish the largest possible fire in the area‖.
If the residual pressure in the main is less than 20psi than mobile fire pumping is
required, and if it is about 70psi than no need of mobile sources. Depending upon the
population and duration of fire, the community can be divided into two groups.
Low risk area High risk area
Population (persons) ≤ 25,000 > 25,000
Duration (hours) 4–5 ≥ 10
The minimum flow required is 750 gpm and the maximum is 6000 gpm
Empirical formulae for fire demand;

Insurance Services Office (ISO) formula; F (gpm) = 18C * √A
Where,
A (ft2) = floor area of the building, excluding basement(s)
C = constant, depends upon the material of construction
Type of construction Value of ―C‖
Wooden frame structure 1.5
Ordinary structure 1.0
Non-combustible material 0.8
Fire resistant structure 0.6
National Board of Fire Underwriters (NBFU) formula; Q (gpm) = 1020√P(1–0.01 √P)

Where;
P = population in thousands
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Problem [Fire demand, using ISO formula]

Determine the amount of water required for fire fighting for a seven storey building
(including one storey basement). The building is made up of ordinary construction
material, and the floor area of each storey is 500 ft2.
Solution:
According to ISO formula, the fire demand is given by; F (gpm) = 18 C * √A
Since, the material is of ordinary construction, therefore, C = 1.0. Similarly, A = 500 * 6
= 30,00 ft2 [not 07, because one storey is for the basement]
Hence, F = 18 * 1.0 √(30,00) = 986 gpm (required answer)
AVERAGE DAILY DEMAND (ADD)

―The total quantity of water (Q) required for a community for a period of one year,
divided by the number of days (365) in the year‖ Qavg: is the daily average flow based on
yearly data.
q = Q/365 (lpd or gpd)
Or, q = Q/[P * 365] (lpcd or gpcd)
Where, P = population of the community
Normally, the maximum daily demand (MDD), Qmax = 1.8 * ADD
And, the peak hourly demand (PHD), Qpeak = 2.7 * ADD (or 1.5 * MDD).
The treatment units are designed on the basis of daily average flow while peak and
minimum flows are used to check the capacities of basin and conduits in extreme flow
condition. But normally, the overhead tanks, storages basins, filters are design on the
basis of maximum daily demand, whereas, the pipes/conduits, pumping stations are
design on the basis of peak hourly demand.
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LESSON 4
WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

Organoleptic parameters
These parameters are sensed by the human organs like color, turbidity, odor, tastes
etc.
Physiochemical parameters
Temperature, pH, EC, chlorides, sulfates, etc.
Parameters concerning substances undesirable in excess amount
Nitrates, phosphorous, iron, suspended solids, zinc, fluoride etc
Parameters concerning toxic substances
Arsenic, chromium, mercury, cyanides etc.
Microbiological parameters
Total coliform, fecal coliform etc
SEWAGE/WASTEWATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

Characteristics and strength of wastewater are the first essential data required for the
design of wastewater treatment system. Wastewater flows reaching the treatment sites are
never constant and uniform. They vary in quality and quantity daily, seasonally, monthly
and yearly. Characteristics of wastewater depend on the quality of water used by the
community, conservation practice and culture of population, types of industries present
and treatment given by industries to their wastewater. In order to know about the line of
treatment of the sewage, its characteristics (compositions) must be known.
A typical composition of the sewage
1. Water (99.9%)
2. Solids (0.1%)
i. Organic Solids (70%)

Protein 65%
Carbohydrates 25%
Fats 10%
ii. Inorganic Solids (30%)

Salts
Grits
Metals Page 20 of 175
Following characteristics/properties of sewage are found using the analysis of sewage.

Physical Characteristics
Chemical Characteristics
Biological Characteristics
Physical Characteristics; of wastewater include those items that can be detected using
the physical senses. They are temperature, color, odor, and solids.
Chemical Characteristics: contains both organic and inorganic chemicals in addition to
various gases like H2S, CO2, CH4, and NH3 etc that are formed due to the decomposition
of sewage. The chemical characteristics of wastewater of special concern are pH, DO
(dissolved oxygen), oxygen demand, nutrients, and toxic substances.
Biological Characteristics: the three biological organisms present in wastewater are
bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Bacteria in raw sewage may be expected to be a range of
500,000 to 5,000,000 per milliliter. These bacteria are responsible for the decomposition
of complex compounds to stable compounds with the help of some extracellular and
intracellular enzymes. Bacteria can also be classified according to their dissolved oxygen
requirement. Aerobic bacteria are bacteria that require dissolved oxygen to live.
Anaerobic bacteria cannot live if dissolved oxygen is present. Facultative bacteria can
live with or without dissolved oxygen. The bacteria in sewage may be pathogenic or non-
pathogenic in nature. Depending upon the mode of action of bacteria may be divided into
the following three categories;
Aerobic Bacteria
Anaerobic Bacteria
Facultative Bacteria
PREAMBLE OF IMPORTANT PARAMETERS

pH: the extent of acidity or alkalinity of a solution or medium; expresses the negative
logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. It is generally determined in the
laboratory with the help of digital pH meter. The pH meter is designed by electrometric
method using standard hydrogen electrode as reference point.
The pH of sewage is initially high and drops when the sewage becomes septic but
becomes increases again with the treatment processes. The pH values less than 5 and
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more than 10 usually indicate that industrial wastes exist and are not compatible with
biological wastewater operations. Pretreatment of these wastes at the source is usually
required since extreme pH values may damage biological treatment units.
Temperature: of sewage the sewage is slightly more than that of water, because of the
presence of industrial sewage. The temperature changes when sewage becomes septic
because of chemical process. The lower temperature indicates the entrance of ground
water into the sewage.
Turbidity: the term ―turbid‖ is applied to waters containing suspended matter or in

which the visual depth is restricted. It may be caused by a wide variety of suspended
materials, which ranges in size from colloidal to coarse dispersions; these include silt,
clay, organic matter, microorganisms, and other minute particles. It causes unaesthetic
appearance to water, and also affects the disinfection, filtration and analysis processes. It
is measured with the help of turbidimeter, designed in the principle of nephelometric
techniques. It is value is normally expressed as NTU or JTU.
Color: of wastewater containing dissolved oxygen (DO) is normally gray. Black-colored

wastewater usually accompanied by foul odors, containing little or no DO, is said to be
septic. The color of the sewage shows whether it is fresh or septic. The color of fresh
sewage is yellowish grey to light brown. While that of the septic is black or dark due to
oxidation of organic matter. It is measured by visual comparison method, where the
values are match with standard color obtained by using platinum cobalt.
Odor: domestic sewage should have a musty odor. Bubbling gas and/or foul odor may
indicate industrial wastes, anaerobic (septic) conditions, and operational problems. The
smell of the fresh sewage is oily or soapy while the septic sewage develops an
objectionable. H2S is the major source of pollution.
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Solids: all matter except the water contained in liquid materials is classed as solid matter.
The usual definition of solids, however refers to; ―the matter that remain as residual
upon evaporation and drying at 103±2oC”. There are two harmful effects of solids;
They obstruct light
They obstruct the free flow of oxygen (DO).
Wastewater is normally 99.9 percent water and 0.1 percent solids. If a wastewater sample
is evaporated, the solids remaining are called total solids. The most common types are
dissolved, suspended, settleable, floatable, colloidal, organic, and inorganic solids.
The TDS, TSS and TVS or TFS are measured using gravimetric techniques by heating
the samples at a temperature of 180oC, 103-105oC and 550oC, respectively.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS
Total Solids
Dissolve d Solids Suspended Solids

(Organic/ Inorganic)
Volatile Solids Fixed Solids

(Organic) (Inorganic)
Settleable Solids Non-Settleable
Solids
Sludge Volume Index
Alkalinity: the alkalinity of water is the measurement of its capacity to neutralized acids.
The alkalinity of natural water is due to the salts of carbonates, bicarbonates, borates,
silicates and phosphates along with the hydroxyl ion in free state. However the major
portion of the alkalinity in natural water is caused by the hydroxides, carbonates and
bicarbonates, which may be ranked in order of their association with high pH values.
Chlorides: it (Cl-) occurs in all natural water in varying concentration. Chlorides are salt
compounds resulting from the combination of the gas chlorine and a metal. Common
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chlorides include sodium chloride (NaCl) and magnesium chloride (MgCl2). Chlorine
alone as Cl2 is highly toxic, and it is often used as a disinfectant. In combination with a
metal such as sodium it becomes salt, an essential element for life. Small amounts of
chlorides are required for normal cell functions in plant and animal life. High chloride
levels can cause human illness and also can affect plant growth at levels in excess of
1000 mg/l. Taste threshold is about 250 mg/l for most people, however, calcium or
magnesium chloride are not usually detected by taste until levels of 1000 mg/l are
reached. High chloride contents may act corrosively on metallic pipes, which ultimately
causes leakage, and is also harmful to flora and fauna. Chloride is not harmful to man,
however the ―Na‖ part of NaCl is linked with the heart and kidney diseases.
Hardness: it is defined as the soap consuming capacity or the ability to form scales in hot
water pipes, boilers etc. It is mostly caused by multivalent cations like Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+,
Al2+, Mn2+, Ba2+ etc. The principle hardness causing cations are divalent calcium and
magnesium ions. Consumption of large soap for washing etc and it consumes high
fuel/electricity consumption due to deposition of Ca and Mg salts as insulating scales on
the bottom of boilers. Hard water is satisfactory for human consumption as soft waters.
Nitrate: nitrogen occurs in water in different forms e.g. Organic-N, Ammonia-N, Nitrite-
N, and Nitrate-N. Nitrogen has a complex chemistry because of several oxidation states
that nitrogen can assume and the fact that changes in oxidation state can be brought about
by living organisms. The overall transformation of nitrogen and nitrogen containing
compounds can be summarized in a sequential series of reactions called Nitrogen Cycle.
Excess amount of Nitrate can cause methamoglobinemia ―blue-baby syndrome‖ in
infants. And in the presence of Phosphorous compounds it can cause eutrophication
(algal growth).
Sulfate (SO42-): it is widely distributed in nature and may be present in natural waters in
concentrations ranging from a few to several thousand milligrams per liter. Water in
contact with sulfate rocks such as gypsum often has high sulfate values. Mine waters and
industrial effluents frequently contain large amounts of sulfate. The presence of sulfate is
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advantageous in producing desired flavors. The taste threshold of sodium sulfate is 200-
500 mg/L magnesium sulfate is 400-600mg/L and for calcium sulfate is 250-800mg/L. It
is important consideration in water supply scheme because above 200 mg/L, it may cause
diarrhea. It is responsible for odor and causes corrosion in concrete sewers. Water that
erodes concrete contain sulfate above 1000 mg/L. It is also responsible for the production
of hydrogen sulfide H2S. High concentration sulfate along with barium, calcium, and
strontium can form insoluble scales in pipes, condensers and boilers.
Arsenic: it is extremely toxic metal, mostly used in herbicides, pesticides, insecticides

and as wood preservative etc. It causes decrease in the production of red and white blood
cells. It also causes heart disruption, brain damage, nerve injury and cancer in man.
Fluoride: it prevent dental decay and harms to kidney, bones, nerves and muscles.
Iron: it‘s a hard metal normally used in automobiles, building underground pipes etc. Its
excess amount causes damages in cells of kidneys and the gastrointestinal tract.
Manganese: it is a hard and brittle metal, used in gasoline component, decolorize glass,
dry cell battery, surgical equipment etc. It causes toxicity both in plants and animals.
Coliform: many bacteria are found in water. Most of them are of no sanitary
significance, some are indicators of pollution but are harmless (non-pathogenic) other are
pathogenic in nature e.g. bacteria causing typhoid fever, paratyphoid, dysentery and
cholera. The coliforms are useful as indicator of pollution. It is the principle indicator
used, since they show that the water has been in contact with soils or plants or has been
polluted by sewage so recently that bacteria have not died out naturally or been removed
by natural filtration or treatment process. Coliform do not increase in number in water.
They die at a logarithmic rate in water. Coliform are of importance not only because they
indicate pollution but also because their presence and absence can be determined by
routine laboratory tests. Coliform, in sewage, vary widely according to its concentration
from 25,000 to 500,000 per ml. Coliform will ferment lactose with formation of gas, and
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hence are called ―gas formers‖. The Coliform can be separated into coliforms of fecal
origin (fecal coliforms) and non-fecal coliforms (originating from soils and vegetable
matter, etc). The predominant fecal coliform is Escherichia coli, which is commonly used
as an indicator organism. Escherichia coli is about 1m in diameter and 2-6m in length.
E.Coli enters the aquatic environment from the discharge of fecal contamination
introduced by some warm-blooded animals source including man. E.Coli is above 90% of
the total coliform bacteria present in stools. The existence of E.Coli in water samples
indicates the presence of fecal matter and the possibility of the presence of pathogenic
organisms of human origin. E.Coli is generally nonpathogenic (indicator organisms), but
certain types of E. coli frequently cause diarrhea, vomiting and nausea.
Dissolved oxygen (DO): in wastewater has a great effect on the characteristics of the
water. Wastewater that has DO is called aerobic or fresh. Aerobic raw sewage is usually
gray in color and has a musty odor. Wastewater that has no DO is called anaerobic or
septic. Anaerobic raw sewage is usually black and has an offensive hydrogen sulfide or
rotten egg odor.
The solubility of oxygen in fresh water ranges from 14.6mg/L at 0oC to about 07mg/L at
35oC at 1.0atm pressure. The solubility of DO is less in salt water than in clean water.
In wastewater it tells about the biological treatment conditions i.e. aerobic or
anaerobic treatment.
To maintain favorable conditions for the survival of aquatic life.
Used for stream pollution control activities.
It tells us about the amount of air necessary to supplied during aerobic wastewater
treatment methods.
It serves as mean of controlling corrosion of iron, particularly in distribution networks
and in stream boilers.
It serves as a basis for the BOD test.
Oxygen Demand: is the amount of oxygen used by bacteria and other wastewater
organisms as they feed upon the organic solids in the wastewater. Chemical tests such as
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the BOD (biochemical oxygen demand), the COD (chemical oxygen demand), and the
TOC (total organic carbon) measure the "strength" of sewage. It is important that organic
wastes be removed to protect the receiving body of water into which the wastewater plant
is discharging. Sludge deposits, odors, and fish kills may occur if removal is not
adequate.
BOD: is defined as the amount of oxygen required by the bacteria while stabilizing
decomposable organic matter under aerobic condition. It is written as by BOD or BOD520.
―It is the amount of oxygen required by aerobic bacteria to decompose/stabilized the
organic matter at a standard temperature of 20oC for a period of 05 days‖. For
domestic sewage 05 days BOD represents approx. 2/3 times of demand for complete
decomposition.
It gives the strength of the sewage in terms of oxygen required for its stabilization
It is (BOD) the major criterion used in stream pollution control where organic loading
must be restricted to maintain desired DO levels.
It is an important consideration for designing and evaluating the efficiency of
wastewater treatment plants.
COD: by definition the COD is the amount of oxygen required to stabilized the organic
matter chemically, i.e. the COD is used as a measure of the oxygen equivalent of the
organic matter contents of a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical
oxidant. COD determination has an advantage over BOD determination is that, the result
can be obtained in about few hours as compared to 05 days required for BOD test. This
test is useful in studying performance evaluation of wastewater treatment plants and
monitoring relatively polluted water bodies.
Nutrients: of life-supporting are nitrogen and phosphorus. They stimulate excessive

growths of algae and other aquatic plant life. They are always present in domestic
wastewaters and are not removed during conventional primary and secondary treatment.
Removal is accomplished by processes in addition to normal wastewater treatment or
tertiary treatment, when specific reuse requirements require it.
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Toxic Chemicals: most industrial use various types of toxic chemicals, the discharges of
which can be harmful to wastewater treatment processes. These toxic chemicals should
be pretreated or removed before the wastewater enters the collecting system.
FORMS OF IMPURITIES WITH RESPECT TO PARTICLES SIZE

This differentiation between the various size of particles helps to determine the type and
extent of treatment processes, e.g. particulate matters can be easily removed by the
principle of sedimentation using grit chambers of wastewater, the suspended matters can
be removed by simple primary sedimentation process, whereas, the colloidal matter
required chemical coagulation and flocculation prior to their gravity settling in the
sedimentation tanks. Moreover, generally speaking the dissolved matters are organic in
nature, which require secondary treatment, i.e., microbial treatment processes.
Particulate matter; size > 10-1mm, e.g. dust

 Suspended matter; size (10-3 to 10-1)mm, they retain on a filter of pore size about
1.2µm. They impart turbidity.
Colloidal particles; they range in size from (10-6 to 10-3)mm, they remain in
suspension because there settling velocity is less than 0.1mm/s e.g. clay minerals
Dissolved materials; size < 10-6mm. They impart color
WATER BORNE DISEASES

A man needs to drink at least 1.5 liters of water a day to replace fluid lost in urine, sweat,
and respired air and to perform essential biochemical functions. Moreover, almost 90
percent of body mass is water. Water, however, can also carry dangerous pathogens and
toxic chemicals into the body. The catalogue of waterborne pathogens is long, and it
includes many that are well-known as well as far larger numbers of more obscure
organisms. Waterborne pathogens include viruses (e.g., hepatitis A, poliomyelitis);
bacteria (e.g., cholera, typhoid, coliform organisms); protozoa (e.g., cryptosporidiosum,
amebae, giardia); worms (e.g., schistosomia, guinea worm); and toxins (e.g., arsenic,
cadmium, numerous organic chemicals).
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LESSON 5
This part deals with various design equations and conversion factors. It will facilitate to
determine the basic design parameters.
IMPORTANT CONVERSIONS
1 gal = 3.78 L
I hectare = 2.471 acre = 10,000 m2
1 ft3 = 7.481 gal = 28.32 L
1 m3 = 35.31 ft3
1 hp = 746 watt
1 psi (of water) = 2.31 ft (of water)
1 meter = 3.281 feet
1000 g/L = 1 kg/m3
DESIGN ASSISTANCE – WATER AND WASTEWATER TREMENT

Detention Time (Hydraulic Retention Time, HRT) is the length of time a particle or a unit
volume of water/wastewater remains in a reactor/basin/tank.
Mathematically; HRT, tD = (Volume/Flow rate) ------- days/hours/sec (units)
Flow Through Velocity or Horizontal Velocity and Settling Velocity; in any tank where
the flow is continuous, the solid particles in water/wastewater experiences two types of
velocities, one along the horizontal direction due to drag force and another along the
vertical direction due to gravitational forces. The horizontal velocity component is called
the horizontal velocity (vh) while the vertical component is called the settling velocity
(vs).
{A sand particle of 0.2 mm size with specific gravity of 2.65 is observed to settle at a rate of 2.3 cm/sec}
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Surface Loading Rate or Overflow Rate is the volume of water/wastewater applied per
unit surface area of the treatment basin and is normally expressed in units of m3/m2-d or
gal/ft2-d. As the surface loading is the hydraulic flow applied per unit surface area of the
tank, it is also known as hydraulic loading.
Mathematically; SLR = (Flow rate, Q/Area, As)

Numerically; SLR = HRT
Weir Loading Rate or Weir Overflow Rate is the quantity of wastewater flowing over a
unit weir length of the tank in a unit time. It is expressed in units of m3/m-d or gal/ft-d.
Mathematically; WLR = (Flow rate, Q/Total Length of Weir, L)
PROBLEM (Determination of tD, SOR/SLR, WLR)

A treatment unit is 1.5m wide, 20m long and has a depth of 2.0m. if the wastewater flow
rate through the tank is 0.5m3/sec. Calculate; detention time, overflow rate and weir
loading rate.
Solution
Volume of the tank, V = 1.5 x 20 x 2.0 = 60m3
Surface area of the tank, As = 1.5x20 = 30m2
Length of weir, Lw = 1.5m {length of width is equal to the total length of weir}
Flow rate, Q = 0.5m3/sec (given)
Detention time, tD = 60m3 / 0.5m3/sec = 120sec = 2.0min
Overflow rate, SLR = 0.5m3/sec / 30m2 = 60m3/m2-hr
Weir loading rate, WLR = 0.5m3/sec / 1.5m = 1200m3/m-hr
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Organic Loading is the total quantity of organic matter in terms of BOD or COD that is
applied per day over the unit surface area of per unit volume of the treatment basin or
tank.
Mathematically; OLR = (applied kg of BOD per day)/(volume of the basin)

It is expressed as kg-BOD/m3-d or kg-COD/m3-d
PROBLEM (OLR)
A treatment basin has a diameter of 20m and a depth of 2.5m. Calculate the organic
loading rate for an effluent of 10.0MLD (million liter per day) having 220mg/L of BOD.
Solution
Flow rate, Q = 10x106L/d (given)
BOD concentration, So = 220x10-6kg/L (given)
BOD applied per day = Q x So =10x106 x 220x10-6 = 2200kg/d
Volume of the basin, V = π/4 x 202 x 2.5 = 785.40m3
Therefore, OLR = 2200kg-BOD/d / 785.40 m3 = 2.80kg-BOD/m3-d
Food-Microorganisms (F/M) Ratio is the relationship between the available food (F) and
the microorganism (M) present in a biological treatment system. The food available to the
microorganisms is measured in terms of the BOD/COD (―So”) of the influent in kg/day
and the MLVSS (Mixed Liquid Volatile Suspended Solids, ―X‖) is the mass of the
organisms (biomass) in the reactor unit in kg. If the biomass is measured as MLSS
(Mixed Liquid Suspended Solids), then normally MLVSS is computed by assuming
MLVSS as 80% of MLSS.
Mathematically; F/M = Q x So / V x X ----------- it is expressed in unit of sec-1 or d-1 etc.
Since, HRT tD = V/Q, therefore, F/M = So / (tD x X)
PROBLEM (Determination of F/M)

If the wastewater with BOD concentration of 200 mg/L is treated in a tank having 6 hours
HRT and containing 4000 mg/L MLVSS, calculate its F/M ratio.
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Solution
Influent BOD concentration, So = 200mg/L (given)
HRT, tD = 6hrs = 0.25d (given)
MLVSS, X = 4000mg/L (given)
Since, F/M = So / (tD x X) = 200 / (4000 x 0.25) = 0.2 d-1
MASS-LOADING FACTOR
It takes care for the fluctuation in wastewater flows and the respective characteristics
loading parameters. As the performance of wastewater treatment plant is influenced by
the variation in flow rate, in their characteristics or both (mass loading), it is important to
compute ratio of peak to average and/or minimum to check the design treatment facilities.
The mass-loading factor is determined by computing the weighted average concentration
of wastewater constituents.
Mathematically; flow weighted average concentration, Cw = ΣCiQi / ΣQi
Example (Determination of weighted average)
Time (hr) Ci, (Q m3/h) Ci, (BOD mg/L) CiQi, (kg/hr)

0 16 180 2.88
1 15 185 2.76
2 13 165 2.15
3 12 170 2.04
4 13 155 2.01
5 14 144 2.02
and so on ---------------
Total 83 999 13.86
Simple average 13.83 166.51 2.31
Weighted average 0.17
REACTION RATES
It has been observed that the rate of many reactions is proportional to the concentration of
reactant(s) raised to small integral power. Three commonly occurring reaction rates in
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wastewater treatment have been classified as zero order, first order and second order
based on raised power integer of 0, 1, and 2, respectively. Biological wastewater
treatment processes are normally designed on the basis of reaction rates.
Zero order; such reactions proceeds at a rate independent of reactant concentration, e.g.
oxidation of ammonia to nitric oxide
First order; such reactions proceed at a rate directly proportional to a single reactant
concentration, e.g. it can be used to determine HRT for a given degree of substrate
concentration.
Second order; such reaction proceed at rate proportional to the second power of s single
reactant
{In general, the biological reaction rate doubles with each 10oC increase in temperature for all normal
ranges of operating temperature}
REACTORS OR TREATMENT UNITS

These are the vessels or basin that holds wastewater for the treatment by chemical or
biological processes. They can be of any shape. Depending upon the flow and operating
conditions and the methods of mixing of the wastewater therein, the reactors have the
following main types;
Continuous-Flow Stirred Tank Reactor (CFSTR) or Completely-Mix Reactor; the
reactants entering the reactor (which are dispersed immediately) and the products flowing
out from the reactor are considered as continuous.
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Plug-Flow Reactor or Tubular-Flow; fluid particles pass through the tank and are
discharge in the same sequence in which they enter.
Completely-Mix Batch Reactor; in a closed system where no flow is added or allowed to

leave during the design detention time, their design configurations are similar to the
CFSTR
Arbitrary-Flow Reactor; is any degree of partial mixing between plug-flow and

complete-mix.
Fluidized-Bed Reactor; is filled with the packing material that expands and gets fluidized
when wastewater moves upward in the reactor.
Packed-Bed Reactor; are filled with inert packing media for the growth of biomass.
Sequencing-Batch Reactor; is a filled and draw type of reactor working on the principle
of an activated sludge process
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LESSON 6
SELECTION OF THE TREATMENT PROCESSES

A selection of the set of treatment processes is preceded by detailed raw
water/wastewater quality analysis, minimum for a period of one year in case of water
analysis.
 Process applicability
 Raw water/wastewater characteristics
 Inhabiting and unaffected constituents
 Climate constraints
 Process size
 Performance
 Treatment residual
 Environmental constraints and protection
 Chemical requirements
 Energy requirements
 Technical and supervision requirements
 Operational and maintenance
 Reliability
 Complexity
 Compatibility
 Adaptability
 Economic life-cycle analysis
 Security
 Land requirement
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

Class A No treatment is required, e.g. tube well/borehole water
Class B Disinfection only, e.g. open wells or some tube wells water
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Class C Standard/Conventional water treatment processes. e.g. in case of surface

water supply/source.
Class D Special treatment required for special usage e.g. hardness removal for
industrial purposes, Fe and Mn removal etc.
CONVENTIONAL WATER TREATMENT PLANT
Intake
Pre-Treatment (screening, equalization,

neutralization, aeration, chemical pre-treatment)
US-EPA
Primary Treatment (coagulation.

flocculation and sedimentation)
Advanced
Treatment
Secondary Treatment (filtration)
Disinfection
Fluoridation
EU Directives
Consumers
Page 36 of 175
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Objectives of Wastewater Treatment
 To kill the pathogens
 To improve the quality of wastewater
 To avoid unhygienic conditions
 To protect the aquatic life from the toxicity wastes
 To make the wastewater usable for agricultural, aquaculture etc
RAW WASTEWATER
Screening to landfill
Screening
Communitors
Grit chamber Grit to landfill/recycle
Equalization tank
Primary
P rimary clarifiers sludge
Return filter backwash
Biological treatment Return sludge liquor

recycle
Secondary
Secondary clarifiers sludge
Sand filtration
Sludge treatment
Chlorination
Sand disposal
Receiving bodies
Page 37 of 175
MAJOR FUNCTION OF TREATMENT UNITS

Aeration To improve taste and odor in water
Neutralization To adjust the pH value in water/wastewater

Chemical pre-treatment To reduce excessive microbial pollution in highly turbid water
(chlorination), improves taste and odor problems (activated carbon) etc
Equalization tanks To regulate the quality and quantity towards the treatment units in
water/wastewater
Screening chamber To remove floating materials in water/wastewater
Communitors To breakdown large fragments into smaller pieces in wastewater
Grit chamber To remove small and heavy suspended solids in wastewater
Skimming tank To remove oil and grease in wastewater
Primary sedimentation tank To remove fine suspended inorganic and settleable organic solids in
water/wastewater
Coagulation/Flocculation To facilitate the settling of fine suspended and colloidal solids in
water/wastewater
Filtration To improve the quality of water in terms of dissolved substances/microbes
Biological treatment units To remove colloidal and soluble organic solids in wastewater
Secondary sedimentation To thicken and segregate biological sludge from wastewater
tank
Disinfection/Chlorination To destroy the pathogenic microbes/bacteria
Sludge digester To treat sludge before final disposal
Sludge drying beds To dewater sludge before final disposal
Note: pathogens can be removed by chlorination/ozonation, heavy metals by ion-exchange/chemical ppt.
Page 38 of 175
LESSON 7
DESIGN OF PRE-REQUISITES UNITS

In addition to the water/wastewater treatment system, there are some other units that are
essential to facilitate the treatability and final disposal of the wastes, like;
Sanitary sewer (in case of wastewater)
Pumping station
Approach channels
Flow equalization tank (or storage tanks)
 Design of sanitary sewers

Design of sewers means to find the diameter (size) and the slope (gradient) of
sewers/pipes/conduits to carry the given amount of wastewater (sanitary sewage of the
residential areas) to the final treatment/disposal unit at suitable self cleaning velocity,
normally 0.6m/sec. The average wastewater (sanitary sewage) is about 70-80% of the
average water consumption of the community.
Typical Wastewater Flows, L/unit/day
Apartment 260L/person/day
Hotel 190L/person/day
Home 200-380L/person/day
Office 55L/employee/day
Restaurant 10L/meal/day
Shopping centre 40L/employee/day (or 35 m3/ha/day)
Hospital 650L/bed/day
Schools 40-80L/student/day (280L/student/day, with boarding)
Cafeteria 6L/person/day
Airport 15L/passenger/day
3
Commercial 7.5-14m /ha/day
Light: 7.5-14m3/ha/day
Medium: 7.5-14m3/ha/day
Industries 3734m3/km2/day
Large (with no recycling): 85-90% of water consumption.
Otherwise, analyzed if recycled.
Generally, average wastewater = (70-80)% of average water supply (65gpcd), plus 5-10%infiltration allowance
Page 39 of 175
Design of sanitary sewers

Population, activities survey
Average water consumption, Qavg-w, 65gpcd
Average wastewater disposal, 70-80% Qavg-w
 Peak hourly wastewater flow, PF = (18 + √P) / (4 + √P)
Infiltration allowance, 5-10% Qavg-w
Commercial allowance, 12m3/ha/day
Industrial allowance, 3734m3/km2/day
 Design discharge, Qdesign = Qpeak + Qind + Qinf + Qcom …….
Self cleaning velocity, 0.6m/sec
 Manning‘s equation for slope, V = 1/n * R2/3 * √S
Material of the sewer Value of “n”

Smooth pipe 0.01
Brick/concrete pipe 0.013
Stone pipe 0.017
Earth pipe 0.025
PROBLEM (Design of sanitary sewers)

Using the following data design a sanitary sewer;
Community population, p = 18,000 persons
Average water consumption, q = 500 lpcd
Industrial area = 0.5 km2
Solution
Average water consupmtion, Qavg-w = p x q = 18,000 x 500 = 9000m3/d
{ Qavg = (70-80) % Qavg-w}
Average wastewater flow, Qavg = say, 80% of Qavg-w = 0.8 x 9000 = 7200m3/d
{PF = (18 + √P) / (4 + √P) where P = population in thousands}
PF = (18 + √P) / (4 + √P) = (18 + √18) / (4 + √18) = 2.70
Peak wastewater flow, Qpeak = PF x Qavg = 2.70 x 7200 = 19435.32m3/d

{Allowance for industrial sewage, Qind = 3734m3/km2/d}
Qind = 3734m3/km2/d x 0.5km2 = 1867m3/d
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{Infiltration allowance, Qinf = 5-10% of Qavg}

Qinf = say, 10 % of Qavg = 0.1 x 7200 = 720m3/d
Design discharge, Qdesign = Qpeak + Qind + Qinf = 19435.32 + 1867 + 720 = 0.25 m3/sec
Assume, cleaning velocity, V = 0.6m/sec
Cross-sectional area of the sewer, A = Qdesign / V = 0.25 / 0.6 = 0.42m2
Diameter of the sewer, d = √(4/π x A) = 0.728m = 28.66inches, say 30 inches

{Using Manning’s equation determine the slope of sewer, V = 1/n x * R 2/3 x √S}
Material of the sewer Value of “n”
Smooth pipe 0.01
Brick/concrete pipe 0.013
Stone pipe 0.017
Earth pipe 0.025
Say, earthen pipe, therefore, n = 0.025
Hydraulic mean radius, R = diameter / 4 (for circular pipe) = 0.76 / 4 = 0.19m
Actual velocity, V = Q / A = 0.25 / 0.45 = 0.6m/sec ≈ 0.6 m/sec ---- ok!
Therefore, slope of pipe using Manning‘s equation, 0.6 = 1/0.025 x 0.192/3 x √S

S = 1 in 480, say 1 in 500
 Pumping Station
Design of pumping station is required for providing gravity flow, especially on flat
grounds, or for the supply of water/wastewater when within various treatment units.
Page 41 of 175
Design of pumping station

 Design flow, Qpk
 Distance (L) and head of water (H)
 Velocity through rising main, V = 2.0–3.0ft/sec
 HRT for wet-well, tD = 20-30min
 Volume of wet-well, V = (Qpeak * tD) + Vrising main
 Depth of wet-well, H = 3-5m
 Velocity through suction pipe, V = 1.0m/sec
 Power required, P = γww QpkHT/75ηpump
γww = 1000kg/m3 ηpump = 60-65% HT = H + H L HL = fLv2/2gd + h

h = approx 0.3m/100m length of pipe for minor loses
PROBLEM (Design of pumping station)
Using the following data, design a pumping station to pump sewage against a head of
8.0m and conveyed it to a treatment plant located 200m away from the pumping station.
The peak hourly wastewater flow rate is 9000m3/d.
Page 42 of 175
Solution
Diameter of rising main =?
Assume velocity, V = 0.75m/sec {velocity through rising main is normally 2.0–3.0ft/sec}
Cross-sectional area, A = (Qpeak/V) = (0.103/0.75) = 0.14m2 {use Qpeak conduits design}
Therefore, diameter of the rising main, D = √ [(4*A)/π] = √ [(4*0.14)/π] = 0.42 m
Or D = 16.53 inches, say 18‖(0.46m) {Round-off to nearest higher value as per market availability}
Volume of the rising main, V = A x L = π/4*D2 x L = (π/4*0.462) x 200 = 33.22m3
Dimensions of the wet-well =?
Volume of wet-well, V = [Qpeak * tD] + [Vrising main]
{Detention time within the wet-well is normally 20-30min}
Say HRT, tD = 20min, hence V = (0.103 m3/sec * 1200 sec) + (33.22m3) = 156.82m3,
{Depth of wet-well is normally3-5}
Say depth, D = 4 m, therefore the surface area, A = 39.21m2
And diameter, Dia = √ [(4*39.21)/π] = 7.06, say 7.5m {Round-off to nearest higher value}
Diameter of the suction pipe =?
Assume velocity through suction pipe, V = 1.0m/sec
Therefore, cross-sectional area A = Q/V = 0.103/1.0 = 0.103m2
And diameter, Dia = 0.36m (≈ 15‖) {Round-off to nearest higher value}
Design of pump=?
Power required, P = γww QH/75ηpump

{γww = 1000kg/m3, ηpump = 60-65%, H (total head) = H + HL (fLv2/2gd + approx 0.3m for bend loses etc
for every 100m length of pipe for minor/bend/etc loses)}
HL = 0.01x200x0.752 / 2x9.81x0.46 + 0.6m = 0.72
Page 43 of 175
Therefore, total lift/head H = 0.72 + 8.0 = 8.72m
And, P = 1000x0.103x8.72 / 75x0.60 = 19.97, say 20hp {Round-off to nearest higher value}
Summary of designing
Dimensions of wet wells (DiaxD) 7.5mx4.0m
Pumps, hp 20hp
Diameter of the suction pipes 0.36m
Diameter of the rising main 0.46m
 Approach Channel
Used in wastewater treatment to facilitate the flow of wastewater. They are mostly
rectangular or square in shape. Wastewater from the wet well of the pumping station is
pumped into the approach channel from where it flows by gravity to the treatment plant.
Its main function is to provide a steady and uniform flow after pumping. Additional depth
of about 0.3-0.5m is added for the free board. Velocity through these channels is
normally from 0.45-1.5/sec.
Design of approach channel

Design flow
Velocity of flow, V = 0.45-1.5m/sec
Free board provision, 10-15% of Height
Hydraulic mean radius, R = A/P (P = B + 2D)
 Manning‘s equation for slope
PROBLEM (Design Procedure of an Approach Channel)

Using suitable design parameters, design an approach channel for a wastewater flowing
at the rate of 1500GPM (gallons per minute).
Solution
Assume velocity of flow, V = 0.75 m/sec
Therefore, cross-sectional area, A = Q/V = 0.09/0.75 = 0.12m2
Say, width and breath ration is; D:B = 1: 1.5, therefore, B = 0.43 m, D = 0.28 m
{Round-off to nearest higher value}
2
Or B = 0.5m and D = 0.30, actual area A = 0.15m
Page 44 of 175
Hydraulic mean radius, R = A/P = 0.15/1.10 = 0.14sm {P = B + 2D}
Using Manning‘s equation; V = 1/n x R2/3 x √S, determine the slope of the channel,
i.e., 0.75 = 1/0.01 x 0.142/3 x √S, {n = 0.01 for brick/concrete material}
Slope, S = 0.03, or 1 in 34
Width, B 0.5
Depth, D (in addition to 0.3m free board) 0.6m
Slope, S 1 in 34
Material Brick work
 Equalization tank
In order to improve the performance of a treatment unit, by eliminating the shock loading
rates, particularly in case of biological processes, it is require to equalize the strength of
wastewater and to provide uniform flow; therefore, an equalization tank is design for this
purpose. It also serves as safety line in case of minimum hourly flow during water supply
systems, i.e. serves as reservoirs in times of low flow.
In case of water supply works, storage tank should be equivalent to 7-10days of average
water demand is designed. Since the cost of building and maintenance of storage tank is
expensive, therefore, while designing it, its all benefits must be optimizing. In case f
wastewater treatment they are design for about 12hours storage capacity, for the purpose
of reducing the pumping cost. But relatively, the equalization tanks give no settling
benefits because constant aeration and mixing facilities are provided to prevent odor.
They may be designed in the line-off or off-line, as shown in the figure;
Page 45 of 175
Design of equalization tank

Estimate the flow rate for 24hrs
Cumulative flow rate
 Draw a curve ―Time(hr) Vs Qc(m3)‖
Draw tangents at the points of maximum curvature on both sides
Volume of tank required, V = a + b
Additional volume for safety/ free board, 15-20%
Depth of tank, H = 2-5m
Maximum unit size volume of tank rough 2000m3
PROBLEM (Design of equalization tank)

Using the following data, design a flow equalization tank.
Time (hr) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Q (m3/hr) 120 450 486 1170 1710 1320 1122 966 348 468 372 234
Solution
Determine the cumulative flow, ―Qc‖
Time (hr) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Q (m3/hr) 120 450 486 1170 1710 1320 1122 966 348 468 372 234
Qc (m3) 120 570 1056 2226 3936 5256 6378 7344 7692 8160 8532 8766
Using the following design procedure, determine the volume of the tank;
 Draw curve ―Time hr versus Qc m3‖
 Draw an average flow line on the curve obtained
 Draw tangents at the points of maximum curvature (above and below) on the curve,
parallel to the average flow line.
 Compute the total vertical distance(s) from the point of tangency to the average flow
line, i.e. a = 1900m3 and b = 850m3, thus a + b = 2750m3
 Add additional 15-20% volume for safety/free board etc; i.e. total volume of an
equalization tank, V = 1.2 x 2750 = 3300m3
 The tanks volume should be roughly below 2000, hence in this case provide 2 units,
therefore volume of each tank, V = 1650 m3
 The Depth is normally from 2-5m, therefore, say depth of tank, d = 5m
Page 46 of 175
 Hence, the surface area of the tank, A = 1650/5 = 330m2

 Assume L:W ≈ 2:1, thus length , L = 25m, W = 15m
Time (hr) Vs Qc (cum/hr)
8000
PROBLEM (Design of equalization tank)
6000
Time (hr) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Qc (cum/hr)
Q (m3/hr) 120 450 486 1170 1710 1320 1122 966 348 468 372 234
4000
Solution
Determine the cumulative flow, ―Qc‖
2000
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time (hr)
Page 47 of 175
LESSON 8
PRE-TREATMENT OF WATER
This includes;
 Screening (water/wastewater treatment)
 Neutralization/pH adjustment (water treatment)
 Aeration (water treatment)
 Chemical pre-treatment (water treatment)
 Grit chamber (wastewater treatment)
 Communitors (wastewater treatment)
 Skimming tank (wastewater treatment)
 Screening
The objective of screens is to remove large floating material (e.g. rags, plastic bottles etc)
and coarse solids from wastewater. It consists of parallel bars, wires or grating,
particularly stainless steel wire mesh, placed across the flow inclined at 30o-60o and
extending throughout the depth of the channel. Mostly square or rectangular bars are
used, but in case of rectangular bars, the shorter side is placed cross to the flow direction.
The screening chamber is installed in a properly designed square or rectangular channel.
They are frequently cleaned, as the retained solids (screenings) will tend to increase the
head loss across the screens by clogging the screens. According to method of cleaning;
the screens are of two types hand cleaned screens and mechanically cleaned screens. The
screening wastes is collected and temporary kept in a perforated jackets/pockets, from
where than they are disposed off to the sanitary landfills at regular interval of 4-5days.
Type Micro screens Fine screens Medium screens Coarse screens

Water 20-40µm 6mm -- --
Wastewater 20-35µm 10-25mm 25-50mm > 50mm

Screening produced, ft3/MG 3-7 1.5-3 0.8
Page 48 of 175
In water treatment and designing the fine screens are mostly on the downstream side of
coarse screens, in case of no storage tank, whereas in case of storage tank, they are
located on the outlet of the storage tank. Sometimes micro-screens are also used for
suspended matters, algae etc, which are located on the upside of the slow sand filters, in
order to increase its filter run. In case of wastewater treatment commonly the medium
screens are used for the domestic sewage. However, fine screens are also used,
sometimes, to replace the primary treatment in wastewater, with the help of which more
than 50% TSS could be removed, whereas, roughly 25-40% BOD is removed.
Page 49 of 175
Design of screening chamber

Approach channel
Selection of screening
Type µS FS MS CS
Water 20-40µm 6mm -- --
Wastewater 20-35µm 10-25mm 25-50mm > 50mm

Screening produced, ft3/MG 3-7 1.5-3 0.8
 Square (20mm x 20mm) or rectangular bars (20mm x 40mm)

 Inclination of bars (30-60o), mostly 45o
 No of bars: Clear opening (n + 1) + width of bar (n) = width of channel
 Length of bars: Lb = D/sinθ
Effective width of the channel, We = W – (n x width of a single bar)

Effective cross-sectional area of the channel
Velocity through screens, Vs
Head loss, hL = 0.08(Vs 2 - Va2), must be ≤ 0.3m
3
Screening produced ≈ 0.05m /MG ≈ 10% of TSS; or whichever is more
Frequency of cleaning = 4-5days
Depth of perforated plates, at least 1m above the surface of wastewater flowing
 Total length of the screening chamber, L = Lb/cosθ + Lp-plate + (30-50%) additional
on both sides
PROBLEM (Design of screening chamber)

Design a screening chamber for a domestic wastewater flowing at the rate of 20MLD.
Page 50 of 175
Solution
Design a square/rectangular channel =?
Assume approach velocity of flow, V = 0.75m/sec
Therefore, cross-sectional area, A = Qdesign / V = 0.23/0.75 = 0.31m2
Say, W:D::1:1, hence
W = 0.55m or 0.61m (2.0ft) and D = 0.55m or 0.61m (2.0ft)
{Round-off to nearest higher value, make the depth D = 0.76m including free board}
Actual cross-sectional area, A = 0.61 x 0.76 = 0.46m2
And, actual velocity of flow, Va = 0.23/0.46 = 0.62m/sec {> 0.45 m/sec, ok!}
Selection of screening/bars size =?
Use 20x20mm medium screens with clear opening 40mm, inclined at 45o
As shown in the figure the no. of bars ―n‖ are given by;
Clear opening (n + 1) + width of bar (n) = width of channel
0.04 (n+1) + 0.02 (n) = 0.61m
Or n = 9.5, say no. of bars = 10, thus the clear opening is about 37.27mm
Length of bar, Lb = D/sinθ = 0.76/sin45o = 1.07m
Effective cross-sectional area of the channel =?

The effective width of the channel, We = W – (n x width of a single bar)
We = 0.61 – (10 x 0.02) = 0.41m,
Therefore the effective cross-sectional area, Ae = We x D = 0.41 x 0.61 = 0.25m2
Velocity through screens is, Vs = (0.23/0.25) = 0.92 m/sec
Head loss =?
Head loss, hL = 0.08(Vs 2 - Va2) = 0.08(0.922 – 0.62 2) = 0.04m {≤ 0.3m, ok!}
Quantity of screening produced =?
Say, frequency of removing the screening = 4.0days
Page 51 of 175
Amount of wastewater flowing in 4.0days = 20 x 4.0 = 8.0MGD
Assume the amount of screening produced = 0.05m3 per million gallons of wastewater
Design of perforated plates =?
Cross-sectional area of the channel/screening chamber 0.61m x 0.76m
Size of bars 20mm x 20mm
Inclination of bars 45o
Clear opening b/w the bars 37.27mm
Length of bars 1.07m
Frequency of cleaning the perforated plates 4.0days
 Neutralization or pH adjustment
Corrosion (<2.0) and incrustation (>12.5) can be prevented by adjustment of pH of water.
Water with low pH, in the presence of free oxygen and CO2 will be corrosive. And at
high pH incrustation occurs, i.e. deposition of salts. Alkaline waters are comparatively
less problematic then the acidic, but nevertheless often require treatment. Adjustment of
pH is done by using lime (to increase the pH) or by adding mineral acids, like sulfuric
acids (to decrease the pH). The most optimum pH range, to prevent inhabitation during
treatment processes is 6.5-9.0.
With the increasing use of nano-filtraion, reverse osmosis, etc; more attention is now
being given to scaling characteristics of the end product, e.g. CaCO3 deposition. The
scaling tendency is estimated by using the Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) and Ryzner
Index (RI).
Design of neutralization process

Appropriate pH: 6.5-9.0 to prevent inhabitation
Neutralization of acidic wastewater: lime stone beds by the addition of slaked lime
[Ca(OH)2], caustic soda [NaOH], or soda ash [Na2CO3], only when the concentration
of H2SO4
Also the concentration of metallic ions [Al3+, Fe3+ etc] should be minimum
Incrustation takes place, if CaSO4 and metallic hydroxides are produced.
Page 52 of 175
Neutralization of alkaline: mineral acids [HCl, H2SO4 etc]. But H2SO4 is commonly
used because comparatively it is cheaper.
Also by bubbling CO2 through perforated pipe, producing carbonic acid [H2CO3]
which reacts with the alkalinity. This process is more economical.
 Aeration
Aeration is basically the supply of oxygen from atmosphere to water. It is done usually in
case of ground water and less common in the surface water.
Aeration is used for;
 To release the excess H2S (removal of tastes and odor)
 To release the excess CO2 (removal of corrosive tendency)
 To increase the O2 concentration (to remove taste and odor, to prevent
photosynthetic algae growth, to remove Fe and Mn etc.)
Simple mechanical process of spraying water into air and allow it to fall over a series of
waterfalls.
Design of aeration process

Approximately air required: 40-50m3/kg-BOD
Aeration by bubble diffusers (perforated pipes), turbine aerators (submerged), or
surface aerator
For wastewater turbines are commonly used.
Depth of tank: 12-15ft
Motor size: 3-150hp (10-12hp commonly used)
Speed of turbine: 30-60rpm
Turbine size: 3-12ft diameter
Post aeration detention time: 10-20minutes
Page 53 of 175
 Chemical Pre-Treatment
Chemical pre-treatment is done in order to remove the undesirable properties of water.
Most common chemical pre-treatment is pre-chlorination and use of activated carbons.
The pre-chlorination is used in case of low turbidity and high coliform load. Addition of
chlorine also oxidizes and precipitates Fe and Mn etc. The addition of activated carbon,
as an absorbent, is used to remove photosynthetic algae, improvement of tastes and odor,
removal of organic compounds etc.
Design of chemical pre-treatment

 Pre-chlorination dosage ≈ 5mg/L (its 5times that of the post-chlorination)
PAC is cheaper, used for intermitted taste and odor problems, at the rate of 3-20mg/L
prior to coagulation or sand filtration.
If the problem persists, GAC is used. In a tank depth of 0.5-2 meter, at the rate of
4L/sec-m2 of the surface area of the tank.
 Communitors
They are installed in a flow channels of small wastewater treatment plant (<0.2m 3/sec,
5.0MGD). They are used to shred material to sizes from 6 to 20mm without removing
the shredded solids from the flow stream. Their main function is to prolong the life of
equipments and to reduce the wear on the cutting surfaces. Since these units (grinders)
are complete in themselves, no detailed design is necessary. The typical head loss
through communitors ranges from 0.1-0.3m.
Page 54 of 175
 Grit chamber
Grit is inorganic sand or gravel particles of size about 1.0mm which are washed into
sewer collection systems from roads and pavements. Grits are composed of sand, small
gravel, cinder (ashes), broken glasses or other heavy solids material present in
wastewater. Grit doesn‘t exist in industrial wastewater but is the part of municipal
systems where the collection systems combine sanitary sewage and storm water. Its
presence in wastewater can trouble mechanical equipment within the wastewater
treatment system and also it might get settle down in the biological treatment systems,
reducing its efficiency.
As these materials have greater specific gravity, they are separated from wastewater by
gravity settling. The grit chambers are just like sedimentation tanks, design mainly to
remove heavier particles or coarse inert and relatively dry suspended solids from the
wastewater. There are two different types of grit chambers like rectangular horizontal
flow types, aerated grit chamber, detritus tanks, etc. The rectangular horizontal flow types
and aerated grit chambers are most commonly in used.
The rectangular horizontal flow is properly design to remove particle of size above 0.2
mm or more and the organic matter is not allowed to settle down with the help of proper
velocity control. Whereas, in the aerated grit chamber the organic solids that would
Page 55 of 175
otherwise settled down by gravity is kept in suspension by rising air bubbles by the
aerated system provided at the bottom of the tank or by means of some type of agitation.
Grit chambers are mostly rectangular in shape, sometimes they are provided with aerating
devices. The depth varies from 1.0-1.5m, but in case of aerated grit chamber the depth
may be taken as 2.5-4.0m. The hydraulic retention time varies from 2-5min and the
surface loading rate varies from 1200-1700m3/m2-day. During the designing the settling
velocity of ≥ 0.01m/sec and the SLR are checked to confirm acceptable design procedure.
The amount of grit/sludge/waste produced in the grit chamber is about 0.04m3 per million
liters of wastewater passing through it. Thus an additional amount of depth is required in
both the case for the free board, sludge produced etc. The quantity of air introduced in the
aerated grit chamber ranges from 0.2 to 0.5m3 per minute per meter length of the tank.
The frequency of sludge withdrawal is normally from 3 to 5 days.
Design of grit chamber

Rectangular Horizontal-Flow (RHF-GC) and Aerated (A-GC)
HDT: 2-5min
 Depth: RHF-GC = 1.0-1.5m, and A-GC = 2.5-4.0m
 L : W :: 2.0-2.5 : 1.0
 Check: SLR = 1200-1700m3/m2/day, or Vs ≥ 0.01m/sec
Addition depth: 20-25% for free board (because of excessive turbulence at inlet and
outlet)
Quantity of air (A-GC): 0.2 to 0.5m3/min/m length of the tank
Sludge production: 0.04m3/ML of wastewater
Sludge withdrawal frequency: 3-5days.
Page 56 of 175
PROBLEM (Design of aerated grit chamber)

Using suitable design criteria, design an aerated flow type grit chamber for a design flow
of 10MLD.
Solution
 Dimensions =?
Assume a detention time, tD = 4.0min,
Volume of the basin, V = Qdesign x tD = 0.12 x 240 = 28.8m3
Say, depth of tank, D = 3.50m, therefore, the surface area, As = 28.8/3.50 = 8.23m2
Assuming L:W ≈ 2.5:1; than W = 1.81m or 2.0m and L = 4.53m or 4.5m
Thus actual surface area, As = 4.5 x 2.0 = 9.0m2
Check, the surface overflow rate, SLR =?
SLR = Qdesign / As = 0.12/9.0 = 0.01m3/m3/sec or = 1240 m3/m3/day, hence ok!
The amount of grit produced =?
Assume that the amount of grit produced = 0.04m3/ML of wastewater
Say, the frequency of sludge withdrawal = 03days
Quantity of wastewater passing through the grit chamber is 3.0 days = 10 x 3 = 30ML
And amount of grit produced in 3.0 days = 1.20m3
Amount of air required=?
Assume the amount of air required = 0.4m3/min per meter length of the chamber
Thus, air required = 0.4 x 4.5m = 1.80m3/min
Overall dimensions =?
L x W x D = 4.5m x 2.0m x 4.5m (including free board/sludge storage)
Page 57 of 175
Dimensions of the basin, LxWxD 4.5m x 2.0m x 4.5m
Frequency of cleaning the grit 03days
Amount of grit produced per day 0.04m3
Amount of air required 1.80m3/min
 Skimming tanks
They are provided mainly to remove oil and grease etc. They are located a head of
primary sedimentation tank to protect pumps and downstream treatment components. It is
so designed that lighter materials like oil and grease content of wastewater rise to the
surface of wastewater and remains on top of wastewater until removed. The treated
wastewater flows out through the outlet provided below the water line. Pre-aeration is
required to improve its efficiency. Regular cleaning of traps is essential to prevent
clogging of inlet and outlet pipes.
They are mostly rectangular in shape, with hydraulic retention varying from 3 to 30min.
Normally; the surface area of 250m2 is taken for the wastewater flowing at the rate of
1.00m3/sec. Add a about 0.2-0.5m for free board.
Design of skimming tank

HDT: 3.0-30min (commonly = 10-15min)
Surface Area, As = 250m2 for 1.0m3/sec of wastewater flowing
Rectangular: L:W :: 1.5-2.0:1
Height: 3-5m
Additional depth of 10-15% for freeboard.
Page 58 of 175
PROBLEMS (Designing a skimming tank)

Using suitable design criteria, design a skimming tank for a given flow rate of 0.56m3/sec
Solution
Assume a detention time, tD = 5min = 300sec
Volume of the tank, V = Q x tD = 0.56 x 300 = 168m3
Since, the surface area required for 1.0m3/sec = 250m2,
Therefore, for 0.56m3/sec, the surface area, As = 250 x 0.56 = 140m2
Assuming L:W::1.5:1, W = 10 m, and L =14.5 m, thus actual AS = 10 x 14.5 = 145m2
And the depth of tank, D = V/ As = 168/145 = 1.15m, say = 1.2m
Or the total depth of tank including free board, D = 1.5m
Dimensions, LxWxD 14.5m x 10m x 1.5m
Page 59 of 175
LESSON 9
PRIMARY TREATMENT
This includes
 Coagulation and flocculation
 Lime-Soda water softening process
 Sedimentation
 Solids-Contact Units
 Coagulation and flocculation

Coagulation is the addition and rapid mixing of a coagulant, the resulting destabilization
of colloidal and fine suspended solids, and the initial aggregation of the destabilized
particles. Whereas flocculation is a slow mixing techniques to agglomerate the fine
microfloc in large floc particles
Particulate matter in suspension, after screening, have particle size ranges of 10-7 to 10-1
mm. Due to small size, their settling velocities (during sedimentation process) is
negligible. Thus, the objective of the coagulations is to promote their settling in a short
(economic) time period, by promoting particles agglomeration with the help of chemical
coagulants. The three most common coagulants are;
 Aluminum sulfate (alum)
 Ferrous sulfate (ferric)
 Ferric chloride
The chemical feeders may be solution feeder or dry feeder, according to the measuring of
the chemical dosage. It is desirable to use dry feeders, as they require less equipment and
labor. For solution feeders, a solution of known concentration of chemical is prepared in
a storage tank. The principle system involved in both water and wastewater treatment is
the solid dispersed in liquid (sols; organic/microbes/virus, inorganic/clay etc) and the
liquid dispersed in liquid (emulsion; oil dispersed in water).
Page 60 of 175
Colloids have extremely large specific area (area per unit volume) posses electrostatic
charges relative to the surrounding water. Colloids solids may be hydrophilic or
hydrophobic in nature in nature, depending upon their affinity for water. The hydrophilic
groups have affinity for water, due to the presence of water soluble groups, such as
amino, carboxyl, sulphonic, hydroxyl etc. They promote hydration of water and thus a
water layer surrounds the hydrophilic colloids, which is termed as water of hydration or
bound water. The hydrophobic colloids (e.g. clay) have little or no affinity for water, and
thus don't form water of hydration or bound water. Since, most of the suspended particles
are of negatively charged, thus they repel each other and hence, stay in suspension.
Particles that remain in suspension are said to be stable. If their electrostatic charge can
be changed, they would become destabilized, attract each other, agglomerates and settle.
The negative colloidal particle will attract to its surface, ions of the opposite charge. The
compact layer of continuous is termed as fixed layer; outside the fixed layer is the
diffused layer. Both layers will contain positive and negative charged ions, but the
positive ions will be relatively more. The two layers represent the electrostatic potential
of the colloidal particles. The shear plane/surface surrounding the particles encloses the
volume of water that moves with the particles. The zeta potential is the electrostatic
potential at the shear surface. It depends upon the charge of the colloidal particle, and it is
also dependent on the distance through which the charge is effective. The greater the zeta
potential the greater is the repulsive force between the colloids and the more stable is the
colloidal suspension.
Similarly, the presence and the thickness of the bound water layer also affect the colloidal
stability, as it prevents the particles from coming into close contact. The shear surface is
at the outer boundary of the bound water layer in case of hydrophilic colloids, and near
outer boundary of the fixed layer in case of hydrophobic colloids. The repulsive forces
are due to the electrostatic zeta potential, and the attractive forces are due to the Van dar
Waal‘s forces.
Page 61 of 175
Destabilization of the colloids takes place by three ways;

1. Reduction of zeta potential, to the degree where Van dar Waal‘s forces are effective.
2. Aggregate of particles by inter-particles bridging, b/w reactive groups.
3. The enmeshment of particles in the precipitated flocs that is formed.
The three most common coagulants are;

 Aluminum sulfate (alum)
 Ferrous sulfate (ferric)
 Ferric chloride
When a coagulant salts is added to water, which is normally an aluminum salt

[Al2(SO4)3] or an iron salt [Fe2(SO4)3], it dissociates and the metallic ion undergoes
hydrolysis and creates positively charged hydroxo-metallic ion complexes
[Meq(OH)p2+]. Since, these complexes are polyvalent and posses high positive charge,
therefore, they are absorbed to the surface of the negative colloids. Thus resulting in the
Page 62 of 175
reduction of zeta potential to a level where the colloids are destabilized. When aluminum
is sulfate is added to raw water, the following reaction takes place;
The optimum pH range for aluminum hydroxide floc formation is 4.8-7.8 as within this
range this floc is insoluble. For dilute suspension, relatively large coagulants a dosage is
required, due to less chances for inter particulate contact. The coagulation of colloids by
organic polymers occurs by chemical interaction, which has ionizable groups like
carboxyl, amino, sulphonic etc. Mostly in coagulation, the terms electrokinetic,
perikinetic and orthrokinetic coagulation are used.
Electrokinetic coagulation is due to the reduction in zeta potential.
Perikinetic coagulation is due to the inter-particle contacts, caused by the Brownian
movements.
Orthrokinetic coagulation is due to the inter-particle contact, caused by fluid motion,
due to agitation.
Coagulants are sometimes assisted with further chemical, known as coagulants aids, such
as polyelectrolyte, lime (alkalinity addition), pH correction (lime, sulfuric acid). High
turbid and alkaline water are easy to treat (coagulated). Jar Test is used to determine the
exact amount of coagulants. They may be solution feeder or dry feeder, according to the
measuring of the chemical dosage. It is desirable to use dry feeders, as they require less
equipment and labor. For solution feeders, a solution of known concentration of chemical
is prepared in a storage tank.
In rapid-mix basin, where intensive uniformly dispersion of the chemical (coagulants)

throughout the basin is required, and in slow-mixing basin where agglomeration takes
place, certain devices are required for producing agitation within the basins.
The type of devices usually used to finish the agitation required in both rapid mixing and
flocculation may be;
Page 63 of 175
Mechanical agitators (such as paddles)

Pneumatic agitators
Baffle basins
The mechanical agitators are the most commonly used. It is very effective, flexible in
operation, and are not much affected by the variation in flow and have low head losses.
The mechanical rotary mixing devices may be classified as, turbines, paddle impellers, or
propellers. The basins/tanks may be baffled or unbaffled; however, baffles are desirable
because they minimize vortexing and rotational flow. Small baffles extending into the
tank a distance of 0.10 times the tank diameter or width will minimize vortexing and
rotational flow and, consequently causes more power to impart to the liquid.
In case of pneumatic agitation, the detention time and velocity gradient are of same
magnitude as in the case of mechanical mixing. Variation of the ―G‖ may be obtained by
the variation in the air flow rate. It is not much affected by the variation in the influent
flow rate, and the head losses are relatively less. But the baffles agitators are not suitable
for variation in the flow rate, as in this case it is not possible to vary the velocity gradient
to any extent.
For flocculation agitation the power required may be imparted by mechanical or

pneumatic or baffle basins, but the mechanical agitators, paddle wheels are commonly
used. Now days the baffles are not employed at the present due to limited value of ―GT‖.
The degree of completion of the floc formation depends upon the floc characteristics,
velocity gradients and the value of ―GT‖. The ―GT‖ is related to the total number of
collisions during aggregation in the flocculation process. A higher the value of ―GT‖
value indicates the large number of collisions during aggregation. If the ―G‖ is too great,
the shear forces will prevent the formation of a large floc. Similarly, if the value of ―G‖ is
too small, than inter-particulate collision will not occur, and hence flocculation will not
take place. If the water is difficult to coagulate, the floc will be brittle and a final ―G‖ less
than 5fps/ft may be required. However, for water that readily coagulates, the ―G‖ may be
as large as 100fps/ft.
Page 64 of 175
Flocculation basins are generally designed to provide for tapered flocculation in which
flow is subjected to decreasing ―G‖. This produces dense, rapid-settling floc particles.
Typical series of ―G‖ values could be 80, 40 and 20 fps/ft. The arrangement of paddle
wheels on the horizontal shaft may be cross-flow pattern, in which the paddle wheels are
mounted at right angles to the overall water flow, and axial-flow pattern, in which the
paddles wheels are parallel to the flow.
The compartments are separated by wood baffles or concrete walls, with orifices. The
multiple compartments in addition to the reduction of short-circuiting, also facilitate
tapered flocculation.
For cross-flow pattern, tapered flocculation may be provided by varying the paddles size,
the number of paddles, and the diameter of the paddle wheels on the various horizontal
shafts. Or by varying the rotational speed of various horizontal shafts. In axial-flow
pattern, tapered flocculation may be obtained by varying the paddle size and the number
of paddles on each paddle wheel having common horizontal shafts.
Design aid for coagulation and flocculation basin is;

For rapid mixing/coagulation tank
Typical detention time, td = (20-60)sec
Velocity Gradients, G = (700-1000) sec-1
For slow mixing/flocculation tank

Detention time, td = (20 - 60) min
Velocity Gradients, G = (35-70) sec-1
 GT (Camp No) = (48,000–210,000)
 For lime-soda softening, the velocity gradients, G = (1.15 – 1.75) times and the
GT = (1.60 – 1.70) times, that used for water coagulation and flocculation.
Page 65 of 175
Design of rapid-mix/coagulation basin

 Detention time, tD = 20-60sec (1-2min)
 Baffled or unbaffled: square or circular in shape (10% of width or diameter to
minimize vortex and rotational flow)
VERTICAL BAFFLES
 Depth, H: 1.25times of width or diameter

 Agitation: mechanical (turbine, paddle, propellers), pneumatic, baffle
PNEUMATIC
MIXING DEVICE
Turbine Paddle Propeller Pneumatic Baffle
 Velocity gradient, G
tD sec 20 30 40 ≥ 50
G sec-1 1000 900 790 700
 Absolute viscosity of water, µ ( Ib-sec/ft2)
µ ( Ib-sec/ft2) x 10-5 3.742 3.171 2.735 2.39 2.106 1.869 1.671 1.505 1.391
µ ( Ib/ft-sec) x 10-4 12.04 10.21 8.801 7.692 6.778 6.014 5.379 4.844 4.476
T (oC) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 39
Page 66 of 175
Power required, P
Equation for Power required during agitation for both rapid and slow mixing basins
G = √(w/µ)= √(P/µV) ( for mechanical or pneumatic agitation is )
where;
G = velocity gradients fps/ft or sec-1
W = power imparted to the water per unit volume of the basin, ft-Ib/sec-ft3
P = power imparted to the water, ft-Ib/sec
V = basin volume ft3
µ = absolute viscosity of the water, Ib-sec/ft2
G = √(γhL/µT) (for baffle agitation)
where;
γ = density of water, 62.4 Ib/ft3
hL = head loss
T = detention time
 Type of impeller
TYPES OF IMPELLERS
Page 67 of 175
 Value of constants: KT and KL

Type of Impeller KL KT
4 flat blades, vane disc 71.0 6.30
Turbine 6 flat blades, vane disc 71.0 6.30
6 curved blades 70.0 4.80
2 blades, D/W = 4 43.0 2.25
2 blades, D/W = 6 36.5 1.60
Paddles 2 blades, D/W = 8 33.0 1.15
4 blades, D/W = 6 49.0 2.75
6 blades, D/W = 6 71.0 3.82
Pitch of 1, 3 blades 41.0 0.32
Propeller
 Impeller diameter, Dia

For turbulent flow (NR > 10,000)
P = (KTη3Dt5γ)/gc [With baffles]
where;
P = power ft-Ib/sec
KT = impeller constant for turbulent flow (use value from table)
η = rotational speed, rps
Dt = impeller diameter, ft
γ = density of liquid, Ib/ft3
gc = 32.17 ft/sec2
In turbulent flow, the power imparted to the unbaffled tank is about 75% that of the
baffled tank.
For laminar flow2 (NR < 10 to 20)
P = (KLη Dt3µ)/gc [With/without baffles]
where;
KT = impeller constant for laminar flow (use value from table)
 Diameter to dimension ratio

Impeller D/W (D/Diameter of the tank) ratio
Turbine 30-50%
Paddle 50-80%
Propeller have maximum diameter of 18inches, with 1.0 or 2.0 pitch
Page 68 of 175
Check the type of flow (turbulent or laminar - Reynolds number NR)
NR = ηD2γ/µ
where;
µ = viscosity of water, Ib/ft-sec
Impeller diameter if no vertical baffles are used: KT = 0.75(value)
Amount of air required, if pneumatic mixing is used, Ga

P = 81.5Galog[(h+34)/34]
where;
P = power ft-Ib/sec
Ga = air flow rate, cfm
h = depth to the diffuser, ft (h = D – approx 0.5ft)
PROBLEM (Design of rapid-mix/coagulation basin)

Design a rapid-mix basin for water flowing at the rate of 2.0MGD, use the following
specification;
Detention time, tD = 40 sec
Operating temperature = 10oC
Speed of turbine shaft = 100 rpm
Solution
Volume of the basin, V =?
V = Q x tD = 3.09ft3/sec x 40sec = 123.79 ft3 {1cft = 7.48gal}
{Circular/square tank design; depth is normally 1.25 of width or diameter}

Say square tank, with depth D = 1.25 width W,
W = 4.63ft, say 4.75ft and D = 5.94ft, say 6ft
Actual volume of basin, V = 4.57 x 4.75 x 6 = 135.38ft3 > 123.79ft3 ok!
Page 69 of 175
Power required for agitation, P =?

Equation for Power required during agitation for both rapid and slow mixing basins
G = √(w/µ)= √(P/µV) ( for mechanical or pneumatic agitation is )
where;
G = velocity gradients fps/ft or sec-1
W = power imparted to the water per unit volume of the basin, ft-Ib/sec-ft3
P = power imparted to the water, ft-Ib/sec
V = basin volume ft3
G = √(γhL/µT) (for baffle agitation)
where;
γ = density of water, 62.4 Ib/ft3
hL = head loss
T = detention time
Detention time, tD sec Velocity gradient, G sec-1

20 1000
30 900
40 790
50 or more 700
Say mechanical agitation, P = G2µV

P = 790sec-2 x 2.73x10-5Ib-sec/ft2 x 135.38ft3 = 2307ft-Ib/sec = 4.19hp {550ft-Ib/sec = 1hp}
 Impeller diameter D =?
Either with or without vertical baffles, and either turbulent or laminar flow
VERTICAL BAFFLES
Page 70 of 175
For turbulent flow (NR > 10,000)

P = (KTη3Dt5γ)/gc [With baffles]
where;
P = power ft-Ib/sec
KT = impeller constant for turbulent flow (use value from table)
gc = 32.17 ft/sec2
In turbulent flow, the power imparted to the unbaffled tank is about 75% that of the
baffled tank.
For laminar flow2(NR < 10 to 20)
P = (KLη Dt3µ)/gc [With/without baffles]
where;
KT = impeller constant for laminar flow (use value from table)
Type of Impeller KL KT
4 flat blades, vane disc 71.0 6.30
Turbine 6 flat blades, vane disc 71.0 6.30
6 curved blades 70.0 4.80
2 blades, D/W = 4 43.0 2.25
2 blades, D/W = 6 36.5 1.60
Paddles 2 blades, D/W = 8 33.0 1.15
4 blades, D/W = 6 49.0 2.75
6 blades, D/W = 6 71.0 3.82
Propeller
Page 71 of 175
TYPES OF IMPELLERS
Say 4 flat blades, vane disc turbine are used assumes turbulent flow;
D = (Pgc /KTη3γ)1/5 = {2307ft-Ib/sec x 32.17ft/sec2 / 6.30 x (1.67rps)3 x 62.4Ib/ft2} = 2.10
say 2.0 ft
Impeller D/W (D/Diameter of the tank) ratio
Turbine 30-50%
Paddle 50-80%
Propeller have maximum diameter of 18inches, with 1.0 or 2.0 pitch
D/W = 2.0/4.75 = 0.42 or 42% ok!
Page 72 of 175
Check the flow (Reynolds number NR); turbulent or laminar =?

NR = ηD2γ/µ
where;
µ = viscosity of water, Ib/ft-sec
NR = ηD2γ/µ = 1.67rps x (2.0ft)2 x 62.4Ib/ft3 / 8.80Ib/ft-sec = 521,100 >> 10,000 ok!

 Impeller Diameter (if no vertical baffles are used) =?
KT = 0.75(6.30) = 4.725
D = (Pgc /KTη3γ)1/5 = {2307ft-Ib/sec x 32.17ft/sec2 / 4.725 x (1.67rps)3 x 62.4Ib/ft2} =

2.22 say 2.25 ft
D/W = 2.25/4.75 = 0.47 or 47% ok!
 Amount of air required, if pneumatic mixing is used, Ga =?
Say the air diffuser is 0.5ft above the bottom of the tank, h = 6ft – 0.5ft = 5.5ft
P = 81.5Galog[(h+34)/34]
where;
P = power ft-Ib/sec
Ga = air flow rate, cfm
h = depth to the diffuser, ft
PNEUMATIC
MIXING DEVICE
Ga = P / 81.5log(h+34)/34 = 2307ft-Ib/sec / 81.5log(5.5+34)/34 = 435cfm
Page 73 of 175
Summary of design
Dimensions 4.75ft x 4.75ft x 6.0ft
Power required 4.19hp
Impeller diameter 4-flat blades, vane-disc
(with vertical baffles) 2.0ft
Impeller diameter 4-flat blades, vane-disc
(without vertical baffles) 2.25ft
Air required 435fcm
Design of slow-mix/flocculation basin

 Detention time, tD = 20-60min (mostly 40-45min)
 Velocity gradient, G = (35-75)sec-1
 No of compartment = 2-3 (but each must be square in cross-section)
 Flow pattern: cross-flow or axial-flow
Horizontal Shaft Wheel Vertical Shaft Wheel

.
Cross-Flow Pattern Axial-Flow Pattern
Page 74 of 175
 For tapered flocculation, assume various ―G‖ values

 Camp No. GT = (48,000-210,000)
For design of paddle-wheel: assume no of wheels per shaft, pairs of blades per wheel.
For size of each blade, use reverse engineering: Xblades/Xtank = 15-20%
A rough vertical adjustment: 2t from outer edges, 0.75t between and 3-4t from the
central shaft (where: t = thickness of blade).
A rough horizontal adjustment: 15%L on each side and 20% of L between any two
sets of blades. (where; L = length of blade)
Determine the centre to centre distance between each blade of a pair of wheel, i.e.
―D‖
 Power required for each compartment, P = G2µV (if mechanical agitation, and where
V = volume of each compartment)
Power required per wheel = Power required for each compartment / no of wheel
The blade velocity relative to water, v = 0.75rps * D
 For speed of shaft, use Drag‘s Law for power per wheel (P = 0.97CDAv3)
L/W ratio of blades CD
5 1.20
20 1.50
∞ 1.90
PROBLEM (Design of slow-mix/flocculation basin)

Design a cross-flow, horizontal-shaft, paddle-wheel, flocculation basin for water flowing
at the rate of 6.5MGD, using the following specification;
Operating temperature, = 10oC
Detention time, tD = 50min
G1 = 50sec-1, G2 = 25sec-1, G3 = 15sec-1
Width of basin, W = 50ft
Solution
 Check GT = 30sec-1 x 3000sec = 90,000 ok! {GT = (48,000–210,000)
Volume of the basin, V =?
V = Q x tD = 10.05ft3/sec x 3000sec = 30,150ft3
Page 75 of 175
L x D = 30,150ft3 / 50ft = 603ft2
Say, three compartment, each should have square cross-sectional area

D = 14.18ft, say = 14.25ft, and L = 42.75ft
Actual volume, V = 42.75ft x 50ft x 14.25ft = 30,459ft3 > 30,150ft3 ok!
Horizontal Shaft Wheel Vertical Shaft Wheel

.
Cross-Flow Pattern Axial-Flow Pattern
 Paddle-wheel design =?
Assume four paddle-wheels per shaft, with blade size of 10ft x 0.5ft. Say, D1 = 5.5ft, D2
= 8.5ft, D3 = 11.5ft {1.5d+ d+1.5d…d+2+2+d…1.5d….d+1.5d}
Blade area per shaft = 0.5ft x 10ft x 6 x 4 = 120ft2
%age of cross-sectional area = 120 / (50 x 14.25) = 16.84% ok! {Limits 15-20%}
Page 76 of 175
 Power required for each compartment, P =?

Say mechanical agitation, P = G2µV
P1 = 50sec-2 x 2.73x10-5Ib-sec/ft2 x 10153ft3 = 690.40ft-Ib/sec = 1.26hp
 Speed of shaft, rpm =?

For first compartment, power required per wheel, P = 690.40/4 = 172.60ft-Ib/sec
Since, the blade velocity relative to water, v = 0.75 x rps x π x D
Therefore, v1 = 0.75 x rps x π x 11.5ft = 27.08(rps)
V2 = 0.75 x rps x π x 8.5ft = 20.02(rps)
V3 = 0.75 x rps x π x 5.5ft = 12.96(rps)
From Drag‘s Law, power per wheel, P = 0.97CDAv3 {A1 = A 2 = A 3 = A = 10ft x 0.5ft = 5ft2 x 2 = 10ft2}
P = 0.97 x 1.5 x 10ft2 (27.083(rps)3 +20.023(rps)3 12.963(rps)3) = 172.60ft-Ib/sec

rps = 0.073 or rpm = 4.38
Similarly, for second and third compartment, rpm2 = 2.76, rpm3 = 1.98
L/W ratio of blades CD
5 1.20
20 1.50
∞ 1.90
Summary of design
Dimensions 42.75ft x 50ft x 14.25t
(03 equal compartments)
Size of blades 0.5ft x 10ft
No of blades/paddles 03
Diameter of blades D1=5.5ft, D2=8.5ft, D3=11.5ft
No of paddles/shaft 04
Power required P1=1.26hp, P2=0.31hp, P3=0.11hp
Speed of shaft rmp1=4.38, rmp2=2.76, rmp3=1.98
 Lime-Soda Softening Process

Hardness is defined as, ―the ability of water to consume excessive amount of soap prior to
forming a lather and to produce scales in hot water heaters, boilers or other units in which
the temperature of water is significantly increased.‖ It is expressed as meq/L or mg/L of
equivalent CaCO3. The polyvalent metallic ions (Ca2+, Mg2+) reacts with soap to
Page 77 of 175
form insoluble organic salts that are present as scum on the water surface. Once all the
ions (Ca2+ Mg2+) are precipitated the lather will form. These ions are removed by adding
slaked lime [Ca(OH)2] and soda ash [Na2CO3] (by sweep coagulation).
Occasionally, coagulants (ferrous sulfate) are added with the slaked lime and soda ash to
aid in coagulation and flocculation. The amount of lime and soda ash depends upon the
concentration if TH (total hardness), CH (carbonate hardness), NCH (non-carbonate
hardness), Mg ions and CO2. The lime is used for CO2, CH, Mg ions, and additional
amount of lime (1.25meq/L) is required to raise the pH to alkaline medium. And the soda
ash is required only for the NCH. It is not possible to remove all the hardness. This
process will softener the water to about (50-80)mg-CaCO3/L.
The alkalinity is due to bicarbonate (pH 4.3), carbonate (pH 8.3), and hydroxide ions (pH
10.0). The carbonate hardness is chemically equivalent to bicarbonate and carbonate
alkalinity. Types of Hardness are;
 Calcium and Magnesium Hardness/Total Hardness:
Total Hardness = Ca hardness + Mg hardness
 Carbonate and Non-carbonate Hardness:
a) Carbonate hardness/temporary hardness {e.g., CaCO3, Mg(HCO3)}
b) Non-carbonate hardness/permanent hardness {e.g., 2CaCl2, MgSO2}
Limits of hardness
Soft water < 75 mg/L
Moderately hard water 75-150 mg/L
Hard water 150-300 mg/L
Very hard water > 300 mg/L
Page 78 of 175
Reactions/Chemical process
In water CO2 is found dissolved: Ca(OH)2 + CO2 >>> CaCO3 + H2O
Removal of Ca-CH: by 03 methods lime (CaO), caustic soda (NaOH) and soda ash (Na2CO3)
Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 >>> 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Removal of Mg-CH: by using lime
Ca(OH)2 + Mg(HCO3)2 >>> MgCO3 + CaCO3 + 2H2O
MgCO3 It is soluble, thus require more lime to remove from the system
Ca(OH)2 + MgCO3 >>> Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3
Removal of Ca-NCH: by using soda ash (Na2CO3)
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 >>>> 2CaCO3 + NaCl
Removal of Mg-NCH: by using lime (CaO)
Ca(OH)2 + MgSO4 >>> Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 >>> CaCO3 + Na2SO4
To precipitate CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 requires a pH of about 9.5 (optimum 10.3) and 10.8
(≈11), respectively. Therefore, some additional amount (1.25meq/L) of CaO is required
to raise the pH.
Hence, lime required = CO2 + CH + Mg ions + 1.25 meq/L. And, soda ash required =
NCH. After water softening the water will contains excess amount of lime, Mg(OH)2 and
CaCO3 that do not settle down/precipitate, therefore, are stabilized by adding CO2.
Which lowers down the pH to 9.5

CO2 + Mg(OH)2 >>> MgCO3 + H2O
Further stabilization to pH 8.5 will stabilized the CaCO3 by;
CO2 + CaCO3 + H2O >>> Ca(HCO3)2
Page 79 of 175
Design a lime-soda water softening process

Analysis of water required: CO2, Ca-H, Mg-H, Mg-ion, Alkalinity (BC, C, OH)
 Conversions from ―mg/L‖ to ―meq/L‖
For example the concentration of CO2, Ca2+, Mg2+ is ―A‖mg/L, ―B‖mg/L and ―C‖mg/L,
respectively, then
Step 1: mol wt / equivalence = ―X‖
CO2 = 12 + 32 / 2 = 22mg
Ca2+ = 40 / 2 = 20mg
Mg2+ = 24 / 2 = 12mg
For lime and soda ash is;

CaO = 40 + 16 / 2 = 28mg
Na2CO3 = 2x23 + 12 + 3x16 / 2 = 53mg
Step 2: A / X = ???? meq/L
Total Hardness, TH = Ca-H + Mg-H (or TH = Carbonate-H + Non-carbonate-H)

Total Alkalinity, TA = Bicarbonates (HCO3-1) + Carbonates (CO3-2 ) + Hydroxides
(OH-)
If TH > TA, than CH = TA, and NCH = TH – CH
And if, TH < TA, than CH = TH and NCH = 0
Lime required: CO2 + CH + Mg + 1.25 = ?????meq
Soda ash required: NC-H
PROBLEM (Lime-soda water softening process)

Determine the amount of lime and soda ash required to soft 1000gallons of water, using
the following specification;
Carbon dioxide, CO2 8.0mg/L
Ca2+ 65mg/L
Mg2+ 32mg/L
HCO3-1 260mg/L
Assume that the lime and soda ash are 85% and 95% pure, respectively.
Page 80 of 175
Solution
Weight of 1.0meq/L = mg?
Carbon dioxide, CO2 = Mol wt / equivalence = (12 + 32) / 2 = 22mg
Ca2+ = 40 / 2 = 20mg
Mg2+ = 24 / 2 = 12mg
HCO3-1 = (1 + 12 + 3x16) / 1 = 61mg
Lime, CaO = (40 + 16) / 2 = 28mg
Soda ash, Na2CO3 = (2x23 + 12 + 3x16) / 2 = 53mg
Expression of concentration in meq/L =?
Carbon dioxide, CO2 = 8.0 / 22 = 0.36meq/L
Ca2+ = 65 / 20 = 3.25meq/L
Mg2+ = 32 / 12 = 2.67meq/L
HCO3-1 = 260 / 61 = 4.26meq/L
Total hardness TH =?

TH = Ca + Mg = 3.25 + 2.67 = 5.92meq/L
Total alkalinity TA =?
TA = HCO3-1 + CO3-2 + OH- = 4.26 + 0 + 0 = 4.26meq/L
Carbonate hardness (CH) and non-carbonate hardness (NCH) =?
CH = TA = 4.26meq/L
And NCH = TH – CH = 5.92 – 4.26 = 1.66meq/L
Lime CaO and Soda ash Na2CO3 required =?
CaO = CO2 + CH + Mg + 1.25 = 0.36 + 4.26 + 2.67 + 1.25 = 8.54meq
Or CaO = 8.54 x 28 = 239.12mg/L = 63.26mg/gallon
CaO required per 1000gallons = 63259mg = 63.26gm
Also, Na2CO3 = NCH = TH – CH = 5.92 – 4.26 = 1.66meq
Or Na2CO3 = 1.66 x 53 = 87.98mg/L
Page 81 of 175
Na2CO3 required per 1000gallons = 87980mg = 87.98gm

Summary of design
Lime required 63.26gm
Soda ash required 87.98gm
 Sedimentation
―Sedimentation is the solid-liquid separation utilizing gravitational settling to remove
suspended solids‖.
The following four types of settling have been classified on the consideration of how the
particles in the water/wastewater react with each other, and on the basis of the
distribution of their concentration in wastewater.
Type I (Discrete or free settling) it is the settling of discrete, non-flocculants particles in a

dilute suspension, e.g. settling of sand particles in grit chamber.
Type-II (Flocculent settling) it is the settling of flocculated particles in a dilute

suspension, e.g. primary settling of wastewater, and settling of chemically coagulated
wastewater.
Type-III (Hindered or zone settling) it is the settling of an intermediate concentration of

particles in which the particles are so close together that the inter-particle forces hindered
the settling of neighboring particles, e.g. settling in an activated sludge process
Type-IV (Compression settling) it is the settling of particles that are of such a high
concentration that the particles touch each other and the settling can occur only by
compression of the compacting mass, e.g. settling in the lower depth of the activated
sludge.
The principle of sedimentation, the operational method and equipment used in water
treatment and wastewater treatment are the same. In wastewater its main uses are;
Page 82 of 175
 Grit or sand and silt removal

 Suspended solids removal in primary clarifiers
 Biological floc removal in activated sludge final clarifiers
 Humus removal in trickling filter final clarifiers
Page 83 of 175
Sedimentation basins are usually constructed of reinforced concrete and may be circular,
square, or rectangular in plan. In case water treatment, the hydraulic detention time is
taken as 2-8hrs and the depth of tank varies from 2.5 to 4.5m (i.e. 8-15ft). Additional
amount 0.5m is added to the depth for free board. Whereas, for the sludge storage abut
20% of the additional volume is added. The design procedure is checked against the
surface loading rate, SLR 20-35m3/m2-day (i.e. 500-800g/ft2-day).
But in case of wastewater treatment the surface area is first checked against the average
wastewater and the peak hourly flow rate, using the surface over flow rate of 1.2-
2.5m3/m2/hr and 2.0-5.6m3/m2/hr for the average and peak flow, respectively. The area
with higher value is selected for designing. The depth of tank varies from 3 to 4m, with
an additional amount of about 1.0m for the sludge storage and free board. The diameter
varies from 3-60m, typically 30m in case of circular tank design. The storage/settled
sludge are withdrawal at regular interval of 4-6hrs from the sludge pockets. A sludge
scrapper is provided, which moves at a speed of 0.02 to 0.05rpm directing the sludge
towards the sludge withdrawal zone. The designing is checked against the hydraulic
retention time (i.e. tD = 20min-3.0hrs) and the weir loading rate (i.e. WLR = 250-
500m3/m2/day). The conventional primary sedimentation tank normally removes about
60-70% of suspended solids and 20-30% of associated BOD (organic matter). The
following figure is used to estimate the amount of BOD and TSS removal during
sediment tanks.
Design of sedimentation tank for water treatment

Any material or shape
HRT, tD = 2-8hrs (mostly 4-6hrs)
Depth of tank, H = 2.5-4.5m (mostly 10-12ft)
Additional 20% for freeboard, sludge storage
 Check, SLR = 20-35m3/m2-day (i.e. 500-800g/ft2-day)
Scrapper movement: 0.02-0.05rpm
Sludge removal frequency = 1-2days
Page 84 of 175
Design of primary sedimentation tank for wastewater treatment

 Estimate average and peak hourly flow rate, Qavg and Qpk (Qpk ≈ 2.5-2.75Qavg)
 SLRavg = 1.2-2.5m3/m2/hr (1.6-1.8 m3/m2/hr)
 SLRpk = 2.0-5.6m3/m2/hr (4.0-4.2m3/m2/hr)
Maximum area is selected, A = Q/SLR
Depth of tank, H = 3-4m
 Additional 15-20% for freeboard, sludge storage
 Check, tD = 20min-3.0hrs
 Also check, WLR = 250-500m3/m2/day
 Scrapper movement: 0.02-0.05rpm
 Sludge removal frequency = 4-6hrs
 BOD/TSS removal is 20-30% and 60-70%, respectively.
PROBLEM (Design of sedimentation tank for water treatment)

Design a rectangular primary sedimentation for water following at the rate of 1000gallons
per hour, assume any missing data
Solution
Assume detention time, tD = 4.0hrs
Volume of tank, V=?
V = Q x tD = 133.69ft3/hr x 4.0hrs = 534.76ft3
Add additional 20% volume for sludge storage, V = (534.76x0.2) + 534.76 = 641.71ft3
Say depth, D = 14ft, therefore surface area, A = 641.71 / 14 = 45.84ft2
Page 85 of 175
Say, L:W::1.5:1, W = 5.23, 6.0ft and L = 8.29, 8.0ft

Actual volume, V = 8 x 6 x 14 = 672ft3 > 641.71ft3, ok!
Check, surface overflow rate, SOR =?
SOR = Q / A = 133.69ft3/hr / 48ft2 = 2.78ft3/ft2-hr = 20.37m3/m2-day ok!
Overall dimensions of the basins =?

L x W x D = 8.0ft x 6.0ft x 15ft (including 1.0ft for free board)
Summary of design
Dimensions 8.0ft x 6.0ft x 15ft
{The design procedure for sedimentation tank in case of wastewater and water treatment is different}
PROBLEM (Design of sedimentation tank for wastewater treatment)

A circular primary sedimentation tank has to be design for a municipal wastewater for an
average flow of 2.0MGD. The ratio of the peak hourly flow to average flow is 2.75.
Solution
Selection of the surface area, A=?
Using, SORavg = 1.6m3/m2/hr and SORpk = 4.2m3/m2/hr
The surface area based on average and peak hourly flow rate,
Aavg = Qavg / SORavg = 313.2m3/hr / 1.6 m3/m2/hr = 195.75m2

{For Qpk = 2.75x313.2 = 861.30m3/hr}
Also, Areapk = Qpk/SORpk = 861.30m3/hr / 4.2m3/m2/hr = 205.07m2

Therefore, the area, A = 205.07m2 governs the design
Dimensions =?
Assuming the circular tank, so diameter, Dia = √(4/π x 205.07) = 16.16m, say 17m
Say, depth of the tank, D = 3.0m
Therefore, volume of the tank, V = (π/4 x 172) x 3.0 = 680.61m3
Check, detention time, tD and WLR =?
V/Qpk = 680.61 / 861.30 = 0.79hr = 48.20 min {typical, tD 20min-3.0hrs, ok!}
Peripheral weir (circumferences of the tank) = π x diameter = 3.14 x 17 = 53.38m
Thus, WLRpeak = 861.30 / 53.38 = 16.14m3/m/hr
Page 86 of 175
= 16.14 x 24 = 387.25m3/m/day {Typical WLR = 125-500 m3/m/day}
% BOD and SS removal =?

Corresponding to SORpk, using figure, the percentage BOD and SS removal is 18 and
35%, respectively.
Overall dimensions of the basins =?
Diameter x D = 17m 4.5m (including sludge storage and free board)
Dimensions, Dia x Depth 17m x 4.5m
SORavg 1.6 m3/m2/hr
SORpk 4.2 m3/m2/hr
WLRpeak 387.25 m3/m/day
BOD removal 18 %
TSS removal 35 %
 Solids-Contact Units
These units combine mixing, flocculation and sedimentation into a single structure. They
are designed to maintain a large volume of flocculated solids within the systems, which
enhance the flocculation of incoming solids as there are more inter-particulate collisions.
The solids-contact units are mainly of two types;
 Slurry-Recirculation Type
 Sludge-Blanket Filtration Type
Page 87 of 175
LESSON 10
SECONDARY TREATMENT OF WATER (FILTRATION)

―It is a solid-liquid separation in which the liquid passes through a porous medium or
other porous material to remove as much fine suspended solids as possible‖
Classification according to the types of media used;

Single-Medium filter (sand/anthracite)
Dual-Media filter (sand and anthracite coal)
Multi-Media filter (sand, anthracite, garnet etc)
{Anthracite; a kind of coal which burns slowly without smoke}
Other material used as media are rice husk, plastic chips, activated carbon etc.
The main advantage of the multi-media filter has its longer filter run, high rate of
filtration, ability to filter water with higher turbidity and suspended solids.
Theory of filtration
Mechanical straining; remove suspended solids
Sedimentation; voids act as a minute sedimentation tanks, reducing velocity, thus
improving color and taste.
Bacterial action; bacteria trapped by sand as a hard skin (schmutzdecke)
Electrolytic charge; interaction between different charges from media to water
(impurities).
Classification of filtration systems

Gravity or pressure filter
Rapid, slow or variable filtration rates
Cake filtration or depth filtration
{In case of SSF, filtration is through this surface is a both physical and biological
mechanism, whereas, in case of RSF, depth of media is active and the quality improves
with the depth}
Page 88 of 175
Pores size
Single-media filter Dual-media filter
Design consideration (slow sand filter and rapid gravity filter)
Utilization; rural areas (SSF) & mostly urban areas (RGF)
Rate of filtration; 0.1-0.2m3/m2-hr (SSF) & 5-15m3/m2-hr (RGF)
Surface area of each unit; 35-200m2 (SSF) & 10-25m2 (RGF)
No. of units; minimum 02 in both types
Page 89 of 175
Depth; 2.5-3.5 meters in both

Depth of filter bed; 24-30 inches
- Anthracite = 24‖ and sand = 6‖
- Anthracite = 18‖, sand = 9‖ and garnet = 3‖
Gravel bed; 18-20 inches, in 05 layers (1/6” to 1”or 2”)
Effective size (D10);
- Anthracite = 0.6-.75 mm
- Sand = 0.5-0.6 mm
- Garnet = 0.2 mm
 Uniformity Co-eff. (D60/D10); 1.3-1.7 (RGF) & 2-3 (SSF)
Under drainage system; used to collect filter water from the basin
- Total area = 0.2 % of the filter bed
- Dia of perforation = (0.5-0.6)inches at (5-6)‖c/c
- 10-12ft c/c spacing between the lateral pipes
- L/D ratio of lateral pipe ≤ 20
- Dia of the central pipe is twice that of the lateral pipe
- May be single or double filter
(3-4) feet of water above the bed
Head loss, HL = (0.5-1.5)ft, but when > (6-8)ft than cleaning/washing is required
Filter run; 20-30 hrs (RGF) & 20-30 days (SSF)
Cleaning; backwashing in RGF and scrapping in case of SSF
Others;
- Chemical treated water is passed through RGF, but not in case of SSF.
- Bacterial removal is 80-90% in RGF and 98-99% in SSF
- Comparatively the color and odor improvement is more in the RGF
Page 90 of 175
FILTER RUN TIME FOR OPTIMUM PERFORMANCE
Backwashing (it is done only in RGF)

 Rate of filtration; 0.5gal/min.ft2. But at the start initially for 2-3min it will be 15-
20gal/min.ft2
 Bed expansion; 20-50%
 Backwashing time; 3-10 minutes
 1-5% of the filter water is required for backwashing
 The wash water troughs are normally 5-6ft from one another and 1.0-1.5ft in
width, and its bottom should be at least 6‖ above the expanded bed.
 OHT: for backwashing, depth 1.5-2.5m
 Another techniques for RGF is by using air scouring
- Water is filter down to the bed (about 6‖)
- Air is introduced at the rate of 2-5cfm/ft2 for 3-10 minutes, than backwashing
(@ 2-5 gal/min.ft2) is done. Air is stopped when water reaches 1ft below the wash
water trough.
Surface scrapping (it is done only in SSF)

Surface scrapping is done 2-3 cm
The total off-line after cleaning is about 02 days
Page 91 of 175
Volume of filter water required is about 0.2-0.6 %

But the sand should be replaced after 12-15 years in both the RGF and SSF.
Design of rapid gravity filter

Design flow, Qdesign (or Qmax)
Filtration rate for SSF and RGF is 0.1-0.2m3/m2-hr and 5-15m3/m2-hr, respectively.
Surface area of each unit for SSF and RGF is 35-200m2 and 10-25m2, respectively.
 Effective size of media (D10): anthracite ≈ 0.75mm, sand ≈ 0.5mm, garnet ≈ 0.2mm
 Media depth: 2.5-3.0ft (S = 30‖, or A = 24‖and S = 6‖ or A = 18‖, S = 9‖ and G = 3‖)
 Gravel bed: 18-20 inches, in 05 layers (1/6‖ to 1‖or 2‖)
 Under drainage system: single of double pipes, diameter of central pipe is 2times that
of the lateral pipe, L/Dia ratio for lateral pipe ≤ 20, lateral pipes spacing is 10-12ft
c/c, diameter of pores is 0.5-0.6‖, pores spacing is 5-6 inches c/c and area of
perforation: ≈ 0.2% of the area of filter bed
Water level above the filter bed: 3-4ft
Head loss through filters, HL = 0.5-1.5ft (cleaning is required when > 6-8ft)
Surface scrapping (SSF): 2-3cm after 4-6weeks
 Backwashing (RGF): 0.5gal/min/ft2 (15-20gal/min/ft2 for initial 2-3min, bed 20-50%,
duration is 3-10 minutes, spacing between wash-water trough 5-6ft, depth of w-w
trough is 1-1.5ft, bottom of w-w troughs at least 6‖ above the expended bed, depth of
OHT is 1.5-2.5m)
Sand replacement: 12-15years
PROBLEM (DESIGN OF RGF)

Design a rapid gravity filter for a population of 2000 persons with an average water
consumption of 65gal/c/day.
Solution
Area, A =?
Average water consumption, Qavg = Pxq = 2000persons x 65gal/c/day = 130,000gal/day
{Filters are design on the basis of Qmax}
Max daily demand, Qmax = 1.8x130,000 = 234,000gal/day = 36.90m3/hr
Page 92 of 175
Surface area of the filter, As = Q/ν = 36.90/10 = 3.69m2 {rate of filtration, ν = 5-15m3/m2-hr}
Say circular filter, diameter Dia = 2.16m, say 2.29m (7.5ft)
Amount of media/gravel required =?
Say dual media filter, using anthracite and sand {anthracite = 24” and sand = 6”}
Quantity of anthracite = 4.12m2 x 0.61m = 2.51m3

Add 20% additional amount, therefore quantity of anthracite = 3.01m3
Quantity of sand = 4.12m2 x 0.15m = 0.62m3
Add 20% additional amount, therefore quantity of sand = 0.74m3
Quantity of gravel = 4.12m2 x 0.46m = 1.88m3 {gavel = 18-20”}
Add 15% additional amount, therefore quantity of gravel = 2.16m3

Dimensions of the OHT required for backwashing =?
Say for 2min rate of filtration = 10gal/min.ft2 and for the rest of 8.0min rate of filtration =
0.5gal/min.ft2
Volume of OHT, V = surface area of the filter x rate of filtration x time of filtration
V = 44.35ft2 x {1.34ft3/min-ft2 x 2.0min + 0.07ft3/min-ft2 x 8.0min} = 142.36ft3
Say, depth of OHT, D = 1.5m, therefore, surface area, As = 4.04/1.5 = 2.69m2
And diameter of the OHT, Dia = 1.85m
Summary of design
Rate of flirtation 10m3/m2-hr
Diameter of filter 7.5ft
Quantity of anthracite required 3.01m3
Quantity of sand required 0.74m3
Quantity of gravel required 2.16m3
Depth = 1.5m
Dimensions of the OHT
Dia = 1.85m
PROBLEM (DESIGN OF SSF)

Design a slow sand filter for a population of 2000 persons with an average water
consumption of 65gal/c/day.
Solution
Area, A =?
Average water consumption, Qavg = Pxq = 2000persons x 65gal/c/day = 130,000gal/day
Page 93 of 175
{Filters are design on the basis of Qmax}

Max daily demand, Qmax = 1.8x130,000 = 234,000gal/day = 36.90m3/hr
Surface area, As = Q/ν = 36.90/0.2 = 184.5m2 {rate of filtration, ν = 0.1-0.2m3/m2-hr}
Say circular filter, diameter Dia = 15.33m (≈ 50ft)

Amount of sand/gravel required =?
Say depth of sand = 3.0ft {normally single media; sand = 30-36”}
2 3
Quantity of sand = 184.5m x 0.91m = 169m
Add 20% additional amount, therefore quantity of sand = 202.80m3
Quantity of gravel = 184.5m2 x 0.46m = 84.87m3 {gavel = 18-20”}
Add 15% additional amount, therefore quantity of gravel = 97.60m3
Summary of design
Rate of flirtation 0.2m3/m2-hr
Diameter of filter 15.33m (≈ 50ft)
Quantity of sand required 202.80m3
Quantity of gravel required 97.60m3
Page 94 of 175
LESSON 11
SECONDARY TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER

(Biological treatment)
Concept of biological treatment

The primary treatment mostly removes large floating materials, grits and large portion of
suspended solids present in wastewater. The colloidal and the dissolved solids, mainly
organic in nature, still remain in the effluent from primary sedimentation tank because the
removal of colloidal solids by simple sedimentation takes longer time, while the
reduction of dissolved solids requires their stabilization or decomposition or conversion
into such solids that can then be removed by gravity settling.
Since, the mixed population of microorganisms (seed), naturally present in wastewater, is
able to utilize the colloidal and dissolved biodegradable organic matter as their food for
their growth and multiplication, therefore, to remove colloidal and dissolved solids from
primary effluent, the wastewater is further treated normally using biomass
(microorganisms) as an agent. This type of further treatment is called secondary
treatment. As it is usually utilizes the biological process therefore, it is also called
biological treatment.
Removal mechanism
Removal of colloidal suspension is achieved by the principal of physiochemical
adsorption and by enmeshment of suspended solids or particulate matter on the biological
floc, while reduction of soluble organic (BOD or COD) is achieved by microbial
biosorption and their further degradation and stabilization by microbes. The microbes
convert these solids into simpler end products like water and carbon dioxide, and
synthesize their own new cells. These cells are known as biomass or biological floc. As
the biomass floc has a specific gravity slightly greater than that of water, is settles easily
by gravity. Therefore, the news cells produced are removed in the secondary
sedimentation tank and the settled floc is known as biological sludge or secondary sludge.
Page 95 of 175
Objectives of biological treatment

To coagulate and remove both organic and inorganic non-settleable colloidal
practicals which do not get removed in primary treatment.
To stabilize the dissolved organic matter (normally carbonaceous BOD) that remains
present in the effluent from primary treatment.
Classification of biological treatment processes

A. Processes according to operational conditions
1. Aerobic process; requires the presence of molecular oxygen e.g. trickling filter,
aerobic stabilization ponds, activated sludge process
2. Anaerobic process; operates in the absence of molecular oxygen e.g. UASB
reactor
3. Facultative process; operates both in the presence and absence of oxygen e.g.
facultative stabilization pond
4. Anoxic process; converts nitrate into nitrogen in the absence of oxygen, also
called denitrification process.
B. Processes according to microbial maintenance in the system
1. Suspended growth process; the microorganism are maintained as suspension in
the reactor by appropriate mixing method e.g. activated sludge process
2. Attached growth process; the microorganism remain attached to some inert media
or material in the reactor e.g. trickling filter
General aerobic equation

Aerobic microbes
Organic matter + O2 CO2 + H2O + new cells
General anaerobic equation

Anaerobic microbes
Organic matter + H2O CH4 + CO2 + new cells
Mass/Material balance
Accumulation within the system = Input – Output ± Generation/Consumption
Page 96 of 175
IMPORTANT DESIGN BIO-KINETIC

Organic Loading is the total quantity of organic matter in terms of BOD or COD
that is applied per day over the unit surface area of per unit volume of the treatment
basin or tank.
Mathematically: OLR = kg-BOD per day / V (expressed in kg-BOD/m3-d)
Food-Microorganisms (F/M) ratio is the relationship between the available food (F)
and the microorganism (M) present in a biological treatment system.
Mathematically: F/M = QSo / VX ……..(expressed in time-1)
Since, tD = V/Q, therefore, F/M = So / tD X
Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT) or Solid Retention Time (SRT) or sludge
age is the average time in days for which the biomasses are retained in the biological
reactor.
Mathematically: MCRT = biomass in the reactor/ biomass removed from the reactor
MCRT = VX/QX = HRT ……..system with no recycle (expressed in time)
MCRT = VX / (QwXr + QeXe) ………system with recycling (expressed in time)
Specific growth rate constant: it has been observed that the rate of increase of
biomass (dX/dt) is directly proportional to the reactors biomass (X), i.e.
dX/dt ∞ X
or dX/dt = µX (where, µ = specific growth rate constant ……expressed in time-1)
Cell yield, or yielding co-efficient (Y) is the mass of new cells produced per unit
substrate utilized by microbes.
Mathemaically: Y = dX/dt / dS/dt = (Xt – Xo) / (So - Se)
 Maximum substrate utilizing rate constant, K: plot a curve between ―µ‖ versus
―S‖ as shown. Calculate K = µmax /Y (expressed in time-1)
Page 97 of 175
Half velocity constant or substrate concentration at one-half the maximum

substrate utilization rate, Ks is given by
Mathematically: µ = µmax (S / Ks + S)
(Ks is expressed in mg/L, i.e mass per unit volume)
Endogenous decay constant, Kd: when the substrate concentration in the reactor
decreases the microbes metabolized/utilize their own protoplasm (autodigestion), due
to which the concentration of the biomass in the reactor decreases. The rate of such
biomass decay (Rd) is proportional to the concentration of remaining biomass (X).
This constant of proportionality is called endogenous decay constant.
Mathematically: Rd ∞ X
Or R d = Kd X or Kd = - Rd/X
LABORATORY PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE Ks, K, Y and Kd

….for without recycle (therefore θ = θc)
Given data
Unit # So S θ X
1 350 12 3.8 132
2 350 20 2.6 130
3 350 34 1.8 132
4 350 60 1.3 123
5 350 70 1.2 119
Computed data
So-S Xθ Xθ/(So-S) 1/S (So-S)/Xθ 1/θ (or 1/θc)
338 501.6 1.484024 0.083333 0.673844 0.263157895
330 338 1.024242 0.05 0.976331 0.384615385
316 237.6 0.751899 0.029412 1.329966 0.555555556
290 159.9 0.551379 0.016667 1.813634 0.769230769
280 142.8 0.51 0.014286 1.960784 0.833333333
Page 98 of 175
And the value of µmax = KY = 3.10*0.47 = 1.46 d-1
Page 99 of 175
….for with recycle

Gven data
Unit # So S (reactor substrate) θc X θ
1 350 8 7 3900 0.18
2 350 12 4.5 2050 0.18
3 350 18 3 2850 0.18
4 350 48 1.6 1025 0.18
5 350 98 1.2 650 0.18
Computed data
So-S Xθ Xθ/(So-S) 1/S (So-S)/Xθ 1/θc
342 702 2.052632 0.125 0.487179 0.142857
338 369 1.091716 0.083333 0.915989 0.222222
332 513 1.545181 0.055556 0.647173 0.333333
302 184.5 0.610927 0.020833 1.636856 0.625
252 117 0.464286 0.010204 2.153846 0.833333
Page 100 of 175

And the value of µmax = KY = 2.43*0.41 = 1.0 d-1
BASIC DESIGN EQUATION FOR CMR

Without recycle:
Effluent substrate, S = [Ks(1 + θKd)] / [θ(YK – Kd) – 1]
HDT, θ = [µmaxS/(Ks + S)] - Kd
MCRT, θc = θ
Effluent biomass, X = [µmax (So – S)] / [K(1 + Kdθ)] = [Y(So – S)] / (1 + Kdθ)
Observed biomass yield, Yobs = Y / (1 + Kdθc)
With recycle:
Effluent substrate, S = [Ks(1 + θcKd)] / [θc(YK – Kd) – 1]
Effluent biomass, X = [θcY(So – S)] / [θ(1 + Kdθc)]
MCRT, θc = VX / (QwX + QeXe) …when surplus biomass is removed from the reactor
Or, MCRT, θc = VX / (QwXr + QeXe) …when surplus biomass is removed from the recycle line
Observed biomass yield, Yobs = Y / (1 + Kdθc)
Page 101 of 175

LESSON 12
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS

(Suspended growth, aerobic process)
It is the most versatile biological process available to treat all most all type of domestic
and industrial wastewater. It uses active microorganisms that are kept is suspension in the
reactor to decompose and stabilize the soluble and particulate (colloidal and suspended)
organic matter present in wastewater. The suspended active biomass is called activated
sludge and is measured in terms of Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids (MLVSS).
The process has two main distinct functions, namely to synthesis of new cells and
stabilization (oxidation) of organic matter.
To operate the process on a continuous basis, the biomass solids generated in an aeration
tank is separated and thickened in a clarifier by gravity settling. The large portion of the
settled solids, usually known as secondary or activated sludge, is recycle or return to the
aeration tank and excess sludge is withdrawal from the clarifiers under flow for
additional handling and disposal. The clarified liquid, known as final and treated effluent,
is usually disposed into the stream. However, this effluent can be reused or reclaimed.
Therefore the treatment system normally consists of

 A reactor (an aeration tank) in which microorganisms is kept in suspension by mixing
or aerating the wastewater.
 A settling tank (secondary sedimentation tank) in which suspended solids (biological
floc) from the reactor is separated by gravity settling.
Page 102 of 175

 A recycle system to return the portion of settled sludge (activated sludge) from the
clarifier bottom to the reactor.
Types of an activated sludge process

 Complete mix
 Plug flow
 Oxidation ditches
 Contact stabilization
 Sequencing batch reactor
Design of an activated sludge system (complete mix)

 Design flow, Qdesign
Aeration tank design
 Optimum conditions: pH 6.6-9.0, temperature 25-35oC, DO ≥ 2.0mg/L
 HRT, tD = 4-36hrs (mostly 4-8hrs)
 MLVSS: 1000-6500mg/L (mostly 3000-6000mg/L)
 F/M ratio: 0.04-1.0 (mostly 0.2-0.5)
VLR: 0.8-3.2kg-BOD/m3-day (mostly less than 1.0kg-BOD/m3-day)
Design parameters: any 02 of tD, MLVSS, F/M ratio, VLR (remaining 02 for check)
Depth, H: 3-4.5m (mostly 3-4m due to aeration process)
Additional: 10-15% for freeboard
Rectangular: L:W :: 2.5-4:1 (mostly 2.0-2.5:1, or check use W:D :: 3-4:1)
Page 103 of 175

Practical deign efficiency: 80-85% BOD removal

 Air required: 20-55m3/kg-BODrem and 70-115m3/kg-BODrem if F/M ratio ≥ 0.3 and ≤
0.3, respectively. (mostly 65m3/kg-BODrem)
Power required: 10-14kW/1000-m3 of tank volume (mostly 0.025kW/m3)
Major nutrients requirement: about N:BOD :: 1:32 and P:BOD :: 1:150
Secondary sedimentation tank design
SLRavg: 16-32m3/m2/day (mostly 20-25m3/m2/day)
SLRpk: 40-64m3/m2/day (mostly 50-55m3/m2/day)
Depth, H: 3-6m (mostly 4-5m)
Additional 20% for freeboard and sludge storage
Mostly circular shape with 8-10% bed slope toward the centre
HRT, tD: 1-1.5hrs
 WLR: 250-375m3/m/day
Sludge removal: 4-6hrs
Sludge recycling: 25-50%
PROBLEM (Design of an activated sludge system)

Using suitable design criteria design an activated sludge system for a wastewater flowing
at the rate of 0.15 m3/sec. The BOD concentration of wastewater is 680 mg/L.
Solution
a) An aeration tank design
Say, tD = 6hrs {Assume tD = 4-6hours}
Volume of an aeration tank, V = 540m3/hr x 6hrs = 3240m3
Use depth, D = 3.5m, than surface area, A = 3240 / 3.5 = 925.71m2 {Assume D = 10-15ft}
Say rectangular tank, L:W::1.5:1, W = 24.84 ≈ 25m and L = 37.26 ≈ 38m

Actual volume of the basin, V = 38m x 25m x 3.5m = 3325m3
Check, volumetric loading rate, VLR = BOD applied per day / volume of the basin
BOD applied per day = Q x BOD = 12960m3/day x 0.68kg/m3 = 8812.8kg/day

{VLR = 0.8-3.2kg-BOD/m3-day}
VLR = 8812.8 kg-BOD/day / 3325m3 = 2.65 kg-BOD/m3-day ok!
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b) Secondary sedimentation tank design

Surface area based on average daily flow and peak flows are;
Surface area, A = Qavg / SORavg {SORavg = 16-32 m3/m2/day}
Avg = 12960m3/day / 25m3/m2/day = 518.4m2
Also, Apk = Qpk / SORpk {SORpk = 40-64m3/m2/day}
Area, Avg = (2.5 x 12960)m3/day / 55m3/m2/day = 589.09m2
Thus A = 589.09m2 governs the design. If rectangular tank design, say L:W :: 1.5:1
W = 20m and L = 30m, than actual area, A = 600m2
Assume depth of the tank, H = 10ft = 3.05m {Assume D = 10-12ft}
3
Volume of the tank, V = A x H = 600 x 3.05 = 1830m
Check, detention time, tD = V / Qpk {Typical detention time, tD = 60-90min}
tD = 1830 m3 / 1350m3/min = 81.33min ok!
The total depth of basin, H = 3.05 + sludge storage + free board

{For sludge storage = 1-1.5m}
Say, H= 5.0 m (including free board and sludge storage)
Aeration tank
Dimensions, L x W x D 38m x 25m x 4.0m
VLR 2.65 kg-BOD/m3-day
Detention time, tD 6.0hours
Secondary sedimentation tank
Dimensions, L x W x D 30m x 20m x 5.0m
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Anaerobic digestion which was initially developed for the treatment of wastewater sludge
is now used for the treatment of domestic wastewater and variety of industrial effluent
containing high organic strength. By definition anaerobic digestion is, ―the use of
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microbial mass, in the absence of oxygen, for the stabilization of organic matter by
conversion to methane and inorganic products including carbon dioxide‖.
The objective of anaerobic digestion is to reduce the high organic loads to the magnitude
of COD/BOD that can be accommodated in conventional aerobic process, most typically
activated sludge process. The removal of organic content in wastewater is carried out by
anaerobic and facultative microorganisms by stabilizing the organic matter into liquid,
gases (mainly methane and carbon dioxide) and other stable end products in the absence
of oxygen. Three basic steps involved in the overall stabilization of organic matter are
Hydrolysis; the complex organic compounds of a high molecular mass (e.g.

carbohydrates, protein) are hydrolyzed into low molecular compounds (e.g. sugar, amino
acids) suitable to be used as a source of energy by the microbes.
Acidogenesis; low molecular compounds are converted into intermediate volatile acids
like acetic acid, fatty acids etc by anaerobic and facultative microorganisms, collectively
called acid formers.
Methanogenesis; the intermediate acid compounds are converted into simpler end
products like CO2, CH4 etc, by strictly anaerobic bacteria known as methane formers.
The various main types of anaerobic treatment processes are; upflow anaerobic sludge
blanket reactor, complete mix anaerobic reactor, anaerobic lagoons etc
The benefits of using anaerobic digestion are;

 Reduction of pollution load of wastes
 Elimination of pathogens and weed seeds (if mesophillic and thermophilc)
 Improvement in fertilizers/manure value of the wastes products.
 Production of biogas as an energy source.
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Design procedure for anaerobic process (UASB reactor)

Up-flow velocity, v: 0.5-0.9 m/h
Depth of the reactor, H: 3-10m (mostly 5-7m)
HRT, tD = H/v (6-48hrs, optimum is 12-18hrs)
Surface area, As = V/H
VLR: 6-20kg-COD/m3-day
Practical removal efficiency: 80-85% COD/BOD removal
Biogas yield: 0.2-0.5m3/kg-CODrem (methane content is normally 60-65%)
Sludge production: 15-18% BODrem + 40-50% of TVSS + TFS
PROBLEM (Design procedure for anaerobic process: UASB reactor)

Using suitable design criteria, design an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor for a
wastewater flowing at the rate of 5.0 MLD. The COD, BOD, TSS and TVSS
concentration of wastewater is 2850 mg/L, 2050 mg/L, 760 mg/L and 580 mg/L,
respectively.
Solution:
Assume an upflow velocity, v = 0.5 m/h and depth of the reactor, D = 5 m
Therefore, HRT tD = D/v = 5/0.5 = 10 hrs
And volume of the reactor, V = tD * Q = (10 hrs) * (208.33 m3/hr) = 2083.33 m3
Page 107 of 175

Surface area, A = V/D = 2083.33/5 = 416.67 m2 and diameter for the tank, Dia = 23.04 m,
say Dia = 23.5 m.
Therefore, actual surface area, A = 433.52 m2, and actual volume, V = 2167.6 m3
Check, volumetric loading rate, VLR
COD applied = (2.85 kg/m3) * (5000 m3/day) = 14250 kg/day
VLR = COD applied/volume of the tank = 14250/2167.6 = 6.57 kg-COD/m3-day
Ok! (6-20 kg-COD/m3-day)
Since, practically the reactors are designed for 80-85% COD removal efficiency,
therefore, assumes 80% COD removal.
Total COD removal = 0.80 * 14250 = 11400 kg/day
Therefore, gas production = (0.2 m3/kg COD removed) * (11400 kg/day) = 2280 m3/day
If the composition of methane is 60%, than amount of methane produce = 06*2280 =

1368 m3/day
Amount of sludge produce = a + b + c,
Where, a = (15-18)% BOD removed
b = (40-50)% of non-biodegradable portion of VSS
c = TFS
BOD applied = (2.05 kg/m3) * (5000 m3/day) = 10250 kg/day
Therefore, amount of BOD removed, say 80% = 0.8*10250 = 8200 kg/day
a = say, 18% BOD removed, therefore ―a‖ = 0.18*8200 = 1476 kg/day
VSS applied = (0.58 kg/m3) * (5000 m3/day) = 2900 kg/day
Say, 40% are non-biodegradable, therefore ―b‖ = 0.40*2900 = 1160 kg/day
As, TFS = TSS – TVSS, therefore, TFS = 760-580 = 180 mg/L
TFS applied = ―c‖ = (0.18 kg/m3) * (5000 m3/day) = 900 kg/day
Thus total amount of sludge produce = a + b + c = 3536 kg/day
Page 108 of 175

Dimensions, Dia x D 23.5m x 5m
HRT 10 hrs
VLR 6.57 kg-COD/m3-day
Gas production 2280 m3/day
CH4 production 1368 m3/day
Sludge production 3536 kg/day
TRICKLING FILTER (OR PERCOLATING FILTER)

(Attached growth, aerobic process)
Trickling filter is one of the oldest attached growth processes; consist mostly of circular
tank with a bed of coarse and inert material as a filter media to support the biomass. The
tank dimensions ranged from 1.5-3.0 meter deep and 5-50 meter in diameter, mostly
made up of reinforced concrete. The coarse material is normally large size rocks, stones,
or plastic chips, slag etc. the media type varies from dense stone media of shallow depth
(about 1.0 meter) to light weight plastic media with depth up to 6 meter. The stone media
are normally used for low-strength wastes like domestic effluent, whereas, the plastic
media are used for industrial wastewater. The wastewater is applied over the bed of
supporting media by a rotating distribution arms. The rotation of the distribution arm is
about 1 rev/min with spraying every 30seconds. But it has been studied that for more
efficient operation occurs at frequencies of more than 30 minutes with much slower
distribution rotation, i.e. 6 rev/hours. In the latter case, problems with flies on the surface
and microbial sloughing are reduced. As the wastewater trickle down through the media,
the growth of microbes takes place on the surface of the media in the form of a layer,
known as ―biofilm‖ or ―slime layer‖. When the wastewater passes through this stationary
biofilm, the contact between substrate (food, BOD/COD) and microbes is established and
the substrate is decomposed aerobically by the attached biomass. A stage comes when
anaerobic conditions are developed nearer to the media surface and the microbes cannot
remain attached to the media and are peel off, this process is called ―sloughing‖. The
wastewater is collected by the underdrainage system near the floor, and the treated
effluent is passed to a secondary clarifier to separate the wash out biomass solids before
final disposal of the effluent. Recycling of effluent is normally practiced in high rate
trickling filter that improves the end quality of effluent, and in the case of low-rate
Page 109 of 175

trickling filters it achieves nitrification. Temperature, in addition to other factors affects

the treatability of the filter. At high summer temperature the efficiency increases due to
increase bacterial activity. Near the floor on the perimeter walls are opening to promote
the updraught of air for aeration.
Depending up on the organic loading rate filter is of two main types, low-rate and high-
rate. Whereas, on the basis of number of units used in series are single-stage and two-
stage.
Design criteria Low-rate/standard rate TF High-rate TF

Organic loading rate, kg-BOD/m3-day 0.08-0.35 0.35-2.4
Depth of filter, m 1.5-3.0 1.0-2.0
Recirculation ratio, r 0 1-4
BOD removal, % 80-85 65-80
No. of units Mostly 1.0 1-2
Most particular empirical model used for the design of trickling filter is the “National
Research Council (US) Model”
1) E1 = 100/[1+{0.443√(W1/V1F1)}] -------- (for LRTF/single-stage TF and 1ST filter of the 2-stage TF)
Where, E1 = removal efficiency of BOD, %
W1 = BOD applied, kg/day
V1 = volume of the tank, m3
F1 = treatability filter = (1 + r)/(1 + 0.1r)2
2) E2 = 100/[1+{(0.443/(1-e)√(W2/V2F2)}] -------- (for 2ND filter of the 2-stage TF)
Where, e = E1/100
W2 = BOD applied to the 2nd filter, kg/day
Page 110 of 175

Design of trickling filter

 Mainly 02 types: LRTF and HRTF (single or double stage in series) selection based
on desired removal efficiency
 Recirculation ratio, r: zero (LRTF) and 1-4 (HRTF)
 Treatability factor, F = (1 + r) / (1 + 0.1r)2
 Series of trials: LRTF, single-stage HRTF, two-stage HRTF
National Research Council (US) model equation:
For LRTF or single-stage HRTF or 1st filter of the 2-stage HRTF
E1 = 100/[1+{0.443√(W1/V1F1)}]
(Where, “E1“ BOD removal efficiency - %, “W1“ BOD applied - kg/day, “V1“
volume of the tank - m3, “F1“ treatability filter)
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For 2nd filter of the 2-stage HRTF
E2 = 100/[1+{(0.443/(1-e)√(W2/V2F2)}]
(Where, “e” E1/100, “W2“ BOD applied to the 2nd filter i.e. effluent of the 1st filter -
kg/day)
Depth of filter, H: 1.3-3.0 (LRTF) and 1.0-2.0 (HRTF)

OLR: 0.08-0.35kg-BOD/m3/day (LRTF) and 0.35-2.40kg-BOD/m3/day (HRTF)
HLR: 1-6m3/m2/day (LRTF) and 10-40m3/m2/day
BOD removal: 80-85% in both
Size of media: 1-4inches, gravel, crushed stone, slag, or synthetic/plastic etc
Effective rotation of distribution arm: 6rev/min at frequency of more than 30min
Head loss through distribution arm: 0.6-1.5m
Air required: 0.3m3/m2/min
Power required: 2-4N/m3 (LRTF) and 6-10N/m3 (HRTF)
Nitrification is comparatively more in LRTF then in the HRTF, due to large size of
the media
Hints (for 2nd filter of 2-stage HRTF)
o Assume E1 = E2 for both the filters
o Total overall E = E1 + E2(1-E1)
o Hence equation obtained: aE12 ± bE1 ± c = 0 (solve using Quadratic formula)
PROBLEM (Design of trickling filter)
Using suitable design criteria design a trickling filter for a wastewater flowing at the rate
of 5 MLD. The influent BOD (So) concentration of wastewater is 280 mg/L and the
desire effluent BOD concentration is,
a) As per NEQS
b) Se = 20 mg/L
Page 112 of 175

Solution:
a) As per NEQS, i.e. Se = 80 mg/L
Treatment efficiency, E = (So–Se)/Se = {(280-80)/280)*100 = 71.42%
BOD applied = So * Q = (0.28 kg/day)*(5000 m3/day) = 1400 kg/day
1ST trial: design a LRTF
Using NRC equation; E1 = 100/[1+{0.443√(W1/V1F1)}]
71.42 = 100/[1+{0.443√(1400/V1*1)}] ----------------- (F1 = 1, because r = 0 for LRTF)
Or, V1 = 1473 m3, if depth, D = 2.0 m, than the surface area, A = 1473/2 = 736.84 m2
And diameter, Dia = 30.63 m, say 31 m
Thus, actual area A = 754.38 m2 and actual volume V = 1508.77 m3
Check; OLR = BOD applied/volume = 1400/1508.77 = 0.92 kg-BOD/m3-day
Not OK! (Limits are 0.08-0.35 kg-BOD/m3-day for LRTF), therefore use HRTF
2ND trial: design a single-stage HRTF
Assume recalculation ratio, r = 2, therefore, F = (1+2)/(1+.01*2) = 2.083
Using NRC equation; E1 = 100/[1+{0.443√(W1/V1F1)}]
71.42 = 100/[1+{0.443√(1400/V1*2.083)}]
Or, V1 = 707.15 m3, if depth, D = 2.0 m, than the surface area, A = 707.15/2 = 353.58 m2
And diameter, Dia = 21.22 m, say 21.5 m
OK! (Limits are 0.35-2.4 kg-BOD/m3-day for HRTF)
Page 113 of 175

b) Se = 20 mg/L
Treatment efficiency, E = (So–Se)/Se = {(280-20)/280)*100 = 92.86%
BOD applied = So * Q = (0.28 kg/day)*(5000 m3/day) = 1400 kg/day
Since, the required efficiency is too great, therefore, design a 2-satge HRTF, by assuming
that both the filters will have same treatment efficiency, i.e. E1 = E2. As the total overall
BOD removal efficiency of a 2-stage system is given by E = E1 + E2(1- E1), therefore;
0.92 = 2 E1 - E12 (because, E1 = E2), or E1 = E2 = 0.72 or 72%
For 1st filter of the 2-stage HRTF, the equation is; E1 = 100/[1+{0.443√(W1/V1F1)}]
72 = 100/[1+{0.443√(1400/V1*2.083)}] --------- (F1 = 2.083, if r = 2 for HRTF)
Or, V1 = 715 m3, if depth, D = 2.0 m, than the surface area, A = 715/2 = 357.50 m2
And diameter, Dia = 21.34 m, say 21.5 m
For 2nd filter of the 2-stage HRTF; E2 = 100/[1+{(0.443/(1-e)√(W2/V2F2)}]
Where, e = E1/100 = 72/100 = 0.72
W2 = BOD applied to the 2nd filter, kg/day = {0.280-(0.72*0.280)}* 5000 = 392 kg/day
Thus 72 = 100/[1+{(0.443/1-0.72)√(392/V1*2.083)}] ----- (F1 = 2.083, if r = 2 for HRTF)
Or, V1 = 376.38 m3, if depth, D = 2.0 m, than the surface area, A = 376.38/2 = 188.19 m2
And diameter, Dia = 15.48 m, say 16 m
Page 114 of 175

Problem part: a single-stage HRTF
Diameter 21.5 m
Depth 2.0 m
OLR 1.93 kg-BOD/m3-day
Problem part: b two-stage HRTF
Filter 1 21.5 m
Diameter
Filter 2 16 m
Filter 1 2.0 m
Depth
Filter 2 2.0 m
Filter 1 1.92 kg-BOD/m3-day
OLR
Filter 2 0.97 kg-BOD/m3-day
OXIDATION PONDS (OR WASTE STABILIZATION PONDS)

(Suspended-growth process)
These are the simples of biological systems available for the treatment of wastewater,
more particularly when high quality of effluent is not required and large are of land is
available for such treatment. They are used for the treatment of both domestic and
industrial wastewater, which are liable to biological treatment. Ponds and lagoons are
interchangeable terms, but ponds have oxygen access naturally, whereas, in case of
lagoons, the oxygen is supplied through artificial means, aerators.
The ponds are generally constructed in earth work with relatively very small depth as
compared to their large surface areas and embankments are built all around to some
height to exclude the entry of rainwater into ponds. Normally wastewater to be treated is
applied directly to the ponds after removing the floating material through screens,
without any primary treatment. The oxygen required for aerobic decomposition of
organic solids is mostly supplied by the algae present in the system through the symbiotic
actions of algae and bacteria as shown in the figure. The system has low construction cost
and negligible operating cost as it requires minimum operation skills, and does not use
any mechanical equipment to supply oxygen by aeration. Ponds may be multi-celled and
can be provided in series or parallel.
Accumulation of sludge at the bottom of pond is negligible, only a few centimeters in a

year and therefore, requires its removal once in 4 to 5 years. Solids separation is achieved
Page 115 of 175

by sedimentation tanks, or chemical precipitation (Mg(OH)2 addition), floatation, fine

screening, sand filters etc.
The classification of ponds is as follows;

Aerobic ponds; are generally 1-5 feet in depth and is subjected to organic loading rate of
40-160 kg/ha/day
Anaerobic ponds; are generally 8-15 feet in depth and is subjected to organic loading rate
of 200-500 kg/ha/day
Facultative ponds; are generally 3-10 feet in depth and is subjected to organic loading
rate of 15-150 kg/ha/day
Maturation ponds; are generally 3-5 feet in depth and is subjected to organic loading rate
of 0-15 kg/ha/day. Its primary objective is to destruct the pathogenic microbes.
Design of oxidation ponds

Abbreviations: aerobic (A), facultative (F), anaerobic (An), maturation (M)
Domestic effluent: mostly A >> F >> M
Page 116 of 175

Industrial effluent: mostly An >> F >> A

 HRT, tD: 4-40days (A), 5-30days (F), 15-50days (An), 5-18days (M)
BOD removal: 80-90%
Deoxygenated constant: k * tD = 4-5 (for 80-90%BOD removal )
(k at 20oC = 0.2day-1, and kT = k20(θ)T-20 , if T>20oC θ = 1.047 and if T<20oC θ = 1.135)
 Depth, H: 0.3-1.5 (A), 1.0-3.0 (F), 2.5-5.0 (An), 1.0-1.5 (M)
---(15-20% additional for freeboard in all cases)
 Surface area, As: ≤ 0.5 ha per unit for all
Rectangular: L:W :: 3-4:1 (with slide slop 1:1.5)
 OLR, kg-BOD/ha/day: 40-160 (A), 15-150 (F), 200-500 (An), 0-15 (M)
Ponds when supplied with artificial/additional oxygen are called lagoons
For aerated lagoons
Increased depth, H: 10-15% (other than freeboard etc, if required)
Yielding co-efficient, Y: 0.5-0.6
Sludge production, Px = Y(So-S) ..[check; 30-300mg/L (A), 30-150mg/L (F)]
 Oxygen required, O2(kg/day) = [Q(So-S)/f] – 1.42Px
Oxygen required (kg/day) / BODremoved (kg/day) = 0.7-1.4
Power required, P: 1-3hp/1000m3 of basin volume
PROBLEM (Design of an oxidation ponds)

Using suitable design criteria, design a facultative pond to treat 3.0 MLD of sewage
having 280 mg/L of BOD. The average summer and winter temperature is 35oC and
10oC, respectively.
Solution
To compute HRT on the basis of temperature use;
K*tD = 4, (where k = deoxygenated constant = 0.2 day-1 at 20oC)
K at is 35oC and 10oC will be Kt = K20 (θ)T-20 (where θ = temperature co-efficient)
If temperature, T > 20oC θ = 1.047, and if T < 20oC θ = 1.135
Thus, K35 = 0.2 (1.047)35-20 = 0.398 day-1 and K10 = 0.2 (1.135)10-20 = 0.056 day-1
HRT at 35oC; 0.398*tD = 4, tD = 10.05 ≈ 11 days
Page 117 of 175

HRT at 10oC; 0.056*tD = 4, tD = 71.42 ≈ 72 days, therefore use HRT = 72 days

Volume of the basin, V = Q* tD = (3000*72) = 216000 m3
And surface area, As = 216000/4 = 72000 m2 = 7.2 ha (if depth D = 3 ft)
Since the individual area of each pond should not be more than 3.0 ha, therefore,
practically 1 unit each of 0.5 ha is design. Hence, if no of units = 10, than area of each
unit = 7.2/10 = 0.72 ha = 7200m2
Using rectangular tank, L:W:: 3:1, therefore, L = 146.96 m, say 147 m and W = 48.98 m,
say 49 m. Actual area = 147*49 = 7203 (0.72 ha) ≥ 7200 OK!
Flow rate of each tank, Q/10 = 3600/10 = 360 m3/day
Check
Organic loading rate; OLR = BOD applied/As
= (360*0.28)/0.72 = 140 kg-BOD/ha-day
Ok! (Limits are 15-150 kg-BOD/ha-day)
Page 118 of 175

LESSON 13
DISINFECTION
It is the process of killing disease causing (pathogenic) microorganisms present in water
and to prevent the microbial contamination of water in the distribution system. Though
the non-pathogenic would also be destroyed during this process. The material used for
disinfection is called disinfectant, and it should be able to give a residual sterilizing effect
for a long period. Chlorine is the most commonly used disinfectant.
A process where all the microbes (both pathogenic and non-pathogenic) are destroyed is
called sterilization.
Methods of disinfection
Physical methods; by boiling or by using UV rays
Chemical methods; using a chemical disinfectant like chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide
etc
Mechanical methods; e.g. during sedimentation process the microbes get settled down
along with other suspended particles, it is basically a removal of microbes not killing
them.
Factor affecting disinfection

Type and concentration of the disinfectant
Type and concentration of the microorganism
Contact timing of the disinfectant and the microbes
pH of water
Temperature of water
Presence of oxidizable compounds in water
Requirements of a good disinfectant

Be toxic to microorganisms at concentration well below the toxic threshold to man
Page 119 of 175

Have a fast rate of destruction (killing)

Be persistent enough to prevent re-growth of organism in the distribution system.
Type of disinfectants
The most commonly used disinfectants are;
Chlorination
Chlorine dioxide
Chloramines
Ozone
UV radiation
Chlorination: is the process of adding the element chlorine to water as a method of water
purification to make it fit for human consumption as drinking water. Water which has
been treated with chlorine is effective in preventing the spread of disease. The use of
chlorine has greatly reduced the prevalence of waterborne disease as it is effective against
almost all bacteria and viruses, as well as amoeba. Chlorination is also used to sanitize
the water in swimming pools and as a disinfection stage in sewage treatment. The
mechanism of pathogen kill is considered to be;
A penetration into the cell of microbes with subsequent blocking of essential enzymes
Destruction of cell walls
When chlorine is added to water, it reacts to form a pH dependent equilibrium mixture of

chlorine, hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid :
Cl2 + H2O → HOCl + HCl
Depending on the pH, hypochlorous acid partly dissociates to hydrogen and hypochlorite
ions:
HClO → H+ + ClO-
In acidic solution, the major species are Cl2 and HOCl while in alkaline solution
effectively only ClO- is present. Very small concentrations of ClO2-, ClO3- and ClO4- are
Page 120 of 175

also found. The undissociated HOCl is considered to be the most effective disinfectant its
efficiency is 80times more than the hypochlorite ion (OCl-) Disinfection by chlorination
can be problematic, e.g., it naturally occurring organic compounds found in the water
supply to produce dangerous compounds, known as disinfection byproducts (DBPs). The
most common DBPs are trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids, which have
carcinogenic potential. There are also other concerns regarding chlorine, including its
volatile nature which causes it to disappear too quickly from the water system, and
aesthetic concerns such as taste and odor.
Terminology used during chlorination

Free chlorine; exists of chlorine in water as hypochlorous acid (HOCl), hypochlorite ions
(OCl-) and molecular chlorine (Cl2). The efficiency of free available chlorine is 20times
more than the combine available chlorine.
Combine available chlorine; is the chlorine in water in chemical combination with
ammonia (monochloroamine, dichloroamine) or other nitrogenous compounds which
modify its rate of bacterial action.
Pre-chlorination; is the application of chlorine before any other treatment.
Post-chlorination; is the application of chlorine after doing treatment.
Break-point chlorination; reference to the figure given below, it is the amount of chlorine
required to treat water.
Chlorine demanded; is the difference of amount chlorine added and the amount of
chlorine present as residual (free or combine available chlorine) after some designated
contact period (usually 30minutes).
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Chlorine dioxide: posses 25 times more oxidizing power than chlorine. It does not cause
any deteriorated taste and odor and also does not react with ammonia but it form toxic
inorganic compounds, like chlorite (ClO2-) and chlorate (ClO3-) which cause blue-baby
syndrome like nitrates, if there concentration exceeds 0.1mg/L in drinking water.
Chloramines: are formed as a result of reaction between chlorine and ammonia (NH3),
they are referred as ―combine chlorine‖
NH3 + HClO ↔ NH2Cl + H2O (monochloramine)
NH2Cl + HClO ↔ NHCl2 + H2O (dichloramine)
NHCl2 + HClO ↔ NCl3 + H2O (trichloramine)
Compared to chlorine and chlorine dioxide, they are less effective and have a detrimental
effect on taste and odor. But they don‘t react with organic matter and are persistent, thus
provide a continued protection against re-growth of microbes in the distribution system.
Ozone: is the most powerful oxidizing agent, since it is unstable, therefore, it should be
used immediately after its production. The cost of ozonation is 2-3 times more than the
cost of chlorination. About 20kWH of energy is required per kg of ozone production,
which is needed for a typical dosage of 1-5g/m3. It is effective, improves taste and odor
and pH independent. Since, it transforms almost non-degradable substances into easily
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degradable ones and no remaining residuals are formed, therefore, the re-growth of
microbes within the distribution system occurs.
UV Radiation: is a promising method of disinfection. Although it leaves no residual, this

method is effective in disabling both bacteria and viruses. UV light spans the wavelength
of 200-390nm and the most effective range for disinfectant is 250-280nm. The UV light
is absorbed by the DNA of microbes which then lead to change their genetic material so
that they could no longer able to multiply. This type of disinfection process provides no
odor of taste problems and provides no residual. And turbid free water is required for
such process.
ADVANCE WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

Ion-Exchange
―It is the process consist of a chemical reaction between ions in a liquid phase and ions in
a solid phase‖
Hard water (>50 mg CaCO3/L) contains an excess amount of Ca and Mg ions. The
reduction of hardness can be carried out by exchanging the undesirable Ca and Mg
cations with Na (sodium).
Mg2+ + Na2R MgR + 2Na+
Ca2+ + Na2R CaR + 2Na+
It is a reversible process and the direction of reaction depends upon the concentration and
the concentration of sodium resin. The ion-exchange resins may be strong (e.g. the
sulfonic groups can removed all cations) or weak as carboxylic groups. The most
commonly naturally occurring exchangeable material is porous sand called zeolite.
Recently, a synthetic organic exchange resins are developed, which have a much higher
exchangeable capacity. They are available in both cations (phenolic, sulfonic, etc) and
anions (amine groups) exchangeable groups. The ion-exchange resin or zeolite has
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limited number of exchangeable sites and the total solid-phase concentration ―qo‖ is
termed as the ion-exchange capacity. The charging capacity of exchange resins varies
from 100-1500 eq/m3. Exchange resins are usually beads or granular-shaped having size
of about (0.1-1.0)mm. A water softening system consists of a bed of the medium about
(0.5-2.0)m {2.0-8.5ft}in high, with filtration rate of about 4.0L/sec-m2 {1-8)gpm/ft2),
with upward or downward flow direction. The backwashing (regeneration) is required
once the breakthrough occurs. During backwashing, the zeolite resins bed expends up to
25%, whereas the synthetic organic resins expends to about (75-100)%. The height to
diameter ratio is normally 1.5:1-3:1.The maximum height of the bed is 12ft.
Applications of ion-exchange process

Water-softening
Water demineralization (complete removal of all ions)
Advance wastewater treatment process (removal of ammonia)
Removal of low/moderate level of radioactive wastes (Cs137)
Removal of heavy metal (Zn, Cd, Cr, Ni etc) in wastewater
Partial demineralization in tertiary wastewater treatment process.
In short the ion-exchange can be used to remove undesirable cations including barium,
strontium, and radium, and undesirable anions including fluoride, nitrate, silicates,
chromates etc.
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For Demineralization (using ion-exchange techniques)

Feed water All cations
Strong Acid Cations Resins Charged with H+ are removed
Acidic water; because
the bicarbonates and
carbonates are
converted into the
carbonic acids due to
low pH.
All Anions
Weak Base Anion Resins Charged with OH- except, Silica
are removed
The water will contains
silica, since the weak
base have limited
removal for it.
CO2 Stripping CO2 is removed
In case of low alkalinity,
or if the conc. Of CO2 is
low, than no need of it.
Product Water
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Designing an ion-exchange process

 The charging capacity of exchange resins: 100-1500eq/m3
 Filtration rate, v: 1-8gpm/ft2 (mostly 4.0L/sec/m2)
 Mostly circular in shape
 Depth of medium: 0.5-2.0
 H/Dia ratio: 1.5-3:1
 Maximum height: 4m
 Effective size of granular media: 0.1-1.0mm
 At breakthrough: regeneration (e.g. of zeolite by NaCl) or backwashing is required
 Bed expansion during backwashing: 25% for zeolite, 75-100)% for synthetic organic
resins
PROBLEM (DESIGN OF ION-EXCHANGE)

Design an ion-exchanger using synthetic zeolite with a capacity of 400eq/m 3 to soft water
flowing at the rate of 10L/s and a hardness of 4.0meq/L. Also determine the volume of
water passed through before regeneration is required, if the exchange utility rate before
―breakpoint‖ is 85%
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Solution
Dimensions of the basin =?
Surface area of the basin, As = Q/ν = 10/4 = 2.5m2
Than, diameter, dia = 1.78m
Say, depth of media, D = 1.5m, therefore, volume of media, V = 2.5m2 x 1.5m = 3.75m3
Using height to diameter ratio of 2:1, thus height of the basin, H = 1.78 x 2 = 3.56m
Exchange capacity =?
Total exchange capacity = volume of media x exchange capacity
// = 3.75m3 x 400eq/m3 = 1500 eq
Required exchange capacity before ‗breakpoint‘ = 0.85x1500 = 1275 eq
Volume of water passed before regeneration =?
V = required exchange capacity/hardness = 1275/(4x103) = 318750L

Summary of design
Dimensions Dia = 1.78m H= 3.56m
Volume of media 3.75m3
Adsorption
―Adsorption is the collection of a substance onto the surface of the absorbent solids,
whereas absorption is the penetration of collected substances into the solids‖
Since, both of these occur simultaneously, therefore also called sorption. They are usually
used to improve the color, odor, taste etc. of the water. In wastewater they can be used to
remove toxic substances. Variety of the absorbent used in water treatment are activated
carbon, activated alumina, clay colloids, hydroxides, adsorbent resins etc.
Adsorption may be classified as;
Physical adsorption
Chemical adsorption
Physical adsorption; is primarily due to Van dar Waals forces and is reversible
occurrence. When the molecular force of attraction between the solute (impurity) and the
adsorbent are greater than the solute will be adsorbed onto the surface of the adsorbent.
e.g. is the adsorption by using activated carbon.
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Chemical adsorption; a chemical reaction occurs between the solids and the absorbent
solute, and the reaction is usually irreversible. But this type is rarely used in
environmental engineering.
Activated Carbon; it is made up of numerous materials, such as wood, sawdust, fruit pits,
coconut shells, coal, etc. The process if it‘s manufacturing at 1700oC, consists of
carbonization of the solids, followed by the activation using hot air or stream.
The adsorption column are either fixed-beds or moving-beds and either gravity-flow or
pressurized-flow. The rate of filtration is (2-5)gpm/ft2. The diameter of the column is
mostly from 2.5-12ft with a depth to diameter ratio of 1.5:1-4:1. Column height must be
sufficient to accommodate the bed expansion of about 50% during back-washing. And
the depth of carbon is normally from 15-20ft. Rate of filtration for backwashing is (10-
20)gpm/ft2, and the duration is from (10-15)min. The contact time for most of the organic
removal is (30-45) minutes.
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Designing adsorption process

 Filtration rate, v: 2-5gpm/ft2
 Diameter, Dia: 2.5-12ft
 Depth, H: 15-20ft
 Bed expansion during backwashing: 50%
 Backwashing rate: 10-20gpm/ft2
 Duration of backwashing: 10-15min
 Contact time for organic removal: 30-45min
Reverse osmosis
It is similar to the membrane filtration treatment process. However there are key
differences between reverse osmosis and filtration. The predominant removal mechanism
in membrane filtration is straining, or size exclusion, so the process can theoretically
achieve perfect exclusion of particles regardless of operational parameters such as
influent pressure and concentration. RO (Reverse Osmosis), however involves a diffusive
mechanism so that separation efficiency is dependent on influent solute concentration,
pressure and water flux rate. It works by using pressure to force a solution through a
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membrane, retaining the solute on one side and allowing the pure solvent to pass to the
other side. This is the reverse of the normal osmosis process, which is the natural
movement of solvent from an area of low solute concentration, through a membrane, to
an area of high solute concentration when no external pressure is applied.
Formally, reverse osmosis is the process of forcing a solvent from a region of high solute
concentration through a semi-permeable membrane to a region of low solute
concentration by applying a pressure in excess of the osmotic pressure.
The membranes used for reverse osmosis have a dense barrier layer in the polymer matrix
where most separation occurs. In most cases the membrane is designed to allow only
water to pass through this dense layer while preventing the passage of solutes (such as
salt ions). This process requires that a high pressure be exerted on the high concentration
side of the membrane, usually 30–250psi for fresh and brackish water, and 600–1000psi
for seawater, which has around 350psi natural osmotic pressure which must be overcome.
This process is best known for its use in desalination (removing the salt from sea water to
get fresh water), but it has also been used to purify fresh water for medical, industrial and
domestic applications.
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LESSON 14
SLUDGE TREATMENT
Sludge is the residual semi-solid material left from industrial, water treatment, or
wastewater treatment processes.
Sewage sludge is produced from the treatment of wastewater and consists of two basic
forms — raw primary sludge (basically faecal material) and secondary sludge (a living
‗culture‘ of organisms that help remove contaminants from wastewater before it is
returned to rivers or the sea). The sludge is transformed into biosolids using a number of
complex treatments such as digestion, thickening, dewatering, drying, and lime
stabilisation. The more treated the wastewater the more toxic the sludge.
Biological wastewater treatment produces different sorts of sludge within the individual
process steps. In the wastewater linguistic usage the following terms are used for sludge.
Raw sludge
Raw sludge is untreated non-stabilized sludge, which can be taken from wastewater
treatment plants. It tends to acidify digestion and produces odor.
Primary sludge
Primary sludge is produced through the mechanical wastewater treatment process. It
occurs after the screen and the grit chamber and consists of unsolved wastewater
contaminations. The sludge amassing at the bottom of the primary sedimentation
basin is also called primary sludge. The composition of this sludge depends on the
characteristics of the catchments area. Primary sludge consists to a high portion of
organic matters, as faeces, vegetables, fruits, textiles, paper etc. The consistence is a
thick fluid with a water percentage between 93 % and 97 %.
Activated Sludge
The removal of dissolved organic matter and nutrients from the wastewater takes
place in the biological treatment step. It is done by the interaction of different types of
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bacteria and microorganisms, which require oxygen to live, grow and multiply in
order to consume the organic matter. The resulting sludge from this process is called
activated sludge. The activated sludge exists normally in the form of flakes, which
besides living and dead biomass contain adsorbed, stored, as well as organic and
mineral parts.
The sedimentation behavior of the activated sludge flakes is from great importance
for the function of the biological treatment. The flakes must be well removable, so
that the biomass can be separated from the cleaned wastewater without problems and
a required volume of activated sludge can be pumped back into the aerated part.
Return activated sludge

The activated sludge flows from the biological aeration basin into the final clarifier.
The activated sludge flakes settle down to the bottom and can be separated from the
cleaned wastewater. The main part of the separated sludge, which is transported back
to the aeration basin, is called return activated sludge.
Excess sludge, secondary sludge

To reach a constant sludge age the unused biomass has to be removed from the
biological treatment system as excess sludge. The excess sludge contains not-
hydrolysable particulate materials and biomass due to metabolisms.
Tertiary sludge
Tertiary sludge is produced through further wastewater treatment steps e.g. by adding
a flocculation agent.
Digested sludge
Digested sludge accrues during the anaerobic digestion process. It has a black color
and smells earthy. As a function of the stabilization degree anaerobic sludge exhibits
an organic portion of the solid from 45 to 60 %.
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Objectives of sludge treatment are:

Stabilization for a controlled degradation of organic ingredients and odor removal
Volume and weight reduction
Hygiene - the deadening of pathogen organisms
Ameliorating of sewage sludge characteristics for the further utilization or disposal
First stage treatment of sludge

Sludge conditioning
It is the chemical or thermal treatment of sludge to improve the efficiency of thickening
and dewatering. The purpose is to reduce the zeta potential by adding specific ions to
change the particle charge. Most common is the chemical conditioning using inorganic
chemicals or organic polyelectrolyte. The inorganic chemicals used include; ferric
chloride, lime, ferrous sulfates + lime. The test used to estimate dosages are the jar test,
filter leaf test etc.
Sludge stabilization
Aerobic stabilization can be performed simultaneously in an activated sludge plant
whereby primary and secondary sludges are continuously aerated for long periods of
time. In aerobic digestion the microorganisms extend into a respiration phase where
materials previously stored by the cell are oxidized, resulting in a reduction of the
biologically degradable organic matter. Thus, aerobic stabilization of the entire excess
sludge (including primary sludge) is energy consuming. Additionally, it calls for extra
reactor volume.
Sludge digestion is carried out in the absence of free oxygen by anaerobic organisms. The
facultative and anaerobic organisms‘ breaks down the complex molecular structure of
these solids setting free the "bound" water and obtaining oxygen and food for their
growth. Anaerobic stabilization processes work at normal temperatures (< 40°C) or
within the range of thermophilc bacteria, where 50-65°C are reached alone by the heat
development of the biochemical processes. The chemical stabilization of the sludge by
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means of wet oxidation or addition of quicklime and thermal stabilization under high
temperature and pressure are applied less often.
The anaerobic sludge digestion takes place in the highly visible digesters.
Sludge thickening
A volume reduction of approximately 30 – 80 % can be reached with sludge thickening
before a further treatment. At smaller wastewater treatment plants, where the sludge is
driven off regularly, thickening usually takes place directly in the sludge storage tank.
The sludge is compressed at the tank bottom only by the force of gravity, while above the
sludge a cloudy water layer is formed, which is taken off and led back into the inlet.
On larger plants separate thickening basins exist. These basins are equipped with slow
rotating vertical rods, which create micro canals in the sludge for a better dewatering.
Also pure machine thickening is gaining more significance with e.g. non-stabilized
sludges that could rot during the storage.
Sludge dewatering
A further reduction of the sludge amount is mostly necessary after the thickening. The
liquid sludge has to be dewatered and has to conform to a dry and porous form.
Dewatering can be done naturally (dry beds, solar drying), however this is only possible
during a long period of time. Faster and smaller, but also more cost intensive, are
machine processes such as pressing (filter press) and centrifugation (centrifuge).
For a good dewatering, size and firmness of the sludge agglomerates are important, so
that these remain porous during the compression. Flocculants are often used to achieve as
high as possible drying material contents at the machine dewatering and must be
specifically co-ordinate with the accruing sludge.
For the choice of the correct dewatering process it is important to consider a multiplicity
of further boundary conditions: Quantity, structural situation, disposal, regulations,
availability, personnel etc
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Sludge drying
A further reduction of the sludge weight is possible with the help of sludge drying, by
evaporating the remaining bound water in the sludge. However a significant reduction of
the sludge volume cannot be reached with that method. Sludge drying procedures are
based particularly on contact-, convection or radiation procedures.
Large amounts of air are not necessary during the contact drying, because the warmth is
supplied by the contact between the damp product and a heated wall. Only a minimum
gas flow is often planned for the evacuation of steam. That has the advantage that the
expenditure for exhaust air purification is small. Convection drying obtains its effect by
treating the sludge with hot-air. In addition ambient air is heated to a high temperature
with a burner or steam heat exchanger and brought in contact with the sludge in a drum
or belt dryer. The obvious characteristic of radiation drying is that the warmth, which is
necessary for the drying process, is supplied through radiation to the sludge. General
examples for warmth supply through radiation are solar radiation or infrared heating
elements.
For the choosing the suitable drying method one should pay attention to
 Adherence to security
 Environmental compatibility
 Flexibility of the drying method in relation to variable sludge quantities
Because of their high investment and operating costs, sludge drying is mainly used in
large wastewater treatment plants.
Second stage treatment of sludge

Anaerobic digestion; of biosolids is commonplace where the gas production is optimize
and used as part of wastewater treatment plant energy budget.
Aerobic digestion; is somewhat similar to the activated sludge process. Its main objective
is to reduce the solids content for ultimate disposal.
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Composting; is the aerobic process where the micro-organisms in the presence of oxygen
decompose the organic matter into humus (manure).
Thermal drying; include flash drying, rotary drying, disc drying etc.
Incineration; is the chemical oxidation at high temperature, where organic material is

converted into energy (fuel), flue gas, and slag. For sewage sludge multiple hearth
incinerations are most commonly used.
Pyrolysis; is the gasification in dry distillation (heating without access air, oxygen or
steam).
Wet air oxidation; is a process where the sludge organic solids are oxidized in an aerobic,
high-pressure, high temperature environment.
Sludge melting; the sludge is heated > 1200oC to evaporate the water and to thermally
decompose and melt the inorganic components.
Sludge disposal; includes land fill, ocean dumping, land spreading, land revegetation etc.
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LESSON 15
SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTES

Solid wastes: are solid or semi-solid, non-soluble material (including gases and liquids in
containers) such as agricultural refuse, demolition waste, industrial waste, mining
residues, municipal garbage, and sewage sludge.
TYPICAL SOLID WASTE GENERATION
Source Activities & location Types of solid wastes
Single-family and multi-family Food waste, rubbish, ashes, special

Residential dwellings, low, medium and high wastes
rise apartments
Stores, restaurants, markets, office Food waste, rubbish, ashes,

buildings, hotels, print shops, auto demolition and construction
Commercial
repair shops, medical facilities and wastes, occasionally hazardous
institutions, etc. wastes
Municipal As above As above
Construction, fabrication, light and Food waste, rubbish, ashes,

heavy manufacturing, refineries, demolition and construction
Industrial chemical plants, lumbering, wastes, special wastes, hazardous
mining, power plants, demolition, wastes
etc.
Streets, alleys, parks, vacant lots, Special wastes, rubbish

Open areas playgrounds, beaches, highways,
recreational areas, etc.
Treatment plant Water, waste water and industrial Treatment plant wastes principally
sites treatment processes, etc. composed of residual sludge
Field and row crops, orchards, Spoiled food wastes, agricultural

Agriculture vineyards, dairies, feedlots, farms, wastes, rubbish, hazardous wastes
etc.
Solid waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal of

waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and is
generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics.
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Waste management is also carried out to recover resources from it. Waste management
can involve solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive substances, with different methods and
fields of expertise for each.
Solid waste hierarchy - the waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" reduce, reuse and
recycle, which classify waste management strategies according to their desirability in
terms of waste minimization. The waste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most waste
minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum
practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste.
Hazardous wastes: is a waste that has the property to make it dangerous or potentially
harmful to human health or the environment. It can be liquids, solids, contained gases, or
sludge. It can be a by-product of manufacturing processes or simply discarded
commercial products, like cleaning fluids or pesticides. Generally, it has one ore more of
the following characteristics;
Ignitable; cause/enhances fire, flash point<60oC; oil, solvents etc
Reactive; reacts and may explode, unstable; lithium-sulfur batteries etc
Corrosive; destroy tissues or metals, pH ≤ 2.0 or ≥ 12.5; battery acids etc.
Toxic; harmful/fatal when ingested/absorbed; mercury etc
Some of the most common two categories of hazardous wastes are;

 Liquid organic chemical and solvents, e.g. pesticides, gasoline, mineral oils, PAHs,
PCBs etc.
 Heavy metals containing wastes, e.g. Pb, Hg, Ar, Cd, Co etc
According to US-EPA a hazardous wastes is defined as;

―A waste that cause or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase
in serious inevasible, or in capacitating reversible illness; or poses a substantial present
or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored,
transported, or disposed of, or otherwise managed.‖
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Examples of hazardous wastes are;

Household waste; old batteries, shoe polish, paint tins, old medicines, and medicine
bottles.
Hospital waste; chemicals like formaldehyde and phenols, which are used as
disinfectants, and mercury, which is used in thermometers etc
Industrial sector; various industries like chemical, paper, pesticide, dye, refining, and
rubber goods industries.
Hazardous waste management: is an engineering problem, and it has to be solved, by

reducing/eliminating wastes streams, by wastes minimization techniques, safe
disposal/treatment etc. On the results of evaluation the wastes may be deemed;
Non-hazardous and suitable for landfill
Hazardous and suitable for incineration
Hazardous and suitable for incineration only after pre-treatment.
Hazardous inorganic and treatable at inorganic plants (detoxification etc.) without
incineration.
Task for hazardous waste management

Identify the Hazardous waste streams (solid, liquid or gaseous).
For each stream quantify the wastes (concentration)
Characterization of each stream (physical/chemical etc.)
Recommendation wastes minimization measures
Identifying Hazardous waste treatment options
Specifying safe disposal route for treated wastes
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Page 143 of 175

PROBLEM 1
(Population forecasting using AGM and GGM)
The following data has been obtained from the census department of city ―A‖
Year 1980 1998 2006
Population 6,500 8,400 12,200
Forecast the population of the city in the year 2010, 2020 and 2035, using
 Arithmetic Growth Method
 Geometric Growth Method
Solution
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Page 145 of 175

PROBLEM 2
(Estimating the fire demand, using ISO and NBFU formula)
Determine the amount of water required for fire fighting for a four storey building
(including one storey basement). The three stories are made up of non-combustible
construction material, whereas, the top floor is of wooden frame structure. The floor area
of each storey is 1420ft2.The number of occupants in the building is 1400 person.
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PROBLEM 3
(Determination of tD, SOR/SLR, WLR)
A treatment unit is 15m wide, 30m long and has a depth of 3.5m. If the wastewater
flow rate through the tank is 500GPD. Calculate; detention time, overflow rate and
weir loading rate.
Solution
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PROBLEM 4
(Determining the OLR)
A treatment basin has a diameter of 18ft and a depth of 12ft. Calculate the organic
loading rate for an effluent of 150gpm, with a COD concentration of 520mg/L.
Solution
PROBLEM 5
(Determining the F/M ratio)
Determine the F/M ratio for the wastewater having 840mg-BOD/L and 2800mg-MLSS/L
in a tank with HRT of 4hrs.
Solution
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PROBLEM 6
(Design of sanitary sewers)
Design a sanitary sewer for a City ―A‖ having population of 10,000 persons. The total
area of the city covered by the medium commercial and industrial activities is 5000m 2
and 50,000m2, respectively. The city has a small hospital with 20 beds, and a boarding
school of 1500 students. (Assume any missing data)
Solution
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PROBLEM 7
(Design of pumping station)
Design a pumping station to pump sewage against a head of 5.50m and conveyed it
to a treatment plant located at a distance of 4Km away from the pumping station.
The design flow rate is 2000GPD. (Assume any missing data)
Solution
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PROBLEM 8
(Design procedure of approach channel)
Design a rectangular approach channel for a wastewater flowing at the rate of
150GPM.
Solution
PROBLEM 9
(Design of equalization tank)
Time (hr) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Q (m3/hr) 120 450 486 1170 1710 1320 1122 966 348 468 372 234
Solution
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Page 153 of 175

PROBLEM 10
(Design of screening chamber)
Design a medium screen chamber for a domestic wastewater flowing at the rate of
1000GPD. The total suspended solids concentration is 680mg/L. (Assume any
missing data)
Solution
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PROBLEM 11
(Design of aerated grit chamber)
Using suitable design criteria, design an aerated flow type grit chamber for a design
flow of 10MLD. Also estimate the amount of air required. What will be the amount of
sludge produced in 4-weeks?
Solution
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PROBLEMS 12
(Design of a skimming tank)
Using suitable design criteria, design a skimming tank for a given flow rate of
0.56m3/sec
Solution
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PROBLEM 13
(Design of rapid-mix/coagulation basin)
Design a rapid-mix basin for water flowing at the rate of 2.0MGD, use the following
specification;
Detention time, tD = 40 sec
Operating temperature = 10oC
Speed of turbine shaft = 100 rpm
Solution
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PROBLEM 14
(Design of slow-mix/flocculation basin)
Design a cross-flow, horizontal-shaft, paddle-wheel, flocculation basin for water
flowing at the rate of 6.5MGD, using the following specification;
Operating temperature, = 10oC
Detention time, tD = 50min
G1 = 50sec-1, G2 = 25sec-1, G3 = 15sec-1
Width of basin, W = 50ft
Solution
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PROBLEM 15
(Lime-soda water softening process)
Determine the amount of lime and soda ash required to soft 1000gallons of water,
using the following specification;
Carbon dioxide, CO2 8.0mg/L
Ca2+ 65mg/L
Mg2+ 32mg/L
HCO3-1 260mg/L
Assume that the lime and soda ash are 85% and 95% pure, respectively.
Solution
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Page 162 of 175

PROBLEM 16
(Design of sedimentation tank for water treatment)
Design a rectangular primary sedimentation for water following at the rate of
1000gallons per hour, assume any missing data
Solution
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PROBLEM 17
(Design of sedimentation tank for wastewater treatment)
A circular primary sedimentation tank has to be design for a municipal wastewater
for an average flow of 2.0MGD. The ratio of the peak hourly flow to average flow is
2.75.
Solution
Page 164 of 175

PROBLEM 18
(Design of RGF)
Design a rapid gravity filter for NUST Hostel MCE. Assume any appropriate/ missing
data.
Solution
Page 165 of 175

PROBLEM 19:
(Design of SSF)
Design a slow sand filter for approximately 7000 population living in a Town “A”.
Assume an average water consumption of 60gal/c/day.
Solution
Page 166 of 175

PROBLEM 20:
(Design of an activated sludge system)
Design a complete mix activated sludge system for the wastewater flowing at the
average rate of 1500GPM having 720mg-BOD/L. Also determine the amount of air,
power and major nutrients required by the process for 85% BOD removal. (Assume
any missing data)
Solution
Page 167 of 175

Page 168 of 175

PROBLEM 21:
(Design of UASB reactor)
Design an up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor for a wastewater flowing at the
rate of 5.0 MLD. The COD, BOD, TSS and TVSS concentration of wastewater is 2850
mg/L, 2050 mg/L, 760 mg/L and 580 mg/L, respectively.
Solution
Page 169 of 175

Page 170 of 175

PROBLEM 22:
(Design of trickling filter)
Using suitable design criteria design a trickling filter for a wastewater of NUST
Hostel MCE. Assume a suitable influent BOD (So) concentration for the wastewater.
The overall treatment efficiency of the trickling filter must be greater than 70%.
Solution
Page 171 of 175

Page 172 of 175

PROBLEM 23:
(Design of an oxidation pond)
Using suitable design criteria, design a facultative pond to treat 100gpm of sewage
having 430 mg/L of BOD. The average summer and winter temperature is 43oC and
13oC, respectively. Convert the same pond into aerated lagoon, if the concentration
of influent BOD reaches to 1200mg/L.
Solution
Page 173 of 175

Page 174 of 175

PROBLEM 24:
(Design of an ion-exchange)
Design an ion-exchanger using synthetic zeolite with a capacity of 400eq/m3 to soft
water flowing at the rate of 10L/s and a hardness of 4.0meq/L. Also determine the
volume of water passed through before regeneration is required, if the exchange
utility rate before “breakpoint” is 85%
Solution
Page 175 of 175

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Public Health Engineering

Engr Muhammad Anwar

MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

contamination (5%). Approximately, 82% of the people in Pakistan are getting

 Transboundary shipment of hazardous wastes; industrial countries generate majority

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

WHO (World Health Organization)

NEQS (National Environmental Quality Standards)

 ISO 14001: Environmental management systems

WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

There are several principal manifestations of the water crisis.

MAJOR SOURCES OF DRINKING WATER

WATER POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN PAKISTAN

METHODS OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL

PLANNING A WATER WORKS SCHEME

Some common examples of design period;

Method of Forecasting Population

Arithmetic Growth Method

Problem [Population forecasting using Arithmetic Growth Method and Geometric

Also, P2020 = 110,000 + (5850)(40)

Kg (20) = 0.314 or Kg = 0.0157 (no units)

P2020 = 110,000 * e(0.0157)(40)

Domestic Use (44%)

Commercial (15%) and Industrial (24%) Use

Public Use (9%)

Loses and wastes (8%)

Factors Affecting Water Consumption

Empirical formulae for fire demand;

National Board of Fire Underwriters (NBFU) formula; Q (gpm) = 1020√P(1–0.01 √P)

Problem [Fire demand, using ISO formula]

AVERAGE DAILY DEMAND (ADD)

WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

SEWAGE/WASTEWATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

A typical composition of the sewage

i. Organic Solids (70%)

ii. Inorganic Solids (30%)

Following characteristics/properties of sewage are found using the analysis of sewage.

PREAMBLE OF IMPORTANT PARAMETERS

Turbidity: the term ―turbid‖ is applied to waters containing suspended matter or in

Color: of wastewater containing dissolved oxygen (DO) is normally gray. Black-colored

Dissolve d Solids Suspended Solids

Volatile Solids Fixed Solids

Sludge Volume Index

Arsenic: it is extremely toxic metal, mostly used in herbicides, pesticides, insecticides

Nutrients: of life-supporting are nitrogen and phosphorus. They stimulate excessive

FORMS OF IMPURITIES WITH RESPECT TO PARTICLES SIZE

Particulate matter; size > 10-1mm, e.g. dust

WATER BORNE DISEASES

DESIGN ASSISTANCE – WATER AND WASTEWATER TREMENT

Mathematically; SLR = (Flow rate, Q/Area, As)

PROBLEM (Determination of tD, SOR/SLR, WLR)

Detention time, tD = 60m3 / 0.5m3/sec = 120sec = 2.0min

Overflow rate, SLR = 0.5m3/sec / 30m2 = 60m3/m2-hr

Weir loading rate, WLR = 0.5m3/sec / 1.5m = 1200m3/m-hr

Mathematically; OLR = (applied kg of BOD per day)/(volume of the basin)

Therefore, OLR = 2200kg-BOD/d / 785.40 m3 = 2.80kg-BOD/m3-d

Mathematically; F/M = Q x So / V x X ----------- it is expressed in unit of sec-1 or d-1 etc.

Since, HRT tD = V/Q, therefore, F/M = So / (tD x X)

PROBLEM (Determination of F/M)

Since, F/M = So / (tD x X) = 200 / (4000 x 0.25) = 0.2 d-1

Mathematically; flow weighted average concentration, Cw = ΣCiQi / ΣQi

Example (Determination of weighted average)

Time (hr) Ci, (Q m3/h) Ci, (BOD mg/L) CiQi, (kg/hr)

Therefore, diameter of the rising main, D = √ [(4A)/π] = √ [(40.14)/π] = 0.42 m

Volume of the rising main, V = A x L = π/4D2 x L = (π/40.462) x 200 = 33.22m3