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Received: 4 June 2018    Revised: 25 September 2018    Accepted: 6 November 2018

DOI: 10.1111/jocd.12838

PARTING THOUG HT

Olive oil in pharmacological and cosmetic traditions

Ilaria Gorini PhD1 | Silvia Iorio PhD2  | Rosagemma Ciliberti ML3 | Marta Licata

PhD1 | Giuseppe Armocida MD1

1
Department of Biotechnology and Life
Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy Summary
2
Unit of History of Medicine and Among the numerous natural substances used in medical remedies, oil certainly plays
Bioethics, Department of Molecular
an important role and, over the centuries, there have been many functions and prop‐
Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome,
Rome, Italy erties attributed to it. We present the processes that have seen it as protagonist in
3
Department of Science of the pharmacological field and in the cosmetic field.
Health, University of Genoa, Genova, Italy

KEYWORDS
Correspondence
Silvia Iorio, Unit of History of Medicine cosmetics, olive oil, pharmacology
and Bioethics, Department of Molecular
Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome,
Rome, Italy.
Email: silvia.iorio@uniroma1.it

Olive oil finds ample space in medicine, from antiquity to mod‐
ern times, historiography, and from the scientific work of Alberico
Benedicenti,1 it has been highlighted how difficult it is to give an
accurate interpretation of oil as a substance and its uses in the phar‐
maceutics. 2 Vegetable oils have been used for a wide range of pur‐
poses since ancient times, especially as skin moisturizers.3 Because
of their remarkable effectiveness, a low profile of side effects and
acceptable costs, these oils were extremely popular as moisturizers.
This article focuses on the different types of vegetable oils and their
various uses in the dermocosmetic field.
From the East Mediterranean to Southern Italy, from the North
Provence to Garda Riviera, the cultivation of the olive tree offered a
possibility for people to understand oil as a substance, not only, for
alimentary use.4
Ancient people believed in the virtues of oil as a “high medicine.”
From a curative function for wounds and burns, oil, with its emollient
properties, was used as a moisturizing and soothing lotion. Moreover,
it was considered effective in treating numerous diseases. For exam‐
ple, it was particularly useful in the treatment of intestinal diseases.
Classical medicine recommended the application “of oil and wine”
on wounds, a Quercetin dietetic precept also recommended using
“to the external” oil while suggesting honey “to the inside.” If there
was no old oil available, which was considered more effective, it was
necessary to boil new oil and then let it cool down so it could obtain
the same effective properties.
Olive oil was also recommended for fevers. Perhaps Archigene
d’Apamea healed his master Agatino from a delirious fever with oil.
From this, Jacopo Panzani published his “critical reasoning about the
internal use of olives for severe fevers, on the ordinary treatment of
putrid and biliary affections, and on the indole of the most obvious
acute illnesses that are observed in the city of Venice”5 to deny the
supposed benefits of oil use in many diseases (Table 1). We know
that there are many beliefs on the medical benefits of olive oil, but
we must also acknowledge that certain proposals did not gain ap‐
proval from doctors throughout the ages. Oil was also used as an
immunizing agent against the bite of poisonous serpents. With this
in mind, it is interesting to note a story of a great supporter of this
remedy, William Oliver, in Windsor 1734 and in the presence of phy‐
sicians who were called to verify the quality of his work, was inten‐
tionally bit by two vipers and survived.
It was well known that oil, useful to the tasks of medicine, was
given by God to man, also ut corpus eo niteat ac vires concipiat. Now
we can reflect on how, since ancient times, it has been adopted by
men for its many uses in cooking, medicine, and cosmetics. Ancient
herbalist’s texts are full of dietary6 and hygienic prescriptions for
maintaining health and oil seems to play a major role, especially in
the preparation of ointments, in preserving or enhancing the es‐
thetic harmony of the body.
It is important to consider issues from the beginning of its use
and to reflect upon the ideology of oil and its uses, more specifically
the intersection between cultural factors, the concept of magic and
scientific dimension, from mythology to rational medical practice. It
is well known that oil, in the composition of medical prescriptions,
was considered to be a drug. In ancient Mediterranean countries,

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TA B L E 1   History and uses of olive oil

Historical Epoch Use of olive oil in pharmacological and cosmetic traditions

Egyptian In Egyptian culture, olive oil was used for hair care and to counter wrinkle
Greek The use of oil, which was recounted in Homeric scripts, was deeply rooted in Greek culture. Dioscoride described the oil
therapeutic virtues in his work, an undisputed source of botany and medicine
Roman The culture of olive oil use in massage was especially appreciated by the Romans who give great importance to it in general
skin care. They called olive oil treatments “Beauty baths”
Medieval Even if the monastic orders gave new impulse in the consumption of olive oil, the medieval medical literature is not rich of oil
annotations
Renaissance The “Return to nature” of the Renaissance stimulated the naturalistic observations. In Dioscoride’s comment, Pierandrea
Matthioli described the use different types of oils. Leonardo Fioravanti wrote several pages explaining the virtue and the
occult quality of the olive tree
17th‐18th Even the French scientist Nicolas Lèmery, author of the Pharmacopée universelle believed in the specific properties of olive
century oil. His work was used as a guide for subsequent authors for almost the whole of the 18th century
19th century In the 19th century, medicine was moving away from the tradition which acknowledged the medical properties of oil but, on
the contrary, the beneficial properties of olive oil used for cosmetics are still claimed. In the second half of the century,
Paolo Mantegazza wrote about the olive oil properties. At the end of the 19th century, olive oil was used in cosmetics
industry
20th century We read about the many uses of this product in forms that give it valid justification, even in the modern pharmacological
world
Today Recently, numerous epidemiologic studies show that the dietary consumption of extra virgin olive oil by Mediterranean
populations correlates to positive effects on human health

the use of oil in cosmetics was common practice. In Egyptian culture,
olive oil was used for hair care and to counter wrinkles; the Greeks
applied oil to the bodies of athletes to highlight their esthetic perfec‐
tion and to prepare them through thermal massage.
The use of oil, which was recounted in Homeric scripts, was
deeply rooted in Greek culture. Ampoules, alabaster containers, or
blown glass containers became symbols of status. The culture of
olive oil use in massage was especially appreciated by the Romans
who give great importance to it in general skin care; they called olive
oil treatments “Beauty baths.” Galen suggested the use of olive oil
to lighten the face and hands, but also to stimulate hair growth and
long‐lasting use to counter alopecia and dandruff.
In the work of Dioscoride, an undisputed source of botany and
medicine, it is evident that he uses oil in essences for its therapeutic
virtues, but for other naturalist physicians of that time it was not
common practice to use oil. Olive oil continued to serve as a remedy
for hemorrhages or scabies. Even if the monastic orders gave new
impulse in the consumption of olive oil, the medieval medical liter‐
ature is not rich of oil annotations. Only in Modern Age, texts does
the medicinal qualities of oil plants became more and more vigorous.
The “Return to nature” of the Renaissance stimulated the naturalistic
observations.
The botanists who were educated on the reading of classi‐
cal texts began to observe and study again the remedies offered
by the vegetable kingdom. In Dioscoride’s comment, Pierandrea
Matthioli offered a guide with his monumental work. His work was
considered to be a classic point of reference and a source of useful
medical news, which was printed in numerous editions and was
generally adopted as a medical text almost until the emergence
of modern pharmacotherapy. From him, we learnt the practice
of using different types of oils and numerous artifices for use
in many different ways. For oil obtained from unripe olives, the
omphacino, it was written that: “acerbo, it’s great for healthy use
[…] and is healthy for the stomach […] Restraining the gums […]
Each oil commonly warms […] preserves the body from the cold.” 7
Through certain preparations, oil seemed to help ease any pain.
Hot by mouth, mitigated “Colic, side and kidney pains” and it was
useful to “expel worms.” It was also possible to remedy cases of
poisoning with a composition of substances including old oil.7 All
the recipes show a widespread use of precious vegetable fat, and
there are innumerable literary testimonies of the use of olive oil in
cosmetic preparations. Particularly in the preparation of white oil,
the oil obtained from wild olives, which “prevents sweat and hair
loss.” 8 The oil called Sicionio, the oil obtained from non‐ripe olives,
was prepared by boiling water and white oil slowly over a fire in
a copper pot. A second boil in water completed the procedure for
the production of the oil.
In addition, the daily use of oil was consolidated to the whole of
the body in the bathroom. The relationship between nutrition and
medical knowledge was documented by a vast literature of recipes.
The knowledge, passed by an authority, coordinated by a mysteri‐
ous and far‐fetched tradition, and excluded from experimental test‐
ing, did not exclude the use of cosmetics, according to established
models that were maintained in a doctor’s practice. One of the most
prolific authors of “secrets” was the Bolognese knight Leonardo
Fioravanti, who wrote several pages explaining the virtue and the
occult quality of the olive tree. The oil, which was familiar to him,
was used to make many compositions and ointments, in addition to
medical indications, Fioravanti explained how the oil‐dried leavings
preserved color in hair.9
GORINI et al.
Recently, the cosmetic qualities of olive oil were rediscovered
and its return to the beauty field in the 17th century in products
specifically used for skin care became apparent. Prior to the great
eighteenth‐century scientific systematization, several substances,
distilled water of roses, and such like, were proposed to contain
properties that kept oil dependant skin fresh. The advantages that
oil brought to the inhabitants of affluent places with its production
have been ingeniously symbolized since ancient times. In that pe‐
riod, olive oil was the best and most sought after of all oils, not just
for table use, lighting, or as part of many prescriptions. We want to
remember Nicolas Lèmery, author of the Dictionnaire ou traité univer‐
sel des droghe simples and of the Pharmacopée universelle. His work
was used as a guide for subsequent authors for almost the whole of
the 18th century. Even the French scientist believed in the specific
properties of olive oil and his message was so strong that some of his
traditions are still practiced.10
In the 19th century, medicine was moving away from the tradi‐
tion which acknowledged the medical properties of oil, but, on the
contrary, the beneficial properties of olive oil used for cosmetics are
still claimed today. Despite all of this, more specifically in the rec‐
ognition and comparison of art and beauty and health, we must re‐
member the expression regarding medicine of the early nineteenth
century, which stated “it is not beauty without health.”11
In 19th‐century medicine, the only cosmetics that were recom‐
mended were, along with frequent water lotions, “some oily joints.”
The use of ointments was derived from the habitual practice of cov‐
ering the body with olive oil after each bath, but the extender of the
voice olio for the Dizionario Classico di Medicina Interna ed Esterna,
in 1836, commented on these particular habits and considered them
to be preferential over medicine.12 However, the discourse between
the art of beauty and medical science authorities continued. The
general properties that medicine recognized in oil, on the eve of the
modern development of chemistry, were the fluidity in ordinary at‐
mospheric temperature in temperate climates, greens, solubility in
ether, and combustibility. Robust olive oil was administered as laxa‐
tive or emetic and it was still used to treat poisoning. Combined with
fats and resins, it became the basis of ointments and pharmaceutical
oils which were used as emollients when applied to the skin, or, it
could also be administered by mouth, for the treatment of an inflam‐
mation of the intestinal tube, in colic, diarrhea, disparity treatments
etc
Nineteenth‐century chemistry examined the specific weight of
oil, “about a fifth higher than that of water” which led to other anal‐
ysis to highlight its composition, to the extent that it was a ternary
compound of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Reddish brown resin
gum was observed in olive trees, “in irregular tears, or in variously
voluminous masses.”12 This resin was already known to Teofrasto
and Dioscoride who had spoke of olive tears, resumed by Pliny, cited
by Strabone and assimilated by Matthioli, all agreeing that it was
a useful substance to be used as a medicine applied externally in
the form of a plaster. It consisted of two substances, one of which
was analogous to resinous materials and the other approximated
to the tears. In ancient times, olive was used widely in pharmacies;
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therefore, it has an advantage over other resins when regarding
products for exterior application “exotic resins that are expensive
could be replaced by olive resin.”12
In early 19th‐century treatise, the tradition and/or recom‐
mended use of oily joints, since antiquity, continued to be acceptable
and not solely for athletes, to: soften the skin, diminish perspiration.
Oily clutches, which were intended as protection against pathologi‐
cal events, were regularly practiced by washing the body thoroughly
with water and vinegar and then rubbing the body with a warm oil
sponge.
Leaving the early decades of the 19th century, to move into the
second half of the century, a number of other authors wrote about
the property of oil. In particular, Paolo Mantegazza published the
works with these titles: Igiene della pelle and Igiene della bellezza in
two volumes of his Enciclopedia igienica popolare. Mantegazza ex‐
plained that the primary tool to preserve the qualities of our skin
was certainly water, he also recommended enriching bath water
with olive oil: about 60 g of oil. Warm bath water requires only
minimal amounts of cocoa butter, laudate, and glycerin. The man‐
ual recommended the use of olive oil for cleaning and softening the
skin “to maintain or enhance the beauty of the body.”13 He also rec‐
ommended that women use oil to care and condition their hands
during the night by using cosmetic gloves coated with an ointment
of olive oil and rose‐pomace. For hair care, among the various reme‐
dies, Mantegazza did not forget the so‐called Olio di Celebes (1000 g
of olive oil, 30 g of cinnamon, 45 g of citrine sandalwood and 4 g
of orange essence). These were suggestions that had already been
featured in Elementi di Igiene that he had published a few years be‐
fore.14 A great cosmetic soap made with olive oil and soda. In those
years, when experimenting was not accepted or performed by both
physicians and cosmetics, he still depended on remedies that had
been inherited from tradition and manuals which provided advice
to women wishing to improve their appearance. Among the many
recommendations, it was suggested for use on “friabili” and “vitree”
nails, “tartar cream,” in addition to tartar oil, white wax, powder,
and lemon essence, which also included 20 g of olive oil. It was on
the eve of the establishment of a cosmetics industry, at the end of
the 19th century, that it finally gained economic importance, offer‐
ing a large number of esthetic, hygienic, and eutrophic products.
It was an important moment as it generated ideas for production,
formulating methods, quality control, packaging, and pharmaceuti‐
cals. He also promised to contribute to maintain the best functional
and anatomical conditions in the areas where cosmetics were de‐
signed. When identifying raw materials of vegetable origin, olive
oil was also subjected to basic research which, when applied in this
perspective, outlined any active properties due to the mechanisms
revealed by chemistry. In the preparation of a cosmetic product, the
active ingredients for inducing functional effects were associated
with emulsifiers, additives, or stabilizers. In dermatological medicine
of the early 20th century, the applications of the vegetable grease
as an excipient or a component of a cosmetic formula could not be
ignored; its validity was confirmed by the active ingredient azelaic
acid. We read about the many uses of this product in forms that give
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4       GORINI et al.
it valid justification, even in the modern pharmacological world. Oil
is sometimes used as a mild laxative and as a protective emollient in
inflammatory states of the enteric tube. Even the cosmetics sector
has renewed its validation as it appears in the preparation of various
products. In addition, vitamins and high concentrations of squalene,
phytosterols, and tocopherols, as well as the presence of linoleic and
linolenic acids, gives olive oil emollient and protective properties
for the epidermis,15 and the antioxidant properties make it a pre‐
cious beauty product. Olive oils acidity, a level which is compatible
with that of the skin, makes it a very useful tool in beauty products,
even today an old remedy of minted oil is used to counteract aging,
weakness, and depletion of skin and hair, to strengthen nails, to fight
redness and irritation, and to soften and tone. There appears to be
an eternal interest from doctors and nutritionists in olive oil and the
many possible preparations for its internal or external use that still
form chapters of herbal treatments.16
Recently, numerous epidemiologic studies show that the dietary
consumption of extra virgin olive oil by Mediterranean populations
correlates to positive effects on human health.17 The source of its
beneficial influence health comes from the combination of biophe‐
nols and squalenes (oleocanthal, tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol, and oleu‐
ropein) contained in it.18,19
Olive oil differs from most of the other vegetable oils in the
method of extraction, allowing it to be consumed in the crude form,
hence conserving its vitamins and other natural, healthy, and high‐
value compounds. However, it is known that environmental factors,
climatological conditions, tree variety, time, and methods of harvest
influence the different organoleptic properties of different olive oils.
Today, the specific pharmacological properties of olive oil are
recommended especially in the prevention of several disorders such
as bone aging, digestive and cardiovascular diseases, arteriosclero‐
sis, diabetes, obesity, hypertension, rheumatoid arthritis, memory
loss, and some types of cancers. 21,22
The compounds of olive oil, in particular the phenolic sub‐
stances exert positive effects on lipid oxidation, platelet and cel‐
lular function, inflammatory marker, antimicrobial, antioxidant,
antiviral properties, 24 as well as in preventing the development
of chronic degenerative diseases and reducing oxidative damage
25,26
and inflammation. An animal research has shown that oleuro‐
pein aglycone, the main phenol in the extra virgin olive oil, may
prevent or delay the appearance of Alzheimer’s disease and re‐
duce the severity of its symptoms. 27 Trapani et al28 demonstrated
that an adequate amount of olive oil during pregnancy exposes
the children to a lower risk of wheezing in the first period of their
lives. The same study shows that an appropriate consumption of
olive oil at an early age childhood and adolescence has an im‐
portant effect in the prevention of adulthood diseases and an
key role on many inflammatory diseases, even in the early pe‐
riod of life. In addition, studies show that oleocanthal, a natural
anti‐inflammatory compound contained in newly pressed extra
virgin olive oil, has a potency and profile strikingly similar to that
of ibuprofen with pharmacological qualities able to exhibit var‐
ious modes of action in reducing inflammatory‐related disease,
including joint‐degenerative disease, neurodegenerative disease,
and specific cancers. 29
In addition, similar contents of squalene in human sebum and
olive oil makes it an excellent natural ingredient of biocosmetic prod‐
ucts. Several current studies show the wide variety of uses of this
compound in dermocosmetic field.
We also know that extra virgin olive oil plays today an important
role in dermatology as it has a unique concentrate of regenerating
substances. The high amount of vitamin E produces antioxidant ef‐
fects and helps to fight free radicals, responsible for the aging of hair
and skin.30 Vitamin E, combined with vitamin A, stimulates cell re‐
generation. Today, olive oil is recognized in dermatology as a useful
remedy against wrinkles and is also applied in treatments to prevent
stretch marks.
Olive oil can usually be applied to any type of skin. Before pro‐
ceeding, however, it is indicated consider possible hypersensitivity
or the presence of disorders that advise against the application.
Damby et al showed that, despite its beneficial effects in wound
healing promotion and reduction in skin cancer development, top‐
ical treatment with olive oil has a detrimental effect on stratum
corneum integrity and skin barrier function and has the potential
to promote the development of, and exacerbate existing, atopic
dermatitis.
Historically, the olive industry has been concentrated in and
controlled by mediterranean countries. in recent decades, economic
reasons have encouraged the expansion of olive cultivation also in
new continents (including North and South America, Southeast Asia,
South and North Africa, and the Middle east of Australia.) The use of
genetic material, techniques innovative cultivations as well as envi‐
ronmental factors are encouraging this trend, particularly in desert‐
marginal environments. 31
ORCID
Silvia Iorio  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9741-7838
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How to cite this article: Gorini I, Iorio S, Ciliberti R, Licata M,
Armocida G. Olive oil in pharmacological and cosmetic
traditions. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2019;00:1–5. https://doi.
org/10.1111/jocd.12838