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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Although wind technology produces no emissions during operation, there is an environmental impact
Received 22 October 2010 associated with the wind turbine during the entire life cycle of the plant, from production to dismantling. A
Accepted 10 May 2011 life cycle assessment is carried out to quantify the environmental impact of two existing wind turbines,
Available online 28 June 2011
a 1.8 MW-gearless turbine and a 2.0 MW turbine with gearbox. Both technologies will be compared by means
of material usage, carbon dioxide emissions and energy payback time based on the cumulative energy
Keywords:
requirements for a 20 year life period. For a quantitative analysis of the material and energy balances over the
Life cycle assessment
entire life cycle, the simulation software GEMISÒ (Global Emission Model of Integrated System) is used.
LCA
Wind turbine
The results show, as expected, that the largest energy requirement contribution is derived mainly from
Turbine materials the manufacturing phase, representing 84.4% of the total life cycle, and particularly from the tower
CO2 construction which accounts for 55% of the total turbine production. The average energy payback time
Energy payback time for both turbines is found to be 7 months and the emissions 9 gCO2/kWh. Different scenarios regarding
operation performance, recycling of materials and different manufacturing countries such as Germany,
Denmark and China are analysed and the energy payback time and carbon dioxide values obtained.
Finally, the wind energy plant is compared with other renewable and non-renewable sources of energy
to conclude that wind energy is among the cleanest sources of energy available nowadays.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction life cycle, from cradle-to-grave period. There are different types of
impacts; the direct impacts are those that occur on the specific site
Wind energy technology has a significantly lower impact on the while the plant is producing energy. On the other hand, the indirect
environment than traditional fossil electricity generation technolo- impacts vary with structure and performance of background
gies. However, although wind energy has no direct emissions during industrial systems [1].
operation it still has a negative impact on the environment during pre According to the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards, a LCA is
and post operation phases. An impact assessment approach is carried out in four stages:
therefore important in order to identify the burdens associated with
the life cycle of a wind turbine, from extracting raw materials from 1. Goal and scope definition.
earth reservoirs to manufacturing the different parts of the turbine 2. Inventory analysis: collecting all inputs and outputs of the
until the plant is decommissioned. During the different stages, system.
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions which are responsible for global 3. Impact assessment: evaluating the potential environmental
warming, especially CO2 emissions, are released into the environ- impacts associated with those inputs and outputs.
ment. Identifying the main sources of CO2 emissions in the entire life 4. Interpretation: evaluating the significance of the potential
of the plants, could help to find ways to reduce them and make wind environmental impact of the system.
power an even cleaner source of energy.
In order to assess the environmental impacts of the whole life 2. Goal and scope definition
cycle of a wind turbine, a life cycle assessment (LCA) is carried out.
The objective of a LCA of a product or process is to capture a range of The main objective of the study is to calculate a number of
environmental liabilities or impacts that accumulate over the entire relevant parameters related to the energy consumption, such as
CO2 emissions and energy payback time of two different wind
turbines located in two specific locations. These results are
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ43 50313 52464; fax: þ43 50313 152464. compared with other sources of energy based on fossil fuels to
E-mail address: rudolf.zauner2@verbund.com (R. Zauner). assess the potential of wind plants. The first turbine is a 2.0 MW
0960-1481/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2011.05.008
38 B. Guezuraga et al. / Renewable Energy 37 (2012) 37e44
turbine with gearbox (from now on referred to as turbine 2.0 MW- used for LCA in Europe. It enables a detailed description of all the
geared). The wind plant is currently in the commissioning stage. process steps of an energy system and the calculation of the
However, accurate and reliable wind data is available from the primary energy consumption involved in the process, the emissions
manufacturer and site measurements. Turbine 2.0 MW-geared is and the mass and energy flows.
a wind class IEC IIA turbine specially designed for the wind regimes The model can perform LCA for a variety of emissions and can
of continental Europe. The second turbine to be analysed is determine the resource use. Its database also provides information
a 1.8 MW turbine without gearbox (from now on referred to as on energy carriers (process chain and fuel data) as well as different
turbine 1.8 MW-gearless). This wind turbine is already in operation technologies for heat and electric power generation. In addition to
and operating data is available. fossil energy carriers (hard coal, lignite, oil, natural gas), renewable
energies, household waste, uranium, biomass and hydrogen are
2.1. Process flow chart also covered in GEMISÒ.
The data required to be entered in the GEMISÒ software is:
In this LCA, the entire life cycle of the wind turbine is considered,
from manufacture of the components until the turbine is decom- materials and approximate masses
missioned. Turbine transport to site and erection as well as operation power and duty cycle
and decommissioning are included, since these phases are also part of transport distances and modes
the lifetime of the wind turbine. The flow chart of the wind turbine other energy requirements
life cycle is represented in Fig. 1 where the red arrows symbolize the
emissions released and the blue arrows the electricity generated. The following can be obtained from the database:
Manufacturing phase includes the upstream processes such as
mining, refining, processing and construction of the main compo- Embodied energy of materials/kg
nents of the wind turbine, which are: Energy for manufacture/kg
Rotor: consists of hub, nose cone and 3 blades. 2.4. Impact assessment categories
Nacelle: is normally made of the nacelle frame which covers
the generator, the gearbox, transformers and the electronics. 2.4.1. Global warming potential
Tower This indicator relates to the contribution of the process to
Foundation climate change, in other words, it is a measure of how much a given
Grid connection cables mass of GHG gas is estimated to contribute to global warming. It is
a relative scale that compares the gas in question to that of the
Transport and on-site erection comprises the transport of the same mass of carbon dioxide. The main GHG are carbon dioxide
turbine components to the wind farm and the erection of it. (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). It is measured in
Operation and maintenance includes routine actions to keep the equivalents kgCO2/kWh. CO2 equivalents (CO2e) are the result of
plant in order and fixing the devices that may become out of order. the aggregation of GHG which takes into account their respective
The schedule maintenance covers oil change, lubricants and also global warming potential.
the transfer of workers during service operations. Some spare parts
replacement is required for the gearbox of the turbine. 2.4.2. Cumulative energy requirements
Dismantling and recycling includes dismantling of turbines, This is the basic term for assessing the energy related part of
transportation by truck to the disposal site and in some cases a life cycle analysis for energy systems. The total cumulative
recycling of components. energy requirement contains the energy requirements needed to
deliver a product or a service e valued as primary energy
2.2. Assumptions and limitations measured in kWh.
The lifetime of the turbines is set to be 20 years. The wind 2.4.3. Energy payback time
turbine itself defines the boundary limit of the system, whereas This is a term used to measure the net energy value of a wind
transformers and substations are not included. Then, grid losses in turbine, how long the plant has to operate to generate the amount
transformers and in the distribution grid are ignored. The paint of energy that was required during its entire life. It is calculated as
used in the rotor, nacelle and tower is also excluded from the scope the ratio of total primary energy requirements of the system
of this analysis as it was impossible to obtain data from the throughout its life cycle to annual electricity generated by a system,
manufacturers and it is of little relevance in the final result. so it is defined as the total cumulative energy requirements divided
by the total annual energy generated by the turbine, where the total
2.3. Software: GEMISÒ cumulative energy requirements comprises energy for production,
transport, maintenance and decommissioning.
To conduct the LCA, the simulation software GEMISÒ (Global
Emission Model of Integrated Systems) is used, which is widely
2.5. Functional units and actual production
The inventory analysis covers the resource inputs of metals, Each turbine component is assumed to be transported from the
sand, concrete, glass, and petrochemical products and energy manufacture facility to the site by road truck. The distance covered
required for the manufacture of the different components of the for turbine 2.0 MW-geared is estimated to be 2700 km, while the
wind turbine. distance cover for turbine 1.8 MW-gearless is 1100 km and the
transport typically consists of the following:
3.1. Turbines main characteristics
1 complete nacelle
3 extendible trailer for blade transport
3.1.1. Turbine 2.0 MW-geared
4 trailers for towers
Wind turbine 2.0 MW-geared is a three bladed upwind hori-
1 trailer loaded with cables and controllers
zontal axis wind turbine. It is characterized by a large rotor (rotor
1 trailer with blade hub
diameter is 90 m) with a large swept area and a hub height of
1 trailer loaded with 40 ft container with tools and genera-
105 m. The average wind speed at hub height is 7.4 m/s.
tion for erection.
3.1.2. Turbine 1.8 MW-gearless
It is measured in tkm (ton-kilometre(s)) freight transport
Wind turbine 1.8 MW-gearless features a three blade, pitch
services. So if a truck transports 10 tonnes (t) over a distance of
controlled rotor. The design includes a gearless direct drive
2700 km this equals a transport service of 27,000 tkm.
synchronous generator turbine. This turbine does not have
a gearbox and therefore has less rotating parts than turbine
2.0 MW-geared, which operates with a gearbox. The rotor is 3.4. Operation and maintenance
directly connected to the generator by bearings in the generator
shaft. This wind turbine was designed to address component failure Energy input is required for the turbine operation, such as
concerns and therefore reduce maintenance cost and performance starting the machine, break system operation, yaw and rotor pitch
reduction. This turbine features a 70 m rotor diameter and a hub control. Turbine operation consumption is normally estimated as
height of 65 m with an average wind speed of 6 m/s. 1% of the total electricity generated by the turbine [3]. For both
turbines service is assumed to be carried out three times a year in
3.2. Wind turbine manufacture the form of oil and lubricant. The distance covered is assumed to be
100 km per trip.
3.2.1. Manufacturing of the rotor A conservative estimate of maintenance for the turbines is
3.2.1.1. Blade. The blades are made of a material consisting of assumed. It is expected that over a 20 years lifetime, turbine
approximately 60% glass fibre and 40% epoxy. The material is deliv- 2.0 MW-geared will require one gearbox replacement every 7
ered on rolls to the corresponding assembly facility where it is cut years. Turbine 1.8 MW-gearless requires less maintenance than
into appropriate pieces to the spar and blade. Glue material is used to turbine 2.0 MW-geared mainly because of the smaller number of
assemble the blade shells and the spars. rotating parts in the gearless turbines, only minor parts of the
generator may be replaced.
3.2.1.2. Hub and nose cone. The hub and nose cone are generally
made of cast iron and fibre glass-reinforced polyester respec-
3.5. Dismantling and recycling
tively [2].
Table 2 Table 4
Material requirements. Values for the entire cycle of both turbines.
Materials Turbine 2.0 MW-geared Turbine 1.8 MW-gearless Units Turbine Turbine 1.8
2.0 MW-geared MW-gearless
Mass (t) Wt.% Mass (t) Wt.%
1 Total CO2e t 1164 578
Stainless steel 296.4 19.3 178.4 29.9
2 Total cumulative energy GWh 3.91 2.11
Cast iron 39.35 2.6 44.10 5.9
requirements
Copper 2.40 0.2 9.90 1.6
3 Annual energy generated GWh 5.98 3.27
Epoxy 10.00 0.6 4.80 1.8
4 Energy payback time (2)/(3) yr 0.65 0.64
Plastic 2.40 0.2 1.85 0.3
5 CO2e g/kWh 9.73 8.82
Fibreglass 24.30 1.6 10.20 2.6
Reinforced Concrete 1164 75.6 360.0 57.9
TOTAL 1538 100.0 609.2 100.0
Transport geared, while emissions for turbine 1.8 MW-gearless are 3.8% larger and
Manufacture the energy payback time is 10% larger than for turbine 2.0 MW-geared.
2
Turbine 2.0 MW-geared offers the best results because the service and
maintenance requirements are not taken into account and larger wind
1
turbines with gearbox normally require more maintenance.
The main contributor to the total cumulative energy require-
0
2.0MW-geared 1.8MW-gearless ments and CO2 for both turbines is the production of stainless steel,
followed by concrete and cast iron. On the other hand, plastic
Fig. 2. Entire life cycle cumulative energy requirements. production represents the most energy intensive process of all
B. Guezuraga et al. / Renewable Energy 37 (2012) 37e44 41
Table 7
Results for different operating scenarios.
together the payback period is raised to 1.13 years from 0.65 years. refining not only smelted material is used, but also copper scrap. As
New values are shown in Table 7. co-products of this process unit, sulphuric acid, anode-dredges and
nickel sulphate are produced. When primary copper is used the
5.2. Different recycling scenarios energy requirements are increased from 18.3 MWh to 47.3 MWh [6].
g/kWh
strand casting machine. In a hot rolling mill, plates used to build the 1.5 20
tower are formed from the slab. Steel is also present in the foundation 15
1.0
and a number of components of the nacelle, such as gearbox, gener- 10
ator, nacelle cover, transformer and yaw system. 0.5
5
If recycling steel is not considered, exactly twice the amount of
0.0 0
primary energy is required for steel production (2.28 GWh vs.
BCRS WCRS WCRS + WCOS
4.59 GWh), taking into account the fact that steel represents 20% of
the total material component, the final results will be greatly Fig. 5. Cumulative energy requirements and CO2e for the different scenarios.
influenced by the material production process [6].
5.2.3.2. Cast iron production. Cast iron is considered to be produced 5.3. Turbine manufactured in different locations
from iron and steel scrap melted in electric furnaces. For each tonne
of cast iron obtained, 1.57 tonnes of liquid iron are used. In addition, 5.3.1. Introduction
methanol is required to obtain formaldehyde, ammonia to obtain The manufacturing process of the wind turbine is analysed
carbamide, minerals for clay and sand and water. When recycling is assuming it takes place in three different countries: Germany,
not considered, the processes comprise the extraction of raw Denmark and China with different mixes of energy. Germany and
materials from the earth until cast iron is produced and the amount Denmark have facilities to manufacture the different components
of primary energy required to obtain the necessary cast iron is five of both turbines. However, the production facilities are increasingly
times higher (0.16 GWh vs. 0.81 GWh) [6]. being exported to Asian countries such as China where the labour
cost is significantly lower than in Europe. The end product is the
5.2.3.3. Copper production. Secondary copper is the pure metal same whether produced in China or in Denmark, but the emissions
derived from secondary sources such as waste and scrap. The scrap to produce the exact same product will vary depending on the mix
used for copper production can come from metallic scrap or from of energy used to produce electricity in each country. China’s main
copper containing waste as sludge. For copper production non- source of energy is derived from coal fire power stations, whereas
ferrous copper scrap is used as a secondary resource and it is in Denmark a larger share comes from wind power plants.
assumed that secondary copper production is based on the pyro-
metallurgical process. In Germany 40% of total copper is produced 5.3.2. Assumptions
from secondary copper. To compare the results from these three different countries, the
To obtain primary copper, the process starts with concentration of production process steps have been simplified to increase the
the raw materials and finishes with pure metal after electrolysis. For accuracy of the comparison with less room for errors. The processes
B. Guezuraga et al. / Renewable Energy 37 (2012) 37e44 43
comprise the extraction of raw materials from earth resources even Denmark. In addition, waste use in Denmark is 3% whereas there is
though in some cases they could be obtained from waste materials. no use at all in China and only 1.2% use in Germany.
5.3.3. Results
China has the largest impact, followed by Denmark and Germany. 5.4. Comparison with other sources of energy
The new energy payback time and CO2e emissions for turbine
2.0 MW-geared for the entire life cycle are shown in Table 9 and Fig. 6, 5.4.1. Introduction
where an increase in transport requirements is considered for China An important part of the LCA is to make a comparison with other
and raises the total emissions to 38.33 gCO2/kWh. sources of energy to assess the environmental impact caused by
The cumulative energy requirements during the manufacturing wind power in relation to more traditional fossil fuel power plants
phase obtained from different processes retrieved from GEMISÒ are and also to other renewable sources such as:
given as the sum of non-renewable, renewable and other sources of
energy. Table 10 shows a breakdown of the energy balance, taking Photovoltaic plants e amorphous, monocrystalline and poly-
into account their specific domestic mix of electricity generation, crystalline silicon.
oil products refinery model, heavy fuel oil boilers and gas boilers for Hydropower plants
the processes carried out. Nuclear power plants
As observed in Table 10, the main source of energy used for the Gas cogeneration power plants
manufacture process is derived from crude oil, with Denmark being Coal power plants
the country with the largest share. The second largest fuel used in
China is black coal, which represents 20% of the total fuel The three different photovoltaic technologies compared are
requirements versus 7.5% in Denmark and 5.7% in Germany. amorphous silicon, monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon.
As the reader would expect that the energy requirements in Amorphous silicone (a-Si) is the non-crystalline form of silicon
Denmark are smaller than in Germany, the results need to be Monocrystaline silicon is a homogeneous single crystal silicon.
explained. The reason is because the resource use mix in Germany Polycrystalline silicon is composed of a number of smaller crystals
is more assorted and therefore the black coal requirement is and it can reach a purity of 99.9999%. The mono and polycrystalline
smaller than in Denmark. Moreover, nuclear power contribution silicon modules chosen for the analysis are assumed to use a sun
represents 5.3% of the total share in Germany and only 0.1% in tracker for a better performance. The hydropower plant analysed is
a large hydro plant located in Austria.
Table 9 The nuclear power plant applied in this comparison uses
Results for different manufacturing locations.
a pressurized water reactor with some auxiliary electricity required
Units Germany Denmark China from a diesel system. Enriched uranium is used as a fuel input. For
1 Total CO2e t 2074 2782 4584 the cogeneration plant a large scale gas fired combined cycle
2 Total cumulative energy GWh 6.90 8.06 14.10 cogeneration plant with low NOx burner fed with natural gas is
requirements
used. The credit allocated from cogeneration heat from combined
3 Energy payback time yr 1.15 1.35 2.36
4 CO2e g/kWh 17.35 23.26 38.33 heat and power plants (CHP) replaces gas heating. The last power
plan compared is a big coal fired steam turbine power plant fuelled
with hard coal.
Cumulative energy requirements comparison
5.4.2. Assumptions
16 other The results are measured as the environmental effects caused
renewable for 1 kWh of electricity produced from the different sources of
non renewable energy.
12
5.4.3. Results
GWh
8 The results for the energy payback time and CO2e emissions for
the different sources of energy analysed are graphically repre-
sented in Figs. 7 and 8.
4
The nuclear power plant is the only fossil fuel source that emits
less CO2 than a renewable source of energy such as photovoltaic
0 energy, but hydro and wind power still offer the best results. The
DE DK CN reasons for the high values obtained for the solar systems are the
Fig. 6. Cumulative energy requirements for turbine 2.0 MW-geared in different high energy intensive processes related to silicon extraction and
locations.
CO2e emissions
Table 10
1200 Wind plant
Energy balance for turbine 2.0 MW-geared manufacture.
Amorphous Si PV
Sources of energy type Germany % Denmark % China % 1000
Monocrystaline Si PV
Nuclear power NR 5.3 0.1 0.1 800
Multycrystaline Si PV
g /k W h
Energy payback time The nacelle is also composed of high strength steel - adding a share
3.5 Wind plant to the total stainless steel amount required - and also copper used in
3 Amorphous Si PV various elements. Most ferrous alloy materials found in the nacelle
2.5 Monocrystaline Si PV are recoverable, except for the glass fibre reinforced polymer.
years
2 Polycrystaline Si PV Although the blades add a very small contribution to the total energy
1.5 Hydropower plant requirement, some consideration should be taken into account
Nuclear power plant during waste treatment at the end of the life due to the fact that they
1
CHP
are made of epoxy and fibre glass. Improvements in composite
0.5
materials processing and reutilization are necessary to make wind
0 Coal power plant
technology an even cleaner source of energy.
Fig. 8. Energy payback time for different energy sources.
The material with the largest negative impact is stainless steel
and the smallest impact is derived from concrete production.
Nowadays, some turbine towers are made out of concrete instead of
processing, the larger amounts of material requirements due to sun
steel to obtain better resistance to fatigue and loads. From an
trackers and the fact that the plant is assumed to be in Germany
environmental point of view, a shift towards turbines with a larger
where solar radiation is not optimal. Coal power plants and
share of concrete and smaller share of stainless steel is desired.
combined heat and power plants represent the largest CO2 emis-
sion, although coal fire plants emissions are much higher
(228 gCO2/kWh vs. 1046 gCO2/kWh). 7. Conclusions
In terms of energy payback time, CHP becomes more attractive
and nuclear power becomes the least appealing source of all with The most important parameters calculated in a LCA are the
the largest energy payback time up to 3.16 years versus 1.12 years CO2e emissions and the energy payback time. They vary
for the CHP. In this case, CHP offers better results than the Photo- depending on the assumptions allocated. The most sensitive
voltaic plants with an energy payback time ranging between 1.31 scenario is the manufacturing phase, in particular the use of
and 1.57, but wind and hydropower plants are still the most recycled materials, and the electricity mix used for the produc-
advantageous sources of energy in terms of energy payback time tion of the materials. The “greener” the energy used, the smaller
and CO2 emissions. the environmental impact of the wind turbine. The analysis
shows that even most materials in the wind turbine can be
6. Life cycle interpretation recycled, many fossil fuel based sources of energy are used to
produce these materials and the large amount of crude oil and
This LCA shows the environmental impacts per kWh electricity black coal used has a significant negative impact on the final
delivered from two wind turbines and the results turned out to be results. The energy payback time for a nuclear and a coal fire
very similar. This is due to the fact that although turbine 2.0 MW- power station are 3.16 and 2.72 times longer that those for wind
geared has higher energy requirements, is sited at an extremely power. Hydropower has a slighter smaller environmental impact
optimal wind location and delivers more energy than turbine than wind energy, and both sources of energy should undoubt-
1.8 MW-gearless which on the other hand, has less energy edly be regarded as the energy of the future. Due to this fact and
requirements but also generates less electricity. For the base case the rapid growth in energy demand experienced in the recent
scenario, the energy payback time value of both turbines is 0.6 years, years, it is very important to invest in these technologies in
which means that after 7.2 months of operation the amount of order to achieve a more sustainable development.
energy needed for the turbine manufacture, operation and decom- The results from this report should also be used as reliable data
missioning will be returned. The CO2e emissions for the turbine with to promote more sustainable policies to support wind energy
the largest productivity are 9.73 g/kWh in comparison to 8.82 g/ development. Visual and noise pollution are not considered in this
kWh for turbine 1.8 MW-gearless, mainly because turbine 2.0 MW- analysis, but they should be carefully considered as they represent
geared requires more material and maintenance for operation. a barrier in the development process of this source of renewable
One of the outcomes from this LCA analysis is, as expected, that energy.
the main impacts originate from the production (84%) and trans-
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