SELECTED GENERAL READINGS

131

as a result of acidization. Various methods of hydraulic fracturing driving a

liquid containing sand grains into the pores of a reservoir rock by the use o

extremely high injection pressure-have been developed.4 Later, when the

pressure is relieved, the liquid drains out, leaving the sand grains behind to

hold the fractures open. These methods are known by various trade names:

Hydrafrac, Stratajrac, Sandfrac, etc. Where the initial reservoir pressures are

still available within the reservoir, many phenomenal increases in oil produc

tion have resulted

two essential mass properties of reservoir rock are effective

porosity and permeability. Effective porosity provides storage space for oil

and gas, and permeability permits them to move through the rock. Much prog-

ress has been made by the production engineer and in the core laboratories

toward a better understanding of the factors that influence the porosity and

permeability of rescrvoir rocks--particularly the role of clays, the effects o

differing reservoir waters, and the petrophysics of different kinds of openings.

A vast number of detailed quantitative data have been accumulated on the

Conclusion. The

porosity and permeability of specific reservoirs, on the varying effect of each

on oil and gas production, and on the interrelations of the pore space and

the fluid content. There is yet much to learn, however, particularly on improv-

ing oil recoveries from rocks of extremely low porosity and low permeability,

on the role of grain size in determining porosity and permeability, and on

relating the different kinds of porosity and permeability to depositional environ-

ment-all of which will give a better understanding of underground conditions

and aid in making more accurate predictions.

Selected General Readings

P. G. Nutting, "Some Physical and Chemical Properties of Reservoir Rocks Bear-

ing on the Accumulation and Discharge of Oil," in Problems of Petroleum

Geology, Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol, Tulsa, Okla. (1934). pp. 825-832. A

summary of five years of laboratory work in the U.S. Geological Survey.

H. J. Fraser, "Experimental Study of the Porosity and Permeability of Clastic

Sediments," Jour. Geol., Vol. 43 (November-December 193), Pp. 910-1010.

One of the most thorough discussions of the geological aspects of porosity and

permeability

Morris Muskat, Flow of Homogeneous Fluids Through Porous Media, McGraw-

Hill Book Co., New York (1937), 763 pages. A standard work

M. King Hubber, The Theory of Ground-water Motion," Jour. Geol, Vol. 48

(November-December 1940, pp. 785-944. A classic article largely concerned

with theoretical fundamentals of porosity and permeability phenomena and fluid

behavior under ground.

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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

132

THE RESERVOIR PORE SPACE [CHAP. 4]

Richard B. Hohl, The Nature and Origin of Limestone Porosity," Quart. Colo.

Sch. Mines, Vol. 43, No. 4 (October 1948), 51 pages. Bibliog. 67 items. A

concise statement of the principles of the development of limestone and dolomite

porosity

J. M. Dallavalle, Micromeritics, the Technology of Fine Particles. 2nd ed., Pitman

Publishing Corp., New York and London 1948), 543 pages. Extensive bib-

liography. Considers the behavior and characteristics of particles ranging from

10-1 to 10 microns in diameter.

Morris Muskat, Physical Principles of Oil Production, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,

New York (1949), 922 pages. Porosity and permeability phenomena and their

underlying principles are considered in Chaps. 3 (pp. 114-176) and 7 (pp.

271-332)

Charles D. Russell and Parke A. Dickey, "Porosity, Permeability, and Capillary

Properties of Petroleum Reservoirs," in Parker D. Trask (editor), Applied

Sedimentation, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1950), pp. 579-615. Bibliog.

52 items. An excellent summary of the phenomena associated with porosity and

permeability in reservoirs.

G. E. Archie, "Introduction to Petrophysics of Reservoir Rocks," Bul. Amer

Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Vol. 34 (May 1950), pp. 943-96

G. E. Archie, "Classification of Carbonate Reservoir Rocks and Petrophysical Con-

siderations," B Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol, Vol. 36 (February 1952), pp.

278-298. This and the next preceding article present concise classic discussions

of the fundamentals of reservoir rock petrophysics.

American Petroleum Institute, New York and Dallas, Texas, Recommended Prac-

tice for Determining Permeability of Porous Media, API RP No. 27 (September

1952), 27 pages. Definitions, theory, measurements, and calculations concern-

ing permeability, with bibliography of 51 references. An authoritative statement

for the petroleum industry

Reference Notes

1. G. E. Archie, "Introduction to Petrophysics of Reservoir Rock," Bull. Amer.

Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Vol. 34 (May 1950), pp. 943-961

2. Paul D. Krynine, "Petrologic Aspects of Prospecting for Deep Oil Horizons in

Pennsylvania." Prod. Monthly. Vol 12 (January 1948). pp. 28-33.

3. Park J. Jones, Petroleum Production: Vol. 1. Mechanics of Production, Reinhold

Publishing Corp. New York (194), pp. 13-15

4. A. F. Melcher, "Determination of Pore Space Oi and Gas Sands," Trans.

Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Engrs.. Vol. 65 921), pp. 469-489. Discussion to p. 497.

Melcher was the pioneer in the study of porosity, and this is his first published progress

report.

Sylvain J. Pirson, Elements of Oil Reservoir Engineering. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,

New York (190), Pp. 20-34. 48 selected references on porosity

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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

REFERENCE NOTES

133

T. A. Pollard and Paul P. Reichertz, "Core-Analysis Practices-Basic Methods and

New Developments," Bull Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol, Vol. 36 (February 1952), pp.

230-252.

5. Paul D. Krynine, "Reservoir Petrography of Sandstones," U.S. Geol. Surv., Oil

and Gas Investig., Map OM 126, "Geology of the Arctic Slope of Alaska (3 sheets)

from Sheet 2.

6. Henri Darcy, Les Fontaines publiques de la ville de Dijon, Victor Dalmont, Paris
(1856)

7. American Petroleum Institute, New York and Dallas, Texas, Recommended Prac-

tice for Determining Permeability of Porous Media. API RP No. 27 (September 1952)

27

pages.

8. Morris Muskat, Physical Principles of Oil Production, McGraw-Hill Book Co.

New York (1949). pp. 123-149

Sylvain . Pirson, op. cit. (note 4), pp. 45-73. 71 selected references on permeability

T. A. Pollard and Paul P. Reichertz, loc. cit. (note 4)

American Petroleum Institute, loc. cit, Pp.

9. Ionel I. Gardescu, "Behavior of Gas Bubbles in Capillary

Inst. Min. Met. Engrs. 1930, pp. 351-368. Discussion to p. 370

Stanley C. Herold, il Well Drainage, Stanford University Press, Stanford, Calif.

1941). 407 pages. Jamin action is discussed on pp. 25-33.

John C. Calhoun, "The Jamin Effect," O. &G. Jour, June 2, 1949. p. 79

10. L. J. Klinkenberg, "The Permeability of Porous Media to Liquids and Gases,

API Drill. and Prod. Pract., 1941, pp. 200-211. Discussion to p. 213

11. Heid, MeMahon, Nielsen, and Yuster, Study of the Permeability of Rocks to

Homogeneous Fluids," API Drill. and Prod. Pract., 1950, p. 238

12. Dana G. Hefley and P. E. Fitzgerald, "Selective Acidizing and Permeability De

termination by an Electrical Method," Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Engrs., Vol. 155

1944), pp. 223-23

P. N. Hardin, "The Electric Pilot in Selective Acidizing, Permeability Determinations,

and Water Locating." in Subsurface Geologic Methods. Colo. Sch. Mines (1951), pp.

676-685.
12-16

Spaces," Trans. Amer

13 W. R. Prce, "Capillary Pressures-Their Measurement Using Mercury and the

Calculation of Permeability Therefrom," Tech. Paper 2544, Trans. Amer. Inst. Min.

Met. Engrs, Vo. 186 (February 1949), pp. 39-46. Discussion to p. 48. 8 references

14. R. D. Wycoff and H. G. Bot "The Flow of Gas-Liquid Mixtures Through

Unconsolidated Sands." Physies, Vol. 7 (1938), p. 325

Harry M. Ryder, "Permeability, Absolute, Effective, Measured," World Oil, May

1948, pp. 173-176.

Amer. Peto. Inst, loc. cir. (note 7), p. 4.

15. J. S. Osoba, "Relative Permeability, What It Is and How to Put It to Use in the

Field," O. & G. Jour., July 27, 1953, pp. 326-333

16. M. C. Leveret, "Flow of Oil.Water Mixtures Through Unconsolidated Sands,"

Tech. Pub. 1003 (November 1938), 21 pages, 8 references cited, and Trans. Amer. Inst.

Min. Met. Engrs., Vol. 132 (1939). pp. 149-171

M. C. Leverett and W. B. Lewis, Steady Flow of Gas-Oil-Water Mixtures Through

Unconsolidated Sands." Tech. Pub. 1206 (May 1940), 9 pages, and Trans. Amer. Inst

Min. Met. Engrs., Vol. 142 (1941). pp. 107-116

17. H. J. Fraser, "Experimental Study of the Porosity and Permeability of Clastic

Sediments," Jour. Geo Vol. 43 (November-December 1935), pp. 910-1010. 81 refer-

ences cited. This is a thorough discussion of the factors that infuence both porosity and

permeability

18. W. C. Krumbein and L. L. Sloss, Stratigraphy and Sedimentation, W. H. Free-

man & Co., San Francisco (1951), "Mass

88-92
rties of Sedimentary Aggregates," Pp.

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134

THE RESERVOIR PORE SPACE ICHAP. 41

19. L. C. Graton and H.. Fraser, "Systematic Packing of Spheres-with Particular

Relation to Porosity and Permeability," Jour. Gcol., Vol. 43 (1935), pp. 785-909

69 references.

. M. Dallavalle, Micromeritics, the Technology of Fine Particles, 2nd ed., Pitman

Publishing Corp., New York and London (1948), Chap. 6, "Characteristics of Pack

ings." pp. 123-148.

20. Oscar Edward Meinzer, "Compressibility and Elasticity of Artesian Aquifers,"

Econ. Geol., Vol. 23 (1928), p. 267.

21. H. J. Fraser, loc. cit. (note 17), pp. 917-918

22. H. B. Hl E. L. Rawlins, and C. R. Bopp, Engineering Report on Oklahoma

City Field, Oklahoma, RI 3330 (January 1937), Bur. Mines, pp. 199 and 20

23. H.J. Fraser, loc. cir. (note 17), pp. 959-1010.

24. Geo. A. Thiel, "Diagenetic Changes in Calcareous Sediments." Report of Comm

on Sedimentation, Nat. Research Council (March 1942). pp. 81-110. Bibliog. 174 items.

25. V. P. Grage and E. F. Warren, Jr, "Lisbon Oil Field, Claiborne and Lincoln

Parishes, Louisiana," B. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol, Vol. 23 (March 1939), PP

281-324.

26. Robert F. Imbt and S. V. McCollum, Todd Deep Field, Crockett County. Texas,"

Bu Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol, Vol. 34 (February 1950), pp. 239-262.

27. John M. Muir, Geology of the Tampico Region, Mexico, Amer. Assoc. Petrol.
Geol., Tulsa, Okla. (1936), p. 165.

28. George H. Fancher and Donald M. K. Mackay, "Magnolia." in Secondary Re

covery of Petroleum in Arkansas -A Survey, Arkansas Oil and Gas Commission,

Eldorado, Ark. (1946), Chap. 29, pp. 187-194

29. Warren B. Weeks and Clyde W. Alexander, "Schuler Field, Union County,

Arkansas,"Bl. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Vol. 26 (September 1942), Pp. 1467-1516.

30. G. C. Clark and Jack M. DeLong. "Carthage Field. Panola County. Texas." in

Occurrence of Oil and Gas in Northeast Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Austin, Texas (1951

PP. 55-63

31. Lynn K. Lee, Geology of Basin Fields in Southeastern inois," Bull. Amer.

Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Vo. 23 (October 1939), pp. 1493-1506. McCloskey "sand" dis-

cussed on pp. 1500-1505

32. Irene Haskett, Reservoir Analysis of the Redwater P Trans. Can. Inst. Min. &

Met., April 19S1; Canadian Oil and Gas Industries, July 1951, pp. 39 49.

33. A. W. Lauer, The Petrology of Reservoir Rocks and Its Influence on the Ac-

cumulation of Petroleum," Econ. Geo., Vol. 12 (1917), Pp. 435-472.

34. A. N. Murray and W. W. Love, "Action of Organic Acids upon Limestone,"

Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Vol. 13 (November 1929), pp. 1467-1475

William C. Imbt and Samuel P. Ellison, r, "Porosity in Limestone and Dolomite

Petrolcum Reservoirs," API Dr. and Prod. Pract., 1946, pp. 364-372. 23 references.

Contains photographs of plastic models of carbonate porosity

35. W. V. Howard and Max W. Di, "Development of Porosity in Limestone,"

Bul. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol.. Vol. 20 (November 1936). p. 1395.

86. Parry Rce, "A Survey of Weathering Processes and Products," University of

New Mcxico Publications, Geology, No. (1945), 87 pages. A concise discussion of

weathering phenomena

37. W. V. Howard and Max W. David, loc. cit. (note 35), p. 1392.

38. John Emery Adams, "Origin, Migration, and Accumulation of Petroleum in

Limestone Reservoirs in the Western United States and Canada," in Problems of Petro-

leum Geology, Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. (1934), pp. 347-363. Cavernous porosity in

the dolomitic limestone reservoir in Yates pool, Texas, is discussed on page 351

C. D. Cordry, "Ordovician Development, Sand Hills Structure, Crane County. Texas

Geologic N u Amer. Assoc. Petol. Ge, Vol. 21 (December 1937), pp.

1575-1591. Describes cavernous porosity in Ellenburger limestone (Ordovician)

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