MARCH 2019

Industry Spotlight:
Energy
The American Welder
How 100-Year-Old
Companies Stay Current

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
March 2019 • Volume 98 • Number 3
FEATURES
32 Exploring Current Research in Power Generation
Asset Weld Repairs
New issues in today’s power plants require
use of newer welding processes and procedures
J. A. Siefert et al.
CONTENTS
48 The Welding Summit Climbs to New Heights
The event aimed to create a space where experts
from different sectors of the welding industry
could work together on their shared obstacles
K. Pacheco

40 Heat Treatment: An Essential Variable in Energy

Plant Reliability
32
Because of the many variables involved when
performing heat treatment in the field, proper
planning is especially important — G. Lewis

44 Investigation of a Ruptured Socket Weld in

Sour Service
Recommendations to improve the safety of
pipeline equipment resulted from the
metallurgical investigation following a weld
rupture — S. Yero

THE AMERICAN WELDER

82 Modern Sensibilities Give 100-Year-Old Companies
Staying Power 89
Five companies relate their long histories and
their aims for the future — R. Pascal and
C. Weihl

89 Considerations for Successfully Welding

Low-Alloy Steel
Controlling hydrogen levels and cooling rate are
critical to welding low-alloy steels — R. Fox

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT

63-s Cross-Weld Creep Performance in Grade 91
Steel: Macro-Based Assessment
Detailed hardness mapping and damage
evaluation supported the observation that
damage occurred in a region in the HAZ not
characterized by a local reduction in hardness
values — J. A. Siefert et al.
78-s Weldability of Duplex Stainless Steels —
Thermal Cycle and Nitrogen Effects
These findings should allow fabricators to better
design the welding process with duplex stainless
steels — B. Varbai et al.
88-s Effect of Multiple Weld Thermal Cycles on
HSLA-100 Steel
All regions of the base metal and heat-affected
zone with the exception of the coarse-grained
heat-affected zone exhibited toughness values
above the minimum requirements — J. E. Duch
and J. N. DuPont

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 3

DEPARTMENTS
6 Editorial 61 Certification Schedule
8 AWS at 100 63 Society News
10 Press Time News 68 Member Profiles
12 International Update 70 Tech Topics
14 News of the Industry 72 Section News
20 Business Briefs 78 Guide to AWS Services
22 Letters to the Editor 79 Personnel
24 Product & Print Spotlight The American Welder
28 Centennial Stories 92 Learning Track
30 Stainless Q&A 96 Fact Sheet
54 RWMA Q&A 101 Classifieds
58 Coming Events 102 Advertiser Index

OFFICERS WELDING JOURNAL

President Thomas J. Lienert
Consultant
Vice President Robert W. Roth
RoMan Manufacturing Inc.
Vice President W. Richard Polanin
WRP Associates
Vice President Dennis K. Eck
Praxair Distribution Inc.
Treasurer Carey Chen
Cincinnati Incorporated
Executive Director and CEO Matt Miller
American Welding Society
DIRECTORS
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Welding North America
R. Ashelford (Dist. 13), Rock Valley College
J. R. Bray (Past President), Affiliated Machinery Inc.
T. Brosio (Dist. 14), Major Tool & Machine
J. Burgess (Dist. 8), General Electric
D. A. Desrochers (Dist. 1), Old Colony RVTHS
D. L. Doench (At Large), Hobart Bros. Co.
D. A. Flood (Past President), Tri Tool Inc.
K. Fogleman (Dist. 16), Consultant
P. H. Gorman (Dist. 20), Retired
M. Hanson (Dist. 15), Consolidated Precision Products
L. Heckendorn (Dist. 7)
R. L. Holdren (At Large), ARC Specialties
T. Holt (Dist. 18), Tech Corr USA Management
J Jones (Dist. 17), Harris Products Group
M. Krupnicki (Dist. 6), Mahany Welding Supply Co. Inc.
D. Lange (Dist. 12), Northeast Wisconsin Tech. College
S. Lindsey (Dist. 21), City of San Diego
S. M. McDaniel (Dist. 19), Big Bend Community College
D. K. Miller (At Large), Lincoln Electric
S. Moran (Dist. 3), American Hydro Corp.
R. Purvis (Dist. 22), Purvis Welding Inspection
S. Raghunathan (At Large), Saudi Aramco
H. Record (Dist. 5), Townley Foundry & Machine
M. Sherman (Dist. 10), SW&E LLC
L. E. Showalter (Dist. 4), Newport News Shipbuilding
M. Skiles (Dist. 9), Airgas Inc.
W. J. Sperko (At Large), Sperko Engineering Services
K. Temme (Dist. 2), Matrix NAC
P. I. Temple (Dist. 11), Welding Consultant
Publisher/Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Editorial
Sr. Editor Cindy Weihl
Features Editor Kristin Campbell
Associate Editor Katie Pacheco
Assistant Editor Roline Pascal
Peer Review Coord. Sonia Aleman
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Design and Production
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Assistant Production Manager Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
Media Sales Executives Jeff Rhodes
and Kim Daniele
Production Specialists Megan Lebo
and Amy Gosen
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Sonia Aleman
saleman@aws.org
MARKETING ADVISORY COUNCIL
(MAC)
D. Doench, Chair, Hobart Brothers Co.
A. Sepulveda, Vice Chair, Hypertherm Inc.
S. Samuels, Secretary, American Welding Society
D. Brown, Astaras Inc.
C. Coffey, The Lincoln Electric Co.
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg. Inc.
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash Compressed
S. Molenda, ESAB Welding & Cutting
M. Muenzer, ORS Nasco
W. Newell Jr., Euroweld Ltd.
N. Schmid, Weiler Abrasives Group
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
D. Wilson, Wilson and Associates
C. Chen, Ex Officio, Cincinnati Incorporated
S. Fyffe, Ex Officio, Astaras Inc.
L. Kvidahl, Ex Officio, Ingalls Shipbuilding
T. Lienert, Ex Officio, Consultant
M. Miller, Ex Officio, American Welding Society
S. Moran, Ex Officio, American Hydro Corp.
R. Polanin, Ex Officio, WRP Associates
R. Roth, Ex Officio, RoMan Mfg. Inc.
Y. M. Zhang, Ex Officio, University of Kentucky
AWS Promotes Diversity
AWS values diversity, advocates equitable and
inclusive practices, and engages its members and
stakeholders in establishing a culture in the
welding community that welcomes, learns from,
and celebrates differences among people. AWS
recognizes that a commitment to diversity, equity,
and inclusion is essential to achieving excellence
for the Association, its members, and employees.
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published monthly
by the American Welding Society for $120.00 per year in the
United States and possessions, $160 per year in foreign
countries: $7.50 per single issue for domestic AWS members
and $10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and $14.00 sin-
gle issue for international. Not available for resale in either
print or electronic form. American Welding Society is located
at 8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672; telephone
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Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of articles
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quote from articles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items excluded
from copyright.
Copyright © 2019 by American Welding Society in both
printed and electronic formats. The Society is not responsible
for any statement made or opinion expressed herein. Data
and information developed by the authors of specific articles
are for informational purposes only and are not intended for
use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
part of potential users.

4 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019

EDITORIAL
AWS Members Let Their Passion
Lead the Way
From my first interactions with American
Welding Society (AWS) members, I have
been struck by one thing — their passion.
Every member I have interacted with has
shown a passion for the industry, and a pas-
sion for AWS. This passion has certainly
played a key role in making AWS the strong
organization that it is today and helped to
carry it to its 100th anniversary. It is also this
passion and dedication that I would like to
build upon as AWS works to support the cur-
rent welding community and looks toward
engaging and inspiring the next generation.
Nici Banks Having a broad and active base of dedicat-
Associate Director of ed members to provide expertise and feed-
Membership, AWS back is what makes AWS a leading resource
in the welding industry. No matter what job
title they have, or where they live, members
power AWS’s activities with their knowledge,
experience, and questions, and help make
AWS a uniquely indispensable resource.
To retain and grow this knowledge base,
we need to engage members by connecting
them to the resources AWS provides, as well
as connecting them to each other. When
members feel connected and find value in
being a part of the AWS community, their
“AWS offers a wide AWS membership becomes essential to their
variety of benefits... work, and renewing their membership is an
easy choice. Members who feel connected are
already planned for also the best recruiters of new members, as
2019 are updates to they share their experience with others and
your online AWS invite them to become a part of the AWS
member profile...we community.
also encourage A huge part of helping members feel con-
nected is communication, and with nearly
members to take ad- 70,000 members around the world, it is a chal-
vantage of one of the lenge to find a one-size-fits-all method of
greatest benefits to communicating. So, we are looking at how we
AWS membership — can better communicate with our members.
the opportunity to AWS offers a wide variety of benefits. I
connect with other want to make sure that all of our member-
ship communications, including membership
members for any- web pages, welcome kits, renewal notices,
thing from technical emails, and more, are highlighting these ben-
questions to career efits as well as making them clear to under-
advice.” stand and easy to access.
Already planned for 2019 are updates to
your online AWS member profile that should
make it easier to view what we have on file
for you, update your contact information,
and renew your membership online. Corpo-
6 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
rate members are included in these profile
updates, and they should soon see more flex-
ibility in updates they can make without
needing to contact AWS staff (although we
are always happy to talk with you if you have
any questions).
Because we know contact is important,
we also encourage members to take advan-
tage of one of the greatest benefits to AWS
membership — the opportunity to connect
with other members for anything from tech-
nical questions to career advice. Participating
in the discussion forum within the online
AWS Member Network or reading updates in
the Welding Journal are great ways to do this,
but sometimes there is no replacement for
meeting someone face to face in your own
backyard. District conferences and Section
meetings provide a great opportunity for
meeting people in your region. If you haven’t
attended a local event lately, I encourage you
to check out your Section’s schedule and be
sure to add your District’s conference to your
calendar. Through aws.org/membership/
SectionsMap, you can locate your Section,
along with its website, to stay connected to
news and events.
In addition, to better enhance connec-
tions within our Districts and Sections, AWS
is making a commitment to its strategic cul-
tivation and development at the local level
within our Sections and Student Chapters.
Leading this focus is Darrill A. Gaschler,
AWS senior manager of volunteer relations.
The volunteer leaders who serve as offi-
cers in our Sections and Student Chapters
represent a direct link to AWS members in
communities around the world. Darrill has
already begun the process of strengthening
ties between AWS World Headquarters and
these key volunteers. Monthly Section Solu-
tions calls, updates to the online Section
Toolkit, and development of a speaker data-
base are just a start. We want to empower lo-
cal leaders with the tools and information
they need to connect within their communi-
ties and strengthen AWS’s value at the local
level. Enhanced connections within Sections
will help provide insight into our members’
most pressing daily needs.
Thank you for your passion and dedica-
tion to welding and AWS. WJ
AWS AT 100

In celebration of the American

Welding Society’s 100th anniversary,
here are some historical highlights of
the Society and industry. In this issue,
we feature the 1940s.

1941–1945 1943

Without warning, and

During the 1940s, weld- The first practical applica-
ing becomes the dominant tions in the United States of
method of metal fabrica- gas tungsten arc welding
tion used in ship construc- were involved with military
tion. It is widely used in the aircraft.
construction of Liberty
ships deployed during
World War II.
1942
Regarded as a ‘first’
at the time, three
10,000-ton cargo
ships were launched
simultaneously at
Todd Shipbuilding
Corp., South Portland,
Maine, in 1942. W. H.
Hobart, vice president
of Hobart Brothers
Co., attributed the
feat to three things. First, the steels did not have to be over-
lapped as they were when riveting was used, thus saving a
great deal of steel. Second, he said, new welders could be
trained much faster than new riveters. And third, welding
lends itself more readily to production line assembly.
In a Welding Journal arti-
cle titled “Welded Weapons
in War,” Colonel Scott
Ritchie extolled the merits of
welding, noting its use in a
large percentage of more
than 1700 different weapons
furnished to U.S. fighting
forces.
1944
with a report that was
heard for at least a mile,
the deck and sides of the
S.S. Schenectady, a World
War II tanker, fractured
just aft of the bridge super-
structure on January 16,
1943, while tied up at a
pier on Swan Island in Ore-
gon. The ship had been
launched from a Kaiser
shipyard two weeks before
in Portland, Ore. The ves-
sel was repaired and re-
turned to service.
More than a billion
pounds of welding
electrodes were pro-
duced in the United
States in 1944.

8 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019


Can a Woman Weld?
Vera Anderson won the title of
National Women’s Arc-Welding
Champion in both 1943 and
1944. (Photo courtesy of Hunt-
ington Ingalls Industries.)
Vera Anderson and Hermina
Strmiska start the vertical
test in the second section
of the women’s welding
championship.
tasks, all new, all much untried, but with the will to do their
best. They came willingly, for was it not their sons, brothers,
husbands, and fathers who had gone to protect them, their
homes, their ideals, their America? They came untrained, but
with a willingness to learn that made them readily adaptable
Following WWII, companies began stepping up production of consumer
goods. In the December 1947 Welding Journal, an article detailed the manufac-
ture of refrigerator cabinets. The process was likened to automotive assembly
line methods, including the use of resistance spot welding.
Learn about the 1950s and ‘60s in the April Welding Journal.
That was the question
asked and answered by
Doris McDowell in the
December 1944 issue of
the Welding Journal. Mc-
Dowell was then the
women’s counselor at
Western Pipe & Steel Co.,
a firm that mostly built
cargo ships during the
war years. The article was
based on a talk she gave
to the AWS Los Angeles
Section that May. In it
she outlined why women
had left their traditional
roles and entered fields
such as welding to aid in
the war effort.
“Women have been
known from pioneer days
for their fortitude and
courage in facing difficul-
ties and untried fields. It
was not surprising when,
from the industries across
the United States, came
the call for them. They
were needed to shoulder
new responsibilities, try
new fields of labor, and
attempt to accomplish the
gigantic task left to them
by the fast diminishing
army of workers who had
enlisted and were being
drafted into the service of
our country. They came
by thousands strong, to
lend their hands and
woman-power to many
1947
to many kinds of work,” McDowell wrote.
She then related the experiences of a number of women
who had joined the shipyard’s welding workforce, including
that of an acetylene welder who used the process on tubes
for marine boilers.
“She understood when she was released from school that
we expected one complete unit of 28 welds for 8 hours’
work. This number was above any number of welds then be-
ing made by the men.
“The first day she made 19; the next day, 28. Before long,
she was doing her 28 by 2:00 p.m., in just six hours. Then
she climbed to an average of 35 welds a day and is now do-
ing 58 with ease. Her work has never had a leak, nor has she
had to have one of her welds gone over. At present, a new
acetylene welder must prove his, or her, ability to make 30
welds daily before being classified as a welder.”
Two years earlier, the Welding Journal’s new products sec-
tion included an item about a line of safety clothing from
General Electric designed specifically for women welders. It
included leather sleeves, aprons, jackets, gloves, and a head
and hair covering. Today, with a growing number of women
entering the welding workforce, companies are once again
developing safety garments designed and styled for women.
A heralded woman welder of the 1940s worked for Ingalls
Shipbuilding. In 1943, 19-year-old Vera Anderson won the
title of “National Women’s Arc-Welding Champion,” and
then retained the title in 1944. After an elimination tourna-
ment held by Ingalls, she was named the gulf coast champi-
on and the company sent a challenge out to other shipyards.
The Henry J. Kaiser Oregon yard accepted and Anderson
competed against Hermina Strmiska, the west coast cham-
pion. The two-part competition included flat, vertical, and
overhead weld tests and were judged on speed and quality.
For the win, Anderson received $350 in war bonds, a mas-
sive silver loving cup, and a weekend trip to the White
House where she had tea with Eleanor Roosevelt. The next
year, she competed against and beat Edna Slocum of Moore
Dry Dock in San Francisco. Mademoiselle magazine named
her as one of its 1943 Merit Award winners and the Associ-
ated Press selected her as one of the ten outstanding women
of the year.
At the time of Ingalls’ 60th anniversary in 1998, Anderson
recalled, “Newspapers and radios stressed that women were
needed in the war effort. I became a welder.” So did her sis-
ter, Minnie Anderson. After finishing welding school, both
young women went to work at Ingalls in 1942. WJ
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 9
PRESS TIME NEWS
Ford Invests $1 Billion in Chicago Plants,
Creates 500 New Jobs
Ford Motor Co. is
investing $1 billion
in Chicago Assembly
and Stamping Plants,
and adding 500 new
jobs, as it prepares to
launch three SUVs
that go on sale later
this year.
The plant trans-
formation, set to be-
gin this month, will
Ford Employee Jenine Myers fits expand capacity for
doors on the Explorer at the Chicago the production of
Assembly Plant. (Photo by Sam the Ford Explorer,
VarnHagen.) Police Interceptor
Utility, and Lincoln
Aviator. The work will be completed in the spring.
The additional 500 full-time jobs bring total employment
at the two plants to approximately 5800.
With the Illinois investment, Ford is building a body and
paint shop at Chicago Assembly, and making major modifi-
cations to the final assembly area. At Chicago Stamping, the
company is adding stamping lines in preparation for the
2020 models of the three vehicles previously described.
Advanced manufacturing technologies at the plants in-
clude a collaborative robot with a camera that inspects elec-
trical connections during the manufacturing process. In ad-
dition, several 3D-printed tools will be installed to help em-
ployees build these vehicles.
According to Ford, it was the number one producer of ve-
hicles in the United States and the leading exporter of vehi-
cles from the United States, building nearly 2.4 million in
2018, and employs the most hourly U.S. autoworkers.
“We are proud to be America’s top producer of automo-
biles. Today, we are furthering our commitment to America
with this billion dollar manufacturing investment in Chica-
go and 500 more good-paying jobs,” said Joe Hinrichs, presi-
dent, global operations.
Chicago Assembly, located on the city’s south side, is
Ford’s longest continually operating vehicle assembly plant.
The factory started producing the Model T in 1924 and was
converted to war production during World War II.
Tennessee Governor Unveils Initiative
for Vocational Education
Tennessee Governor Bill Lee has recently revealed his
first legislative initiative, the Governor’s Investment in Vo-
cational Education, to expand access to vocational and tech-
nical training for Tennessee students. The plan is a two-
pronged approach that utilizes regional partnerships to de-
velop work-based learning and apprenticeship opportuni-
ties. It also provides funding for high school juniors and sen-
iors to utilize four fully funded, dual-enrollment credits for
trade and technical programs.
10 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
AWS Centennial Celebration Web Page
Goes Live
This screenshot shows the start of the interactive timeline
on the new AWS 100th anniversary web page.
As part of festivities this year for the American Welding
Society’s (AWS) 100th anniversary, a special web page has
been created at aws.org/about/page/aws-100.
Under the headline titled “Honoring our Past, Embracing
the Future,” the following is stated:
“Our Centennial celebration really belongs to all the men
and women who’ve been instrumental to the Society’s growth.
That’s why we’re asking all of you to join us throughout the
year as we reflect on the proud heritage of service that we’ve
built together and embrace the future ahead.”
The text also details AWS’s enduring mission “to advance
the science and art of welding” was present at its inception in
1919, and that the Society’s dedication to helping welding pro-
fessionals across the globe protect and improve lives remains
as strong today as it was then.
Additionally, the web page features 100 years of AWS histo-
ry in an interactive timeline. “Take a short walk down memory
lane with us as we celebrate key AWS milestones along with
the many significant industry advancements leading up to our
100th birthday,” is stated there. Users can navigate through nu-
merous accomplishments, plus view photos, all in chronologi-
cal order.
Another focus on the web page is a video where AWS Learn-
ing shows depictions of welding in popular culture.
As AWS marks its centennial in 2019, visit aws.org/about/
page/aws-100 for photos, videos, and more. Share photos and
memorabilia as well on social media using #AWS100.
Hypertherm Expands Its Spark
Something Great Grant Program
Hypertherm, Hanover, N.H., a manufacturer of industrial
cutting systems and software, is accepting applications for
its Spark Something Great educational grant program. They
are due on or before April 1, with decisions shared by May 1.
This year, the company is expanding the program to 12
schools in the United States and Canada. For more details,
including the winners’ prizes, visit hypertherm.com/grant. WJ
INTERNATIONAL UPDATE
Axess Group Signs New Frame Agreement
Deal with Danish Wind Turbine Manufacturer
Axess Group has signed a two-year frame agreement with
Vestas Wind Systems A/S, the Danish manufacturer, seller,
installer, and servicer of wind turbines, for the enterprise of
competence and annual inspection of all Vestas-operated
wind farms in Norway.
The scope of work includes the inspection and certifica-
tion of the lifting equipment, using advanced nondestruc-
tive examination methods and several in-house engineering
disciplines. The contract also covers documentation review
and evaluation of performed maintenance to better improve
maintenance strategy and structural integrity.
“This contract is an important step for us towards gaining
more opportunities within the rapidly developing renewable
energy sector. It enables us to demonstrate our asset integrity
management capabilities, and allows us to develop our compe-
tency within the wind energy industry,” said Eirik Notsund,
Axess Group, client manager renewables.
Bodycote Holds Opening Ceremony for
New Yorkshire Facility
Bodycote’s opening ceremony took place on the factory
floor of the new Rotherham plant.
Bodycote, Macclesfield, UK, a heat treatment and special-
ist thermal processing provider, held an opening ceremony
at its new facility on the Advanced Manufacturing Park
(AMP) in Rotherham, Yorkshire.
The new advanced heat treatment center, now fully oper-
ational and supporting customer requirements, offers
a range of heat treatment services and has been established to
support the aerospace and power generation markets in the
UK and Europe.
Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre CEO Colin
Sirett said the new center will bring a key capability to AMP.
He continued, “We’ve got everything from aircraft parts
through to carbon fiber chassis for supercars all being man-
ufactured on this site; the one piece of the process that was
missing was materials processing...so it’s great to welcome
the Bodycote team here and we are looking forward to work-
ing with them for many years to come.”
12 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
China President Witnesses ESAB’s FSW
Technology at Liaoning Zhongwang Group
President Xi Jinping visited China’s largest aluminum pro-
ducer, Zhongwang Group. During the visit, ESAB’s friction stir
welding (FSW) system was showcased.
On Sept. 27, 2018, President Xi Jinping visited China’s
largest aluminum enterprise, Zhongwang Group, Liaoning
Province, where he was shown ESAB’s friction stir welding
(FSW) system in operation. The aluminum fabricator has
been primarily focusing on the lightweight development in
the transportation, machinery and equipment, and electric
power engineering sectors.
Zhongwang and ESAB began talks regarding a new cus-
tomized FSW system in 2013. In 2014, Zhongwang awarded
ESAB with a contract for FSW technology, including one FSW
gantry of 90-m working range and two sets of fixtures for the
production of railcar sidewalls and floors and marine deck
panels of aluminum alloys. The system was delivered in 2015
and put into operation the same year, with technical supervi-
sion provided by ESAB’s project team from Sweden and China.
Total E&P Starts Training Students for
Oil Pipeline Welding Jobs in Uganda
Total E&P Uganda, an oil and gas exploration company, has
launched a welder training program for jobs in the oil and gas
sector in the Albertine Graben. The training was launched at
Buhimba Technical Institute in Buhimba sub-county Kikuube
district, for welders in Buliisa, Masindi, Hoima, Mubende,
Nwoya, Nebbi, Pakwach, Kakumiro, and Lwengo Districts.
Twenty-five out of 200 students were chosen.
The students will undertake specialized training in 2G
and 4G coded welding levels in line with the industry stan-
dards and health, safety, and environment training among
others.
According to Jean Yves Petit, the project representative
at Total E&P, the training will help enhance the student’s
knowledge and skills to meet the anticipated demands of
the project and ensure adherence to the highest standards of
quality health, safety, and environment.
After the training, the students will be qualified to the re-
quirements of American Welding Society Standards, which
will increase their employability not only within the oil and
gas sector in Uganda, but also in other sectors and in other
countries. WJ
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY

What’s Happening in Welding • Technical Education

Center and Welding Lab
Education: New Degrees, Training Training Spaces Come
Spaces, Grants, and More Together
Wallace State Communi-
Welding education ty College, Hanceville, Ala.,
news across the Unit- has held a groundbreaking
ed States keeps on ceremony for its $7.7-
making headlines. This belt buckle by Shyla million Technical Educa-
Detailed below are Curry, a student at Mesa- tion Center for Welding
several stories, from lands Community College, and Entrepreneurship. The
degrees to grants, re- honors New Mexico Governor goal is to open the facility
cently released by Michelle Lujan Grisham. The in April 2020. The welding
various sources. school now offers an associ- area, allowing the program
ate of applied science degree
• Different De- to grow from 6500 to
in cowboy arts/western sil-
grees Available for versmithing and fabrication. 19,445 sq ft, will include 62
Welding Technolo- welding booths; ten virtual
gy and Cowboy welding simulators; six pipe
Arts/Western fitting stations; a destructive/nondestructive examination
Silversmithing lab; three robotic and resistance welding cells; an additive
Edison State Com- manufacturing cell; a computer numerical control automa-
munity College, Pi- tion/programming lab; and an overhead crane.
qua, Ohio, and Ho- Southern Maine Community College has also opened a
bart Institute of welding lab with equipment that will provide Maine compa-
Charlie Carpenter, director of skill Welding Technology, nies the skilled workers needed while enhancing career op-
education at Hobart Institute of Troy, Ohio, have en- portunities for residents. It has purchased ten welding sta-
Welding Technology, and Tony tered a consortium tions now being used to deliver technical training to
Human, dean of professional and agreement. This will prospective employees for General Dynamics Bath Iron
technical programs at Edison State, enable students en- Works; qualified participants who complete the training will
shake hands upon entering an en- rolled in Hobart Insti- be interviewed for positions there. The equipment is set up
hanced consortium agreement. tute accredited weld- in a building leased by Bath Iron Works a couple of blocks
ing programs to con- away from the college’s Midcoast Campus.
tinue on the path to an associate’s degree at Edison State. • Grants in Wisconsin and North Dakota = $135,000
Building on a 20-year partnership, the institutions’ latest High school students will be able to gain welding skills
agreement facilitates the transfer of credits from the Hobart through a $100,000 Wisconsin Department of Workforce
Institute to Edison State for students wanting to pursue an Development Fast Forward grant to Gateway Technical Col-
associate of technical studies in welding technology. They lege. The funds will train 34 high school students from
have the option to work toward this degree with a focus on schools in Gateway’s district through a welding academy
management, manufacturing, or quality. Students enrolled
in the program may also apply up to 30 credit hours from
Hobart Institute toward one of the associate of technical
studies degrees now offered at Edison State; the remaining
coursework required at Edison State may be completed on-
line or in person in as little as one year.
In addition, Mesalands Community College, Tucumcari,
N.Mex., is offering an associate of applied science degree in
cowboy arts/western silversmithing and fabrication. De-
signed to teach students the custom designing, fabricating,
and engraving of bits, spurs, buckles, and jewelry, it pro-
vides the skills and practice needed to pursue employment
as precious metal workers, jewelers, welders, and engravers.
“There is a huge need for blue-collar workers, and when
they complete this degree, they will have a vast array of
blue-collar skills,” said Eddy Mardis, Mesalands’ cowboy
arts/western silversmithing and fabrication faculty member.
Shyla Curry is a student in this program. “I have direction
in life now and a potential career ahead of me. I’m financial-
ly independent and financially stable,” Curry said. She At Universal Technical Institute in Rancho Cucamonga, Los An-
geles, Calif., a welding student perfects precision skills while
praised Instructor Mardis, while he noted she was commis- practicing with a plasma cutting tool. The institute has started
sioned to develop a belt buckle for the newly appointed New its welding technology program in Dallas-Ft. Worth, Tex.
Mexico Governor Michelle Lujan Grisham.

14 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019

project. They will earn up to 17 college credits toward a
welding maintenance and fabrication technical diploma, as
well as industry certificates, and qualify for a welding youth
apprenticeship.
Additionally, Mandan Public Schools, Mandan, N.Dak.,
has received a $35,000 grant from Marathon Petroleum
Corp. through the company’s foundation. These funds will
support the welding and agriculture mechanics program at
Mandan High School, improving safety equipment in the ca-
reer technical education labs and updating equipment to re-
semble that in the industry.
• Welding Technology Program Launches in Texas
Universal Technical Institute has expanded its welding
technology training program to the Dallas-Ft. Worth, Tex.,
campus. Designed in partnership with The Lincoln Electric
Co., the 36-week course prepares students to work in the
transportation, construction, structural, pipe, and fabrica-
tion industries. Adding welding at this location follows the Highlighted here are two pieces of Aluminum Alloy 7075
welded using a nanoparticle-enhanced filler wire. (Oszie
institute’s launches in Rancho Cucamonga, Los Angeles, Tarula/UCLA.)
Calif., and Avondale, Phoenix, Ariz.
“The opportunities for skilled welders are abundant and
employers are ready and willing to pay for them,” said Jesus Alloy 7075. The method is infusing titanium carbide
Miranda, the institute’s Dallas-Ft. Worth campus president. nanoparticles, particles so small they’re measured in units
equal to one billionth of a meter, into Aluminum Alloy 7075
welding wires used as the filler material between the pieces
being joined.
Nanotechnology Enables Engineers to A paper describing the endeavor was published in Nature
Weld Aluminum Alloy 7075 Communications. The researchers produced welded joints
with a tensile strength up to 392 megapascals; by compari-
Engineers at the UCLA Samueli School of Engineering, son, Aluminum Alloy 6061 has a tensile strength of 186
Los Angeles, Calif., have developed a way to weld Aluminum megapascals in welded joints. According to the study, post-

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 15


Graduate Student Maximilian Sokoluk poses for a group
photo with Laboratory Mechanician Travis Widick, holding a
demonstration bike frame welded using Aluminum Alloy 7075,
and Professor Xiaochun Li. (Kenny Stadelmann/UCLA.)
welding heat treatments could further increase the strength
of Aluminum Alloy 7075 joints up to 551 megapascals,
which is comparable to steel.
Because it’s strong but light, Aluminum Alloy 7075 can
help increase a vehicle’s fuel and battery efficiency, so it’s of-
ten used to form airplane fuselages and wings. However, the
alloy’s resistance to welding, specifically to the type of weld-
ing used in automobile manufacturing, has prevented it
from being widely adopted.
16 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
“The new technique is just a simple twist, but it could al-
low widespread use of this high-strength aluminum alloy in
mass-produced products like cars or bicycles, where parts
are often assembled together,” said Xiaochun Li, UCLA’s
Raytheon Professor of Manufacturing and the study’s prin-
cipal investigator. The lead author is UCLA Graduate Stu-
dent Maximilian Sokoluk; the other authors are Chezheng
Cao, who recently earned a doctoral degree from UCLA, and
Shuaihang Pan, a current UCLA graduate student.
The researchers are working with a bicycle manufacturer
on prototype bike frames that would use the alloy. The new
study suggests that nanoparticle-infused filler wires could
make it easier to join other hard-to-weld metals and metal
alloys.
Hayden Corp. Marks 100-Year Milestone
Hayden Corp. (haydencorp.com), West Springfield, Mass.,
a thermal spray and laser cladding services provider, is cele-
brating its 100-year anniversary.
Hayden Wire Works opened in 1919, serving the boom-
ing paper industry. Over the next several decades, the com-
pany would pioneer metallizing solutions for paper mill ma-
chinery, eventually developing thermal spray processes in
the 1960s. As time went on, the company grew, offering
coating services to new industries. In 2008, it added laser
cladding services. Today, Hayden serves users in dozens of
industries.
The company will segue into 2019 with a new job track-

This year, Hayden Corp. achieves centennial status. One of
its three robotic laser cladding cells is shown depositing to a
small component. (Credit: Hayden Corp.)
ing system, renewing its National Aerospace and Defense
Contractors Accreditation Program (NADCAP) certification,
and adding grinding to its Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) approved offerings for aerospace-industry users.
The job tracking system will automate the request-for-
quote process. “Turnaround time is incredibly important to
our customers. In many cases, their productivity and prof-
itability depends on it,” said Hayden Corp. President Daniel
Hayden. “We pride ourselves on being an advantageous
strategic partner for coatings services, and automating more
of our processes will only make us more efficient.”
In addition, the company is in the process of finalizing its
NADCAP recertification for AMS2437 (plasma spray) and
AMS2447 (high-velocity oxyfuel). It has also been granted
approval to provide grinding as part of its laser cladding
services offered as an FAA-approved repair station.
Lockheed Martin Meets F-35
Production Target
Lockheed Martin, Fort Worth, Tex., has delivered the 91st
F-35 aircraft, meeting the joint government and industry
delivery target for 2018. The achievement represents nearly
a 40% increase from 2017 and about a 100% production in-
crease compared to 2016. Additionally, this year, Lockheed
Martin is set to deliver more than 130 F-35s.
A U.S. Marine Corps F-35B for Marine Corps Air Station, Beau-
fort, S.C., sits at Lockheed Martin in Fort Worth, Tex., as the
91st F-35 to be delivered in 2018.
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 17
 “This milestone demonstrates the F-35 enterprise is pre-
pared for full-rate production and ready to deliver on in-
creasing demand from our customers worldwide,” said Greg
Ulmer, Lockheed Martin vice president and general manager
of the F-35 program. “Year-over-year, we have increased
production, lowered costs, reduced build time, and improved
quality and on-time deliveries.”
The 91st aircraft is a U.S. Marine Corps F-35B, to be deliv-
ered to Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort, S.C.
Overall, more than 355 F-35s have been delivered and are
now operating from 16 bases worldwide. The price of an StandardAero executives joined Diego Beltran (seen in the
F-35A is now $89.2 million; the enterprise is on track to de- middle of this group shot with clasped hands), vice president
liver an $80 million F-35A by 2020. and general manager of the company’s Miami facility, his
leadership team, and employees to dedicate a substantial
expansion. (Credit: Cobo Photography.)

StandardAero Expands Florida Facility
StandardAero Component Services, a repair and overhaul
provider with welding/brazing, inspection, and thermal
spray among its abilities, has dedicated a 30,000-sq-ft ex-
pansion of its component repair facility in Miami, Fla.
The additional working space and capital improvements
included the installation of a clean line, an extra vacuum
furnace, and water jet cleaning capabilities. The company
also claims the facility will be the largest provider of aero-
space and aerospace-derivative combustor overhauls in
North America, and the second largest in the world.
“Since becoming a part of the StandardAero family in 2017,
we have enjoyed the support and resources that the company
has brought to bear on our Miami operations,” said Diego Bel-
tran, vice president and general manager of the company’s Mi-
ami facility. “We are excited for our employees here, as well as
for our customers, as we bring more and new work into our
shop to meet the growing demands in the industry.”
Air Separation Plant Coming to
Minneapolis
Absolute Air LLC, a partnership of five locally owned in-
dependent gas and welding supply distributors, plans to
build a merchant air separation plant to serve its partners
and customers in the upper Midwest area. It will be located
on a contracted site in the Minneapolis metropolitan area.

18 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019

 “We expect the facility to be on-stream in 2020,” said Ned
Pontious, president of Absolute Air. The plant will produce
oxygen, nitrogen, and argon for use in applications such as
metal fabrication, blanketing, and purging.
The five distributors involved in the project are Missis-
sippi Welders Supply, Toll Co., Minneapolis Oxygen, A-OX
Welding Supply, and Huber Supply. All are located in the up-
per Midwest area to be served by the plant; together, they
represent 30 business locations with more than 50,000 cus-
tomers in a seven-state region.
Industry Notes
• Kevin McDermott and Cynthia Ramsey, representatives
of the Dart Foundation, Mason, Mich., have presented a
$52,230 check to Harford Community College President
Dianna G. Phillips on behalf of the Harford Community
College Foundation, Bel Air, Md., and Sean Bulson, su-
perintendent, Harford County Public Schools. Funds will be
used to equip and install three dual-weld stations at Har-
ford Technical High School; currently, it has 11 stations.
• Oerlikon Metco’s Surface One, a new machine for ther-
mal spray coatings, is the winner of two international de-
sign honors. The Red Dot Design Award and the Interna-
tional Design Excellence Awards recently recognized the
product’s design for its contribution to the quality, efficien-
cy, usability, and safety of the thermal spray process.
• The Cheboygan County Community Foundation has
awarded a $5000 grant to Industrial Arts Institute, On-
away, Mich., to equip one of its eight new welding booths.
This move will help the institute to position the area with
qualified welders. In addition, the booths will aid the insti-
tute in increasing its welding students by 33%.
• Airborne Maintenance and Engineering Services,
Wilmington, Ohio, has received Federal Aviation Admin-
istration approval of repair specifications for selected air-
craft parts using cold spray. This comes from three years of
public-private collaboration funded by the State of Ohio.
• Abicor Binzel has completed a new laser system repair
and maintenance lab at its North America headquarters in
Frederick, Md. Audited and certified by Scansonic, the
space offers clean room environment settings with a certi-
fied lab result. Component replacement, laser head re-
builds, and basic maintenance are among the services.
• The DAES Group, Arlington, Tex., a worldwide aerospace
provider, and Flame Spray Technologies (FST), The
Netherlands, a manufacturer of thermal spray systems,
have formed a new partnership. The group will distribute
and be the service provider of FST thermal spray products
and solutions for the aerospace market globally. WJ
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 19
BUSINESS BRIEFS
TransCanada Plans Name Change to TC Energy
TransCanada Corp., Calgary, Alberta, intends to change
its name to TC Energy to better reflect the scope of the com-
pany’s operations as a North American energy infrastruc-
ture company. TransCanada’s shareholders will be asked to
approve a special resolution to change the name at the com-
pany’s next annual and special shareholders meeting.
“TC Energy better reflects the breadth of our business
and acknowledges our proud history of safely and responsi-
bly delivering the energy that millions of North Americans
rely on every day,” said Russ Girling, TransCanada’s presi-
dent and CEO. “We believe the name TC Energy clearly artic-
ulates our complete business — pipelines, power generation,
and energy storage operations — and reflects our continued
continental growth into an enterprise with critical assets
and employees in Canada, the United States, and Mexico.”
TransCanada intends to continue trading under “TRP” on
the Toronto and New York stock exchanges after adopting
the new name. Subject to shareholder and regulatory ap-
proval, the name change will be effective in the second quar-
ter of 2019.
Metal Shark Alabama Receives Towboat
Contract with Florida Marine Transporters
Metal Shark Alabama is building three 120  35 ft river tow-
boats for Louisiana-based Florida Marine Transporters Inc.
Shipbuilder Metal Shark, Bayou La Batre, Ala., has been
awarded a contract to build three 120  35 ft river towboats
for Florida Marine Transporters Inc., Mandeville, La.
The four-decked, welded-steel, USCG Subchapter M-
compliant towboats will be powered by twin Cat 3512C Tier
3 marine diesel engines rated at 1911 hp each. Construction
is underway at Metal Shark Alabama, with deliveries com-
mencing in 2019.
The contract signals the shipbuilder’s entry into the in-
land towboat market following the company’s acquisition of
Horizon Shipbuilding.
“The first step in bringing our Alabama facilities online
was to implement the technology, production and project
management methodologies, and engineering-driven
processes developed and perfected during the course of
building over 1000 vessels at our two Louisiana shipbuild-
ing facilities,” said Metal Shark CEO Chris Allard. “Now,
with systems in place, multiple new steel vessels under
20 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
construction, and strong demand for our refit and repair
services, we can proudly say that Metal Shark Alabama is
fully open for business.”
Additionally, the shipbuilder is recruiting in both Ala-
bama and Louisiana to expand its workforce.
Rockford Systems Relocates Headquarters to
Accommodate Growth and Expansion Plans
Rockford Systems has relocated to a larger facility located
at 5795 Logistics Parkway in Rockford, Ill., to prepare for rapid
growth and future expansion plans.
Rockford Systems LLC, Rockford, Ill., a provider of
machine safeguarding products, safety education, and in-
dustrial safety services, has moved its headquarters into a
larger facility located next to the Chicago Rockford Interna-
tional Airport. The relocation will offer employees an im-
proved workspace to deliver expanded training, manufactur-
ing, and customer support, while providing the company
with operational efficiencies and a larger footprint for fu-
ture growth in a thriving business environment.
According to Joe Nitiss, CEO of Rockford Systems, the new
headquarters will expand the company’s product development,
production efficiencies, training capabilities, and overall cus-
tomer satisfaction. More importantly, he sees the move as a
bridge into the future expansion of the company’s machine
safeguarding and industrial safety training programs.
“For more than 45 years, Rockford Systems has taught
people in positions of responsibility how to safeguard their
machines to meet complex OSHA/ANSI/RIA/NFPA safety
standards and to prevent injuries. Now we are creating the
necessary space in a modern headquarters that will foster an
interactive, more immersive learning environment,” he said.
Other News
• SureWerx™, Elgin Ill., and Vancouver, British Columbia,
a supplier of professional tools, equipment, and safety prod-
ucts, has acquired Jackson Safety® and WILSON® Safety
brands from Kimberly-Clark Professional, a global supplier
of workplace products and solutions.
• Arconic, New York, N.Y., has sold its Texarkana, Tex.,
rolling mill to Ta Chen International Inc., a U.S. subsidiary
of aluminum and stainless steel distributor Ta Chen Stain-
less Pipe Co. Ltd., Taiwan. WJ
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Reader Questions
Qualification Article
The December 2018 Welding Jour-
nal contains an article titled “Qualifi-
cation of Ultra-High-Purity, Large-
Bore Orbital Pipe Welds” by Barbara
Henon and Mark Nastari.
In the Section titled “Fabrication —
Weld Qualification Events Schedule”
the following is stated: “According to
Section IX of the Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code (BPVC), the contractor is
responsible for welding done by his or
her organization. This included
procuring material and welding equip-
ment, training welding operators…”
Nowhere in ASME IX are there
rules or requirements for procuring
material, welding equipment, training
welders, or welding operators. The
Scope of ASME IX (QW-200.1 and
200.2), the fourth paragraph of the In-
troduction and Parts QG-100, 101,
102, and 103 make it clear, the sole
purpose of a Welding Procedure Speci-
fication (WPS) and Procedure Qualifi-
cation Record (PQR) is to show if the
22 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
WPS is followed, the deposited weld
metal will be as strong and ductile, and
in certain circumstances, as notch-
tough as the base material. A welder
performance qualification does noth-
ing more than to show if the welder or
welding operator follows a qualified
WPS, that he or she can deposit sound
weld metal. ASME IX does not man-
date any specifics concerning how to
train welders or welding operators be-
yond using the phrase “further train-
ing” for qualifications and retests.
Anthony Rangus
AWS Life Member
Garden Valley, Idaho
Immediately after the statement “the
contractor is responsible for welding done
by his or her organization,” there is a
period, meaning “end of statement.” We
were not trying to imply that contractors
are mandated by ASME IX to procure ma-
terials (etc.), we were simply stating
that, in our case, we did procure materi-
als, welding equipment, and trained our
personnel.
The sole purpose of our article was
to explain, for everyone’s benefit, what
we went through to qualify for welding
ultra-high-purity piping for semiconduc-
tor facilities.
The article was not intended to try to
teach any Code requirements. Hopefully,
other readers will see the article as a
positive.
Mark Nastari
Corporate Quality Director
Harder Mechanical Contractors Inc.
Portland, Ore.
Defining Generations
There was a short article in the
January 2019 Welding Journal, as part
of the FABTECH coverage, titled “Ex-
pert Panel Discusses Gen Z and the
Manufacturing Workforce.” To my un-
derstanding, the article then goes on
to use “millennial”and “Gen Z” inter-
changeably. I just wanted to point out
that the millennial cohort (also known
as Gen Y) and the Gen Z cohort are
two completely different generations.
By most conventions, the oldest mil-
lennials are nearly 40 years old, with
the youngest being 22–23 years old.
Most millennials are already well-
established in the workforce. Gen Z
are currently 13–22 years old by typi-
cal definitions.
Ethan Sullivan
PhD student
Colorado School of Mines
Golden, Colo. WJ
Dear Readers
The Welding Journal encourages
an exchange of ideas through letters
to the editor. Please send your
letters to the following address:
Welding Journal Dept.
Attn: Cindy Weihl
8669 NW 36 St., #130
Miami, FL 33166
Items can also be sent via FAX to
(305) 443-7559 or by email to
cweihl@aws.org.
PRODUCT & PRINT SPOTLIGHT
Flame Arrestors Halt
Ignited Vapors
The line of flame arrestors for the
oil and gas industry stops ignited va-
pors from traveling backward into the
vent line or tank, preventing explo-
sions, burns, and other hazards. The
line includes burner, inline, stack, and
vent arrestors. The flame arrestors
24 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
Showcasing the Energy Industry
feature a face plate with a pressed and
sealed sight glass, rather than one that
is welded or held in place with a lock
nut. This eliminates seams and gaps,
reduces the chance of leaks, and better
withstands equipment vibration.
BelGAS FM; Marsh Bellofram Corp.
mb-belgas.com; marshbellofram.com
(304) 387-1200
Low-Hydrogen Flux Designed
for Pipeline Steel Grades
The Pipeweld 78LH Flux delivers a
low-hydrogen flux for longitudinal or
spiral welding of pipeline steel grades,
such as X70 and X80, using multiwire
submerged arc welding processes. Its
flux formulation and production
process meets the H4 classification of
≤ 4-mL diffusible hydrogen per 100 g
of weld metal. Because of its low-
hydrogen formulation and moisture
resistance, the flux enables coating
within a few hours after welding, im-
proving throughput. It also controls
the bead width and profile to provide
proper and adequate reinforcement
while delivering a smooth surface fin-
ish, even at high welding speeds. Be-
cause of its improved grain size, the
flux can be recaptured and reused,
prolonging the interval between flux
hopper refills. Its H4 classification is
secured with the BigBag, a 2000- to
2200-lb bulk package made from a wo-
ven polypropylene material with a
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The flux is also available in a 50-lb
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ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
esab.com
(800) 372-2123
Foam Standard Targets as well as easy to operate using the er- Manipulator Enables
Safety in Nuclear Facilities gonomic remote control with graphical Pipe Spooling
interface. A range of accessories, in-
The E3191, Standard Specification for cluding many of the components from
the predecessor version of the rail- The space-saving Mini Pantheon™
Permanent Foaming Fixatives Used to manipulator delivers repeatable, high-
Mitigate Spread of Radioactive Contami- mounted carriage, enable it to be
adapted to specific conditions. It is quality welds coupled with a stable
nation, aims to help protect workers platform for pipe spooling. Showcas-
and property during routine operations suitable for use in the construction of
containers, power stations, bridges, ing a heavy-duty construction and lin-
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guidance on permanent foam coatings ships, and vehicles.
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applied to various facility surfaces that duce operator fatigue. Its electronic
Fronius International GmbH
reduce migration of contamination into pendant controls boom up/down and
fronius.com
or along buildings, equipment, and oth- (219) 734-5502 arc start/stop for ease of operation,
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ric not previously available to commer-
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nology and Applications, the standard
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(E3104 and E3105) that also cover
these nonremovable foams, sometimes
known as three-dimensional contami-
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ASTM International
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Welding Carriage Produces

High-Quality Weld Joints

The FlexTrack 45 Pro consists of a

rail system and carriage that guides the
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tions. The system is quick to assemble,

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 25

while the controller offers four imme-
diate and four time-delay contacts to
be used for motion control. Its addi-
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26 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
extractor options, pipe stands, and po-
sitioners, are also offered.
The Lincoln Electric Co.
lincolnelectric.com
(216) 481-8100
Report Predicts Growth for
the 2015–2022 Global Welding
Machinery Market
Welding Machinery — Global Strate-
gic Business Report posits that this in-
dustry is expected to reach $24.4 bil-
lion for the forecast period of 2015 to
2022. The main contributor is the
strengthening recovery momentum in
the global gross domestic product, as
well as the resulting opportunities in
metal products fabrication and repair
in diverse industries such as infra-
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tion, automotive, manufacturing,
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the 449-page report, in the energy in-
dustry, the pressing need for the up-
grade of aging infrastructure and the
renewed focus on renewable energy is
driving up the number of new power
plant construction and modernization
projects, thus spurring the need for
welding automation solutions to speed
up plant construction efforts. The re-
port also identifies Asia-Pacific as the
largest market worldwide, supported
by infrastructure rehabilitation and
maintenance programs. Additionally,
it states that this region ranks as the
fastest growing market with a com-
pound annual growth rate of 3.3%, led
by rising construction and infrastruc-
ture spending to address the civic
and energy needs of the growing
population.
Research and Markets
researchandmarkets.com
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Workwear Meant for Women
in Industrial Settings
The line of women’s workwear of-
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ing to 96 in. (2400 mm). They also
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Huntingdon Fusion Techniques HFT®
huntingdonfusion.com
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Survey Shows Rising
Construction Salaries
The 2018 Construction Craft Salary
Survey finds that skilled craft profes-
sionals will continue to earn high
wages. More than 130 industrial and
commercial construction companies
across the United States, representing
more than 350,000 employees, partici-
— continued on page 81

from eye protection to tool belts to

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Shirts range from small to extra large
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SeeHerWork
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Sealing Plugs Suited for

Heavy-Duty Pipe Applications

The Pipestoppers® heavy-duty

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MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 27

CENTENNIAL STORIES
‘The Workshop of the World’ Spawns First
AWS Section
As part of our celebration of the American Welding Society’s centennial,
the Welding Journal plans to tell the stories of events and people from the
Society’s past, as well as those who may contribute to its future. In this
issue, we’re heralding the AWS Philadelphia Section, the first of the Society’s
169 Sections.
These days, the Philadelphia Section tries to not repeat its
events with the exception of its high school welding contest.
Shown here are participants, contest organizers, and welding
instructors at last year’s contest held in March at Dorchester
Career and Technology Center in Maryland.
The city of Philadelphia has numerous nicknames with
The City of Brotherly Love and The Cradle of Liberty per-
haps the most well known. However, Philadelphia’s Industri-
al Revolution history resulted in the nickname “The Work-
shop of the World.” In the pre-World War II 20th century,
Philadelphia “led the nation in production of such diverse
products as locomotives, streetcars, saws, steel ships, tex-
tiles, rugs, hosiery, hats, leather, and cigars. It held second
place in the production of sugar, fertilizer, foundry castings,
petroleum products, chemicals, and drugs,” according to
Fredric Miller in Still Philadelphia.
Thus it was fitting that Philadelphia became the first
AWS Section in 1920. In the first issue of the Journal of the
American Welding Society, the predecessor of today’s Welding
Journal, readers were informed the Section would feature a
program on “Pipe Welding and Welded Pipe.” Three papers
were to be presented, illustrated by “lantern slides” and fol-
lowed by a general discussion.
In addition, the report said, “In accordance with their usual
custom, the Executive Committee of the Philadelphia Section
will entertain the speakers of the evening and other invited
guests at dinner at the Engineers Club. The Philadelphia Sec-
tion dinners have already become quite an institution.”
Through the decades, the Section’s activities have reflect-
ed the times. By the 1940s, “slides” rather than “lantern
slides” illustrated talks; a plant tour had to be cancelled in
1942 because of security issues related to WWII; by the
28 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
1950s, a party with dinner and dancing had become an an-
nual event; and the 1960s saw panel discussions on topics
such as joining thin-gauge aluminum. Philadelphia also
served as the host Section for the Society’s annual meeting
and exposition celebrating its golden (50th) anniversary in
1969 and its diamond (75th) anniversary in 1994.
For much of the group’s history, however, a dinner followed
by a technical presentation was the standard Section meeting.
And that’s what the Section strives mainly to avoid these days.
“We’re trying to develop an interest in AWS and recruit
the younger generation into welding,” noted Sal Russoman-
no, current Section chair. “We try to have presentations on
new technologies and theories of welding processes.”
“The Section is made up of a lot of different people,” ex-
plained District 2 Director Ken Temme, who is also a Section
officer, “so sit-down dinners with a presenter don’t work
well.” Students, welders, and many other members “want to
see physical welding going on, they want to see the facility
fabrication’s being done in.”
The Section doesn’t even call them meetings any more;
instead they are events. They’re offered to attendees free of
charge, and they’re held throughout the Section’s bound-
aries, including New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland. That’s
on purpose, Temme explained, so they can bring AWS to ar-
eas where members wouldn’t normally have convenient ac-
cess to the Section.
While membership has grown over the past few years, it’s
still tough to get people out to the events, Russomanno ex-
plained. He acknowledged the many demands on people’s
time, which he feels results in many seeking information on
the internet rather than attending an event. His worry is
that the information they find there won’t be accurate. “My
hope is that for weld theory or practical information, they go
to aws.org,” Russomanno said.
The exception to the Section’s goal of not repeating
events even from one year to the next is its high school weld-
ing competition. For the past two years, it took place at
Dorchester Career and Technology Center in Maryland (see
figure), but in 2019 moves to a shop at the Navy Yard in
Philadelphia. Although the contest is open to any high school
student, since it was held in Maryland, it was mostly local
students who participated. Temme hopes the move to the
Navy Yard will help draw participants from a wider area.
The Section is proud of its heritage with AWS and plans
to continue serving area members. WJ
STAINLESS Q&A
Q: We know it is common to use
ER309L for applying corrosion re-
sistant cladding to carbon steel.
We have been trying to develop a
procedure qualification using
submerged arc welding (SAW)
and a flux designed for use with
stainless steel. But we keep fail-
ing transverse side bends with
brittle cracking in the first layer.
What could be the problem?
A: Longtime readers may recall that a
similar question was addressed in the
May 2003 Welding Journal. Let me try
a somewhat different, more quantita-
tive approach this time.
The fundamental issue is the need
to limit dilution from the carbon steel
into the weld metal cladding so that a
stable microstructure of austenite
with a little ferrite will be found in the
cladding. When brittle cracking of the
weld metal cladding occurs, it is al-
most invariable due to enough dilution
to destabilize the austenite, which re-
sults in martensite formation in the
weld overlay. Then bending causes the
martensite to fracture.
A simple test I have found useful
for evaluating cladding conditions to
determine if dilution was acceptable is
a single-pass bead on plate using a
½-in. × 3-in. A36 steel bar stock. After
cooling to room temperature, the sam-
ple is bent over a 1-in. radius with the
weld on the tension side of the bend. A
weld deposit with acceptable dilution
(stable austenite) bends without crack-
ing. A weld deposit with unacceptable
dilution develops numerous brittle
cracks.
Figure 1 shows a pair of such bend
samples, one with acceptable dilution
and one with unacceptable dilution.
Both samples were produced from the
same coil of ER309L by submerged arc
welding (SAW) using the same high
basic flux. The sample to the front has
numerous cracks (unacceptable dilu-
Table 1 — Compositions of ER309L and A36 Steel
Material
C Mn P S
ER309L 0.02 1.78 0.02 0.01
A36 0.16 0.51 0.01 0.02
*NA = Not Applicable
30 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
Fig. 1 — Bent cladding welds of
ER309L filler metal on A36 structural
steel.
tion), while the sample to the rear
bent without cracking (acceptable
dilution).
The sample with acceptable dilution
was produced using 27-V direct cur-
rent electrode negative (DCEN) at a
relatively low wire feed speed (60
in./min) resulting in a 280-A welding
current, 1-in. contact tip to work dis-
tance (CTWD), and 12 in./min travel
speed. The sample with unacceptable
dilution was produced using 28-V
DCEN, 140 in./min wire feed speed re-
sulting in a 520-A welding current and
28in./min travel speed. Note that, for
both samples, the wire feed speed is
five times the travel speed so that the
deposit weight per unit length of weld
is the same for the two conditions.
However, the dilution is quite differ-
ent for the two conditions, about 20%
for the successfully bent sample and
about 50% for the cracked sample.
Also note that DCEN was chosen be-
cause that polarity tends to produce
lower dilution than direct current elec-
trode positive.
Table 1 presents the composition of
the ER309L electrode used for the
bend tests. The composition is typical
for that classification of filler metal.
Table 1 also includes the composition
Chemical Composition, wt-%
Si Cr Ni Mo
0.46 24.20 13.95 0.16
0.03 0.08 0.06 0.02
BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI
of the A36 steel base metal used in the
bend tests. That composition is typical
of structural carbon steels. If an all-
weld metal buildup were made with
the ER309L, it must be recognized
that the composition of the all-weld
metal would not be exactly the same
as that of the ER309L, but with a high
basic flux it will be close. The all-weld
metal composition was not collected.
So the ER309L composition can be
used to estimate dilution effects by
plotting the compositions on the
WRC-1992 diagram. This is done in
Fig. 2.
In Fig. 2, a heavy red line connects
the ER309L composition to the A36
composition. This line consists of all
possible mixtures of the two materials.
Advancing along this line from the
ER309L composition toward the A36
composition corresponds to increasing
dilution from the A36 steel into the
weld metal. The point representing
20% dilution lies 20% of the distance
from the ER309L composition to the
A36 composition. The point represent-
ing 50% dilution lies 50% of the dis-
tance from the ER309L composition to
the A36 composition. Other dilution
levels can be similarly estimated.
Traveling along the heavy red line
in Fig. 2 from the ER309L composition
toward the A36 composition (increas-
ing dilution) indicates five possible
conditions for the first layer of weld
metal:
1. When dilution is less than 20%
(i.e., Creq > 19.6 along this heavy red
line), solidification occurs as primary
ferrite (region FA in Fig. 2), which is
the optimum result. This situation
would provide for maximum resist-
ance to solidification cracking and sta-
ble austenite at room temperature that
will comfortably pass the bend test.
2. When dilution is between about
28% and about 20% (i.e., 17.8 < Creq
< 19.6 along this heavy red line), solid-
ification occurs as primary austenite
(region AF in Fig. 2). Solidification
WRC
Cu Nb N FN
0.07 0.02 0.06 12.3
0.06 < 0.01 < 0.01 NA*
 Nickel Equivalent = Ni + 35C + 20N + 0.25Cu
Fig. 2 — WRC-1992 diagram with 1% Mn martensite boundary.
cracking (generally along the deposit
centerline) and liquation cracking (mi-
crofissures, generally at the interface
between weld passes) may occur, but
the weld deposit will be stable austen-
ite, which can pass the bend test if
cracking is very minor.
3. When dilution is between about
39% and about 28% (i.e., 15.0 < Creq
< 17.8 along this heavy red line), solid-
ification occurs as 100% austenite (re-
gion A in Fig. 2). Solidification crack-
ing and liquation cracking are more
likely than in region AF, but the weld
deposit will be stable austenite, which
can pass the bend test if cracking is
very minor.
4. When dilution is between about
43% and about 39% (i.e., 14.0 < Creq
< 15.0 along this heavy red line), solid-
ification occurs as 100% austenite as
in Condition 3, but austenite stability
is uncertain. Failure of bend tests may
or may not occur. There is uncertainty
as to whether or not significant
martensite will form.
5. When dilution is greater than
about 43% (i.e., Creq < 14.0 along this
heavy red line), solidification occurs as
100% austenite as in Condition 3, but
martensite will form and cracking in
bend testing is almost certain. The
bend test is highly likely to fail as in
the foreground of Fig. 1.
Conditions 4 and 5 are certainly to
be avoided. Conditions 2 and 3 pose
risks of cracking. Only Condition 1 is
really safe. Welding toward the low
end of the current range for a given
wire diameter helps, especially using
DCEN polarity. Once a low dilution
first bead has been deposited, welding
with a lot of overlap (60 to 70%) on
the previous bead allows for higher
current (higher deposition rate) for
subsequent beads in the first layer.
There are a variety of other techniques
to reduce dilution in the first bead
and/or first layer. Extended CTWD (2
in. or more), with an insulated guide
tube to prevent wire wander, is partic-
ularly useful. Once a low dilution first
layer is achieved, higher currents can
be used for the second and any further
layers.
It is critical that a low dilution first
bead and first layer be achieved if suc-
cessful bend tests are to be assured in
cladding carbon steel or low alloy steel
with ER309L by SAW. WJ
DAMIAN J. KOTECKI is president, Damian
Kotecki Welding Consultants Inc. He is
chair of the AWS A5D Subcommittee on
Stainless Steel Filler Metals, and member
of the D1K Subcommittee on Stainless
Steel Structural Welding and WRC
Subcommittee on Welding Stainless Steels
and Nickel-Base Alloys. He is a past chair
of the A5 Committee on Filler Metals and
Allied Materials, past treasurer of the IIW,
and served as AWS president (2005–2006).
Questions may be sent to Damian J.
Kotecki c/o Welding Journal, 8669 NW 36
St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672, or via
email at damian@damiankotecki.com.
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 31
 Exploring Current Research
in Power Generation
Asset Weld Repairs

Today’s power plant environment is radically different from a

decade ago, giving rise to new issues in need of solutions

BY JOHN A. SIEFERT, JONATHAN D. PARKER, JON K. TATMAN, AND GREG J. FREDERICK

32 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019


C
omponents in power generating
plants must operate safely under
complex conditions, including
high temperatures, high pressures, and
severe environments. New or postcon-
struction codes provide a basic set of
rules to ensure a minimum expected
performance will be achieved. Fabrica-
tion of power generation components
David Hansen, a welding
technician at EPRI’s
Welding and Repair
Technology Center,
observes gas tungsten
arc welding.
also necessitates joining sections to es-
tablish a suitable pressure boundary
through conventional fusion welding
processes. Throughout the course of a
component’s life, damage at the most
susceptible, high-risk locations will
necessitate run, repair, and replace
decision-making as part of an inte-
grated life management philosophy.
This article, focusing on power gen-
eration asset weld repairs, highlights
several studies by the Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI), Charlotte,
N.C. Included along that range is a col-
laboration with the Oak Ridge Nation-
al Laboratory (ORNL) on optimal aux-
iliary beam parameters for highly irra-
diated materials — Fig. 1.
Weld Repair Research
at EPRI
The EPRI-established strategy for
the life management of power genera-
tion assets is based on a synthesis of
information from service experiences,
research led by EPRI over the last five
decades, and industry collaboration.
The key aspects of the recommended
plan, summarized in Table 1, provide
the basis for effective and efficient life
management of components.
EPRI research embraces the follow-
ing general approach to establishing
viable methods, which eventually be-
come well-engineered weld repair
technologies:
• Establishing a need;
• Evaluating potential options and
down-selecting the options for valida-
tion;
• Validating the most promising re-
pair methodologies using relevant de-
structive evaluation test programs;
• Facilitating acceptance and tech-
nology transfer into codes and stan-
dards. In the United States, these in-
clude the American Society for Me-
chanical Engineers Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code or the National Board In-
spection Code (NBIC) Part 3, Repairs
and Alterations;
• Maintaining a database of repair
applications. In some cases, these be-
come case studies that detail how
(not) to perform repairs and whether
some methodologies can be regarded
as temporary or permanent repair
options.
It is emphasized that well-engine-
ered repairs should consider the root
cause of the damage, the component
geometry, and the repair location
along with other practical considera-
tions. The process of technology trans-
fer and concepts for adopting a well-
engineered approach is founded in
hundreds of EPRI reports in the nu-
clear and generation sectors. Examples
of documents available for public
download can be found in Refs. 1, 2.
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 33
Weld Repair for Fossil-
Fired Generation Assets
Fossil-fired generation assets are ex-
pected to operate for durations well be-
yond 100,000 h. Moreover, plant oper-
ation has become more demanding
with increases in “flexible” operations,
such as running at low loads, accelerat-
ed starts or stops, or load following. In
general, these forms of flexible per-
formance are often not envisaged or
incorporated in the design at the new
construction phase. In the extreme,
the development and subsequent iden-
tification of damage through routine
or targeted inspection will require an
engineered approach to address
run/repair/replace decision making.
The use of complex alloys, such as
creep strength-enhanced ferritic
(CSEF) steels and advanced austenitic
stainless steels (A-ASS), in state-of-
the-art steam cycles and replacement
of traditional components has re- Fig. 1 — Experimental setup used to develop optimal parameters for the auxiliary
quired new research. This knowledge beam stress improved laser welding process.
is necessary to inform weld repair ap-
proaches supporting asset manage-
ment. It is emphasized that repair sce- repair methodologies. Research sup- repair procedures specific to CrMo
narios are often required in the most porting fossil-fired assets has devel- steel Grades 11, 12, and 22 (Refs. 3,
demanding situations, which man- oped viable weld repair techniques for 4). It is clear the knowledge base pro-
dates a well-engineered philosophy mainstay power generation CrMo vides an important piece of cost-effec-
that is not synonymous with a one- steels widely specified for static coal- tive life management, underpinned by
size-fits-all mentality. An illustration fired boiler or combined cycle heat re- informed run/repair/replace decision-
of common power generation alloys is covery steam generator components making. The research performed
provided in Table 2. since the late 1980s. A series of re- through the EPRI studies, in part, led
EPRI develops and validates weld ports provide research results for weld to the acceptance of Welding Methods

Table 1 — The Electric Power Research Institute Integrated Life Management Strategy

Part Description

1 Fundamentals Understanding how design, operation, fabrication, and metallurgy affect component performance

2 Service experience Appreciation of historical issues (utility specific and/or globally), exemplar failures, and statistical
analysis of databases (where available)

3 Specifications Development of better (ideally, best) practice specifications that exceed minimum requirements
specified by codes and standards

4 Guidelines Guidelines for quality assurance during component manufacture, system fabrication, operation,
and design

5 Nondestructive examination When to look, where to look, how to look; damage tolerance; burst or leak, disposition of damage;
and fitness for service and development/application of relevant tools/methods

6 Repair/replace Alternative, component-specific methods for repair or replacement, including guidelines that exceed
minimum code design/fabrication rules (e.g., embracing a so-called well-engineered approach)

7 Technology transfer Effective technology transfer of information to the codes (i.e., design codes that govern new
construction, repair, and inspection codes and standards) and the stakeholders in the global electricity
supply community (architectural engineers, manufacturers, materials producers, service providers, and
so forth)

34 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019

Table 2 — Common Materials in the Fossil-Fired Power Generation Industry*

ASME EN Classification Class Limits C Cr Mn Mo Ni Ti V N Nb B Others

Specification (JIS Thermal Power
Standard)

SA-335 P11 None (STPA23) CrMo Min. 0.05 1.00 0.30 0.44
Max. 0.15 1.50 0.60 0.65

SA-335 P22 10CrMo9-10 (STPA24) CrMo Min. 0.05 1.90 0.30 0.87
Max. 0.15 2.60 0.60 1.13

SA-335 P91 X10CrMoVNb9-1 CSEF Min. 0.08 8.00 0.30 0.85 0.18 0.030 0.06
(KA-STPA28) Max. 0.12 9.50 0.60 1.05 0.40 0.01 0.25 0.070 0.10

SA-335 P92 X10CrWMoVNb9-2 CSEF Min. 0.07 8.50 0.30 0.30 0.15 0.030 0.04 0.001 W: 1.50 to
(Code Case (KA-STPA29) Max. 0.13 9.50 0.60 0.60 0.40 0.01 0.25 0.070 0.09 0.006 2.00
2179)

SA-213 TP304H X6CrNi18-10 ASS Min. 0.04 18.0 8.0

(SUS304H) Max. 0.10 20.0 2.00 11.0

SA-213 TP347H X6CrNiNb18-10 ASS Min. 0.04 17.0 9.0

(SUS347H) Max. 0.10 19.0 2.00 13.0

SA-213 TP347HFG X8CrNiNb19-11 A-ASS Min. 0.06 17.0 9.0 8XC

(None) Max. 0.10 19.0 2.00 13.0 1.10

Super 304H X10CrNiCuNb18-9-3 A-ASS Min. 0.07 17.0 7.5 0.05 0.30 Cu: 2.5 to
(Code Case 2328) (KA-SUS304J1HTB) Max. 0.13 19.0 1.00 10.5 0.12 0.60 3.5

SA-213 TP310HCbN X6CrNiNbN25-20 A-ASS Min. 0.04 24.0 19.0 0.15 0.20
(KA-SUS310J1TB) Max. 0.10 26.0 2.00 22.0 0.35 0.60

*All alloys balance Fe and values given in wt-%. Not listed: S, P, and Si.

Table 3 — Destructive Evaluation Databases Supporting Innovative Weld Repair Solutions for CrMo and CSEF Steels

Measurable EPRI Grade 91 Weld Repair EPRI TR-103592 V4 and V5

(Grade 11/12/22 Weld Repair)

No. of Creep Tests 137 149

Metallographic Mounts 137 10

Total Cross-Weld Creep Test > 545,000 (still increasing) 114,000

Duration (h)

Avg. Creep Rupture Life per 4000 765

Creep Test (h)

Failed Test Macros 137 —

Hardness Indents Approximately 300,000 Fewer than 650

(factor of 450)

4 and 5 in the NBIC Part 3, Repairs and
Alterations. These weld repair methods
are often cited as temper bead meth-
ods, although the primary considera-
tion for CrMo and CrMoV repair is
avoidance of reheat cracking through
the concept of grain refinement.
EPRI-coordinated, industry-spon-
sored research projects in CSEF steels
began in 2007 with a major effort to
improve the life management of Grade
91 steel components. The learnings
and findings, realized with direct in-
put and perspective from more than
40 stakeholders representing the en-
tire electricity supply chain, underpin
component-specific repair methodolo-
gies for CSEF steel Grade 91.
An important initiative that started
in ~ 2010 after this initial thrust was a
series of research programs to develop
well-engineered weld repair procedures,
initially for Grade 91 steel. The devel-
opment of weld repair methodologies
has been largely proactive, so accepted
procedures were established before
widespread failures were reported in
the industry. Today, the research con-
tinues to evolve these methods for dis-
similar metal welds to Grade 91 steel

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 35

and for the next generation of 9 to 12%
Cr CSEF steels, such as Grade 92.
The power generation industry is
now observing operating times in boil-
ers and piping systems using Grade 91
steel exceeding 100,000 h. The likeli-
hood for damage increases with in-
creasing operating time, resulting in
the need for more regular and wide-
spread repairs. More than two dozen
EPRI reports underpin the recom-
mended repair practices now recog-
nized by the NBIC Part 3, Repairs and
Alterations, as Welding Method 6 (first
published in the 2015 edition) and
Welding Supplement 8 (first published
in the 2017 edition). These methods
include options without a mandatory
postweld heat treatment (PWHT). An
example of publicly available informa-
tion can be found in Refs. 5–7. A sum-
mary of the extent of investigations
Fig. 2 — Example of a full-size component vessel test containing innovative weld re-
pairs in Grade 91 steel performed without postweld heat treatment.
Fig. 3 — Evaluation of vessel test behavior using finite element analysis coupled
with physically informed constitutive models for creep damage initiation and crack
growth.
36 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
supporting the two major research
programs is provided in Table 3.
Ongoing research includes the vali-
dation of weld repairs using testing
and evaluation such as full-size vessel
tests; continuum damage mechanics
and constitutive modeling of repair
performance; feature-type cross-weld
creep testing including dissimilar met-
al weld components; and database de-
velopment for installed repairs —
Figs. 2–4.
In the case of Grade 91 steel, EPRI
has documented thousands of success-
ful repairs over the last five years in
multiple counties and consistent with
the guidance in the NBIC and EPRI re-
ports. Tracking these cases is vital for
the industry to provide best practices
should issues arise or continued suc-
cess of specific approaches supported
by statistically relevant information.
Future work is needed to evaluate
repair options for other CSEF steels
approved by design codes. These in-
clude Grade 92 (Code Case 2179) and a
new generation of emerging CSEF
steels such as VM12SHC (Code Case
2781), Grade 93 (Code Case 2839),
and THOR 115 (Code Case 2890). Fur-
thermore, commonplace failures in
traditional and A-ASS materials in
tube-to-attachment welds are evidence
that novel test techniques to screen
material performance and provide in-
sightful guidance for remediation us-
ing weld repair should be established.
Weld Repair for Nuclear
Generation Assets
Materials within nuclear power
plants are subjected to extreme envi-
ronments while in service. Similar to
fossil-fired power plants, in-service
nuclear components are exposed to
elevated temperatures and pressures
that promote various degradation
mechanisms. A common degradation
issue is primary water stress corrosion
cracking (PWSCC) of reactor coolant
pressure boundary components. The
EPRI Welding and Repair Technology
Center has collaborated with regula-
tors, vendors, utilities, academia, and
national laboratories to develop and
deploy specialized mitigation and re-
pair techniques for addressing PWSCC.
High radiation fields introduce an
additional level of complexity when
considering repair of in-service com-
ponents. The Nuclear Regulatory
Commission Code of Federal Regula-
tions for operating nuclear power
plants currently permits weld repairs
only on components containing in-
significant radiation exposure. Al-
though weld repairs of highly irradiat-
ed components have not been required
to date, reactor pressure vessel and re-
actor internal component degradation
in the aging nuclear fleet continues to
be closely monitored, and welding so-
lutions may be required in the future
to maintain plant operation.
The weldability of highly irradiated
austenitic materials is significantly di-
minished and attributed to incremen-
tal formation of helium within the re-
actor materials. This helium is gener-
ated from nuclear transmutation reac-
tions of boron and nickel, and increas-
es as neutron fluence accumulates.
When the weld heat input introduced
into the irradiated material from typi-
 cal arc welding repair processes is ex-
cessive, diffusion of the helium and co-
alescence of helium bubbles in the
heat-affected zone (HAZ) grain bound-
aries occur during the weld cooling cy-
cle. Extensive HAZ intergranular
cracking (termed helium-induced
cracking) can then result from high lo-
calized tensile stresses generated by
the helium bubble formation.
To understand the cracking behav-
ior of common nuclear reactor materi-
als, heat input vs. helium concentra-
tion threshold plots have been estab-
lished by EPRI for irradiated Type 304
and 316 austenitic stainless steel ma-
Fig. 4 — Example of a simulated weld repair and test result in a dissimilar metal terials — Fig. 5.
weld between Grades 91 and 22 steels. EPRI developed an effective weld
heat input equation to calculate the
weld heat input for these trials. This
equation (Equation 1) provides an ac-
A curate representation of the net heat
input transferred to the substrate by
accounting for the effects of filler ma-
terial addition and the thermal trans-
fer efficiency of the welding process.

 J μ P
(WFS)(Awire )
Qeff 
= T WP 
 in 
( 1)
TS TS

Equation 1 — Effective heat input equa-

tion developed by EPRI for calculating
the net weld heat input transferred to
the substrate (μT is the transfer effi-
ciency, PWP is the power provided by the
welding process, τ is the amount of sub-
strate heat used to melt a volume of
filler metal, WFS is the welding wire feed
B speed, and Awire is the cross-sectional
area of the welding wire).

There are two primary contributors

to helium-induced cracking (HeIC)
during welding of irradiated materials:
1) formation of helium bubbles within
the weld HAZ grain boundaries when
temperatures are in excess of approxi-
mately 850°C, and 2) the in-process
formation of HAZ tensile stresses dur-
ing the cooling cycle of the weld. While
weld heat input minimization may be
sufficient in many irradiated material
welding applications, some materials
may be unweldable by current welding
methods once exposed to extremely
high fluence levels. Studies are there-
fore warranted to develop new, ad-
Fig. 5 — Helium-induced cracking threshold plots developed by the Electric Power vanced welding technologies that fo-
Research Institute for irradiated Type 304 (A) and 316 (B) austenitic stainless steel cus both on weld heat input minimiza-
materials. The data used to generate these plots was gathered from gas tungsten tion and delaying the formation of
arc and laser beam welding trials performed by the Japan Nuclear Energy Safety tensile stresses during the weld cool-
Organization and the Japan Owners Group (Ref. 8). ing cycle.

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 37


The use of complex alloys in
state-of-the-art steam cycles
and replacement of traditional
components has required
new research. This knowledge
is necessary to inform weld
repair approaches supporting
asset management.
EPRI is collaborating with the Light
Water Reactor Sustainability Program
(LWRSP), ORNL (as mentioned in the
introduction), and Westinghouse to
develop advanced welding technology
for highly irradiated materials. Ex-
panding the fundamental science to
industry practice is an important as-
pect of this effort, and EPRI is guiding
the development of welding processes
designed for repairing materials affect-
ed by irradiation and high levels of he-
lium concentration.
EPRI and ORNL (through LWRSP)
are also developing and evaluating
these two advanced welding processes:
auxiliary beam stress improved (ABSI)
laser beam welding and friction stir
welding/cladding.
The ABSI laser beam welding
process utilizes two distinct laser
beams to produce both low heat input
and in-process reduction of tensile
stresses during weld cooling. For this
process, one laser beam is used to pro-
duce the weld (i.e., primary weld beam)
and the second beam is used for in-
process thermal stress improvement of
the HAZ region (i.e., auxiliary beam).
EPRI and ORNL have performed exper-
imental testing and finite element
modeling to determine the optimal
auxiliary beam parameters for highly
irradiated materials (refer to Fig. 1).
Testing of the ABSI laser beam
and friction stir welding/cladding
processes on irradiated materials is in
progress. ORNL recently established a
hot-cell welding facility and completed
initial irradiated material weld trials
using these advanced welding tech-
38 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
niques. The materials being tested
within the ORNL hot-cell facility in-
clude 304L, 316L, and Alloy 82. Sets
of each material type have been irradi-
ated at the ORNL High Flux Isotope
Reactor facility to obtain specific heli-
um concentration ranges. Data gener-
ated from these weld tests are intend-
ed to be used to validate the austenitic
stainless steel threshold plots and
generate an Alloy 82 nickel-based data
set for threshold plot development.
Further, this test effort is being per-
formed to validate the advanced, low-
heat-input welding processes and ex-
tend the welding threshold to highly
irradiated components in which use
of conventional welding methods is
presently impractical.
Conclusion
The complexity of new materials,
component design, and/or operating
modes is challenging conventional
philosophies regarding repair. EPRI is
at the forefront of life management re-
search because the decision-making
process supporting run, repair, and re-
place significantly impacts the eco-
nomics of the once-preferred courses
of action. Future development of re-
pair is not being done in a vacuum, but
important aspects of life management
are being considered, such as risk-
based inspection, risk ranking, and fit-
ness for service.
Material complexity, new insights
regarding common damage mecha-
nisms, appreciation of design deficien-
cies, and ever-changing operating
modes underscore the reality that to-
day’s power plant environment is radi-
cally different from a decade ago.
These factors will continue to impose
a dynamic set of circumstances com-
manding innovative solutions, and
will subsequently provide an ever-
evolving series of guidelines support-
ing best-practice procedures for run,
repair, and replace decision making. WJ
References
1. Integrated Life Management of
Grade 91 Steel Components: A Summary
of Research Supporting the Electric Pow-
er Research Institute’s Well-Engineered
Approach. 2018. EPRI, Palo Alto, Calif.
3002012262.
2. Alternative Well-Engineered Weld
Repair Options for Grade 91 Steel: An
Executive Summary of Results from
2010 to 2014. 2015. EPRI, Palo Alto,
Calif. 3002006403.
3. State-of-the-Art Weld Repair Tech-
nology for High Temperature and Pres-
sure Parts: Volume 4: Weld Repair of 2-
1/4Cr-1Mo Pipe/Header Girth Welds.
1998. EPRI, Palo Alto, Calif. TR-
103592-V4.
4. State-of-the-Art Weld Repair Tech-
nology for High Temperature and Pres-
sure Parts: Volume 5: Weld Repair of 1-
1/4Cr-1/2Mo Piping Girth Welds. 1998.
EPRI, Palo Alto, Calif. TR-103592-V5.
5. Alternative Well-Engineered Weld
Repair Options for Grade 91 Steel: An
Executive Summary of Results from
2010 to 2014. 2015. EPRI, Palo Alto,
Calif. 3002006403.
6. Best Practice Guideline for Well-
Engineered Weld Repair of Grade 91
Steel. 2014. EPRI, Palo Alto, Calif.
3002003833.
7. Alternative Well-Engineered Weld
Repair Options for Grade 91 Steel: Re-
sponses, Comments, and Concerns.
2018. EPRI, Palo Alto, Calif.
3002012182.
8. Materials Reliability Program: Irra-
diated Materials Welding Guideline
(MRP-379). EPRI Report Product ID
3002002954.
JOHN A. SIEFERT is program manager,
materials and repair P87; JONATHAN D.
PARKER is senior technical executive,
generation sector; JON K. TATMAN is senior
technical leader, nuclear sector; and GREG
J. FREDERICK is program manager, nuclear
sector, at the Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI) (epri.com), Charlotte, N.C.
Heat Treatment:
An Essential Variable in
Energy Plant Reliability
Find out why the energy industry is paying
more attention to field heat treatment
E
nergy owners are paying in-
creased attention to heat treat-
ment’s influence in life cycle
management strategies for their facili-
ties — Fig. 1. Whether for new con-
struction, repair, or retrofit, field heat
treatment is routinely underappreciat-
ed for its contribution to achieving
material properties for which critical
components were designed. Fitness
for service (safety and risk) and return
on investment (life cycle costs) are
regularly impacted, resulting in costly,
unintended consequences and cost
overruns.
Basics of Heat Treatment
Heat treatment is the controlled
heating and cooling of metals to alter
or achieve specific physical and me-
chanical properties without changing a
product’s shape. It is often associated
with increasing strength of a material
and relieving residual stress (as seen
on the popular History channel TV
show Forged in Fire). A typical heat
treatment cycle can include preheat,
interpass, and postweld heat treat-
ment (PWHT) soak temperatures, as
well as heating and cooling rates —
Fig. 2. Preheating, for example, is ap-
plied as an effective method for diffus-
ing impurities from the weld and con-
trolling solidification cracking.
In the energy industry, heat treat-
ment is often an essential variable in
40 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
Fig. 1 — A welder utilizes preheat and
uniform temperature control, which is
essential in welding high-energy pip-
ing systems. (Photo courtesy of
United Services Group.)
new welding procedures and processes
for components subjected to extreme
temperatures, pressures, and harsh en-
vironments. Unlike the more con-
trolled and repetitive environment
found in a manufacturing cell or fabri-
cation shop, heat treatment is regular-
ly performed “in the field” and is made
more difficult by complex geometries,
dissimilar materials, and confined
spaces — limited access, adjacent
structures, or hazardous surroundings.
For those reasons, proper planning
is especially important. Choosing the
appropriate heating device, control
methodology, and execution plan are
all driven by the application and abili-
ty to control heat uniformly and reli-
ably, as well as the need to optimize
asset logistics, control costs, and
BY GARY LEWIS
Fig. 2 — Example of a typical heat
treatment cycle, including the mini-
mum preheat temperature, maximum
interpass temperature, postweld cool
temperature, postweld heat treatment
temperature, and heating/cooling
rates.
shorten schedules.
The most common types of heating
sources include electrical resistance,
induction, portable furnaces, and, in
some limited cases, controlled flame
heating. The merits and limitations of
each should be the subject of careful
consideration through demonstra-
tions, planning sessions, or lunch-and-
learns as technology continues to
evolve, code requirements change,
and specific needs of the project are
considered.
Advanced Materials
The continued and increased use of
relatively new alloys and creep
strength enhanced ferritic (CSEF) steel
in energy construction drive the need
for professionals at all levels of engi-
 Fig. 4 — Threats to heat uniformity
and accuracy include overlapping
heaters, heater failure, wall thickness,
and gaps between heaters.

stress corrosion cracking in compo-

nents in the plant that are at highest
risk. Heat treatment of these materials
are not unlike baking a cake. If the
heating process is too long or short,
over or under the prescribed tempera-
ture, and not uniform throughout the
component, the properties are easily
compromised. Some threats to heat
uniformity and accuracy include over-
lapping heaters, heater failure, wall
thickness, and gaps between heaters
— Fig. 4.
Additionally, materials like P91 re-
quire soak temperature during PWHT
very near a lower critical transforma-
tion threshold that alters the mi-
crostructure to a material not suited
for the application for which it was in-
tended. This is why controllability,
transparency, and documentation are
so important. Heat treatment at the
point of origin, and performed in the
field, has been identified as the source
of anomalies and premature failures in
this material in a vast majority of the
cases over the past decade.

Alternative Weld Methods

In 2015, the Electric Power Re-
search Institute and their utility mem-
bers, technical experts from Maverick
Testing Labs and United Services
Group, and leadership from the con-
struction code groups at NBIC and
ASME began to investigate and evalu-
ate alternative weld repair techniques,
Fig. 3 — Expertise in new welding processes, alternative weld methods, and opti- to preclude the need for PWHT, where
mized heat treatment solutions ensure fitness for service, minimize risk, and im- conventional tools were not practical
prove life management metrics. or other factors drove the imperative.
Through a combination of modified
neering, construction, procurement, design strength, longevity when joint design and optimized bead depo-
and management to educate them- processed properly, and been justified sition, the owners have successfully
selves on heat treatment’s role in through long-term economic and in- executed thousands of repairs in a va-
achieving operational safety, reliabili- stalled cost projections. As their name riety of applications under new proce-
ty, and application-driven criteria — suggests, the chemical constituents dures identified as Weld Method 6 and
Fig. 3. These materials have superior minimize the effects of creep and Supplement 8. In late 2018, a new se-

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 41

ries of procedure qualifications were
completed intended to expand the
scope to new materials, welding
processes, and applications. Uniform
and reliable preheat is still required,
but application advancements like this
expand possibilities and provide the
owner with new solutions to meet the
demands and priorities of the applica-
tion — Fig. 5.
Innovation, Research,
and Development
Over the past ten years, substantial
investments have been made in re-
search and development to improve
field heat treatment and related
processes. Energy owners, contractors,
regulatory organizations, and service
providers have worked closely together
toward meaningful value creation and
accelerated tangible solutions that have
helped overcome the most significant
challenges associated with quality assur-
ance, diminishing technical resources,
and increased pressures of production
and risk mitigation. Some improve-
ments include the furnace normaliza-
tion and restoration of a P91 pipe elbow
(Fig. 6) and temperature control on
heavy wall components (Fig. 7).
Integrated Services
Heat treatment knowledge and ex-
pertise have also become essential
components in complementing life cy-
cle management programs to extend
the life of aged and retiring facilities,
avert premature shutdowns and out-
age repairs associated with previously
undetected material failure, and opti-
mize construction execution.
As an example, with the advent of
high-energy piping systems fabricated
using one of the CSEF steels, such as
Grades 91 or 92, inspection programs
have become both more critical and
more complex in their execution in an
effort to ensure worker safety and
maintain plant reliability — Figs. 8
and 9. From an inspection standpoint,
the concern over the condition of
these CSEF materials is further height-
ened by the fact that, in some cases,
the degraded condition of the material
resists detection by the standard in-
spection techniques, such as hardness
testing and metallographic replication.
This places added emphasis on the ex-
perience and knowledge of the engi-
neer conducting the assessment, since
42 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
Fig. 5 — Preheat carefully controlled
and monitored in real-time during
process qualifications of alternative
weld methods.
Fig. 7 — Heat treatment experiments
were run on this heavy wall section to
Fig. 6 — Advanced field heat treat- ensure replication in the field.
ment techniques were used to nor-
malize and restore the P91 properties
of this expensive piping elbow, thus
salvaging it.
in such cases it is not one single piece
of evidence that will identify the defi-
cient condition, but rather the cumula-
tive weight of a number of apparently
disparate pieces of evidence whose
connection will only be obvious to a
highly experienced observer. Fig. 8 — Advanced laser scanning
This industry continues to evolve and 3D modeling have become
tremendous complements to condi-
so quickly it’s difficult to stay on top of tion assessment, reporting, record
technical advancements individually, keeping, and trending.
or have the benefit of broader perspec-
tives required to make well-informed
decisions. The most successful owners
are reaching out to well-respected
“specialists” for insights on more reli-
able and economical solutions, as their
own internal technical staffs and tradi-
tional full-service providers have fallen
behind or lost the specific expertise re-
quired. Innovative and conscientious
leaders with lifetime investments in
energy infrastructure have recognized Fig. 9 — High-energy piping inspection
recent shortcomings and taken the ini- is driven by experience through
tiative to do something about it by knowledge transfer and sophisticated
forming loose customer-driven part- fitness-for-service algorithms.
nerships in engineering, design, in-
spection, material science, welding,
fabrication, machining, and heat treat- Summary
ment. They need to offer the most
flexible, reliable, cost-effective busi- As in team sports, “success” is a re-
ness solutions while “bridging the sult of skilled position players with
gaps” with existing resources to unique attributes and expertise, shar-
achieve optimal outcomes. ing a common vision, preparing a
game plan, and refining their execu-
tion strategy under ever-changing
conditions. Many of the welding and
operational challenges we face today in
energy production are comparable.
Problems are most often solved to-
gether as a team through highly
skilled, well-coordinated, and motivat-
ed leaders sharing effective communi-
cation skills and familiarity with the
environment while being focused on
the right objectives and priorities. In
today’s world of bottom-line metrics
and diminishing expertise through re-
tirement and downsizing, education,
knowledge transfer, and sustainability
are only possible through networks of
specialized integrated resources and
great leadership.
Field heat treatment has risen to the
level of strategic significance in terms
of fitness for service, safety, life man-
agement, and return on investment.
Continuing education is the key to stay-
ing on top of new developments, value
creation, and survival. Be proactive in
your learning, attend seminars and
code meetings, take advantage of in-
dustry workshops, and invite industry
experts in for free lunch-and-learns
that are topic-driven and focused on
your most pressing challenges.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge
the subject matter experts who have pub-
lished and provided context and content
for some of this material in previous fo-
rums: John Siefert, technical leader/
program manager, Electric Power Research
Institute; Jeff Henry, CEO, Combustion
Engineering Solutions; Bill Newell, vice
president, Euroweld; Josh Armstrong,
CEO, United Services Group; Scott Pool,
general manager, Applied Inspection Serv-
ices; Cale Collier, vice president, Acensi-
um/As-Builting; Charles “Pat” Patrick, ALS
Maverick Testing; Kim Bezzant, Wasatch
Welding Engineering Services; and John
Hainsworth, WR Metallurgical. WJ
GARY LEWIS (gary@lewisrr.com) is
president of Lewis Reliability Resources in
Charlotte, N.C.
This article is based on a presentation at
the 2018 Welding Summit held Oct. 16 and
17, 2018, in League City, Tex. For a copy of
the presentation, contact the author at the
email address provided.
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 43
Investigation of a Ruptured
Socket Weld in Sour Service
The precautions discussed here will help
mitigate catastrophic weld failures and
improve the safety of pipeline equipment
T
he factors that contributed to the
premature failure of a socket weld
in a pipeline are investigated
here. A hydrogen sulfide (H2S) leak
was reported two days after the intro-
duction of sour gas. The top section of
the equipment completely detached
from the flange connected to the noz-
zle on the pipeline, as shown in Figs. 1
and 2, causing the leak.
This article details the metallurgical
investigation conducted on the rup-
tured socket weld.
Cracking
Sulfide stress cracking (SSC) is de-
fined as cracking of metal under the
combined action of tensile stress and
corrosion in the presence of water and
H2S (Ref. 1). SSC occurs when atomic
hydrogen diffuses into the metal or
weld but remains in solid solution in
the crystal lattice. This reduces the
ductility and formability of the metal,
which is termed hydrogen embrittle-
ment. Under tensile stress (whether
applied or residual from welding or
cold forming, etc.), this embrittled
metal or weld readily cracks after ab-
sorption of hydrogen to form SSC
(Ref. 2). The cracking process is rapid;
it has been known to take as little as a
few hours for a crack to form and
cause catastrophic failure.
The tendency for SSC to occur is in-
creased by the presence of hard mi-
crostructures, such as untempered or
partly tempered low-temperature
transformation products, such as
martensite. Tempering is the soften-
44 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
Detached UG
Fig. 1 — Main equipment section de-
tached from the underground pipeline.
ing of weld zones by subsequent weld
passes or postweld heat treatment.
Carbon steel welds exposed to sour
service can be made resistant to SSC
by avoiding the presence of hard mi-
crostructures in the welds. Welds
meeting the hardness limit of NACE
MR0175/ISO 15156-2, Petroleum and
natural gas industries — Materials for
use in H2S-containing environments in
oil and gas production, (i.e., 248 HV10
maximum) are considered resistant to
SSC. High hardness in welds can be
minimized using low-alloy/low-
strength consumables, applying
preheat, and using high heat input
during welding. Figure 3 highlights
the three conditions, which if all are
present, increases the risk of SSC.
Eliminating one of the factors will
tremendously minimize the risk of
SSC in weldments.
NACE SP0472, Methods and Controls
to Prevent In-Service Environmental
Cracking of Carbon Steel Weldments in
Corrosive Petroleum Refining Environ-
ments, establishes guidelines to prevent
most forms of environmental cracking
BY SULEIMAN YERO
Fig. 2 — Flange section of the equip-
ment left on the pipeline.
of weldments in carbon steel equip-
ment (Ref. 3). This standard mandates
production hardness testing of com-
pleted weld deposits using a Brinell
hardness tester and shall not exceed
200 HBW. NACE SP0472 exempts pro-
duction hardness testing of weld de-
posits, provided the welds are produced
using the welding process and filler
metal combinations listed in Table 1.
The compositional restrictions in Table
1 are in addition to the requirements
specified by the American Welding So-
ciety (AWS) A5.18/A5.18M, Specifica-
tion for Carbon Steel Electrodes and Rods
for Gas Shielded Arc Welding, filler metal
specification (Ref. 4).
The compositional restrictions of
ER70S-6 shall be verified by perform-
ing the actual chemical analysis on the
filler metal. Purchasing ER70S-6 con-
sumables with certification showing
the typical chemical composition is
Table 1 — Welding Process/Filler Metal Combinations Exempt from Weld Deposit Hardness Testing (Ref. 3)
Welding Filler Metal Filler Metal
Process Specification Classification
SMAW ASME SFA-5.1 or E60XX or E70XX
AWS A5.1
ASME SFA-5.18 or ER70S-2, ER70S-3, or
GTAW AWS A5.18 ER70S-4
ER70S-6
GMAW (spray, ASME SFA-5.18 or ER70S-2, ER70S-3, or
pulsed, and AWS A5.18 ER70S-4
globular transfer
modes only)
ER70S-6
not a guarantee for meeting the NACE
compositional restrictions.
The weld deposit chemistry is a
function of the welding process and
variables. In the gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) process using CO2 shielding
gas mixtures, oxygen generated by dis-
sociation of the CO2 causes oxidation
of Mn and Si in the weld metal, thus
reducing the concentration of these el-
ements in the weld deposit matrix
Fig. 3 — Factors resulting in SSC of (Ref. 3). This is less likely in the case of
weldments. (Source: Subsea 7.) the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
process, which generally uses inert ar-
gon shielding gas, where Mn and Si
concentrations in the weld deposit
could potentially be higher compared
to that of GMAW. Field experience has
shown that ER70S-6 weld deposits
with the GTAW process have potential
for high hardness in carbon steel welds
on piping and pipeline projects.
Laboratory Analysis
and Investigation
Fig. 4 — As-received flange and valve.
Figures 4 and 5 show the valve and
flange components received in the lab-
oratory for metallurgical analysis.
Chemical analysis was performed us-
ing x-ray fluorescence (XRF) on the
flange and valve to identify the mate-
rial types. Due to the small size of the
weld metal, chemical analysis using
XRF or optical emission spectroscopy
was impractical. The chemical analysis
of the weld metal was carried out
based on acid extraction. A section of
the fractured weld was examined un-
der an optical microscope to identify
Fig. 5 — Ruptured socket weld joining
the location of the crack. Microhard-
flange and valve. ness tests were conducted across the
weld metal, heat-affected zone, and
Compositional Restrictions
(See Paragraph 2.2.3.1)
None
None
Carbon (C) 0.10 wt-% max.
Manganese (Mn) 1.60 wt-% max.
Silicon (Si) 1.00 wt-% max.
None
Carbon (C) 0.10 wt-% max.
Manganese (Mn) 1.60 wt-% max.
Silicon (Si) 1.00 wt-% max.
base metal to determine the hardness
values. Moreover, the weld metal sam-
ple was prepared for metallographic
examination under an optical micro-
scope to examine the microstructure.
In addition, as-built documentation
for the manufacture of the pipeline
equipment was requested for review to
investigate if adequate controls had
been implemented to ensure the sock-
et weld was resistant to SSC in sour
service applications.
Results and Discussion
The chemical analysis results per-
formed using XRF identified carbon
steel as the flange and valve material
(Table 2). Results of the chemical
analysis of the weld metal, carried out
using acid extraction, are shown in
Table 3. The carbon content could not
be analyzed because the small size of
the fillet weld metal did not permit ex-
traction of a powdered weld metal
sample.
The weld cross section in Fig. 6 was
examined under an optical microscope,
which showed the fracture was in the
weld metal. There were no cracks ob-
served in the HAZ or base metal. Micro-
hardness measurements showed very
high hardness values of 295–366 HV5
in the weld metal. Hardness measure-
ments of the HAZ and base metal
showed values below 248 HV10. Table 4
shows the results of the hardness meas-
urements. Metallographic examination
of the weld metal under optical micro-
scope revealed the microstructure as
martensitic (Fig. 7), which resulted in
high hardness in the weld metal.
Review of the Welding Procedure
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 45
Table 2 — Base Metal Chemical Analysis Using XRF

Base Metal (Valve) Base Metal (Flange)

% ± Error % ± Error

Sb 0.000 ± 0.005 Sb 0.000 ± 0.005

Sn 0.007 ± 0.004 Sn 0.012 ± 0.004
Cd 0.000 ± 0.004 Cd 0.005 ± 0.004
Pd 0.000 ± 0.003 Pd 0.000 ± 0.006
Ag 0.000 ± 0.006 Ag 0.000 ± 0.008
Ru 0.000 ± 0.002 Ru 0.000 ± 0.001
Mo 0.010 ± 0.001 Mo 0.092 ± 0.003
Nb 0.000 ± 0.001 Nb 0.000 ± 0.001
Zr 0.000 ± 0.001 Zr 0.000 ± 0.001
Bi 0.065 ± 0.005 Bi 0.000 ± 0.001
Pb 0.000 ± 0.001 Pb 0.000 ± 0.001
Se 0.000 ± 0.002 Se 0.000 ± 0.002
Au 0.000 ± 0.001 Au 0.000 ± 0.001
W 0.000 ± 0.017 W 0.000 ± 0.016
Zn 0.000 ± 0.007 Zn 0.000 ± 0.005
Cu 0.151 ± 0.014 Cu 0.107 ± 0.013
Ni 0.000 ± 0.019 Ni 0.141 ± 0.022
Co 0.000 ± 0.057 Co 0.000 ± 0.059
Fe 96.392 ± 0.452 Fe 97.937 ± 0.498
Mn 0.900 ± 0.029 Mn 1.194 ± 0.032
Cr 0.097 ± 0.009 Cr 0.124 ± 0.010
V 0.020 ± 0.011 V 0.027 ± 0.011
Ti 0.026 ± 0.013 Ti 0.000 ± 0.021
Al 0.537 ± 0.441 Al 0.000 ± 0.493
S 0.030 ± 0.017 S 0.000 ± 0.017
P 0.000 ± 0.024 P 0.000 ± 0.018
Si 1.018 ± 0.106 Si 0.149 ± 0.074
Mg 0.000 ± 0.001 Mg 0.000 ± 0.001

Table 3 — Weld Metal Chemical Analysis

632312 — K2015CU/03340 Scrapped weld metal sample (6885)

Chromium 1019 ug/g

Copper 1253 ug/g
Manganese 12225 ug/g
Molybdenum 409 ug/g
Nickel 758 ug/g
Phosphorus < 10 ug/g
Silicon < 10 ug/g
Vanadium 132 ug/g
Fig. 6 — Valve-to-flange socket weld.
Cross section shows fracture through
Specification (WPS) indicated the ER70S-6 filler metal was not carried weld metal.
socket weld was a single-pass fillet, de- out as recommended in NACE SP0472.
posited using GTAW and AWS A5.18 Therefore, there was no guarantee the
ER70S-6 filler metal. The WPS was compositional restrictions specified
qualified in accordance with the ASME for ER70S-6 in accordance with NACE
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section SP0472 had been met.
IX. The outcome of the as-built docu- • Hardness testing was not carried
ment review confirmed the control out during the welding procedure
measures, implemented to prevent en- qualification testing of the WPS to as-
vironmental cracking in sour service, certain if the WPS was capable of pro-
were grossly inadequate. The as-built ducing welds meeting the hardness
document review highlighted the fol- limits of NACE MR0175/ISO 15156-2
lowing findings: (i.e., 248 HV10 maximum).
• Production hardness testing of the The weld metal chemical analysis in
completed welds was not carried out Table 2 reported manganese and sili- 50 μm

as recommended in NACE SP0472. con content of 1.22 and < 0.0010 Fig. 7 — Metallography shows marten-
• Actual chemical analysis of the wt-%, respectively, which complies sitic structure in the weld metal.

46 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019

Table 4 — Hardness Measurements
Location
Weld Metal
HAZ
Base Metal (Valve)
Base Metal (Flange)
For welds exposed
to H2S-containing
environments, the
WPS shall be
qualified in
accordance with
ASME Section IX,
and shall include
Vickers hardness
testing to meet the
limits of NACE
MR0175/ISO 15156-2
(i.e., 248 HV10
maximum).
Indent No. Vickers Hardness HV5
1 295
2 321
3 362
4 366
5 199
6 200
7 227
8 203
9 225
10 224
11 172
12 179
13 210
14 188
with the requirements of NACE
SP0472. Variation in chemistry be-
tween the weld metal and filler metal
was highly likely due to the dilution of
the weld metal with the base metal.
The ER70S-6 compositional restriction
of NACE SP0472 is based on the filler
metal composition, rather than the
weld metal.
Conclusion and
Recommendations
Based on the metallurgical analysis
and the microhardness test results, the
weld failure was attributed to sulfide
stress cracking due to a combination
of high hardness in the weld metal,
hydrogen charging from the H2S-
containing environment, and stress
(a combination of residual and applied
stress). The optical microscope photo-
graphs show the presence of marten-
site in the microstructure.
The following was recommended:
• For welds exposed to H2S-contain-
ing environments, the WPS shall be
qualified in accordance with ASME
Section IX, and shall include Vickers
hardness testing to meet the limits of
NACE MR0175/ISO 15156-2 (i.e., 248
HV10 maximum).
• Based on field experience with
high-hardness issues using GTAW
with ER70S-6 on projects, this welding
process/filler metal combination was
prohibited at Saudi Aramco for sour
service applications. ER70S-2 or
ER70S-3 were proposed as an alterna-
tive because NACE SP0472 does not
specify compositional restrictions for
these alternatives. WJ
Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowl-
edge the support of the Saudi Aramco
Consulting Service Department (CSD)
for the endorsement to publish this ar-
ticle. The author would also like to ex-
press his appreciation to Abdul
Hameed Jarudi and Ali Kawaie for
their collaboration and great assis-
tance during the analysis in the CSD
metallurgical laboratory. The author
also appreciates the assistance of the
Saudi Aramco Research & Develop-
ment Center for conducting the acid
extraction chemical analysis.
References
1. NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 (lat-
est revision), Petroleum and natural gas
industries — Materials for use in H2S-
containing environments in oil and gas
production. Houston, Tex.: NACE.
2. API RP 571 (2nd edition), Damage
mechanisms affecting fixed equipment in
the refining industry. 2011. Washing-
ton, DC: American Petroleum Institute.
3. NACE SP0472 (formerly RP0472)
(latest revision), Methods and controls
to prevent in-service environmental
cracking of carbon steel weldments in cor-
rosive petroleum refining environments.
Houston, Tex.: NACE.
4. AWS A5.18/A5.18M (latest revi-
sion), Specification for Carbon Steel Elec-
trodes and Rods for Gas Shielding Arc
Welding. Miami, Fla.: American Weld-
ing Society.
SULEIMAN YERO (suleiman.yero@
aramco.com) is with the Consulting
Services Department, Saudi Aramco,
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 47
The Welding Summit
Climbs to New Heights
This event adopted a multipronged
approach to offer something for everyone
T
he Welding Summit has evolved
from its humble beginnings in
2013 when its technical program
attracted just a few dozen attendees.
Reaching new heights in 2018, the
event brought forth a packed house of
180 participants from 22 states and
six countries — see lead photo.
The brainchild of organizers Mike
Lang, Fluor; Bill Newell, Euroweld; and
Scott Witkowski, Maverick ALS, the
initial seeds for the first Welding Sum-
mit were planted when the trio ob-
Held Oct. 16 and 17 in League City, Tex., the 2018 Welding Summit united more than 180 welding professionals from 22 states and
six countries. For the first time in its history, the event showcased a technical program, a career fair, and an education-industry
discussion panel.
48 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
served that the different sectors of the
welding industry, although diverse,
share similar obstacles.
“We were sharing welding war sto-
ries and realized the industry has the
same issues domestically and interna-
tionally, so we decided to come togeth-
er and hash out solutions to these
problems,” explained Newell.
Held Oct. 16 and 17, 2018, in South
Shore Harbour Resort & Conference
Center, League City, Tex., the event
aimed to create a space at which indus-
BY KATIE PACHECO
try experts could unite to learn and
grow from one another.
“It provides a neutral forum for all
levels who participate in welding to
communicate with both local and in-
ternational professionals,” said Newell.
“This is the first time they’ve been
able to sit together and communicate.”
Offering two days of presentations,
panel discussions, networking, and
open dialogue among professionals,
the event was backed and supported
by the welding industry, with Fluor

Fig. 1 — Navy SEAL and Motivational Speaker David Rutherford captivates the crowd
with his keynote speech on bringing more value to welding operations. Pictured in
the background are the Welding Summit’s organizers (from left) Mike Lang, Bill
Newell, and Scott Witkowski.
and the American Welding Society
(AWS) Houston Section as cosponsors,
as well as 30 sponsoring companies.
Marveling at its newfound success,
Newell stated the 2018 Welding Sum-
mit quadrupled its attendance from
2013. This was due, in part, to AWS’s
strong involvement in helping to or-
ganize the event coupled with the
event’s diverse offerings, which includ-
ed a technical program, a career fair,
and an education-industry discussion
panel.
Whether a recent graduate, a pro-
fessional with decades of experience,
or an instructor trying to prepare stu-
Fig. 2 — Attendee John Stoll joins in on a full-group discussion after a technical
presentation.
dents to enter the workforce, this
event offered something for everyone.
The following highlights details of the
2018 Welding Summit.
Technical Program Offers
the Latest Information
The technical program kicked off
with an opening speech by organizer
Mike Lang that addressed the global
skilled welder shortage and pointed
out that hiring more employees is not
the best solution.
“Frustration begins where knowl-
edge ends. Think about every good
and bad project you’ve been on — the
default situation is to throw manpow-
er at it,” he said.
Lang admitted that industry does
not have the time to train the stagger-
ing amount of welders that will be need-
ed within the next few years. He en-
couraged industry to adapt by maximiz-
ing and improving what they do have.
“We see there’s a serious problem
coming. That’s why we have to opti-
mize welding,” he affirmed. “How can
we better optimize what we do? How
can we do more with less and embrace
more processes?”
Lang also stated that the welder
shortage and the skills gap are “one
and the same,” requiring better execu-
tion of welder training.
Keynote Speech
Titled “Bringing Value to Your Weld-
ing Operations,” the keynote speech
was delivered by former Navy SEAL and
motivational speaker David Rutherford.
Using poignant anecdotes from his
war days, he singled out four concepts
for attendees to take back to their col-
leagues: commitment, training, commu-
nication, and leadership — Fig. 1.
Underscoring commitment,
Rutherford asked the crowd to consid-
er what they would be willing to sacri-
fice to make their team better. He
stressed that this level of commitment
from everyone is crucial for success.
However, commitment is not enough
without the right training.
“During stress, you fall back on the
last stage/level of training you’ve had,”
said Rutherford. “Being elite begins
with training, so train hard, and re-
member that training never ends.”
Rutherford also emphasized the im-
portance of effective communication
by recommending that attendees “lis-
ten like your life depends on it.” His
advice included speaking clearly and
precisely, as well as paying attention to
the details.
Lastly, Rutherford encouraged the
audience to be leaders by getting in
the trenches and taking risks.
According to Rutherford, following
these four concepts would allow some-
one to “live the team life,” thus in-
creasing their value in the workplace.
“Elevate your standard of the team
life to reach another level of perform-
ance,” he said.
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 49
Presentations

A full day of presentations was held

on both days of the event, conducted
by 15 influential and distinguished pro-
fessionals in the industry. The presen-
tations, centered on new industry in-
formation and technology, covered the
following topics: welder training; the
second wave of welding; welder per-
formance; ASME Section IX; filler met-
als; advanced equipment and processes
to improve quality, productivity, and
safety; field heat treatment (see p. 40 in
this issue); the cost vs. value of nonde-
structive examination; accurate welding
procurement; fundamental project suc-
cess; outsourcing work scope; and or-
bital welding products. Fig. 3 — A Welding Summit attendee networks with a representative from DeWalt.
Many of the presentations natural-
ly gave way to full-group discussions,
with attendees and presenters brain-
storming solutions to challenges. The
opportunity to openly discuss indus-
try hurdles was a highlight identified
by several of the attendees during the
technical program.
“There’s a lot of people in the in-
dustry who share common concerns,
but for one reason or another, they’re
concerned about sharing that con-
cern,” said attendee John Stoll,
voestalpine Böhler — Fig. 2. “Regard-
less of the industry, here we find it’s a
common problem.”
The technical program also allowed
attendees to connect based on shared
interests and possible future connec-
tions.
“A light bulb has gone off in my Fig. 4 — Students at the Welding Summit visit The Lincoln Electric Co.’s booth to try
head,” said attendee Brenda Lee its virtual reality welding trainer.
Hulsey, quality assurance inspector,
Fluor. “I have met people that I might
be able to contact down the road. Exhibits Career Fair: Giving Hope
I’m taking information back to the
job site to arm my team with more An exhibitor area with tabletop
to Future Welders
connections.” booth displays was open in conjunc-
“As an attendee, being here gives tion with the two-day technical pro- As the day’s technical presentations
you the right to call anyone in this gram. Featuring 22 exhibitor compa- came to a close on Oct. 17, the scene
room,” said Newell in agreement. nies, the exhibit allowed representa- became reinvigorated with the excite-
“There’s more than two centuries of tives to answer questions, discuss ment of close to 70 students and job
experience in this one room.” services and offerings, distribute liter- seekers visiting the Welding Summit’s
Attendees further appreciated the ature, and network with industry com- career fair. The event aimed to connect
depth and variety offered by the tech- petitors and partners alike — Fig. 3. job seekers with companies looking to
nical program. Some of the exhibits showcased the hire, as well as facilitate the exchange
“With all the presentations, there’s latest products and processes available of information between schools and
a lot of information to soak in, espe- in the welding industry — Fig. 4. students — Fig. 5.
cially for someone like me who is so “This is a joint effort. There’s a lot “If we inspire some young folks this
new and green,” said Hulsey. “I may of competitors here. They come and week, it’s worth it. That’s our future.
not be able to apply everything today, take off their jackets so we can all We want to know that someone is
but I know at some point I’ll be able to make this industry better together,” there to pick up the torch,” said
apply it.” said Witkowski. Witkowski. “We can’t solve all the

50 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019


Fig. 5 — Students and job seekers at the Welding Summit’s career fair had access
to more than 11 educational institutions and hiring companies.
Fig. 6 — Pictured are several of the female attendees of the Welding Summit’s ca-
reer fair. Second from right is Amanda Ortega, and third from right is Alma Dunning.
welding problems, but we’re planting
the seeds today to have the fruits of
our labor tomorrow.”
Some of the companies and educa-
tional institutions in attendance in-
cluded JVIC/Zachry, San Jacinto Col-
lege, ESAB, Maverick ALS, voestalpine
Böhler Welding USA Inc., TIC, Select-
Arc Inc., Praxair, Piping Technology
and Products, and Industrial Welding
Academy.
The event attracted a diverse group
of attendees at varying levels in their
educational and professional journey,
and with different motivations for
their visit.
For example, recent graduate
Amanda Ortega, 26, attended the
event to find a local job and avoid hav-
ing to relocate — Fig. 6.
“I’m hoping to build connections
and network with local companies,”
she said with a concerned expression.
“I have some hope someone within the
Houston area will offer me a job today
so I wouldn’t have to move to Fort
Worth where my current job offer is.”
Upon leaving the event an hour lat-
er, Ortega’s uneasiness was trans-
formed to confidence.
“I definitely made contact with peo-
ple I can talk to later down the road. I
talked to a lot more people than I
thought I would,” she said with a
smile. “Now I’m hopeful and not
afraid. Whether I get a job from here
or not, I have learned. I came in with
nothing, and now I have something.”
Some attendees were attracted by
the prospect of pursing a new career.
Although not a student, construction
worker Krystle Flag, 32, attended the
career fair with the hopes someone
would give her a shot at a welding job.
“I’m trying to find a way to better
my career. I know welders who are 18
or 19 and own homes, and they seem
to be carefree. I’m here because I want
to join that club,” she said.
Some attendees, such as Alma Dun-
ning (Fig. 6), had their sights on specific
companies they wanted to break into.
“I accomplished a lot today. I’ll fin-
ish school this Friday, so I am looking
to apply to jobs,” said Dunning, a re-
cent graduate of Arclabs Welding
School. “I enjoyed talking to Zachry
and TIC; they gave me a lot of infor-
mation on how to apply.”
When asked if she felt she would
secure a job from this career fair, Dun-
ning confidently said, “I know I will!”
Other attendees were happy to gain
a greater understanding of what hiring
employers want from them so they can
make sure they foster those skills.
“I learned what companies are look-
ing for in a future welder,” explained
Jason Jones, a welding student. “I
gained knowledge and a lot of connec-
tions to land myself in a pretty decent
paying job in the future.”
Welding student Standley Smith
echoed these sentiments: “Now I know
what they expect of me coming out of
school.”
Overall, the career fair gave stu-
dents and job seekers hope and confi-
dence, while assuring employers that
they’ve got an enthused and talented
workforce coming their way.
Panel Discussion: Uniting
Education and Industry
After the career fair, an AWS Hous-
ton Section meeting was held that in-
cluded a panel discussion with educa-
tion and industry professionals. The
goal was to bring both groups under
one roof to discuss the shortage of
skilled trades in the United States,
what their respective entities are do-
ing to combat the shortage, and the
discrepancies between industry needs
and educational curriculum — Fig. 7.
“We want there to be an exchange
of questions and ideas between indus-
try and education,” said Newell. “The
two need to come together to discuss
tough issues and develop a plan for
where we go from here.”
The education panel consisted of
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 51
 Fig. 7 — Education (left) and industry (right) professionals came together during the Welding Summit to discuss what their entities
are doing to combat the welder shortage, and how to better align educational curriculum with industry needs.
Sean Quinton, Georgia Trade School;
Roy Jones, Houston Community Col-
lege; Rick Polanin, Weld-Ed Training;
Mike Sandroussi, Craft Training Cen-
ter of the Coastal Bend; Andre Horn,
Industrial Welding Academy; and Les
Crnkovic, San Jacinto College.
The industry panel was made up of
Justin Morse, Kiewit; Mike Lang, Flu-
or; Randy Bennett, JVIC/Zachry; Earl
Simon, Electro-Mechanical Industries;
and Nick Liffrig, Enerflex.
Moderated by AWS Past President
“We’re going to implement what we
learned here as soon as tomorrow.
What these students need today
they’ll see implemented in the school,”
said Educator Andre Horn.
John Bray, the panelists did not hold
back from passionately voicing their
concerns. Industry panelists asserted
that training, especially in the con-
struction sector, is falling short of in-
dustry needs. The education panelists
cited a lack of communication between
both parties, particularly in regard to
the specific skills local companies want
students to possess, as well as a lack of
industry involvement in school train-
ing programs.
52 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
Other topics of conversation in-
cluded training millennials, using so-
cial media to post jobs, the importance
of mentorships, industry changes and
preferences, ways to strengthen
industry-education partnerships,
redesigning educational curriculum
to better meet local industry, and
ensuring students can perform basic
on-the-job tasks upon graduation,
such as reading a welding procedure
specification.
By the end of the discussion, both
parties had gained valuable knowledge
from the perspectives and insights of
the other side.
Educator Andre Horn expressed an
eagerness to incorporate this new-
found information: “We’re going to
implement what we learned here as
soon as tomorrow. What these stu-
dents need today they’ll see imple-
mented in the school.”
Representing the industry side, Earl
Simon pointed out how local compa-
nies can be more proactive in ensuring
schools have the materials they need
to better train students: “As fabrica-
tors, we need to go to the schools and
drop off steel and take supplies, espe-
cially for advanced processes.”
Conclusion: Saddle up for
the 2019 Welding Summit
With its technical program, career
fair, and education-industry discussion
panel, this well-attended event offered
a platform for learning from the very
best in the industry, sharing ideas,
brainstorming solutions to industry-
wide challenges, and networking. With
its multipronged approach, it offered
something for everyone.
The success of the 2018 Welding
Summit encouraged its organizers to
spearhead another. Scheduled for Aug.
29 and 30, 2019, in The Woodlands,
Tex., this event will focus on bringing
more value to welding operations and
the best ways to execute welding proj-
ects. More information on this event
can be found at aws.org/welding-summit.
“We are using this group of events
as a foundation for bigger and better
things,” said Newell. “This is a step-
ping stone for a stronger Society and
industry.” WJ
KATIE PACHECO (kpacheco@aws.org) is
associate editor of the Welding Journal.


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RWMA Q&A
BY NIELS H. JOHNSON

Q: Our sheet metal shop has re-

cently purchased a new 50-kVA
alternating current (AC) rocker-
arm spot welding machine to re-
place a very old, worn-out
machine. We’ve never had a digi-
tal control before, just “egg
timer” type dials for the squeeze,
weld, and hold times, as well as
a tap switch and dial for the
heat. These have been fine for
our needs. Can I set one program
in the control to use for different
thicknesses of low-carbon,
stainless, and galvanized steels?

A: That is a great question, and one

that comes up a lot as older equip- Fig. 1 — TECNA TE101 faceplate.
ment wears out. You’ll now be able to
use the correct settings for each mate-
rial, stack-up, and joint configuration.
While that may sound complicated,
for most applications like this, all you
need are what you’ve been using:
squeeze/weld/hold times, and weld
heat/percent current. The new control
likely has many more features than
you’ll ever need or should ever use.
Figure 1 is an example of a very basic
weld control — the TECNA TE101
faceplate. We will use this as a refer-
ence point when discussing settings.
Resistance welding operates on
three principles: force, current, and
time. Let’s briefly explore each of
these, and how they are supplied to
your machine.
Force is the supplied air pressure
multiplied by the surface area of your Fig. 2 — Air-operated rocker-arm spot welding machine. (Source: Resistance Weld-
weld cylinder (or the piston area, in ing Manual Fourth Edition, Fig. 16.2, page 16-3.)
the case of fixture-type cylinders with
multiple chambers). On a rocker-arm is typically set using a weld current or
welding machine, which has the arm weld heat parameter on a weld con-
attached to a pivoting rocker-arm as- trol. On more advanced controls, it
sembly, this is also dependent on two may be set in kiloamps (kA) as well,
additional factors: 1) the length from and there may be multiple heat inter-
the pivot to the weld cylinder and 2) vals (named Weld 1 and Weld 2, for
the length from the pivot to the cen- example).
terline of the electrodes. These make Time is regulated by the resistance
up what is called the fulcrum ratio — welding control. On an alternating
Fig. 2. With a fulcrum ratio of 1:1 (in current (AC) machine, this is set in cy-
this case X = Y), you only need to cles. Cycles are the same as Hertz (Hz)
know the surface area of your cylin- — cycles per second. Throughout the Fig. 3 — Peel test (AWS C1.1M/C1.1:2012,
der. However, given that rocker arms Americas, power is transmitted at 60 Recommended Practices for Resist-
ance Welding, Fig. 4, page 51).
often include adjustable throat depth, Hz, so each cycle is 1⁄60 of 1 s. In Europe,
a tip force gauge makes setup and however, power is transmitted at 50
maintenance much simpler. Hz, so each cycle is 1⁄50 of 1 s. The basic prior to passing current), weld time
Current is supplied by a resistance times you need are squeeze time (the (the time you are actually passing cur-
welding transformer and controlled by time you are allowing for the tips to rent), and hold time (the time after
your resistance welding control. This come together and reach full force, the weld when you are maintaining

54 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019


Fig. 4 — Resistance welding data sheet for spot and projection welding (AWS
C1.1M/C1.1:2012, Fig. 37, page 110).
force on the weld without passing cur-
rent to allow it to cool under pressure).
Let’s move on to setup for welding
your parts. Setting up your welding
machine to achieve the weld you need
to make can take several tries. I typi-
cally recommend having enough ma-
terial for at least 10–20 complete
sample parts/assemblies. Let’s start
with welding coupons. We’ll test a
weld using the most basic of tests, the
peel test — Fig. 3.
The arms and electrodes must be
adjusted such that, when clamping
the parts that you will be welding, the
top arm is parallel to the bottom arm,
and both arms are parallel to the
floor. This may require adjusting the
electrode holders up or down, and the
arms in or out. Leaving the welding
machine in no-weld, bring the tips to-
gether on your test parts and check
the tips for proper alignment, both
front-to-back and left-to-right. For
pinch point safety, set the stroke/elec-
trode gap as short as possible, with
approximately 1⁄4 of additional distance
beyond the material thickness. Also,
please remember that this spot weld-
ing machine is not a forming tool; it is
a welding machine — the clamp force
is only there to hold the parts in place
while passing current. The parts need
to mate flat and evenly.
Sample weld schedules are available
as starting points from a variety of
Resistance Welding Manufacturing Al-
liance (RWMA) and American Welding
Society (AWS) resources, including the
Resistance Welding Manual Revised
Fourth Edition, the AWS RWPH: 2011,
Resistance Welding Pocket Handbook,
and AWS C1.1M/C1.1:2012, Recom-
mended Practices for Resistance Weld-
ing. Generally speaking, for the same
thicknesses, stainless steel requires
twice the force, but the same current
as low-carbon steel and galvanized re-
quires 50% more current, and roughly
the same force as low-carbon steel.
With this said, on a rocker-arm weld-
ing machine, it is often not possible to
use the tip forces called for in these
sample schedules because they will
cause the arm to flex. With this in
mind, let’s ignore these weld pro-
grams for the time being and learn the
process of setting up a basic weld
program.
As this is a rocker-arm welding ma-
chine, we need to determine the force
setting where the arms start to flex.
As a general rule, the longer the arms,
the lower the PSI setting that will
cause the arms to flex. Try firing your
welding machine in no-weld at differ-
ent air pressure settings — working
up to see where the flexing starts, and
how bad it gets as you increase your
electrode force. Flexing arms, holders
or electrodes change the direction of
force, causing your parts to skid.
Please have a look at my May 2018
column in the RWMA Q&A section of
the Welding Journal for a more thor-
ough discussion of how changes to the
direction of force can harm the weld
you are trying to achieve.
Assuming you have clean, dry
shop air, 80–120 PSI, and at least 2.5
SCFM, and as short as possible a run
from your header, set squeeze time
using the ratio of 15–20 cycles per 1
in. of travel. The tips should come to-
gether briskly, but not slam. If they
are not moving briskly without slam-
ming, adjust the flow controls on the
top and bottom of your weld cylinder
until you reach this state. Also, set
your hold time to 10–15 cycles as a
decent starting point.
The ideal resistance weld is the
highest possible heat, for the shortest
possible time. We want to find out
what the highest possible heat is, so
let’s program a relatively short weld
time. For material 18–24 gauge start
at eight cycles, and for material 10–16
gauge start at ten cycles. Choose an
air pressure setting that is above 20
PSI, and below where the arms begin
to flex. This means two of the three
variables are locked in. For the third,
current, we will start low and increase
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 55
the current in small increments. Only
when the max weld current is insuffi-
cient, or sparking/expulsion are pres-
ent, should weld time, tip force, or
other parameters be adjusted, and
then only one at a time.
For an initial weld current setting, it
is safest to test with the idea that it is
always better to start low and work up
than to start high and work down. Pro-
gram a low weld current: for material
18–24 gauge start at 20%, and for ma-
terial 10–16 gauge start at 30%. See
the “Step-By-Step Guide to Determin-
ing a Weld Program” in the sidebar.
It is also a great practice to start
what I often call a “setup bible” you can
use for reference for all of your parts. A
program like Microsoft Excel may be
used to create a spreadsheet with your
weld programs, or at least a table you
can print and reuse for all of your
parts. There are a couple of great start-
ing points available, like the “Resis-
tance Welding Data Sheet” from AWS
Fig. 5 — TE101 weld schedule blank.
Standard C1.1M/C1.1:2012 — Fig. 4.
To keep things simple for your op-
erators, you can blend that informa-
tion with a table based on your
specific weld control. Following the
example of the TECNA TE101 control
used, Fig. 5 would be a good start.
Please note the addition of the upper
and lower electrodes, as well as the air
pressure and throat depth, to the list-
ing of control parameters. Completed
setup sheets may be placed in a binder
with photos of all of your setups, and
backups may be saved on your com-
puter and/or company network.
What is described above is a good,
basic process to follow to dial in a spot
welding machine for an average sheet
metal shop. There are many more de-
tails that can be explored, including
more advanced features, other testing
methods, proper electrode dressing,
welding other materials, and more.
Much of this may be found in the Re-
sistance Welding Manual Revised Fourth
Edition, AWS RWPH: 2011, Resistance
Welding Pocket Handbook, and AWS
C1.1M/C1.1:2012, Recommended Prac-
tices for Resistance Welding. WJ

Step-By-Step Guide to Determining a Weld Program

1) Actuate the welding machine using the electronic foot switch.
A) The tips will come together, the welding machine will complete its cycle, and the tips will retract.
B) Notice the following:
I. Were sparks/expulsion evident?
II. Was a weld achieved?

2) Inspect the weld using a peel test. If there were no sparks or expulsion when welding, and a satisfactory weld has been
made, then congratulations.
A) Document the settings.
B) You can further develop the size of the weld nugget by increasing the weld time 1–2 cycles at a time.
C) If sparks/expulsion were present, proceed to Step 3.
D) If a weld was not achieved, and sparks/expulsion were not evident, proceed to Step 4.

3) Sparks and/or expulsion basically indicate that the resistance in the part is too high.
A) Check part fitup to ensure the parts and electrodes are meeting flat and not flexing/skidding.
B) Verify the air supply is adequate, and > 10 PSI above the air pressure setting on the machine.
C) Check air pressure. Try increasing air pressure by 5 PSI, bearing in mind that we don’t want the arms and electrodes
to significantly flex when the welding machine is operated.
I. Return to Step 2.
D) If the point is reached where the parts are not fitting up, and sparking/expulsion are still evident, decrease weld current
5% at a time until:
I. Sparking/expulsion stops.

56 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019

 1. Proceed to Step 5.
II. 10% weld current is reached.
1. If sparking/expulsion are still evident, take photos of the part and call the welding machine
manufacturer, or a trusted resistance welding advisor.

4) If a weld was not achieved, and no sparking/expulsion was evident, increase weld current by 5%.
A) Weld.
B) Inspect the weld as above.
C) Continue increasing weld current by 5% and testing the welds until
I. A good weld is achieved.
1. Document the settings.
2. You can further develop the size of the weld nugget by increasing the weld time 1–2 cycles.
II. Sparks or expulsion are evident.
1. Decrease weld current by 5%.
2. Proceed to Step 5.
III. A weld current of 90% is reached.
1. Decrease weld current by 5%.
2. Proceed to Step 6.

5) Sparks and/or expulsion indicate that the resistance in the part is too high.
A) Increase weld time by two cycles.
B) Weld.
C) Inspect the weld as above.
D) Continue increasing weld time by two cycles until
I. A good weld is achieved.
1. Document the settings.
II. A weld time of 20 cycles is reached.
1. Proceed to Step 7.
E) If unable to achieve a weld, take photos of the part and call the welding machine manufacturer, or a trusted resistance
welding advisor.

6) A weld current of 90% is reached.

A) While it is okay to occasionally use a spot welding machine at above 90% of its capacity, it will reduce the life of the
machine if done in an ongoing production setting.
B) Increase weld time by two cycles.
C) Weld.
D) Inspect the weld as above.
E) Continue increasing weld time by two cycles until
I. A good weld is achieved.
1. Document the settings.
II. A weld time of 20 cycles is reached.
1. Proceed to Step 7.

7) Begin using multiple impulses of weld current. This allows time for the weld to cool under pressure, and helps focus weld
current for better weld penetration.
A) Set pulses number to 2.
B) Set cool time of 2–3 cycles between impulses.
C) Weld.
D) Inspect the weld as above.
E) Continue increasing pulses number as needed.
F) If unable to achieve a weld, take photos of the part and call the welding machine manufacturer, or a trusted resistance
welding advisor.

NIELS H. JOHNSON is industry sales manager at Weld Systems Integrators Inc., Warrensville Height, Ohio, a Sustaining Member of AWS, and an
active member of the RWMA and WEMCO. He is also chairman of the Marketing Subcommittee of the RWMA. Send your comments and
questions to Niels Johnson c/o Welding Journal, 8669 NW 36 St., #130, Miami, FL 33166-6672, or via email at niels@wsiweld.com.

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 57

COMING EVENTS
U.S., CANADA, MEXICO EVENTS
ASTM International Additive Manufacturing Center of
Excellence Workshop. March 25. Auburn Marriott Opelika
Resort & Spa at Grand National, Opelika, Ala. This work-
shop will focus on key steps in additive manufacturing tech-
nologies, including feedstock, design, materials and process-
ing, postprocessing, nondestructive evaluation and inspec-
tion, qualification and structural integrity, as well as stan-
dardization and certification. Twelve interactive sessions led
by key experts will address the growing needs of key indus-
tries, such as aerospace, defense, medical, and auto. Visit
amcoe.org/workshop.
National Robotic Arc Welding Conference. June 3–5. Mil-
waukee Area Technical College, Oak Creek, Wis. This three-
day event offers a platform for learning what it takes to im-
plement robotic arc welding in industries ranging from auto-
motive to shipbuilding. The conference will include tours of
manufacturers utilizing innovative robotic arc welding as
well as a tour of Miller Electric; topics ranging from ad-
vanced robotic plasma arc welding, 3D printing, collabora-
tive robotic arc welding, and more; and a vendor display of
58 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
robots and peripheral arc welding equipment. Contact Sue
Silverstein at (414) 840-9935 or silverss@matc.edu.
AMPM2019 Additive Manufacturing with Powder
Metallurgy/POWDERMET2019 International Conference
on Powder Metallurgy & Particulate Materials. June
23–26. Sheraton Grand, Phoenix, Ariz. The events bring to-
gether industry professionals and decision makers from
around the world to network and learn about the latest de-
velopments and innovations in metal powder technology.
The conferences will address powder metallurgy parts and
products, particulate materials, metal injection molding,
and metal additive manufacturing. Visit ampm2019.org and
powdermet2019.org.
INTERNATIONAL EVENTS
5th International Conference on Mechanical Structures
and Smart Materials (ICMSSM2019). May 27, 28. Xi’an,
China. The aim of this conference is to provide a platform
for researchers, engineers, academicians, and industrial
professionals to present their research results and develop-
ment activities in mechanical structures and smart materi-
als-related issues. Visit icmssm.org.
EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
Advanced Fundamentals & Brazing by Design. Philadel-
phia, Pa. Two-day course covering the essential theoretical
aspects of brazing technology combined with real-life appli-
cations and case studies. Visit lucasmilhaupt.com.
Amada Miyachi Educational Resources/Training. Person-
alized training services on resistance and laser welding fun-
damentals, laser marking, custom programs, material selec-
tion and joint design, and more. Visit amadamiyachi.com, or
call (626) 303-5676.
ASME Section IX Seminar. Learn how to use ASME
Section IX quickly and cost effectively. This three-day
ASME-sponsored course is scheduled for the following dates
and locations: Portland, Ore., April 8–10; and Houston, Tex.,
June 10–12. Contact Marion Hess, hessm@asme.org, (212)
591-7161, or register at asme.org/products/courses/bpv-code-
section-ix-welding-brazing-fusing.
The Atlas of Welding Procedure Specifications. The
AWS Connecticut Section is hosting a three-day seminar/
workshop on developing welding procedure specifications
(WPSs), procedure qualification records, and welder qualifi-
cation records. This event, scheduled for March 25–27 in
Simsbury, Conn., will provide instruction and the rationale
for developing qualified and prequalified welding procedures
that meet AWS and ASME standards. In-class exercises will
cover the process of writing prequalified WPSs and the me-
chanics of qualifying WPSs by testing. The welding docu-
ments developed are applicable to AWS, ASME, NAVSEA,
and other military standards, as well as commercial welding
standards. Contact Albert Moore, workshop leader, for more
information at amoore999@comcast.net.
Brazing — How to Effectively Improve Production and
Reduce Costs. Learn how to properly understand and ap-
ply brazing principles to reduce problems in your production
shop and improve your brazing productivity in this three-
day brazing training program on April 16–18 in Simsbury,
Conn.; and May 14–16 in Los Angeles, Calif. Contact Dan
Kay at dan.kay@kaybrazing.com, or go to kaybrazing.com/
seminars.html.
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 59
Business Electronics Soldering Technology. Certification
and training classes held in Rolling Meadows, Ill.; Auburn
Hills, Mich.; Rosemount, Minn.; and Cleveland, Ohio, or can
be coordinated onsite at your facility. Training schedule is
available at solder.net. Contact BEST at (847) 797-9250.
CPCC NDE Continuing Education Courses. Central Pied-
mont Community College presents the following courses:
Level I & II Penetrant Testing, March 18–April 1 and Ultra-
sonic Testing Level 2, March 18–April 24. To register, visit
cpcc.edu/cce/register-now.
CWB Online/Classroom Courses. Courses in NDE disci-
plines to meet certifications to the Canadian General Stan-
dards Board or Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission. The
Canadian Welding Bureau; (800) 844-6790; cwbgroup.org;
info@cwbgroup.org.
CWI Exam Prep Course. American Institute of Nondestruc-
tive Testing offers a 40-h online CWI exam prep course. Part
A covers the fundamentals of welding technology; part B
consists of extensive practical hands-on techniques and will
be held at the Houston Marriott North in Houston, Tex.;
and part C provides in-depth training to the welding code
portion of the exam. Contact Jeff LeTourneau, instructor@
trainingndt.com, (855) 313-0325, or visit trainingndt.com.
CWI/CWS Inspector Training. Welder Training & Testing
Institute is hosting the following endorsement and CWI/
CWS prep course seminars: Bolting Endorsement: July 31;
ASME Section IX/B31.1/B31.3: May 9, 10, Aug. 1, 2, and
Nov. 21, 22; D1.1/D1.5/API Endorsement: May 16, Aug. 8,
and Dec. 5; CWI: May 13–18, Aug. 5–10, and Dec. 2–7; and
CWS: March 4–8 and Sept. 16–20. To register, go to
wtti.com.
E-Courses in Destructive and Nondestructive Testing of
Welds and Other Welding-Related Topics. Online video
courses taken at one’s own pace offer certificates of comple-
tion and continuing education units. Contact Hobart Insti-
tute of Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448; welding.org/
product-category/online-courses/.
ESAB Welding and Cutting Instructor-Led Training. Year-
round training at Denton, Tex.; West Lebanon, N.H.; Tra-
verse City, Mich.; Hanover, Pa.; and Salt Lake City, Utah.
Online e-Learning training is available. Email trainingteam@
esab.com or visit training.victortechnologies.com.
Hypertherm Cutting Institute Online. Includes video tuto-
rials, interactive e-Learning courses, discussion forums, we-
binars, and blogs. Visit hypertherm.com; hyperthermcutting
institute.com.
Industrial Laser Training. Technical training and support
offered for users of industrial lasers in manufacturing,
60 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
education, and research. Regularly scheduled classes in laser
welding, laser cutting, and drilling. HDE Technologies Inc.;
(916) 714-4944; laserweldtraining.com.
Laser Safety Training Courses. Laser training courses for
personnel in research, industrial, and medical laser facilities.
Courses based on ANSI Z136.1, Safe Use of Lasers. Orlando,
Fla., or customer’s site. Laser Institute of America;
(800) 345-2737; lia.org.
Laser Vision Training Seminars. Two-day classes, offered
monthly and on request, include tutorials and practical
training. Presented at Servo-Robot Inc., St. Bruno, QC,
Canada. For schedule, cost, and availability, email info@
servorobot.com.
Machine Safeguarding Seminar. Rockford, Ill. Two-and-a-
half-day seminar teaches how to properly safeguard machin-
ery for OSHA/ANSI standards. A series of 15 safety demon-
strations will be presented; March 20–22, April 24–26, May
15–17, June 19–21, July 17–19, Aug. 21–23, Sept. 18–20,
Oct. 16–18, and Nov. 13–15. Visit rockfordsystems.com/
seminar.
Modern Furnace Brazing School. Aerobraze Brazing Engi-
neering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. Three-day seminar offers
knowledge and practical application on brazing design, met-
allurgical aspects/brazing operation, brazing atmosphere
and furnace equipment, brazing material selection and ap-
plications, and quality control. Seminar will be held May
7–9. Contact Jim Nicoll, brazingschool@wallcolmonoy.com;
(248) 585–6400, ext. 233; wallcolmonoy.com/brazing-school/.
NDE Classes. Moraine Valley Community College, Palos
Hills, Ill., offers NDE classes in PT, MT, UT, RT, radiation
safety, and eddy current, as well as API 510 exam prep and
weld inspection. (708) 974-5735; ccce@morainevalley.edu;
morainevalley.edu.
NDT Classroom Training and e-Learning Course. Offers
courses in UT, RT, MT, PT, eddy current, and remote visual
inspection. Onsite training also available. (855) 232-7470;
geinspectionacademy.com; inspection.academy@ge.com.
NDT Courses and Exams. Brea, Calif., and customers’ loca-
tions. Level I, II, and III refresher courses in PA, UT, MP, ra-
diation safety, radiography, visual, etc. Test NDT LLC;
(714) 255-1500; testndt.com.
Online Education Courses. Topics include Introduction to
Die Casting (free), Safety (free), Metal Melting and Han-
dling, Product Design, Energy Training, Dross Training,
Managing Dust Hazards, and more. North American Die
— continued on page 81
 CERTIFICATION SCHEDULE
CERTIFICATION SEMINARS, CODE CLINICS, AND EXAMINATIONS

Note: The 2019 schedule for all certifications is posted online at 9-Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
aws.org/w/a/registrations/prices_schedules.html. For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education re-
quirements without taking the exam. The exam can be taken
at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
Location Seminar Dates
Location Seminar Dates Exam Date
Salt Lake City, UT March 10–15 March 16 New Orleans, LA March 10–15
Annapolis, MD March 10–15 March 16 Dallas, TX March 24–29
Houston, TX March 10–15 March 16 Seattle, WA April 7–12
Chicago, IL March 17–22 March 23 Denver, CO May 5–10
Phoenix, AZ March 17–22 March 23 Miami, FL May 19–24
Boston, MA March 24–29 March 30 Pittsburgh, PA June 23–28
Portland, OR March 24–29 March 30 Charlotte, NC July 21–26
Miami, FL March 31–April 5 April 6 Houston, TX Aug. 4–9
Minneapolis, MN March 31–April 5 April 6 Orlando, FL Aug. 25–30
Dallas, TX April 7–12 April 13 Sacramento, CA Sept. 22–27
Las Vegas, NV April 7–12 April 13
Bakersfield, CA April 28–May 3 May 4
St. Louis, MO April 28–May 3 May 4 Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Baton Rouge, LA May 5–10 May 11 Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Detroit, MI May 5–10 May 11 Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Denver, CO May 19–24 May 25 Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Nashville, TN May 19–24 May 25
Birmingham, AL June 2–7 June 8 Certified Welding Sales Representative
Kansas City, MO June 2–7 June 8 (CWSR)
Pittsburgh, PA June 9–14 June 15 CWSR exams are given at Prometric testing centers. More
Spokane, WA June 9–14 June 15 information at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-welding-
Beaumont, TX June 16–21 June 22 sales-representative.
Hartford, CT June 16–21 June 22
Newark, NJ June 23–28 June 29
Omaha, NE June 23–28 June 29
Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
CWS exams are given at Prometric testing centers. More infor-
Louisville, KY July 7–12 July 13
mation at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-welding-supervisor.
Phoenix, AZ July 7–12 July 13
Norfolk, VA July 14–19 July 20
Milwaukee, WI July 21–26 July 27 Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Orlando, FL July 21–26 July 27 The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
Cleveland, OH July 28–Aug. 2 Aug. 3 exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification. More in-
Los Angeles, CA July 28–Aug. 2 Aug. 3 formation at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-radiographic-
Denver, CO Aug. 4–9 Aug. 10 interpreter.
Philadelphia, PA Aug. 4–9 Aug. 10
Chicago, IL Aug. 11–16 Aug. 17 Location Seminar Dates Exam Date
San Diego, CA Aug. 11–16 Aug. 17 Dallas, TX April 1–5 April 6
Salt Lake City, UT Aug. 11–16 Aug. 17 Las Vegas, NV June 3–7 June 8
Charlotte, NC Aug. 18–23 Aug. 24 Pittsburgh, PA July 29–Aug. 2 Aug. 3
Sacramento, CA Aug. 18–23 Aug. 24 Houston, TX Sept. 30–Oct. 4 Oct. 5
Houston, TX Aug. 25–30 Aug. 31
Seattle, WA Aug. 25–30 Aug. 31 Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
Minneapolis, MN Sept. 8–13 Sept. 14 OTC Daihen Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800, ext. 218
San Francisco, CA Sept. 8–13 Sept. 14 Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-4723
Nashville, TN Sept. 15–20 Sept. 21 Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7667
San Antonio, TX Sept. 15–20 Sept. 21 Milwaukee Area Technical College, Milwaukee, WI;
Boston, MA Sept. 22–27 Sept. 28 (414) 456-5454
New Orleans, LA Sept. 22–27 Sept. 28 College of the Canyons, Santa Clarita, CA; (651) 259-7800,
Indianapolis, IN Sept. 29–Oct. 4 Oct. 5 ext. 3062
Miami, FL Sept. 29–Oct. 4 Oct. 5 Ogden-Weber Applied Technology College, Ogden, UT;
Long Beach, CA Oct. 6–11 Oct. 12 (800) 627-8448

IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Please verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to confirm your course status before
making travel plans. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a
$250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline dates by visiting our website at aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. For information on AWS seminars
and certification programs, or to register online, visit aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars.

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 61

BY KATIE PACHECO — kpacheco@aws.org
SOCIETY NEWS
New Coalition Aims to Close the Skilled Trades Gap
BY ROLINE PASCAL

Fig. 1 — The American Welding Society (AWS) hosted 17 industry organizations for the first Skilled Trades Coalition meeting on De-
cember 5, 2018. Pictured at AWS Headquarters in Miami, Fla., are (from left) Scott Lynch, ABMA; Ken Rigmaiden, IUPAT; Matt Miller,
AWS; Scott Cargill, ASNT; Darrell L. Roberts, Helmets to Hardhats; Charlie Carter, AISC; Edward A. Abbott, Ironworkers International;
John Ospina, GAWDA; Arnold Bereson, ASNT; Michael Harris, ITI; Raquel Tamez, SHPE; Matthew E. Croson, AGMA; Jeannine Kunz, Tool-
ing U-SME; David W. Viola, IAPMO Group; Sheila LaMothe, CCAI; Edward S. Youdell, FMA International; Tom Underhill, SEAA; and
Robert H. Chalker, NACE International.

One of the hardest segments of the
workforce for employers to find skilled
talent has been the skilled trades —
the welders, electricians, machine tool
operators, pipefitters, and other
tradespeople who are essential in man-
ufacturing and construction.
But if these skilled trades workers
are difficult to find now, in a few years,
this will likely become a disconcerting
situation. It is estimated that two mil-
lion manufacturing jobs will go un-
filled by 2025. So the question is:
What can we do to solve this problem?
On December 5, 2018, 17 industry
organization leaders gathered at the
American Welding Society (AWS)
World Headquarters in Miami, Fla., for
the first meeting of the Skilled Trades
Coalition (STC) — Fig. 1. The STC was
founded as a response to the rising
shortage in skilled trades workers.
“Over the last several years of my
career, I have been hearing a common
theme from multiple industries, which
is the growing deficit in access to qual-
ified skilled workers,” said AWS Execu-
tive Director and CEO Matt Miller.
“We began reaching out to our coun-
terparts at other technical associa-
tions and discovered that the chal-
lenge we’re having with attracting
workers to welding is mirrored in
many other trades, so we put together
a charter to see if we could engage oth-
er groups to elevate the conversation
around the skilled trades. Our original
goal was to bring together five organi-
zations, but the interest was so large
that we quickly found we had 17 will-
ing partners.”
The mission of the STC is to bring
together a group of thought leaders
who are shaping the future of work in
their respective trade disciplines to ex-
plore awareness, recruitment, train-
ing, and retention of skilled trades
workers to close the skilled trades gap.
Coalition participants had the op-
portunity to interact, share informa-
tion and gain consensus on key topics,
detail best practices and identify com-
mon challenges, brainstorm, collabo-
rate on awareness of the trades em-
ployment gap, and combine resources
to accelerate problem solving.
The Coalition developed several in-
sightful panel-based sessions to ex-
plore the questions and answers to
the skills gap. Central in the discussion
was development of strategies to
draw more workers to skilled trades,
dispel myths, and influence public
perceptions.
Attracting Workforce Talent
Amongst the executive partners, a
panel was brought in to share insights
into opportunities and challenges fac-
ing the skilled trades in the areas of at-
tracting talent and managing common
misperceptions.
The panel included Gardner Car-
rick, vice president, strategic initia-
tives, The Manufacturing Institute;
Darrell L. Roberts, executive director,
Helmets to Hardhats, Center for Mili-
tary Recruitment, Assessment and
Veterans Employment; and Pim
Bexkens, software engineer and team
leader, WorldSkills Netherlands —
Fig. 2.
Data from the panel demonstrated
that while employment and job open-
ings in the trades are growing, the in-
dustry cannot meet the supply and de-

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 63

SOCIETY NEWS
Fig. 2 — A panel of speakers — (from left) Gardner Carrick, Darrell L. Roberts (also a
STC partner), and Pim Bexkens — shared their insights into opportunities and chal-
lenges facing the skilled trades and also answered questions from executives.
mand of skilled workers. Thus, there is
an urgency to attract young people to
the skilled trades workforce as they are
key to closing the gap.
The pending retirement of baby
boomers, strength of the economy,
and gap between the skills that em-
ployers need and available workers put
other issues to the forefront.
Negative connotations and stereo-
types of trade workers have penetrat-
ed society and contributed to the
problem by discouraging young people
from pursuing careers in the trades.
Most people have no idea of the im-
portance of manufacturing and its
contribution to the American econo-
my, including manufacturing employ-
ees and executives.
“The changes that have been occur-
ring in our pre-professional education
system have contributed greatly to the
skilled workforce shortage problem.
Over the years, we have put a focus on
the value of a college education, while
at the same time devalued the career
opportunities of the skilled trades, dis-
couraging people from entering these
fields,” said Robert H. Chalker, CEO,
NACE International.
Influencing Public Perceptions
Research has explored what today’s
young people are looking for in their
careers, how they make career choices,
and how well today’s educational pro-
grams support careers in manufactur-
ing. It touches on the fact that high
schools in the United States have
shifted their focus to preparing stu-
dents for four-year colleges rather
than vocational schools. Most of the
agricultural arts programs that were
so popular 50 years ago have been re-
moved from high schools, and the edu-
cational system exacerbates the nega-
64 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
tive perception of manufacturing.
“The shift in the national education
system 30–40 years ago away from
supporting vocational programming as
part of the curriculum and a big push
to have students follow a ‘college prep’
curriculum was a defining moment in
creating the skilled trades workforce
shortage,” said Edward S. Youdell,
president and CEO, FMA Internation-
al. “This sea change in approach fun-
neled many people away from careers
in either manufacturing or skilled
trades, where great value is placed on
the ability to work with both one’s
hands and mind.”
Half of high-school graduates who
attend college drop out. However, the
educational system has failed to en-
gage these students and help them en-
ter alternative postsecondary pro-
grams. Those who do graduate may
not find employment requiring a four-
year degree. Meanwhile, many well-
paid and rapidly increasing manufac-
turing jobs remain unfilled.
“This push towards college or bust
shifted the culture’s perception of our
great career alternatives into meaning
something less than the white collar
variety,” said Youdell. “We should also
stop referring to our employees as
workers or laborers. Who ever wanted
to grow up to be a worker? Change the
paradigm; we can do better.”
The Coalition strives to eradicate
public’s perception and restore the im-
age of essential skilled personnel.
A few key takeaways from the meet-
ing as they relate to improving the
skilled trades perception on the na-
tional and local levels and attracting
skilled trade workers include 1) target-
ing women, minorities, and young
people (researching key influencers);
2) investing in resources to craft a
message and get it out to the public
(e.g., TV commercials, social media); 3)
investing in a central location for re-
sources; 4) building on and leveraging
existing programs; and 5) engaging
other organizations/groups who are
also working in the same space.
Next Steps/Action Planning
Over the next decade, nearly three
and a half million manufacturing jobs
will likely be needed. This skilled
workforce shortage is not new. The ur-
gency of the problem was described as
far back as the 1990s, and has been
well documented over the past 15
years.
“Certainly the skilled trades and
manufacturers themselves bear some
responsibility for this situation be-
cause, collectively, we lost control of
the narrative and did not respond
strongly enough about the value of our
industries and career opportunities,”
said Youdell.
As asked in the beginning, what can
be done to solve this problem? Estab-
lishing partnerships with industry or-
ganizations, schools, and the public.
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The STC has taken the first step.
As part of this nationwide effort,
the partners have shared stories, data,
and ideas to inspire action. Collabora-
tion is at the heart of the Coalition,
and the participating partners demon-
strate their enthusiasm to work to-
gether with all of their knowledge to
bring the tools and information neces-
sary to help the industry when skilled
trades issues arise, being a strong
voice for trades within industry to
provide assistance and solve problems.
“While the Coalition is made up of
a diverse set of industry leaders and
associations, our ability to find com-
mon ground for a shared issue will
hopefully lead to a set of solutions
that can be deployed to raise the visi-
bility of the issue on a national scale,”
said Youdell. “From there, communi-
cating the solutions to our individual
SOCIETY NEWS
industry’s members, stakeholders,
suppliers, and original equipment
manufacturers, and then having them
adopt them into their operations, can
hopefully alleviate the shortage of
skilled professionals.”
Consensus has been sought for ac-
tion moving forward. The 17 partners
have started their focus in the areas of
initiative, coalition governance, data
mining, marketing campaigns, stake-
holders, and funding. Executive spon-
sors have volunteered to helm the
projects, with assistance from one or
two groups.
“Each of the organizations in the
Coalition are doing something to pro-
mote the value of a profession in the
skilled trades, but as individual
groups, with limited resources, we can
only accomplish so much. Together,
combining our efforts and resources,
we can amplify our impact. I see the
most important role we can play is to
reestablish the skilled trades as a long-
term, secure career for young men and
women in the formative years while
they are making career decisions,” said
Chalker.
The partners will be exploring ini-
tiatives at the upcoming teleconfer-
ence this month. Subsequently, the
American Institute for Steel Construc-
tion (AISC) will host the second in-
person Skilled Trades Coalition meet-
ing September 5 and 6 in Chicago, Ill.
It is time to act. WJ
ROLINE PASCAL (rpascal@aws.org) is
assistant editor of the Welding Journal.

AWS Hardship Assistance for Members Affected by the 2019 Partial Government Shutdown
As many federal employees contin- Hardship Program offers relief options Membership Department at (800)
ue to be affected by the 2019 partial for members and customers impacted 443-9353, ext. 480, or membership@
government shutdown, we want you by the shutdown. To learn more about aws.org, and an AWS staff will discuss
to know that AWS is here to help. Our available assistance, contact the AWS details and assistance.

Assabet Valley Regional Technical High School Volunteers to Teach Forging

Students and staff from Assabet Valley Regional Technical A student from Assabet Valley Regional Technical High School
High School, Marlborough, Mass., participated in a community (right), Marlborough, Mass., teaches a young girl how to forge
service event to teach children how to forge iron at Waldorf iron at Waldorf Middle School, Lexington, Mass., as part of a
Middle School, Lexington, Mass. community service event.

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 67

SOCIETY NEWS
AWS Celebrates Its Past by Focusing on the
Industry’s Bright Future

The Welding Journal is celebrating its centennial by looking to the future and
showcasing the welding industry’s young professionals. From January to Decem-
ber, 2019, Society News will profile AWS members under the age of 40 from each
AWS District.
The following section profiles Stephen Leone, Dist. 5, and Erich Haun, Dist. 6.
To nominate an AWS member, contact Katie Pacheco at kpacheco@aws.org.

District 5 Member Profile

Stephen Leone
Stephen Leone’s entrance into the
world of welding took place in secret.
Landing a construction job after high
school, he took special notice of the
work the shop’s welder was doing. As
the foreman, he began staying late af-
ter he had locked up to “tinker” with
the welding machine.
“I had asked my boss about it be-
fore, and he said he didn’t have the
time to show me, so I took it upon my-
self to learn,” explained Leone.
When the boss discovered what
Leone had been up to, he wasn’t too
happy. However, Leone’s determina-
tion combined with his self-taught
skills were difficult to ignore.
“He eventually caught me one night
and was upset; however, I showed him I
could strike an arc and knew the basics,
so he took me under his wing and men-
tored me in all he knew about welding.”
Since then, Leone has done “a little
bit of it all.” Some of his welding proj-
ects have included production railcars,
construction and repair, maintenance,
fabrication and furniture, bridges,
pipe assemblies, and brewery compo- encompassing curriculum that pre-
nents. Looking back, he sometimes pares them for real-world welding.
reminisces about the good ol’ days out “We have them make a complex
in the field. box, cube, T-joint, and pipe-to-plate
“I had a construction job as a main- project. We also have them fabricate
tenance welder where I could be weld- things around the shop as needed, and
ing the axle of a pump truck that split they get to be a part of projects of
and the next day be welding on giant their own that they or their families
excavator buckets in the mud and rain,” want to make,” he explained. “We have
he said. “There was something about a list of fab projects in the curriculum
that job; it had the uniqueness of being that really help them be prepared for
different every day coupled with the the workforce.”
critical thinking and problem-solving Recently, at the age of 27, Leone
aspect that I still miss to this day.” became an AWS Certified Welding
Leone graduated from Georgia Inspector.
Trade School, where he currently “I’m constantly pushing myself to al-
works. A year after he graduated, at ways learn and move forward and up,”
the age of 24, he was offered a job at he said. “Discipline and hard work al-
the school as a substitute teacher. To- ways pays off, no matter what you do.”
day he teaches structural, pipe, and Living by that adage, Leone com-
thin metal welding, as well as print petes as a powerlifter at the local and
reading and fabrication. state levels. He credits God and his
“Knowing I had experience prior to wife of five years for his success.
coming to receive my certifications,
they eventually asked me if I wanted
to stay on full time,” he said.
Leone enjoys changing students’
views on the welding industry, as well
as seeing them graduate and move on
to well-paying welding jobs.
“The most rewarding facet of teach-
ing is seeing these young men and
women go on to make a living and
eventually a family. They all come in
with a preconceived notion that not
going to college makes them a ‘con-
struction worker’ or not ‘intelligent,’
and it is my utmost joy to shatter that
mold,” he affirmed. “Seeing them years
down the road traveling and having
kids, or at the age of 18 making
$40,000 and moving out of their par- Stephen Leone lies down to weld a
ents’ home, is very satisfying.” major pedestrian bridge column
Leone’s students follow an all- support.

68 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019


District 6 Member Profile
Erich Haun
Born into the family business,
welding has played a crucial role in
Erich Haun’s life ever since he could
remember. Haun Welding Supply, a
fourth-generation business that dis-
tributes welding supplies, industrial
supplies, and compressed and liquid
gases, was where Haun happily spent
much of his childhood, helping in any
way he could.
“When I was 4–5 [years old] run-
ning around and bothering the store
employees, they’d give me a dust rag
and have me clean shelves to keep me
busy,” he explained. “Not knowing
what most of the products were, I
made sure the shelves were stocked
and arranged well.”
The shop wasn’t just his play-
ground, he also learned valuable les-
sons about running a business and
loss prevention.
“Crawling around on the ground, I
often found inventory that had been
kicked under the racks and lost. On
one cleaning, my Grandpa told me I
found over $100 in lost inventory.
That was the first time I realized the
value of contact tips and how quickly
the cost adds up,” he said.
When he wasn’t at the family busi-
ness, Haun dedicated himself to the
Boy Scouts of America, where his fa-
ther served as Scout Master. However,
Haun lost interest when his brothers
became Eagle Scouts and exceeded the
SOCIETY NEWS
age of eligibility. He left the Scouts
two merit badges short of being an Ea-
gle Scout, the highest rank in the
program.
“Looking back, I see the Boy Scouts
as one of the most valuable experi-
ences of my young life. Scouting
helped me develop problem-solving
skills that seem to be important in
everything I do,” he explained.
When he reached legal working age,
Haun became an official employee of
the family business. He began working
in the warehouse, where he shipped
and received merchandise, then moved
on to helping with sales on the show-
room floor.
“My freshman year in college, I
would ride my bike five miles to our
Williston, Vermont, store and help
three days a week with sales,” he said.
Despite the success of his family
business, Haun felt the need to delve
into something new and carve out a
name for himself. Leaving the welding
industry for four years, Haun eventu-
ally came to run a paint business.
“I needed to prove to myself that I
could be successful outside the realm
of our family business,” he affirmed.
“My senior year in college I had 35 em-
ployees, half of whom were older than
me. This was a valuable experience, re-
inforcing how important it was to have
the right people I could rely on to be
caretakers of the business.”
While running the paint business,
Haun completed a bachelor’s in busi-
ness administration from the Univer-
sity of Vermont, with a concentration
in human resources.
Armed with a degree, Haun re-
turned to the family business, which
has 19 locations and about 250 em-
ployees. He is currently the company’s
executive vice president, but he
doesn’t like placing too much empha-
sis on his job title.
“I hate titles; my business card
doesn’t have one. When I introduce
myself, it’s typically just by first
name,” he said. “I want people to know
me for me and trust that I can deliver
whether or not my name is on the
building.”
According to Haun, his day-to-day
tasks include coaching employees,
helping to solve issues, and identifying
efficiencies in the business.
“The two favorite parts of my day
are empowering people to be more ef-
fective and working with customers di-
rectly to overcome their problems,” he
said.
In his role, Haun pays special atten-
tion to the company’s employees, rec-
ognizing that motivated employees are
the bedrock of success.
“Our people are the most valuable
part of our business; it’s important for
us to continually reinvest in our peo-
ple so that we’re adding value to the
industry,” he said.
When he isn’t guiding employees,
Haun dedicates his time to bolstering
the industry as the second vice chair of
the American Welding Society (AWS)
Northern New York Section, where he
helps coordinate meetings, generate
meeting notices, and guide young
people who are entering the industry.
“Most of the time, I’m trying to
spread the word to the youth in the in-
dustry and to help share the connec-
tions that I’ve been lucky enough to
make,” said Haun. “The more exposure
we all have to the industry helps create
opportunities that might not have pre-
sented themselves without the com-
radery of the AWS.”
He takes pleasure in serving the
Section because of the opportunities
and connections it affords, as well as
the inside look it provides into the
industry.
“I love the industry. It’s so neat the
places we can go and the things that
we see that the general public can’t/
does not. Working as an AWS chair
helps me make connections in the in-
dustry with other vendors, customers,
and competitors. I think most people
would be surprised to know the things
that are made in our area and the peo-
ple behind it. Being involved in the
AWS and the welding industry helps
pull back the curtain on what really
happens in our local economy,” he
explained.
To unwind, Haun enjoys the out-
doors, but he admits that welding is
never too far from his brain.
“If you can’t find me at work, hope-
fully I’m lost in Vermont, hiking, ski-
ing, or swimming,” he affirmed. “But
who are we kidding? There is no ‘off’
switch for us; welding and gas are
everywhere.”
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 69
SOCIETY NEWS
TECH TOPICS
Technical Committee
Meetings
All AWS technical committee meet-
ings are open to the public. Contact
the listed staff members listed or call
(800/305) 443-9353 for information.
March 27, 28. A5 Committee on
Filler Metals and Allied Materials. Or-
lando, Fla. Contact: R. Gupta, ext. 301,
gupta@aws.org.
April 4, 5. C3 Committee and Sub-
committees on Brazing and Soldering.
Nashville, Tenn. Contact: K. Bulger,
ext. 306, kbulger@aws.org.
April 9–12. D1 Committee and Sub-
committees on Structural Welding.
Miami, Fla. Contact: J. Molin, ext.
304, jmolin@aws.org. The D1 Commit-
tee is recruiting educators and general
interest members. The D1N Subcom-
mittee on Titanium Welding is recruit-
ing all interest groups.
April 17. SH1 Subcommittee on
Fumes and Gases. Columbus, Ohio.
Contact: S. Hedrick, steveh@aws.org,
ext. 305.
April 25. SH4 Subcommittee on La-
beling and Safe Practices. Moon Town-
ship, Pa. Contact: S. Hedrick, ext. 305,
steveh@aws.org.
April 30–May 2. C1 Committee on
Resistance Welding. Whitmore Lake,
Mich. Contact: M. Diaz, mdiaz@aws.org,
ext. 310.
April 30–May 2. D8 Committee and
Subcommittees on Automotive Weld-
ing. Whitmore Lake, Mich. Contact:
M. Diaz, mdiaz@aws.org, ext. 310.
April 30–May 2. D14 Committee
and Subcommittees on Machinery and
Equipment. Miami, Fla. Contact: K.
Bulger, kbulger@aws.org, ext. 306.
Candidates Sought to Receive the MIT Masubuchi Award
The Prof. Koichi Masubuchi award,
with a $5000 honorarium, is presented
to one person, 40 or younger, who has
made significant contributions to the
advancement of materials joining
70 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
April 30–May 2. J1 Committee and
Task Groups on Resistance Welding
Equipment. Whitmore Lake, Mich.
Contact: M. Diaz, mdiaz@aws.org,
ext. 310.
New Standards Projects
Development work has begun on
the following new or revised stand-
ards. Affected individuals are invited
to contribute to their development.
Participation in AWS technical
committees is open to all persons.
B2.1/B2.1M:20XX, Specification for
Welding Procedure and Performance
Qualification. This specification
provides the requirements for qualifi-
cation of welding procedure specifica-
tions, welders, and welding operators
for manual, semiautomatic, mech-
anized, and automatic welding. The
welding processes included are electro-
gas, electron beam, electroslag, flux
cored arc, gas metal arc, gas tungsten
arc, laser beam, oxyfuel gas, plasma
arc, shielded metal arc, stud arc, and
submerged arc welding. Base metals,
filler metals, qualification variables,
welding designs, and testing require-
ments are also included. Stakeholders:
Welders, consumers, and producers.
Revised Standard. Contact: J. Rosario,
jrosario@aws.org, ext. 308.
D17.2/D17.2M:20XX, Specification
for Resistance Welding for Aerospace Ap-
plications. This specification provides
the general resistance welding require-
ments for aerospace hardware. It
includes, but is not limited to,
resistance spot and resistance seam
welding of aluminum, magnesium,
through research and development.
Send a list of your candidate’s experi-
ence, publications, honors, awards, and
at least three letters of recommenda-
tion from fellow researchers to Prof.
iron, nickel, cobalt, and titanium-based
alloys. There are requirements for ma-
chine and welding schedule qualifica-
tion, production witness samples, and
inspection and acceptance criteria for
aerospace hardware. Stakeholders:
Aerospace fabrication and manufactur-
ing companies. Revised Standard. Con-
tact: M. Diaz, ext. 310, mdiaz@aws.org.
Standards for Public
Review
AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by
the American National Standards In-
stitute (ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as
approved by ANSI, require that all
standards be open to public review for
comment during the approval process.
This column also advises of ANSI ap-
proval of documents. A draft copy may
be obtained by contacting the commit-
tee staff secretary.
D14.4/D14.4M:20XX, Specification
for the Design of Welded Joints in Ma-
chinery and Equipment. Revised Stan-
dard. $40.50. ANSI public review ex-
pires 3/18/19. Contact: K. Bulger,
ext. 306, kbulger@aws.org.
D16.2M/D16.2:20XX, Guide for
Components of Robotic and Automatic
Arc Welding Installations. Revised Stan-
dard. $68.00. ANSI public review ex-
pires 3/18/19. Contact: P. Portela,
ext. 311, pportela@aws.org.
F2.3M:20XX, Specification for Trans-
parent Welding Curtains and Screens.
Revised Standard. $32.00. ANSI public
review expires 3/11/19. Contact: S.
Hedrick, steveh@aws.org, ext. 305.
Todd Palmer, tap103@psu.edu. This
award is sponsored annually by the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Dept. of Ocean Engineering.

MEMBERSHIP ACTIVITIES
Member-Get-A-Member
Campaign
Listed here are the members who
participated in the 2018 Member-Get-
A-Member Campaign. The campaign
ran from Jan. 1 to Dec. 31, 2018.
Members received 5 points for each
Individual Member and 1 point for
every Student Member they recruited.
For campaign rules and a prize list,
please see page 65 of this Welding Jour-
nal. Standings as of Dec. 31. For more
information, call the AWS Membership
Dept. at (800) 443-9353, ext. 480.
J. W. Morris, Mobile — 106
M. D. Box, Pascagoula — 103
M. A. Centeno, Nevada — 87
D. S. Beecher, San Diego — 72
M. Krupnicki, Rochester — 71
F. A. Cea, Columbus — 60
H. H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley — 60
A. D. Dillon, Detroit — 59
B. P. Brandmeir, Lehigh Valley — 51
J. P. Theberge, Boston — 48
B. M. Williams, West Michigan — 46
M. J. Lannom, Long Beach/Orange
County — 43
G. T. Rolla, Los Angeles/Inland
Empire — 43
R. Riggs, Tulsa — 41
B. Cheatham, Columbia — 40
M. D. Stein, Detroit — 40
B. Newcomb, Madison-Beloit — 39
D. A. Saunders, Lakeshore — 38
G. Bieniecki, Cleveland — 37
O. N. Boylan, Cleveland — 37
W. L. Harris, Pascagoula — 36
C. Cosentino, Pittsburgh — 35
D. P. Thompson, Southwest Virginia —
34
C. A. Donnell, Northwest Ohio — 33
C. Ribardo, Houston — 30
V. Craven, Pascagoula — 30
A. M. Young, Detroit — 27
S. P. Siviski, Maine — 24
R. H. Stahura, Niagara Frontier — 23
D. R. Jacobs, Northwestern
Pennsylvania — 20
G. L. Gammil, Northeast
Mississippi — 20
C. A. Galbavy, Idaho/Montana — 19
G. D. Wentland, Sacramento — 18
T. A. Harris, Johnstown-Altoona — 18
M. J. Jones, Saginaw Valley — 18
SOCIETY NEWS
R. K. McClure, Los Angeles/Inland Educational Institutional
Empire — 17
R. Fugate, Drakewell — 17 Members
R. Young, Iowa — 16
G. J. Smith, Lehigh Valley — 16 Eastern North Carolina Regional
D. Melton, Greater Huntsville — 15 Skills Center
J. L. Stokes, Dayton — 15 200 Broadhurst Rd.
T. M. Molln, Illinois Valley — 15 Jacksonville, NC 28540
S. Toops, Central Texas — 15
C. A. Renfro, Chattanooga — 14 Lewis and Clark Career Center
O. Serrano, Ecuador — 14 2400 Zumbehl Rd.
B. M. Scherer, Cincinnati — 13 Saint Charles, MO 63301
D. L. Porter, Nashville — 11
E. R. Krestakos-Fromson, Indiana — Northwest Florida State College
11 100 College Blvd.
S. Smalley, Mid-Plains — 11 Niceville, FL 32578
Pisgah High School
1 Black Bear Dr.
New AWS Supporters Canton, NC 28716
Waskom Independent School
Affiliate Corporate District
365 School Ave.
Member Waskom, TX 75692
Proacem
Av. Siglo XXI #2344 Fracc. Villerías C.P.
Aguascalientes, México 20170
Supporting Corporate
Members
Capital Steel Service LLC
82 Stokes Ave.
Trenton, NJ 08638
Ironworkers Apprenticeship
Local 606
3555 N. Santa Fe
Wichita, KS 67219 AWS Member Counts
February 1, 2019
UHI Group
42450 Yearago Dr.
Sustaining.................................593
Sterling Heights, MI 48314
Supporting ...............................360
Educational...............................834
Affiliate.....................................635
Welding Distributor ...................68
Welding Distributor Total Corporate ........................2490
Members
Individual ...........................57,434
DWT GmbH Student + Transitional ...........11,395
Wilhelm-Tenhagen-Str. 5 Total Members ....................68,829
Bottrop, Germany 46240
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 71
SECTION NEWS
District 1
Douglas A. Desrochers, director
(508) 763-8011
dadaws@comcast.net
GREEN & WHITE MOUNTAINS
November
Location: Northlands Job Corps Cen-
ter, Vergennes, Vt.
Summary: Members gathered at
Northlands Job Corps Center where
Welding Instructor, CWI, and CWE
Jim Blanchard has built a brand-new
pipe welding shop. Attendees toured
the shop and looked at new equipment
as well as listened to presentations
about the center. A speaker from Lin-
coln Electric discussed new equipment
and welding rods.
District 2
Ken Temme, director
(856) 264-8377
kenneth.temme@gmail.com
District 3
Sean Moran, director
(717) 885-5039
sean.moran@ahydro.com
District 4
Mr. Lynn Showalter, director
(757) 848-8029
lynnshowalter@gmail.com
District 5
Howard Record, director
(352) 816-0835
howard@rtdtools.com
ATLANTA
November 9
Location: Chicopee Woods Agricultur-
al Center, Gainesville, Ga.
Summary: North Georgia high school
welding students competed for a spot
at the Georgia Skills Competition.
Competing high schools included
Berkmar, Buford, Chestatee, Flowery
Branch, Gainesville, Gilmer County, R.
72 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
BY CINDY WEIHL — CWEIHL@AWS.ORG
W. Johnson, Lanier College and Ca- PITTSBURGH
reers Academy, Lumpkin County, January 15
Madison County, North Hall, and West Location: Le Mont Restaurant,
Hall. The winner was Terry Williams, Mt. Washington, Pa.
who won an Atlanta Section welding Presenter: Bill O’Donnell, BSME, MA,
bag full of equipment. Gas & Supply O’Donnell Consulting Engineers
also awarded him a new electronic hel-
met and supplies.
District 6
Michael Krupnicki, director
(585) 705-1764
mkrup@mahanyweld.com
District 7 GREEN & WHITE MOUNTAINS — Mem-
bers are seen at the November Sec-
Larry Heckendorn, director tion meeting held at Northlands Job
(614) 292-1220 Corps Center.
heckendorn.4@osu.edu
COLUMBUS
November 13
Location: Upper Arlington Library,
Upper Arlington, Ohio
Presenters: William Diederich and
Connie Matthews, board members,
Central Ohio Information Systems
Security Association
Summary: Diederich and Matthews
spoke to members about information
security, including what organizations
do today, how they should prepare for
the future, and what it means for indi-
viduals. Opportunities for women in
the information security industry was
also discussed.
ATLANTA — Terry Williams, winner of
January 10 the North Georgia High Schools Weld-
Location: Columbus State Community ing Skills Competition, is seen with
College, Columbus, Ohio Welding Instructor Carter Woodall.
Presenter: Scott Laslo, coordinator/
assistant professor, Columbus State
Community College
Topic: Skilled trades by the numbers:
Using quantitive data and integrated
virtual reality to train welders more
efficiently
Summary: This session demonstrated
how the welding faculty at Columbus
State Community College, in collabo-
ration with Lincoln Electric, used
movement-tracking technology to in-
novate the manner in which welders
are trained. The technology allows
welders to train remotely, making effi-
COLUMBUS — Tom Eckardt (right) pre-
cient use of resources while preserving
sented the Section’s speaker gift to
the “hands-on” nature of instruction. Scott Laslo.

Topic: Welding lessons learned from
50 years of weldment failure experi-
ence/Past Chairman’s Night
Summary: The Section honored its
past chairman with dinner at the fa-
mous Le Mont restaurant. In addition,
O’Donnell spoke about his career in
the welding industry. He began his ca-
reer at Westinghouse Bettis Atomic
Power Laboratory, where he helped de-
velop components for the nuclear
Navy under Admiral Rickover. His ex-
tensive professional experience has al-
lowed him to develop methods for
evaluating fatigue, stress corrosion
cracking, and safety margins for com-
ponents. He is an expert witness in
complex failure modes that occur un-
der cyclic stress. He was chairman of
the ASME Subgroup on Fatigue
Strength for more than 12 years, was
named “Engineer of the Year” in 1988,
and is listed in the Engineer’s Joint
Council “Engineers of Distinction” and
Marquis “Who’s Who in the World.”
PITTSBURGH — At the Section’s Past Chairman’s Night (from left) AWS Past President Dave McQuaid, Don Stoll, Tom White, John
Menhart, Carl Ott, and Roger Hilty celebrated.
PITTSBURGH — Section members are seen at the January dinner meeting honoring past chairmen.
SECTION NEWS
Summary: The Section’s annual
District 8 Christmas party was enjoyed by mem-
D. Joshua Burgess, director bers at the Henry Horton State Park.
(931) 260-7039 The annual fundraiser raffle was
djoshuaburgess@gmail.com drawn and Holland Tramill won the
grand prize from Holston Gases for an
NASHVILLE Academy Sports and Outdoors gift
November 15 card.
Location: Tennessee College of Applied
Technology (TCAT), Lebanon, Tenn.
Summary: The Section held a success-
ful annual student night with several
schools present, including TCAT and
Lincoln Tech. David Porter led the
meeting with a student quiz and the
winners received prizes from ESAB,
Lincoln Electric, and Select-Arc,
among other prize sponsors. Section
Chair Rick Tidwell was instrumental in
acquiring many of the prizes for the
students.
NASHVILLE — Section Chair Rick Tid-
December 15 well (left) presented a welding helmet
Location: Henry Horton State Park, to a lucky student.
Tenn.
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 73
SECTION NEWS
District 9
Michael Skiles, director
(337) 501-0304
michaelskiles@cox.net
BATON ROUGE
January 17
Location: Mistras, Geismar, La.
Presenters: Markkevin Spencer, quali-
ty control manager; George Fairbanks,
Fairbanks Inspection & Testing;
Michael Salwey, Level III NDE techni-
cian; and Jimmy Quaid, general man-
ager NDE services
Summary: The four presenters lec-
tured on visual testing (VT) require-
ments and nondestructive examina-
tion (NDE) fab/code, visual and non-
destructive testing, and the interface
between the client and the NDE com-
panies. Blake Hewitt recognized Mis-
tras and thanked them for sponsoring
the meeting.
District 10
Mike Sherman, director
(216) 570-9348
mike@shermanswelding.com
OIL REGION STUDENT
CHAPTER
December 7
Location: Pittsburgh, Pa.
Summary: Three members of the Sec-
tion traveled to Pittsburgh Technical
College to compete in the 38th Annual
AWS Pittsburgh District Weld Off. The
students were accompanied by Travis
Crate, welding instructor and chair of
the AWS Drake Well Section; and
Robert Fugate, welding aide and secre-
tary of the Drake Well Section. The
competition consisted of welding
V-grooves in both the uphill (3G) and
overhead positions (4G). Once they
have been welded, the plates go
through a visual inspection. If they
pass, the plates are sent for x-ray in-
spection. The x-ray reviews were to be
completed in February.
DRAKE WELL
January 10
Location: Venango Technology Center,
Oil City, Pa.
Summary: The January meeting cen-
tered on planning 2019 events, includ-
ing a joint meeting with the North-
west Section on April 11; joint meet-
ing with Venango Technology Center
on April 30; District meeting hosted
by the Section on May 3; and an annu-
al golf outing at Whispering Pines in
Meadville, Pa., on August 2. Addition-
ally, members discussed different
tours they would like to conduct, and
Daniel Bubenhiem asked to step down
as Section vice chair. His resignation
was accepted by the Section chair, and
Dick Whitcomb was nominated to fin-
ish Bubenhiem’s term. The group vot-

Oil Region Student Chapter — Partici-

pants of the Pittsburgh District Weld
Off Competition included (from left)
East Forest High School students
BATON ROUGE — Mistras’s Jimmy Quaid (second from right) received a certificate of Daniel Ruhlman and Lukas Slosser,
sponsorship for hosting the January meeting. Also shown (from left) are Markkevin and Franklin High School student
Spencer, George Fairbanks, Blake Hewitt, and Michael Salwey. Thomas McQuiston.

Oil Region Student Chapter — Chapter members (from left) Tyler See, Daniel Ruhlman, Emmett McDonald, Charlie Nicholson,
Thomas McQuiston, and Lukas Slosser toured the Steamfitters Technology Center in Harmony, Pa.

74 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019


ed in favor of this nomination. Discus-
sion was also held on all the scholar-
ships available through AWS and the
timelines for applying.
District 11
Phillip Temple, director
(734) 546-4298
nwcllc_ptemple@att.net
PINCKNEY COMMUNITY HIGH
SCHOOL STUDENT CHAPTER
December 6
Location: Bradhart Products,
Brighton, Mich.
Summary: The Section celebrated a
second manufacturing day by touring
Bradhart Product’s facility.
District 12
Dale Lange, director
(715) 732-3645
dale.lange@nwtc.edu
Pinckney Community High School Student Chapter — Chapter members and Welding Instructor Mark Stein are seen during a
facility tour of Bradhart Products.
MADISON-BELOIT/Blackhawk Student Chapter — Participants of the Annual WTC Winter Carnival included (from left) Sophie
Virgo, Heather Rocha, Gabe Rocha, Student Chapter Advisor Dan Crifase, Dan Hershey, Mandy Stewart, Lydia Gorton, and Laura
Kniola.
SECTION NEWS
LAKESHORE in the Annual BTC Winter Carnival.
November 29 The students designed and built five
Location: Team Industries Inc., separate games for the event. An esti-
Kaukauna, Wis. mated 200 people were in attendance.
Presenter: John Panetti,
president/owner, Team Industries, Inc.
Summary: The November meeting in-
cluded an extensive plant tour of the District 13
manufacturing operations at Team In- Ronald Ashelford, director
dustries, a code and fabrication shop (815) 218-8766
providing critical weldments for the r.ashelford@rockvalleycollege.edu
pipe, tank, vessel, refining, power gen-
eration, petrochemical, industrial, pa-
per, food and beverage, and marine in-
dustries. The tour included the compa-
ny’s positioner and gripper manufac-
turing division. A post-tour dinner for
attendees and hosts was held at 5th
Quarter.
MADISON-BELOIT/
BLACKHAWK TECHNICAL
COLLEGE STUDENT CHAPTER
December 1
Location: Blackhawk Technical College
(BTC), Janesville, Wis. LAKESHORE — A typical production
Summary: The Blackhawk Technical weld witnessed by attendees of the
College Student Chapter participated Team Industries Inc. tour.
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 75
SECTION NEWS
Summary: Section members visited
District 14 Anselmo-Merna High School to speak
Tony Brosio, director to students about opportunities in the
(765) 215-7506 welding industry and encouraged
tbrosio@yahoo.com them to fill out an application for an
AWS student membership sponsored
by the Section. Thirteen students and
Instructor Jason Reed gave a tour of
District 15 the welding lab.
Michael Hanson, director
(763) 221-5951
mikhan318@comcast.com District 17
J Jones, director
District 16 (832) 506-5986
jjones6@lincolnelectric.com
Karl Fogleman, director
(402) 677-2490 SOUTHEAST NEBRASKA
fogleman3@cox.net January 17
Location: Lincoln, Neb.
MID PLAINS Presenters: Michael Anderson and
December 7 Ryan Gleason, BNSF Railway, Have-
Location: Anselmo-Merna High lock shops
School, Merna, Neb. Summary: Anderson and Gleason
Presenters: Dan Rucker, Nebraska Ma- hosted a tour inside BNSF Railway’s
chinery; Duane Stevens, Stevens Weld- Havelock shops. They described typi-
ing; and Rex Cross, C&J Instruments cal daily activities within the facility
for the repair and preventive mainte-
nance of wrecked/aging rolling rock.
BNSF has long since been recognized
as an attractive job opportunity for
welders. Those in attendance included
student members from the local
Southeast Community College, mem-
bers, potential members, and District
Director Karl Fogleman.
District 18
Thomas Holt, director
(409) 721-5777
tholt@techcorr.com
CHIHUAHUA
December 4
Location: Chihuahua City, Chihuahua,
Mexico
Summary: The Section and several
AWS representatives participated in
the Responsible Parties Informative
Conference. The one-day event was
hosted by the Section and Grupo
Cano. Speakers included 2018 AWS

SOUTHEAST NEBRASKA — Section members gathered for a tour of BNSF Railway’s Havelock shops.

CHIHUAHUA — Speakers and participants of the Responsible Parties Informative Conference included (from left) Luis Carlos
Enriquez, Federico Mesta, Mauricio Cano, District 18 Director Tom Holt, Grupo Cano CEO Alejandro Cano, AWS Vice President of So-
ciety Programs Patrick Henry, Grupo Cano USA Sales Director Alex Cano, Svetlana Flood, AWS 2018 President Dale Flood, Section
Vice Chair and Event Organizer Jorge Rodallegas, Event Speaker Mike Vincent, and Section Chair Jorge Lopez.

76 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019


President Dale Flood, District 18 Di-
rector Tom Holt, AWS Vice President
of Society Programs Patrick Henry,
Mike Vincent, Alejandro Cano, Jorge
Lopez, and Alex Cano. Twenty-eight
exhibitors and an estimated 300 peo-
ple attended the event.
EL PASO
December 5
Location: Great American Land and
Cattle Restaurant
Summary: Section members celebrat-
ed their Annual Christmas Party and
Awards Night.
District 19
Shawn McDaniel, director
(509) 793-5182
shawnm@bigbend.edu
BRITISH COLUMBIA
November 21
Location: UAPIC, Delta, BC
EL PASO — Attendees of the Section’s Annual Christmas Dinner gathered for a photo with AWS 2018 President Dale Flood and his
wife Svetlana (both left of the banner).
ARIZONA — Section members and students are seen during the October meeting.
SECTION NEWS
Presenter: Steve Siu, engineer, Summary: Malnar spoke to meeting
Aplus/RTD – SKC attendees about ASME code require-
Summary: The evening meeting con- ments associated with pressure vessels
sisted of a catered dinner at UAPIC, and B31.1 piping. There was also a gas
followed by a presentation by Siu metal arc welding demonstration us-
titled “Welding Procedures.” Approxi- ing waveform technology.
mately 40 people were in attendance.
District 20 District 22
Robert Purvis, director
Pierrette H. Gorman, director (916) 599-5561
(505) 440-6284 purviswelds@gmail.com
pierrette@comcast.net
District 21
Sam Lindsey, director
(858) 740-1917
slindsey@sandiego.gov
ARIZONA
October 10 BRITISH COLUMBIA — Section 1st Vice
Location: Central Arizona College, Chair Kyle Bramhoff (left) presented a
Mesa, Ariz. speaker gift to Steve Siu.
Presenter: Chad Malnar, Caid Solution
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 77
 GUIDE TO AWS SERVICES
American Welding Society® INFORMATION SYSTEMS Plastics and Composites, Personnel and Facilities
8669 NW 36 St., #130 Managing Director Qualification, Mechanical Testing of Welds
Miami, FL 33166-6672 John Perry .. jperry@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(247)
(800/305) 443-9353; Fax: (305) 443-7559 Program Managers II
Phone extensions are in parentheses. PUBLISHING & EDITORIAL Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(334)
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275) Definitions and Symbols, Structural Subcom-
AWS PRESIDENT mittees on Reinforcing Steel and Stainless Steel,
Thomas J. Lienert. . . . . . . .tjlienert@gmail.com Welding Journal Joining of Metals and Alloys, Piping and Tubing
Consultant Publisher/Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . . . . .(238) Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(301)
SENIOR LEADERSHIP TEAM Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International
Executive Director/ Society News Editor Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc Weld-
Chief Executive Officer Katie Pacheco.. kpacheco@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(275) ing and Cutting Processes, Computational Weld
Matt Miller.. mmiller@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(207) Mechanics
Section News Editor
Chief Financial Officer/ Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(256) Jennifer Molin.. jmolin@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Chief Administrative Officer Structural Welding, Sheet Metal Welding
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(252) Inspection Trends Editor
Carlos Guzman..cguzman@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(348)
Chief Marketing Officer Program Managers
Sofia Samuels..ssamuels@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(419) MARKETING Mario Diaz..mdiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(310)
Chief Marketing Officer Automotive, Resistance Welding, Resistance
Senior Vice Presidents Sofia Samuels.. ssamuels@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(419) Welding Equipment, Welding and Brazing in Aero-
Cassie Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(253) space, Friction Welding
Research, Strategy, and Membership MEMBER SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(480) Kevin Bulger..kbulger@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(306)
John Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(472) Brazing and Soldering, Methods of Weld In-
Welding & Technology Associate Director spection, Welding in Marine Construction, Welding
Nici Banks...nbanks@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(270) of Machinery and Equipment
Vice Presidents Serves as a liaison between members and AWS
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(299) headquarters. Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(308)
Talent Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting, Railroad
Senior Manager, Volunteer Engagement and Welding, Thermal Spraying, Welding Iron Castings,
Patrick Henry.. phenry@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(226) Support Welding Qualification
Society Programs Darrill Gaschler.. dgaschler@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(306)
Welding Handbook Editor
EXECUTIVE OFFICE CERTIFICATION SERVICES Kathy Sinnes.. ksinnes@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(255)
Associate Director Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(273)
Chelsea Steel.. csteel@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(294) CUSTOMER SERVICE & SUPPORT
Managing Director Director
HUMAN RESOURCES Denny Smith.....dsmith@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(263) Hosea Carter...hcarter@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(413)
Associate Director
Alex Diaz.. adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(209) ACCREDITATION Customer Service...customerservice@aws.org . .(280)
Senior Manager
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WELDING Emil Pagoaga..epagoaga@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(448) AWS FOUNDATION INC.
Senior Coordinator aws.org/w/a/foundation
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(319) EDUCATION & TRAINING General Information
Liaison services with other national and interna- Director (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, jdouglass@aws.org
tional societies and standards organizations. Alicia Garcia..agarcia@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(229)
Chairman, Board of Trustees
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES CONFERENCES & EVENTS William A. Rice.. brice@oki-bering.com
Hugh Webster .... hwebster@wc-b.com Director
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C. CaLae Browne..cbrowne@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(213) Executive Director, Foundation
(202) 785-9500; Fax: (202) 835-0243 Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(461)
Monitors federal issues of importance to the SALES & PUBLISHING
industry. Managing Director Associate Director, Foundation Services
Michael Walsh...mwalsh@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(350) John Douglass.. jdouglass@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(212)
CONVENTION AND EXPOSITIONS
Director, Expositions Senior Sales Executive, Academia
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(239) Efram Abrams....eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(333) The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit 501(c)(3)
charitable organization established to provide support
Senior Sales Executive, Expositions Senior Sales Executive, Corporate for the educational and scientific endeavors of the Amer-
Sarah Dickson.....sdickson@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(297) Sandra Jorgensen.....sjorgensen@aws.org . . . . .(254) ican Welding Society. Promote the Foundation’s work
with your financial support.
ITSA — INTERNATIONAL THERMAL STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT
SPRAY ASSOCIATION Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340)
Program Manager
Alfred Nieves....anieves@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(467) Director — Standards Development
Peter Portela.. pportela@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(311)
RWMA — RESISTANCE WELDING MANUFACTUR- Technical Committee Activities, Additive
ING ALLIANCE Manufacturing, High-Energy Beam Welding, Ro-
Program Manager botics Welding, Welding in Sanitary Applications,
Adrian Bustillo....abustillo@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(295) Structural Subcommittees on Bridge Welding and
Titanium
WEMCO — ASSOCIATION OF WELDING
MANUFACTURERS Director — International Activities
Program Manager Andrew Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(466)
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . . . . .(444) International Standards Activities, American
Council of the International Institute of Welding
GLOBAL OPERATIONS
Corporate Director Manager, Safety and Health
Jeff Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(233) Stephen Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(305)
Oversees international business activities; Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of
certification, publications, and membership.

78 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019

 PERSONNEL

The Welding Institute Gary Martin Retires from After graduation, he continued with
Appoints CEO General Electric the company as a junior welding engi-
neer. In 1984, he joined Babcock and
Brunel Univer- Gary Martin has retired from Gen- Wilcox. During that time, he earned
sity London’s As- eral Electric (GE) after 29 years with his master’s degree in welding engi-
sociate Professor the company. Martin began a 45-year neering at The Ohio State University.
Aamir Khalid has career in the welding industry when In 1989, he joined GE, and has held
been named CEO he was hired at the LeTourneau various technical leadership roles at
of The Welding In- plant (then Marathon LeTourneau), the company’s aircraft engines facility,
stitute (TWI), Longview, Tex., as a night-shift welder. GE Nuclear Energy, and GE Gas Tur-
Granta Park, Cam-
bridgeshire, UK.
Khalid has spent
several years in in-
dustry before join-
A. Khalid ing the institute as
the nondestruc-
tive examination
(NDE) section manager, specializing in
applying robotics to this process. From
here, he progressed to lead the compa-
ny’s NDE technology group in 2004
and became TWI’s technology director
in 2010. He will be responsible for cre-
ating new opportunities for TWI in-
dustrial members through national
and international collaborations, de-
veloping key areas of the organiza-
tion’s technology and training busi-
nesses in the UK and overseas.

General Motors Names

President
General Motors,
Detroit, Mich., has
selected Mark
Reuss as company
president. He has
led the company’s
global product
group and Cadillac
brand since June
2018. Reuss has
been building an
integrated product
M. Reuss development and
Cadillac organiza-
tion to support a
product and technology launch as well
as global growth plans. He has also been
leading the transformation of the com-
pany’s global product development
workforce and processes to drive world-
class levels of engineering in advanced
technologies as well as improve quality
and speed to market. In addition, he
plans to double the resources allocated
to electric and autonomous vehicle
programs in the next two years.

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 79

 bine. Martin Certified Welding Inspector in 1985 James Cooke as
joined the AWS and a Certified Radiographic Inter- managing director
C7C subcommittee preter in 2006, earned an ASNT NDT of Eriez-Australia.
on Laser Beam Level III certification in four methods, He previously
Welding and Cut- became an AWS Distinguished and Life served as factory
ting, contributing Member, chaired the AWS D1 Task manager since
to the develop- Group 4 on inspection, and continues 2005. Cooke start-
ment and publica- to serve on the D1 Committee. ed his career as an
tion of the first apprentice for the
AWS Guide for Australian De-
Laser Welding and Eriez-Australia Promotes fence Industries.
G. Martin
Cutting. He also Managing Director J. Cooke
In 1994, he began
chaired the AWS his employment
Cincinnati Section, Eriez®, Erie, Pa., a separation tech- with Eriez-Aus-
became an AWS nologies provider, has promoted tralia and has
served in various roles in the company
over the decades.

Dengensha Adds Service

Engineer
Dengensha
America, Bedford,
Ohio, a manufac-
turer of resistance
welding equip-
ment, has added
Cecil Boone as
service engineer,
increasing its cus-
tomer service en-
gineering support
capabilities from
C. Boone its Bedford, Ohio,
headquarters.
Boone will assist
customers in the Midwest and parts of
Canada on the company’s line of re-
sistance welding equipment. He will
also provide backup support assistance
for customers in the southern tier.
Along with his extensive experience in
servicing manufacturing equipment
and automobiles, Boone has 13 years
of experience working at a local manu-
facturing plant in maintenance and as
a computer numerical control opera-
tor. Prior to that, he repaired RVs and
owned an auto repair shop.

Obituary
Michael A. Auciello

Michael A. Auciello, president of

Auciello Iron Works, passed away on
November 19, 2018. He was 86. Born
and raised in Brighton, Mass., he was
the eldest son of the late Justin, and
Clementina (Caruso) Auciello. He
served in the Air Force during the

80 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019

 Korean War. He would later become
president of Auciello Iron Works, a com-
pany founded by his father in 1932. Au-
ciello was instrumental in the growth
and success of the company as it
evolved from a small ornamental and
miscellaneous shop into a large-scale
manufacturer of bridge railing and com-
mercial items. He was the face of the
manufacturer as its main salesman and
promoter, and it became an AWS Sup-
porting Member in 2000. The company,
under his leadership, has employed
M. Auciello
many welders. He was also instrumental
in many projects, including the railings
on the Cape Cod Canal bridges; the
Jamestown Bridge in Newport, R.I.; the
Baldwin Bridge in Old Saybrook, Conn.;
the Verazano-Narrows Bridge, Staten Is-
land, N.Y.; and Throgs Neck Bridge in
Queens, N.Y.; along with many other
sites in Boston and throughout the
Northeast. Auciello was predeceased by
his wife, Antoinette. He is survived by
his five children Michael, Paula, Joseph,
Annette, and James; two brothers; and
two sisters. WJ

PRODUCT & PRINT the list, earning more than $88,000

SPOTLIGHT
— continued from page 27
pated in the survey. Of the 32 con-
struction positions surveyed, the aver-
age annual salaries ranged from
$47,700 to $92,500. Project supervi-
sors and program managers topped
and $92,500, respectively. Professions
earning more than $65,000 included
pipe and combo welders, boilermaker,
mobile crane operator, tower crane op-
erator, millwright, industrial electri-
cian, power line worker, and instru-
mentation technician. Additionally,
seven more craft areas made more
than $60,000 per year. The most sig-
nificant pay increase was HVAC tech-
nician, up 20% from previous years,
with sheet metal worker a close second
at an 18% increase. Since many craft
professionals receive additional pay in-
centives, their take-home pay is typi-
cally much greater than these incomes
reflected. Complete results can be ac-
cessed at nccer.org/research.
NCCER
nccer.org
(888) 622-3720

COMING EVENTS and additional welding and allied processes. Location and
dates available at weld-ed.org, or contact Michael Fox, (440)
366-4927, mfox@lorainccc.edu.
— continued from page 60

Casting Assoc.; diecasting.org/education/online; Protective Coatings Training and Certification Courses.

(847) 808-3161. At various locations and online. The Society for Protective
Coatings; (877) 281-7772; sspc.org.

Preparation for AWS® — CWI®/CWE® Examination. Troy,

Ohio. This two-week class offers nine days of instruction
with the test being administered on the tenth day. Includes
a backpack for the convenience of carrying books and other
study materials. Contact Hobart Institute of Welding Tech-
nology; (800) 332-9448; welding.org.
Professional Development Workshop. Five-day workshop
equips welding educators and industrial trainers with the
latest in training techniques, technology, and best practices.
Seven training modules include welding metallurgy; joining
and cutting processes; design, assembly, and robotic weld-
ing; welding codes, specifications, and safety; instructional
design and teaching strategies; nondestructive examination;
Robot Safety and Risk Assessment Training Seminar.
Learn the basic safety guidelines for robotic applications,
identify necessary tasks, identify possible hazards, and
more. McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill., April 12; Dallas/Fort
Worth, Tex., May 22; Frankfurt, Germany, June 6; and Min-
neapolis-Saint Paul, Minn., June 18. Robotic Industries As-
sociation; (734) 994-6088; robotics.org.
Veterans Goodwill Weld Training Program. South Burling-
ton, Vt., and Eagle River, Wis. AWI and Veterans of
Foreign Wars (VFW) have partnered to offer veterans a
complimentary two-day training at AWI facilities. Contact
(802) 660-0600, (715) 337-0122, or awi.edu. WJ

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 81

THE AMERICAN WELDER

Modern Sensibilities Give

100-Year-Old Companies
Staying Power

Innovation, adaptability,
and an eye toward the
future have kept five
companies going strong
for more than a century
BY ROLINE PASCAL AND CINDY WEIHL
T
he year was 1919 — there was no commercial air travel or internet, no cell
phones or self-driving vehicles. Instead, World War I had just ended, the 18th
amendment to the United States Constitution authorizing Prohibition went
into effect, and Comfort A. Adams, then dean of the Engineering School at Har-
vard University, called together a meeting at which it was agreed to form the
American Welding Society (AWS).
A lot has changed since then, and as AWS commemorates its first 100 years, it
celebrates alongside several welding industry companies that have also stood the
test of time and weathered wars, recessions, and technological revolutions to
reach their centennial anniversaries.
The following five companies shared how they achieved longevity and stay
current in an ever-changing industry.

Arcos: Local Company Reaches Global Heights

In 1919, Royal David Thomas found-
ed Arcos Industries LLC, then called
R.D. Thomas and Co., for steelmaking,
heat treatments, and welding elec-
trodes in Philadelphia, Pa. — Fig. 1. In
1931, R.D. Thomas and Co. merged
with the coated electrodes producer, Ar-
cos Belgium. Six years later, after build-
ing a quality reputation for stainless
and low hydrogen coatings, the compa-
ny developed the 307 electrode to weld
armor instead of the then-scarce and
expensive Alloy 310. The need was so
great for coated electrodes that a new
plant had to be acquired and tooled.
Thomas became vice president, and
then president, of Arcos, the result of
the merger between the two Philadel-
phia-based companies. He was also a
charter member of the AWS, founded
just after WWI in 1919, and president
of its local Pennsylvania State section.
He is widely regarded as one of the
founding fathers of AWS.
In 1941, when Pearl Harbor was at-
tacked, causing battleships to sink in
the harbor, Arcos developed an oxy-
gen-arc process for cutting steel and
armored plate underwater to clear the
channels for ship movement.
In 1947, Arcos Corp. introduced the
famous Schaeffler diagram, which is
still frequently used and cited today.
The Schaeffler diagram marked a new
age for a wide range of technical appli-
cations in steel welding processes.
After attending a talk given by Royal
David Thomas Jr., then-research and
development director, during an AWS
meeting in Milwaukee, Wis., Anton
Schaeffler sought a job as an engineer at
Arcos Corp. He benefited from the com-
pany’s broad experience and know-how.
Schaeffler presented the diagram in
a paper for Arcos Corp. at the 28th An-
nual Congress of the AWS held in
Chicago October 19, 1947, and pub-
lished in the Welding Journal research
supplement. He acknowledged the
contributions of R. D. Thomas Jr., his
manager and research director, and
Hallock C. Campbell, vice president of
Arcos Corp.
Thomas Jr. would become presi-
dent of Arcos in 1956 and president
of AWS in 1960–61. He would remain
an active AWS member until his death
at age 93.
The company, for many years,
was at the forefront in supplying
power sources for advanced welding
applications. After many years, a
decision was made to drop out of
that market to focus on development
for higher strength, high-alloy weld
consumables.
“It was Thomas Jr.’s belief this was
where the real challenge and future of
weld consumables was,” said Harry
Wehr, Arcos’s general manager and
past chairman of AWS’s Committee on
Filler Metals and Allied Materials.

82 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019


Fig. 1 — Arcos low-alloy, high-tensile-strength steel elec-
trodes were used to weld this 45-cubic-yard dipper, then the
world’s largest shovel.
Fig. 2 — Arcos Industries General Manager Harry Wehr (cen-
ter), with State Representative Kurt Masser (left) and State
Senator John Gordner (right), credited the company’s employ-
ees for its longevity and success. (Photo by Chris J. Grego,
The News-Item, Shamokin, Pa.)

In 2006, Arcos was purchased by
Dale Stager, owner and president of Se-
lect-Arc Inc., a manufacturer of weld-
ing consumables. The official partner-
ship paved the way to combine their
expertise in manufacturing, sales,
R&D, and superior customer support.
For 100 years, Arcos devoted itself
to welding, with all the strength of its
organization and the competence of
its people. Wehr credited his workforce
to the continuous and ongoing success
of the company — Fig. 2.
“The employees of Arcos continue
to be the driving force for the success
of the company — their fathers and
grandfathers worked at Arcos through
the last few decades in Mt. Carmel
[headquarters],” said Wehr. “We cur-
rently employ 90 salaried and union
personnel working together to manu-
facture a superior end product to the
global welding industry.”
Arcos has developed markets
throughout North America and beyond
to the Middle East, far east, Southeast
Asia, and Europe. Investment in ma-
chinery, personnel, and process im-
provements have aided the company in
today’s competitive environment. The
company has plans to expand and up-
grade its facility and increase its work-
force in the years to come.
When asked where the company is
headed in the future, Wehr replied, “The
future of Arcos will be what its people
make it. The individual know-how, de-
votion, interest, and accomplishments
are the products of its people.”

Hobart: Innovation and Employees Lead to Centennial Success

Innovation, integrity, trust, and re-
spect — those are just a few of the
words that David Knoll, vice president
and general manager, Hobart Brothers
LLC, Troy, Ohio, used to describe the
backbone of the 102-year-old compa-
ny’s successs.
Hobart Brothers Co. (now Hobart
Brothers LLC) was founded in 1919 by
C. C. Hobart and his three sons, W. H.,
E. A., and Charles, for the purpose of
manufacturing specialty electrical
equipment. In the 1920s, the company
was largely focused on the manufactur-
ing of welding power sources and bat-
tery chargers, which drove the compa-
ny’s early growth. In 1939, Hobart be-
gan manufacturing covered electrodes
and continued expanding its product
line, leading to the broad offering of
filler metals available from the compa-
ny today. Hobart is now a leading man- Fig. 3 — Factory employees in front of the Hobart Electric Manufacturing Co. in the
ufacturer of flux-cored and metal- 1890s.
cored wires, as well as solid wires, cov-

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 83

ered electrodes, and a variety of alloys,
including stainless and aluminum.
Knoll shared that innovation has
been at the core of Hobart’s success
from the beginning, and that, coupled
with talented employees who are dedi-
cated to understanding the needs of
its customers and empowered to cre-
ate solutions for them, has created a
successful recipe — Fig. 3.
Employees are important at Hobart.
Knoll said the company and corporate
values of integrity, success, respect, and
shared risk provide a framework for in-
dividual accomplishment within the
company vision and mission.
“Empowering employees to be suc-
cessful at their jobs, no matter what
their role, has been critical to our suc-
cess over the last century,” said Knoll.
“Our people make a difference — to
our customers, to each other, and to Fig. 4 — Aerial view of Hobart Brothers LLC today in Troy, Ohio.
our shareholders.”
To stay relevant in an ever-changing
industry, Hobart believes in under- technical sales and application sup- Works) welding portfolio of products,
standing customers’ needs in targeted port,” stated Knoll. including Miller Electric, Bernard™,
markets and helping those customers do As the company focuses on its fu- and Tregaskiss, Knoll believes the
their jobs better. The company also be- ture, Knoll said it will continue to build company will continue delivering high-
lieves high-performance products that on its history of filler metal innovation quality products and productivity to
are rooted in the needs of its target cus- and the adaptability to meet the appli- its customers.
tomers help keep the company relevant. cation demands of the industry, even “The history of Hobart has always
“We deliver those products at a very as it grows and evolves — Fig. 4. been aligned with AWS, and we join all
high level of quality and consistency, Now that the company has aligned our welding partners in celebrating
and at the same time, provide strong itself with the full ITW (Illinois Tool 100 years of its success,” he concluded.

ESAB: Shaping the Future of Welding and Cutting for 114 Years
Breakthrough welding and cutting
innovations that solve customer prob-
lems, repeatable results, and increased
productivity encompass the history
of ESAB®, which was founded on
September 12, 1904, in Gothenburg,
Sweden.
Oscar Kjellberg founded Elektriska
Svetsnings AtkieBolaget, Swedish for
“Electrical Welding Limited Compa-
ny,” in the port city of Gothenburg af-
ter training as a ship engineer. Kjell-
berg began his electrode research be-
cause, “I have been dissatisfied with
unsatisfactory patching and repair
methods used on ships, their steam
boilers, and machine components in
general.”
Kjellberg coated the electrode by
dipping bare iron wire in thick mix-
tures of carbonates and silicates. In
addition to solving contamination and
embrittlement issues, his innovation
laid the foundations for a totally new
epoch of electrical welding, as his in-
vention made it possible to exclude
the oxygen in the air from the work-
piece that was exposed to the heat of
welding.
The nomenclature of many ESAB
electrodes honor Oscar Kjellberg with
his initials, OK. Products such as OK
48.00, first introduced in the 1930s,
have been updated continuously.
Olivier Biebuyck, vice president
and general manager, welding prod-
ucts, ESAB, believes a history of
breakthroughs has led to ESAB’s suc-
cess. The company has established a
track record of innovative solutions,
whether through internal R&D ef-
forts, acquisitions, or collaborations,
which created entire process and
product categories that revolutionized
the industry.
ESAB’s early activities in Gothen-
burg focused on ship repair services.
Due to Britain’s maritime dominance,
the company established the Anglo-
Swedish Electric Welding Co. in Lon-
don in 1911. Two years later, a similar
subsidiary opened in Belgium, and the
company also pursued an extensive
contract with Mitsubishi in Japan.
During the 1930s, ESAB changed
its business focus from repair opera-
tions to the development, production,
and sales of electrodes, establishing
subsidiaries in Spain, England, Den-
mark, Norway, Italy, and the United
States. The company expanded into
cutting technology in 1938. It became
a partner in Kjellberg-Eberle, based in
Frankfurt, to produce automated gas
cutting systems.
In 1975, the company moved to
nearby Karben, and ESAB’s global cut-
ting automation operations remain
headquartered there.
In the 1950s, ESAB established op-
erations in Brazil and Canada. And
followed with the United States in

84 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019


Koike Aronson/Ransome: Welding and Cutting Solutions Ensure Long-Term Success
Koike Sanso Kogyo was founded in
Tokyo, Japan, in 1918 to provide weld-
ing equipment and gas apparatus —
Fig. 6. At that time, Japan was under-
going a great deal of modernization
and infrastructure development.
Now more than 100 years old, Koike
is a global company with factories
around the world that design and
manufacture leading-edge technology
in fiber laser, oxyfuel, plasma, water
jet cutting machines, and welding
positioners.
“Our central mission is helping fab-
ricators be more efficient and more
profitable, so as we innovate, we keep
that foremost in our minds,” said Pres-
ident and CEO Fred Roy.
Fig. 5 — ESAB, whose initials stand for
Electrical Welding Limited Co. in Swedish,
established international operations early,
and today remains a global welding and
cutting company.
In 1937, Koike developed the IK-12
semiautomatic gas cutting machine
and have been evolving it for the past
82 years, offering a fully programma-
ble cutting and welding carriage.
Koike Aronson Ransome’s history
goes back to 1946 when Chuck Aronson
founded the Aronson Machine Co., a
welding positioner manufacturer at
which he invented and patented posi-
tioners that are still used today — Fig.
7. That same year, Koike established its
first oxygen manufacturing factory.
In 1969, Airco, a cutting machine
operation, acquired Aronson Machine
Co., then sold it ten years later to
BOC. Koike then acquired the com-
bined BOC’s Aronson Division in 1985
1972, Italy in 1977, United Arab Emi-
rates in 1982, the Czech Republic in
1993, Poland and China in 1994, In-
donesia in 1997, and Russia in 1998.
The companies’ global reach en-
ables ESAB to locally serve global com-
panies, as well as tailor its products to
meet local preferences — Fig. 5.
In 2012, The ESAB group was ac-
quired by its current owners, the Col-
fax Corp. Colfax implemented its busi-
ness-management system, which em-
phasizes voice of the customer (VOC)
research to target breakthrough
growth initiatives, new products, and
applications.
“Using VOC ensures that ESAB will
continue its rich history of innova-
tion, as demonstrated by some of the
recent product introductions,” stated
Biebuyck.
Looking toward the future, ESAB
will continue to pursue innovation,
expanded industry knowledge, and
unwavering commitment to quality
products and excellence in customer
service.
“The companies, brands, products,
and processes associated with ESAB
create a richness of deeply-rooted
technical experience and knowledge
unmatched globally,” added Biebuyck.
to add a welding positioner line to its
cutting machine line.
In 2001, Koike Aronson purchased
a large competitor based in Houston,
Tex., called the Ransome Co., serving
the needs of fabricators with every-
thing from cutting torches and
portable welding carriages to large cut-
ting tables and welding positioners.
The acquisition allowed Koike Aron-
son to offer a variety of positioning
equipment. Today, the company is
known as Koike Aronson/Ransome
Inc. — Fig. 8.
The company has built its name on
providing world-class welding and cut-
ting solutions. With a wide variety of
preengineered solutions, the cutting
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 85
 Fig. 7 — A welder uses an Aronson turning roll to
Fig. 6 — The original Koike Sanso plant in Tokyo, Japan. fabricate a large fluid handling system.

Fig. 8 — Koike Aronson/Ransome workers test head and tailstock positioners used to manufacture railcars.

and welding manufacturer readily
modifies or designs custom solutions
to solve customers’ challenges.
Using a lean manufacturing princi-
ple and maintaining ISO 9001 certifi-
cation since 2004, the company has in-
vested substantially in its manufactur-
ing facility, reducing cost by increasing
efficiencies and designing to take ad-
vantage of these advanced manufac-
turing capabilities.
“The technology we are developing
has to be directly applicable to our cus-
tomers’ goals, whether you are talking
about a steel service center, a fabrica-
tion company, or an industry such as
oil and gas. Even after 100 years, we
continue to listen and respond to their
requirements and anticipate their
needs for the future,” said Roy.
Additionally, there is a lot of insti-
tutional knowledge at the company.
Members from both the Koike and
Aronson families are still in the com-
pany today leveraging a century of fab-
rication expertise.
The founding principles of Koike
Aronson/Ransome Inc. were solving
customers’ problems, and this remains
the core of its culture today.
“Our customers are incredibly loyal,
but we’re also introducing a whole new
generation of welders and fabricators
to Koike Aronson through support of
STEM projects in public schools, col-
leges, and trade schools. It’s not only a
great way to give back to the industry
that we love, but ensure long-term
success of our company,” said Roy.

86 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019

Castolin Eutectic: Developments in Brazing and Soldering Processes Lead to
Global Growth
The foundation of Castolin began
in 1906 in Lausanne, Switzerland, by
Jean-Pierre Wasserman — Fig. 9. His
stroke of genius was to discover a way
of brazing cast iron at low temperature
— a brazing process for the protection
and repair of metals that would have
been impossible to join otherwise.
From this, Castolin continually devel-
oped fluxes, brazing alloys, and then
welding electrodes. In the following
years, Castolin Eutectic was formed
and began to develop new low-temper-
ature and eutectic brazing alloys.
“The company has a leading repu-
tation for technology, service, and
quality, which were the founding Swiss
values that have been spread across
the globe,” said Global Castolin Eutec-
tic CTO Gary Heath. Fig. 9 — The foundation of Castolin in Lausanne, Switzerland.
René Wasserman, the founder’s
son, joined the company in the 1930s.
Through his foresight and the use of
“modern” sales techniques (demon-
strations, application marketing),
Castolin started on its road to glory.
Seeing immense possibilities in the
United States, Eutectic Welding Alloys
Corp. was created in 1940 in New
York. Eutectic Welding Alloys Compa-
ny Ltd. was formed in London in 1948
and Eutectic Italiana S.r.l. (Salteco
S.p.A.) in Milan in 1949.
In 1960, the first Castolin workshops
started to provide services with Castolin
products. In 1967, the Castolin Eutectic
Institute was created to educate techni-
cians and make technical know-how
easily available to the international
technical community — Fig. 10.
The company was not only revolu- Fig. 10 — Castolin Eutectic Institute was created to educate technicians and the in-
tionary in terms of its developments ternational technical community.
in patents and in manufacturing
processes, but also in the technical weld overlay wearplate arrived from repair and maintenance area on a global
training of salesmen and customers on German development, and today the basis, after 112 years of dramatic tech-
brazing and soldering methods. Cas- Group has production facilities in nology and social changes,” said Heath.
tolin Eutectic was one of the first to more than ten countries. In 1996, the Additionally, global players have to
develop noncorrosive aluminium flux- Global Industry program started and battle local, low-cost competitors as
es in the 1960s, aluminium pastes in reinforced the global and technology well as product commoditization and
the 1970s, and nickel pastes in the late platform for growth. low-cost manufacturing. The company
1970s. These products were 15 to 20 Castolin Eutectic gradually moved has met those challenges by moving to
years before their time. from product manufacturing to being services with specialized technology
With each new technology develop- a service provider and maintenance (laser, spraying, ceramic coatings),
ment, new solutions were sought to expert customers can rely on in case of local production, and leveraging its
use in the repair and maintenance emergency repairs in cement plants, direct contact with customers.
field — Fig. 11. Thermal spray was an steel plants, and power generation “The company culture is the glue
example, and in the 1980s the world’s critical components. that binds the employees and cus-
first gas atomized powder production “The biggest accomplishment is still tomers and is the default thinking
facility was developed. In 1991, the to be recognized as a major player in the when challenges are presented...the

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 87

constant technical challenges related
to the wide range of products and in-
dustries attracts problem-solvers and
communicators,” said Heath.
Having patented more than 200
products in its history and still devel-
oping new products and processes to-
day, the company is still in the hands
of family, but those of the gas compa-
ny Messer, based in Germany.
“The family company structure, in
addition, makes for very human con-
nections where people can spend their
whole careers without getting bored,”
Heath added.

Conclusion
Surviving adversities and growing a
business is no easy feat, but Arcos,
Castolin, ESAB, Hobart, and Koike
have proven that with innovation,
adaptability, and looking toward the
future, the first 100 years of business
is only the beginning. WJ

ROLINE PASCAL (rpascal@aws.org) is

assistant editor and CINDY WEIHL
(cweihl@aws.org) is senior editor of the
Welding Journal. Fig. 11 — Castolin Eutectic worker uses boiler coating solutions in the field.

88 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019

 THE AMERICAN WELDER

Considerations for Successfully

Welding Low-Alloy Steel
Since low-alloy steels harden easier than BY ROBERT FOX

mild steels, hydrogen and cooling rate

control are critical

O
perations utilize low-alloy steels
because, compared to carbon
steel, they can offer greater
strength, toughness, and/or perform-
ance in demanding service conditions.
The mechanical properties of low-alloy
steel, however, can vary greatly de-
pending on the alloying elements from
which it is made.
As these materials become more
widely used in industry — from struc-
tural steel and pressure vessel fabrica-
tion to heavy equipment manufactur-
ing — the filler metals and welding
procedures needed to join them be-
come more critical.
Consider the following to help take
the guesswork out of the welding As low-alloy steels become more widely used in industry — from structural steel
process. and pressure vessel fabrication to heavy equipment manufacturing — the filler met-
als and welding procedures needed to join them become more critical.
What Is Low-Alloy Steel?
others are less forgiving. Keep in mind ty requirements, often requiring the
Low-alloy steel can contain many that typically, as alloy content increas- specification of minimum mechanical
different alloying elements. Among es, the material becomes more likely to properties at the time of purchase.
these, nickel, molybdenum, and form brittle microstructures after Consider the base metal’s chemical
chromium typically make up greater welding, making it more difficult to composition. The elements used to im-
than 0.5% but less than 5% of the to- weld successfully. prove properties for base materials are
tal alloying elements. Because each alloying element im- also used for filler metals. When look-
Each element provides specific char- pacts the weld metal properties and per- ing for a filler metal that approximates
acteristics to the material. For example, formance, it’s important to properly the base material performance, be
nickel can improve toughness at low match the filler metal to the base metal. aware that the chemical compositions
temperatures, in addition to providing of few low-alloy filler metal classifica-
modest tensile strength improvement. Selecting a Filler Metal tions align perfectly with base metal
Molybdenum and chromium improve compositions. This is due to the signif-
tensile strength and help to maintain Identifying the specification and icant differences between steel pro-
strength at elevated temperatures. Cop- grade of the base metal is critical when duction and the production of weld
per can be used in combination with choosing the right filler metal for a low- metal. Since there is rarely an exact
other elements to improve atmospheric alloy steel application; the easiest way to match, matching the nominal chemical
corrosion resistance, as is the case with determine minimum requirements is to composition requirements of the ap-
weathering steels. consult the base material specification. plication — for example, a required
Most low-alloy steels have tensile Many ASTM specifications provide both degree of corrosion resistance or per-
strengths exceeding 70 ksi, and some chemical and mechanical property re- formance at elevated temperatures —
even exceed 120 ksi. Some low-alloy quirements, while many AISI/SAE spec- helps ensure the filler metal and base
steels have excellent weldability, while ifications provide only chemical proper- material have similar properties.

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 89


When choosing a low-alloy filler metal based on the mechanical properties of the
base material, it’s most common to match tensile or yield strength, depending on
the application requirements.
Filler metals can also be matched
using the base metal’s mechanical
properties. Be aware that some alloys
are available in annealed, normalized,
or quenched and tempered conditions,
which can result in significant differ-
ences in mechanical properties for the
same material depending on how it
was processed. Examples are 4130
and 4140 chrome-moly (chromium-
molybdenum) steels.
When choosing a filler metal using
the mechanical properties of the base
material, it’s most common to match
tensile and/or yield strength, depend-
ing on the application requirements.
Those fabricating to AWS D1.1, Struc-
tural Welding Code — Steel, or AWS
D1.5, Bridge Welding Code, can refer-
ence D1.1 Tables 3.1 and 4.9, and AWS
D1.5 Table 4.1 for filler metal classifi-
cations that are considered matching
for code-recognized materials.
It’s also common with some high-
strength low-alloy steel weldments to
undermatch, which means the tensile
or yield strength of the filler metal is
lower than that of the base metal. As
weld metal tensile strength increases,
ductility tends to decrease. If a compo-
nent is designed so that stresses are
not concentrated in the welds, under-
matching can be a way to maximize
weld ductility and fatigue life.
Control the Hydrogen
When choosing a filler metal, look
for one with a low diffusible hydrogen
90 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
content. Because low-alloy welds are
more likely to develop brittle mi-
crostructures, they are more suscepti-
ble to hydrogen cracking.
A filler metal with lower diffusible
hydrogen reduces one of several
sources of hydrogen (others include
the base metal and welding environ-
ment), thus reducing the risk of hydro-
gen cracking. Look for a filler metal
with an H4 or H8 designator; the low-
er the number in the designator, the
lower the diffusible hydrogen.
Proper storage of low-alloy filler
metals can also help minimize hydro-
gen pickup and subsequent contribu-
tion to the weld metal. Avoid dramatic
temperature swings for filler metal
storage, minimize the total atmospher-
ic exposure time (time out of packag-
ing), and always follow the manufac-
turer’s storage recommendations.
Utilizing a preheat temperature
above 212°F and removing base metal
rust, scale, or coatings such as oil,
grease, or scale are other methods to
minimize weld metal hydrogen. Used
in combination with properly stored
low-hydrogen filler metals, these
methods can help reduce hydrogen-
cracking susceptibility.
Watch the Cooling Rate
The cooling rate of the weld and the
heat-affected zone (HAZ) is important
because it influences the formation of
microstructures in these areas and their
subsequent mechanical properties.
The HAZ is the area near the weld
that is not melted by the arc but still
experiences changes to its microstruc-
ture due to the heat of the process. Be-
cause the high hardenability of low-
alloy steels makes them more prone to
the formation of brittle microstruc-
tures in the HAZ, the HAZ properties
are an important consideration in suc-
cessfully welding low-alloy steels.
An excessively fast cooling rate pro-
motes the formation of brittle mi-
crostructures, while an excessively
slow cooling rate and excessively high
heat input can result in very coarse
microstructures that may not provide
good finished properties. The balanc-
ing act of choosing the proper cooling
rate is key.
Consider these factors that influ-
ence the cooling rate:
• Preheat applications and tem-
perature: Establishing and maintain-
ing a minimum preheat temperature
helps slow the cooling rate to prevent
or minimize the formation of brittle
microstructures. To ensure effective
preheating, use a sufficient tempera-
ture for the material. A material with
higher alloy content, and therefore
higher hardenability, requires higher
preheat temperatures.
It’s also important to establish the
proper preheat temperature through-
out the thickness of the material,
rather than simply reaching tempera-
ture on the surface. This can be done
using induction heating or by heating
the material and holding it at tempera-
ture one-half hour for every inch of
material thickness (e.g., a 4-in. [102-
mm] plate would benefit from being
held at the preheat temperature for 2
h). Heating a sufficient distance from
the weld joint is also key. A good rule
of thumb is 3 in. in all directions,
though larger weldments may benefit
from a greater distance.
• Interpass temperature: Setting
a maximum interpass temperature is
also important to avoid too-slow cool-
ing and to address low-alloy steels that
are quenched and tempered. Welding
“resets” the HAZ microstructure that
is carefully created through quenching
and tempering. Therefore, it’s ideal to
minimize the HAZ by regulating inter-
pass temperatures to a limit suggested
by the steel manufacturer. In addition,
some steels, such as ASTM A514, are
susceptible to reheat cracking, a risk
that can be increased by excessive in-
terpass temperatures.
• Heat input: This is the energy ap-
plied to the weldment per unit of
length during welding. In North Amer-
ica, heat input is often expressed in
kilojoules per inch but may also be ex-
pressed as joules per millimeter. In-
creased heat input slows the cooling
rate and produces a coarser grain
structure, which has lower tensile
strength and toughness. Reduced heat
input accelerates the cooling rate and
produces a finer grain structure, which
has higher tensile strength and tough-
ness to a certain extent. Excessively
low heat inputs can negatively affect
ductility and toughness.
Pass Sequence Tips
The pass sequence is another factor
that can impact results when welding
low-alloy steels. Each weld pass has a
HAZ. Wide beads with minimal thick-
ness and depth of penetration help
promote additional grain refinement
and the formation of finer microstruc-
tures throughout the entire weld cross
section — a good thing — in previous-
ly deposited passes. It’s recommended
to use a greater number of thinner,
wider passes rather than larger, thick-
er passes.
Temper bead welding can also be
used for extremely high-strength alloys.
This technique involves laying down
weld beads on top of the completed
weld to refine the HAZ and top-layer
weld microstructure and to provide
good toughness, then grinding those
beads off, leaving the refined weld metal
of the previous layer underneath.
Finish with Postweld
Heat Treatment
Low-alloy steels are more likely to
require postweld heat treatment
(PWHT) due to the greater hardness of
the materials, which contributes to
more weld stresses.
These stresses can be relieved with
postweld heat treatment, but filler
metals may respond to the treatment
differently than base materials do. It’s
important to select a filler metal that
maintains sufficient tensile strength
and toughness following PWHT.
Consult the filler metal manufac-
turer to determine a filler metal’s post-
weld heat treatment capabilities, par-
ticularly if the treatment is performed
for an extended time.
In some situations, maintaining the
preheat or minimum interpass tem-
peratures after welding — for approxi-
mately 1 h/in. of base material thick-
ness — is advisable. Informally re-
ferred to as “hydrogen bake-off,” this
helps accelerate hydrogen diffusion
from the weld metal before service.
Conclusion
Low-alloy steels harden easier than
mild steels, which makes hydrogen
and cooling rate control critical when
welding these materials. Choosing a
filler metal that matches the base ma-
terial’s properties and using proper
preheat and interpass temperatures
and heat input during welding all con-
tribute to success. WJ
ROBERT FOX (robert.fox@
hobartbrothers.com) is an applications
engineer, Hobart Brothers Co., Troy, Ohio.
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 91
THE AMERICAN WELDER
College of the Canyons Implements Robotics
into Welding Technology Program
The institution takes on robotic programming
training to meet industry demands and open
the job market for welding students
In the 1800s, Santa Clarita Valley
was home to cowboys, Native Ameri-
cans, and sodbusters. In fact, its west-
ern history of outlaws, gold rushes, as
well as oil booms and busts is one of
the valley’s biggest claims to fame.
However, a transformation from dusty
fields for sodbusters to a developing
suburbia emerged, and in 1967, the
residents wanted a college to call their
own. That year they voted overwhelm-
ingly to make it happen. Thus was
born the Santa Clarita Community
College District and its campus, Col-
lege of the Canyons (COC), which
would go on to become one of the
fastest-growing community colleges in
California.
College of the Canyons officially
opened, in a Newhall Avenue bunga-
low, on September 22, 1969, but it
would soon find a new home. On Oc-
tober 5, 1970, the college’s first on-
campus classes began. At the start of
the second academic year, more than
1200 people were attending classes. It
was a strong indicator of the growth
that was to come.
A Welding Program is Born
College of the Canyons has built a
reputation for student success since
first opening its doors in 1969. In fact,
the college ranks among the best in
California for student completion
rates. It had become abundantly clear
that COC had a vital purpose. The
vocational-technical building, which
would house career technical educa-
tion (CTE) programs such as welding,
opened to some 500 students in the
fall of 1975.
A collective decision by the district
92 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
Fig. 1 — Department Chair Tim Baber
heads the welding technology pro-
gram, a cornerstone of COC’s career
technical education program.
to open a welding program to afford
students an in-demand occupation
learning opportunity was developed,
and in the late 1970s, the welding
technology program was born.
The welding program, which was
headed by sole faculty member Jack
Compton, was housed within an exist-
ing Automotive Technology program
that was eventually cancelled. This
cancellation opened more lab space,
which Compton used to expand the
program.
Welding has been a cornerstone of
the school’s CTE program for more
than 30 years — a symbol of the col-
lege’s commitment to fostering region-
al economic development on numer-
ous levels. The welding technology
program offers courses that range
from introductory to technologically
LEARNING TRACK
BY ROLINE PASCAL
advanced welding processes used in
today’s industry.
Led by Department Chair Tim
Baber, the college’s welding program
strives to provide a number of indus-
tries — construction, aerospace, fabri-
cation, piping, petrochemical, motor-
sports, repair and maintenance, ship-
building, and heavy equipment —
with skilled welders trained in the lat-
est welding techniques, on the newest
equipment — Fig. 1.
Welding technology students can
earn an associate of science degree and
a certificate of achievement, both with
four emphasis options to choose from,
as well as two additional certificates of
specialization. The certificate of
achievement in welding technology
program can be completed in 18
months. This 18-month program is an
effective way to enter into today’s au-
tomation industry. It requires the
completion of 30 units, with students
choosing from various emphases, in-
cluding combination welding, indus-
trial welding, metal fabrication, or
pipefitting and robotics. Students who
want to earn an associate of science
degree take an additional 30 units in
general education courses. After com-
pleting 50% of the course and having
good standing, they are eligible to seek
assistance in securing an internship
through the Cooperative Work Experi-
ence Education program offered at the
college.
“The college has a solid relationship
with local employers. The Santa Clari-
ta area is comprised of all sorts of
manufacturing from medical device to
aerospace...we have established weld-
ing internships with several compa-
nies,” said Baber. “I’ve seen the num-
 ber of inquires to my office from local
companies looking for welders increas-
ing almost on a weekly basis. When a
company approaches me for welders, I
immediately involve our Career Servic-
es department.”
Students also have the opportunity
to complete the program in less than
one year. This is the fast track of earn-
ing a certificate of specialization for
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or
robotic welding automation. They can
learn to weld structural steel or gain
the technical and applied skills re-
quired to perform advanced program-
ming and operational tasks for robotic
welding. Both specializations require
16.5 units to graduate.
College of the Canyons offers a mul-
titude of programs ranging from con-
ventional welding processes to robotic
Fig. 2 — Welding students micro-laser weld aluminum joints. and laser technology, including SMAW,
flux cored arc welding (FCAW), gas
metal arc welding (GMAW), gas tung-
A sten arc welding (GTAW), laser beam
welding (LBW), and the recently added
robotic gas metal arc welding (robotic
GMAW) — Fig. 2.

Introducing Robotic Welding

In the last ten years, the robotics
industry has grown faster than expect-
ed. Driven by industry demands, weld-
ing robots have been the subject of a
lot of attention. With the current
welder shortage issues in the United
States, manufacturers are looking at
implementing robotic welding to com-
bat the job shortages within the indus-
try while creating new jobs centered
around programming and robot main-
tenence. This has led to the necessity
of robot programming training, and
B COC’s welding program is one of the
few programs that has taken on the
responsibility.
“The idea to implement a robotics
program at COC generated from the
continual feedback we received from
our advisory board members starting
in 2008. In turn, I applied for a Cali-
fornia State Chancellor’s Office Indus-
try Driven Regional Collaborative
grant in 2009 to create such a pro-
gram,” explained Baber.
The college was not awarded the
grant that year, so Baber resubmitted
the same proposal the following
year, and the program was awarded
$350,000 to build a robotics program.
With additional funding, two Lincoln
Fig. 3 — A and B — Class participants perform programming tasks during a basic Electric System 5 robotic cells and four
robotic welding class. Lincoln Electric Robotic Welding Edu-

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 93

 Fig. 4 — COC’s 10,000-sq-ft facility includes a metrology and metal fabrication lab. Pictured is the photo equipment housed with
the metal fabrication lab.
cation Cells were added. These robotic
welding training systems help stu-
dents learn how to perform automated
GMAW as well as allow instructors to
teach programming in the classroom
and then move through a standard
doorway to the lab for welding.
“What makes us stand out from
other welding programs is the curricu-
lum we offer using the latest technolo-
gy equipment. We are fortunate to
have an administration that promotes
faculty to be innovative and entrepre-
neurial. I also believe we have been
successful with the support from our
industry partner Lincoln Electric,” said
Baber.
The additional leveraged funding
allowed faculty to attend training at
both Lincoln Electric and FANUC ro-
botics, which in turn allowed Baber
and COC to create the robotic welding
program that includes three levels of
courses that lead to a certificate of
achievement award.
“The impact of adding robotics to
our program is still evolving. I say this
because of the audience or level of stu-
dents we are serving. Our first two co-
horts of students were made up of stu-
dents currently in the program who
were just curious or perhaps from other
programs like engineering,” said Baber.
Robotic welding training is com-
monly used for high-production appli-
94 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
cations and requires in-depth knowl-
edge surpassing conventional welding.
In robotic GMAW, the teach pendant
is used for programming and the con-
troller facilitates the entire robot ap-
plication — Fig. 3. Enrollments in the
robotics program tend to fluctuate
each semester. Baber acknowledges
that attracting and retaining new stu-
dents can be challenging.
“A student should have some
knowledge of welding prior to taking
our robotics courses and assigning a
prerequisite GMAW course would be a
likely tool to use. However, this limits
the overall course enrollment to a
great extent,” said Baber. “In order to
address this situation, the robotics
curriculum includes training for
hands-on GMAW in addition to train-
ing on our Lincoln Electric VRTEX®
360 virtual welders.”
He is also looking to address the
length of time to complete the program,
including course offerings under five
weeks in lieu of a full 17-week format.
The Facility
College of the Canyons became an
American Welding Society (AWS) ap-
proved Testing Center (ATC) for the
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
certification in 2018, making the col-
lege one of seven programs in the na-
tion, and the only one in California, to
have this status.
To become an ATC, a facility must
prove that it has the necessary facilities,
equipment, and support personnel. A
Certified Robotic Arc Welding Techni-
cian (CRAW-T) is required to administer
the CRAW test and conduct the neces-
sary destructive testing of the hands-on
test sample. According to Baber, the col-
lege is working to begin offering CRAW
seminar/exams this year.
The facility takes up about 10,000
sq ft of space. There are 34 multi-
process welding booths, 11 GTAW
booths, six robotic welding cells, 15
Nd:YAG laser welding machines, a
metrology lab, and a fully appointed
metal fabrication lab — Fig. 4.
The facility also serves as a license
agency for the Department of Building
Safety for welder certification testing.
“Students appreciate being able to
train and take their certification test
at the same facility. In addition, I feel
that our robust SENSE-aligned cur-
riculum and advanced technology
equipment is second to none in com-
parison to other programs in our im-
mediate area.” Several instructors have
extensive industry experience and
hold current CWI/CWE status.
Baber himself is an AWS Certified
Welding Inspector (CWI), Certified
Welding Educator (CWE), and CRAW-T.
What’s to Come?
Baber gave a glimpse of the next
steps for the college’s welding robotics
program, such as developing a new
course for online programming and a
marketing plan.
“I’m currently in the process of de-
veloping a course to add to the robot-
ics program for offline programming
(WeldPro™). This will allow students
to create, modify, and test run pro-
grams they develop outside of class,
which will improve their proficiency in
robotic programming,” he said.
Additionally, the program is planning
on increasing itssocial media marketing
to cast for a wider web of students. WJ

For more information about the welding technology program, contact Department Chair Tim Baber,
Tim.Baber@Canyons.edu, or (661) 362-3062.

Welding Program Is Attracting the Next Generation

of Skilled Talent
The shortage of a skilled manufac-
turing workforce is not news to those
in industry. One reason for the short-
age is that public misperceptions of
advanced manufacturing has led
young people entering the workforce
to choose other career paths. College
of the Canyons’ welding technology
program and Tim Baber are working to
change the image of manufacturing
and prepare youth for careers in ad-
vanced manufacturing.
The program offers Nuts, Bolts, &
Thingamajigs® (NBT) summer manu-
facturing camps to students age 12 to
16, where campers have the opportu-
nity to see manufacturing up close.
They work in a real-life welding and
metal fabrication laboratory using
many of today’s common welding
processes, including virtual reality
welding. They also cut, drill, and shape A Boy Scout completes his Welding Merit Badge using flux cored arc welding.
metal into various projects.
“Summer Nuts, Bolts, & Thingama-
jigs® manufacturing camps are big in their experiences. Our high schools posed to not only the hands-on aspect
our program. We have been offering now expect us to run NBT camps,” of welding, but more importantly, the
NBT summer camps for over five years he said. career opportunities now available.
now,” said Baber. The program also has a fully ap- The trailer helps us create a potential
The NBT camps serve many differ- pointed Welding Roadshow trailer that feeder of future students.”
ent purposes, but most importantly, is taken to on-campus and outside lo- Additionally, faculty members from
they provide high school students with cal career day events. The trailer con- the college’s welding technology de-
a one-week opportunity to learn about tains multiprocess welding machines, partment regularly host “Welding
manufacturing. Baber has served on a plasma arc cutting machine, and a Merit Badge” events designed to intro-
the Fabricators & Manufacturers Asso- Lincoln Electric Robotic Welding Edu- duce The Boys Scouts of America
ciation Certified Education Center cation Cell and virtual reality welding (BSA) to the world of welding while
council for several years. machine. helping Scouts earn their merit badges
“Running the NBT camps has “This trailer allows us to bring (see photo). In 2016, COC was named
served our program well over the years welding to junior high and high school the Community Organization of the
as we have former NBT students en- campuses and expose students to Year by the BSA Western Los Angeles
rolling in our programs as a result of welding,” said Baber. “Students are ex- County Council.

ROLINE PASCAL (rpascal@aws.org) is assistant editor of the Welding Journal.

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 95

THE AMERICAN WELDER
Fundamentals of Flux Cored Arc Welding
Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) is a welding process that
uses an arc between a continuous filler metal electrode and
the weld pool. The process is used with shielding from a flux
contained within the tubular electrode, with or without ad-
ditional shielding from an externally supplied gas, and with-
out the application of pressure.
The operating characteristics and weld properties that
distinguish FCAW from other arc welding processes are at-
tributable to the continuously fed flux cored electrode. The
tubular electrode is a filler metal composite consisting of a
metal sheath and a core of various powdered materials man-
ufactured in the form of wire. During welding, an extensive
protective slag cover is produced on the face of the weld bead.
Flux cored arc welding is an efficient welding process readi-
ly adaptable to semiautomatic or automatic welding opera-
tions and capable of producing high-quality weld metal at a
high deposition rate. Many industries rely on FCAW to pro-
duce high-integrity welds. Users of the process include manu-
facturers or builders of pressure vessels, submarines, aircraft
carriers, earth-moving equipment, and other structures.
Process Variations
Flux cored arc welding offers two major variations, gas-
shielded (FCAW-G) and self-shielded (FCAW-S), that add
great flexibility to the process. These variations differ in the
method of shielding the arc and weld pool from atmospheric
contamination (oxygen and nitrogen).
In the FCAW-G method, the shielding gas (CO2 or a mix-
ture of argon and CO2) protects the molten metal from the
oxygen and nitrogen present in the air by forming an envelope
of gas around the arc and over the weld pool. Little need exists
for denitrification of the weld metal because the air is mostly
excluded, along with the nitrogen it contains. However, some
oxygen may be generated from the dissociation of CO2, which
forms carbon monoxide and oxygen. The compositions of the
electrodes are formulated to provide deoxidizers that combine
with small amounts of oxygen in the gas shield.
Self-shielded flux cored arc welding is often the process
of choice for field welding because it can tolerate stronger
air currents than the gas-shielded variation. The main rea-
son for this distinction is that some shielding is provided by
the high-temperature decomposition of some of the elec-
trode core ingredients. The vaporization of these ingredi-
ents displaces the air from the area immediately surround-
ing the arc. In addition, the wire contains a large proportion
of scavengers (deoxidizers and denitrifiers) that combine
with undesirable elements that might contaminate the weld
pool. A slag cover protects the metal from the air surround-
ing the weld.
Applications
Both gas-shielded and self-shielded FCAW can be used in
most welding applications. However, the specific character-
Excerpted from the Welding Handbook, Ninth edition, Volume 2, Welding Processes, Part 1.
96 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019
FACT SHEET
Fig. 1 — Shown is an offshore drilling structure fabricated
with gas-shielded and self-shielded flux cored arc welding.
istics of each method make each suitable for different oper-
ating conditions. The process is used to weld carbon- and
low-alloy steels, stainless steels, cast irons, and nickel and
cobalt alloys. It is also used for the arc spot welding of lap
joints in sheet and plate, as well as for cladding and
hardfacing.
Flux cored arc welding is widely used for fabrication
shops, maintenance applications, and field erection work.
An example of field erection work is shown in Fig. 1, in
which both gas-shielded and self-shielded FCAW are used in
the fabrication of an offshore oil drilling structure.
Additionally, FCAW can be used to produce weldments that
conform to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, the rules
of the American Bureau of Shipping, and AWS D1.1, Structural
Welding Code — Steel, where the process is given prequalified
status. Stainless steel, gas-shielded, and self-shielded flux
cored electrodes are used in general fabrication, surfacing,
joining dissimilar metals, and maintenance and repair.
Highlighting its versatility, FCAW is also employed in
the fabrication of suction filters used in the pulp and paper
industry.
Gas-shielded flux cored arc welding can be used for some
applications that are welded by the gas metal arc welding
process. Self-shielded flux cored arc welding can often be
used for applications that are normally welded with the
shielded metal arc welding process. The selection of gas-
shielded or self-shielded FCAW depends on the type of elec-
trodes and welding equipment available, the environment in
which welding is to be done, the mechanical property re-
quirements of the welded joints, and the joint design and
fitup. The advantages and disadvantages of FCAW should be
compared to those of other processes when it is evaluated
for a specific application. WJ
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102 WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019


SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, MARCH 2019
Sponsored by the American Welding Society
Cross-Weld Creep Performance in Grade 91 Steel:
Macro-Based Assessment
The need to adopt a set of descriptive regions for the heat-affected zone
specific to martensitic 9% Cr steels was emphasized
BY J. A. SIEFERT, J. D. PARKER, AND R. THOMSON
ABSTRACT
Meaningful characterization of the microstructure in
metallurgically complex steels is complicated by the
diversity of thermal cycles experienced by multipass
fusion welds. To overcome the problems of relevant docu-
mentation, it is necessary to balance information from
macro-, micro-, and nano-evaluation with appropriate analy-
sis. This paper presents details regarding recommended ap-
proaches that optimize this characterization.
Initially, specific procedures relevant to macroanalysis,
including hardness mapping and calculation of the peak
temperature through the width of the heat-affected zone
(HAZ), are described. Then, assessment of the distribution
of creep damage in feature-type, cross-weld creep tests
using laser microscopy is detailed. Using these methods,
the extent of damage through the HAZ was compared to
the local reduction in the HAZ hardness and to the
calculated peak temperatures in the HAZ. The implications
of these findings are discussed with respect to damage,
deformation, and sample geometry.
KEYWORDS
• Grade 91 • Cross Weld • Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ)
• Characterization • Creep • Damage
Introduction
The martensitic 9% Cr creep strength enhanced
ferritic (CSEF) steels Grades 91 and 92 (Table 1) are
carefully alloyed and processed to develop a distribution of
carbonitrides such as M23C6 and MX-type precipitates that
pin the martensitic matrix and dislocation substructure.
Upon application of a welding thermal cycle, this mi-
crostructure is significantly altered and results in local re-
https://doi.org/10.29391/2019.98.005
WELDING RESEARCH
gions [e.g., the heat-affected zone (HAZ)] that possess infe-
rior creep properties compared to that of the unaffected
base material. In-service performance of fabricated 9% Cr
CSEF steel structures will, in many cases, be limited by the
multiaxial stress-state response of the HAZ. It is thus im-
portant for well-planned and executed cross-weld creep test
programs to carefully evaluate and quantify the extent of
damage in the HAZ.
The complexity of the martensitic microstructure and the
evolution of damage necessitates careful evaluation using
well-controlled procedures and for multiple length scales as
the microstructural features span several orders of magni-
tude in length scale using the techniques listed in Table 2.
The general length scale for the important features in
martensitic CSEF steels are summarized below:
Prior austenite grain size ~ 10 to 100s m
Packet boundary size ~ 1 to 10s m
BN and inclusions ~ 1 m
AlN, Laves phase, and M23C6 ~ 100s nm
MX ~ 10s nm
Dislocations ~ <1 nm
Present damage may be manifested as voids (~1 m), mi-
crocracks (~ 100s m), or macrocracks (≥ 1 mm)
Significant advances have recently been made for well-
developed technologies regarding the ability to obtain large
datasets such as hardness testing (e.g., automated hardness
mapping); conventional microscopy (e.g., development of
confocal laser microscopy and light-emitting diode (LED)
microscopy); and the ease at which advanced electron mi-
croscopy can be applied to obtain large, statistically relevant
datasets. It is also true that ever more advanced techniques
are becoming more commonplace and are now available to
researchers to elucidate the specifics regarding the evolution
of damage in base material and cross-weld samples. This
was recently highlighted in a special feature in Materials Sci-
ence and Technology, Ref. 1). The complexity of martensitic
CSEF steels necessitates the application of these methods to
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 63-s
WELDING RESEARCH

Table 1 — Compositional Ranges (in wt-%) for Common 9% Cr Creep Strength Enhanced Ferritic Steel Grades 91 and 92 Used in the Power
Generation Industry to Fabricate Components for State-of-the-Art Steam Cycles

Material EN Classification C Cr Mo Ti V W N Nb B Others

(ASME B&PV Code)
Grade 91 X10CrMoVNb9-1 Min. 0.08 8.00 0.85 0.18 0.030 0.06 Mn, P, S, Si,
(P15E) Max. 0.12 9.50 1.05 0.01 0.25 0.070 0.10 Al, Ni, Zr

Grade 92 X10CrWMoVNb9-2 Min. 0.07 8.50 0.30 0.15 1.50 0.030 0.04 0.001 Mn, P, S,
(Code Case 2179) Max. 0.13 9.50 0.60 0.01 0.25 2.00 0.070 0.09 0.006 Si, Al, Ni

Table 2 — Description of Analysis Methods and the Particle(s) Analyzed for the Length Scale in Martensitic
Creep Strength Enhanced Ferritic Steels

Type of Analysis Features or Particles Analyzed Methods

Macro  Assessment of overtempered zone or  Composition analysis

hardened regions in the HAZ
 Hardness mapping
 Damage mapping  Light microscopy (including light-emitting
diode (LED) microscopy and laser confocal
microscopy)
 Simplified Rosenthal solutions for heat
flow analysis of welds

 Size and number per unit area of M C 23 6

 Size and number per unit area of

intermetallic phases or nitrides (AlN, BN,  Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging
Laves phase)  Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS)
Micro  Size, number per unit area and type of  Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD)
inclusions  Focused ion beam (FIB) removal of
 Distribution of grain boundary types material for subsurface evaluation
 Size of cavities
 Recovery/recrystallization at grain
boundaries

 Location and composition of M C 23 6

 Size, number per unit area, location, and  Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
Nano composition of MX carbonitrides  Scanning transmission electron
 Assessment of the dislocation density microscopy (STEM)

Table 3 — Descriptions for the Heat-Affected Zone Regions in Martensitic Creep Strength Enhanced Ferritic Steels

Region Characteristics

CTZ (completely transformed zone) The original matrix of the base metal is fully reaustenized
with a complete dissolution of the preexisting secondary precipitate
particles.

PTZ (partially transformed zone) The original matrix is only partially reaustenized along with a
partial dissolution of the preexisting precipitate particles.

OTZ (overtempered zone) The grain structure remains similar to the original matrix in the base
metal, but preexisting secondary precipitate particles coarsen
during welding.

generate relevant and comparable datasets that can be used
by the research community.
Although there exists an extensive amount of literature
on the general topic of 9% Cr CSEF steels, there is consider-
able difficulty in utilizing much of the generated data for di-
rect comparison. This is due to a general lack of clear proce-
dures or even guidelines for relevant methods to perform
pre- and post-test microstructural assessment. Further-
more, there continues to be an underappreciation of the
complexity of these materials, as manifested by continued
reliance on basic methods and descriptions to characterize
as-fabricated and post-test samples, including

64-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98


Fig. 1 — Documentation of the experimental procedures described in this manuscript as linked to the results needed to answer the
objectives (blue boxes) for the macro- and micro-based analyses.
Table 4 — Elements that Should Be Considered for Analysis in Creep Strength Enhanced Ferritic Steels
Elements required by conventional specifications for
Grade 91 steel product forms
[e.g., SA-182 F91, SA-213 T91, SA-335 P91]
Suggested minimum list of additional elements, even if
for informational purposes
Additional list of elements for analysis where specified
and/or required
• Reliance on light optical microscopy;
• Hardness line traces through the HAZ such as in weld-
ment assessment;
• A borrowed description of the failure location (e.g., Type
IV) from that of Schuller first described in the 1970s for
low-alloy steels (Ref. 2); and
• A description for the HAZ originally developed for low-
alloy steels in the 1970s by the Central Electricity Generat-
ing Board (CEGB) (Refs. 3, 4).
To communicate the needs to the larger community re-
garding relevant assessment of 9% Cr CSEF steels, and in
particular weldments in the as-fabricated and post-test eval-
uation, a number of recent manuscripts have sought to pro-
vide a more accurate description for the HAZ (Table 3) (Refs.
5, 6), relevant cross-weld creep test parameters and
geometries (Refs. 7, 8), macro-assessment of weldments in
the as-fabricated and post-test conditions (subject of this
manuscript), and micro-assessment of weldments in the
as-fabricated and post-test conditions (Refs. 9, 10). The de-
scriptions in Table 3 will be used throughout this manu-
script for the HAZ.
This paper provides a set of macro-based analyses and re-
sults for a well-pedigreed heat of Grade 91 steel. The princi-
pal objective is to utilize these techniques to link the pre-
and post-test conditions to establish the influence of the
welding thermal cycle on the macro-evolution of damage in
the HAZ — Fig. 1. To accomplish this objective, the follow-
ing approaches are discussed in this manuscript:
• Hardness mapping of the as-fabricated weldment;
WELDING RESEARCH
Al, C, Cr, Mn, Mo, N, Nb, Ni, P,
S, Si, Ti, V, Zr
As, B, Cu, O, Pb, Sb, Sn
Bi, Ca, Co, La, Ta, W
• Calculated peak temperature distribution in the
as-fabricated HAZ;
• Macro-failure location and representative damage using
LED microscopy; and
• Damage distribution through the HAZ using laser
microscopy.
The obtained data from the analysis methods will be
drawn together to provide key conclusions regarding the lo-
cation of damage in the HAZ and its association with hard-
ness and peak temperatures in the welding thermal cycle.
Experimental Procedures
Analysis of Base Metal Composition
It is important to obtain a complete, chemical composi-
tion for Grade 91 steel base material. As highlighted in Refs.
11–13, there is concern the influence of tramp elements
such as As, S, Sn, Sb, and Cu has been underappreciated and
these elements are playing a role in the reduction in creep
ductility in martensitic CSEF steels. In general, the analysis
of elements can be grouped into two sets: elements required
by common specifications for Grade 91 steel [14 total ele-
ments (Ref. 14)] and elements for informational purposes
(typically 10+ additional elements) (Table 4).
The composition of the base metal analyzed in this study
is provided in Table 5. The following approaches were uti-
lized to determine the composition of each of the elements.
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 65-s
WELDING RESEARCH

A B C

Fig. 2 — A — Macro sample of the as-fabricated weldment in the postweld heat treated condition [675°C (1250°F) for 2 h]; B — fill
sequence used to complete the weldment. Note that the darkened fill passes constitute a fill pass that was monitored for volt-
age, amperage, travel speed, and interpass; C — details for the monitored fill passes.

Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry

(ICP-OES) was utilized to determine the values for Al, B, Ca,
Co, Cr, Cu, La, Mn, Mo, Nb, Ni, P, Si, Ta, Ti, V, W, and Zr. In-
ductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was
used to determine the amounts of As, Bi, Pb, Sb, and Sn. Fi-
nally, combustion was necessary to determine the C and S
levels while inert gas fusion (IGF) was used to assess the
amount of O and N in the steel. It should be noted that to
ensure sufficient information is provided for each of the re-
quested elements, the resolution of the element should also
be specified (in some cases to the ppm level) in any specifi-
cation to the laboratory performing the analysis.

Fabrication of Weldments
The weldment of interest was fabricated with a machined
U-groove with a 15-deg bevel and using best practice guid-
ance for the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process as
detailed in Ref. 15. This included a minimum preheat tem-
perature of 150°C (300°F), a maximum interpass tempera-
ture of 315°C (600°F), stringer beads only, and removal of
slag after each weld layer through light grinding. The filler
material used to make the weldments was consistent with
American Welding Society (AWS) type E9015-B9 filler mate-
rial, and only a 3.2-mm- (0.125-in.-) diameter electrode was
utilized to limit the variability in the heat input. The com-
pleted weldment, including a macro sample, documented fill
sequence, and the recorded data for amperage, voltage, trav-
el speed, and interpass temperature, is provided in Fig. 2.
Fig. 3 — Location of the hardness map in the weldment of in-
terest; the hardness map contained a total of 10,000 indents
with the same spatial resolution in the X and Y orientations
of 0.25 mm, Vickers indenter, a 0.5-kgf load, and an area
scanned that measured 25  25 mm.
Following welding, the weldment was allowed to slowly
cool to room temperature. Postweld heat treatment (PWHT)
was performed at 675°C (1250°F) for 2 h to the recommen-
dations in Ref. 16. The use of a reduced PWHT is consistent
with revised, minimum temperature guidance for new con-
struction in the 2017 edition of the ASME Boiler and Pres-
sure Vessel Code, Section I, Table PW-39-5. Regarding weld
repair, the National Board Inspection Code Part 3 Repairs

Table 5 — Composition of the Base Metal (values given in wt-%)

Al As B C Cr Cu Mn Mo N
0.020 0.0042 0.0005 0.10 8.30 0.05 0.40 0.94 0.0424
Nb Ni P Pb S Sb Si Sn V
0.070 0.19 0.012 0.00003 0.002 0.00063 0.33 0.003 0.21
O Bi Ca Co La Ta W Ti Zr
0.0024 < 0.0001 < 0.0003 0.012 < 0.002 < 0.002 0.003 < 0.002 < 0.002

66-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98


A B
Fig. 4 — A — Boxplot analysis of the base metal hardness val-
ues as shown in Fig. 3. In this plot, the whisker lengths repre-
sent the minimum and maximum of the dataset, while the box
values are the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles. Note that the 10th
percentile is provided for reference, i.e., 190 HV 0.5; B — boxplot
analysis of the location from the weld interface of all hardness
values ≤ 190 HV 0.5. In this plot, the whisker lengths represent
the 5th and 95th percentiles of the dataset, while the box values
are the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles. Note that the so-called
“soft zone” (i.e., overtempered zone) is shown as being located
from ~ 5th to 75th percentiles, i.e., from 1.75 to 4.625 mm from the
weld interface.
Fig. 5 — Comparison of results for measured peak temperatures in a series of embedded thermocouples in a thick-section pipe
weldment in Ref. 28 (black solid circles) and to the calculated procedure proposed in this manuscript as referenced in Ref. 24
(blue data). Note: the fit between the proposed procedure and the actual measurements is excellent within the range of ~ 875°C
(1607°F) to the melting temperature (~ 1500°C, 2730°F).
WELDING RESEARCH
and Alterations has adopted this reduced minimum temper-
ature for repair of Grade 91 steel in Supplement 8.
Evaluation of As-Fabricated Condition Using
Hardness Mapping
Hardness mapping across a transverse, large macro sec-
tion from the as-fabricated weldment (i.e., after PWHT) was
performed in the as-polished condition. Prior to hardness
mapping, the preparation of the macro-sample included the
following procedure:
• Grinding. 120/320/600 grit sequential grinding using
a silicon-carbide abrasive with water.
• Polishing. A 3-m high-performance finish using an
abrasive pad imbedded with monocrystalline diamonds fol-
lowed by a 1-m high-performance diamond. Hardness
mapping was performed in the as-polished condition.
The equipment utilized for the hardness mapping charac-
terization was a LECO automatic hardness tester, Model
AMH-43. Hardness mapping was conducted so that the re-
quirements in both ASTM E384-11 (Ref. 17) and ISO 6507
(Ref. 18) were met. One of the key requirements in these
two standards is that for a given hardness load (e.g., for this
study 0.5 kgf), the indents should be 2.5d (where d = mean
diagonal distance of the measured Vickers indent in the ma-
terial being examined).
To validate the procedure using the stated 0.5-kgf load,
an indent-to-indent spacing of 250 m was chosen to pre-
vent the potential for interference in the obtained measure-
ments. This spacing was uniform in both the X and Y orien-
tations. Using the relationship in Equation 1 and assuming a
diagonal value of 100 m (i.e., 250-m spacing divided by
the indent-to-indent minimum spacing of 2.5), the lowest
theoretical hardness value that could be measured and still
meet the requirements in each of the standards was 93 HV
0.5. This value is impossible to achieve in the examined ma-
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 67-s
WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 6 — Orientation of dimensions for the extracted creep B

samples with respect to the weldments. Note that in the
evaluated weldment, no backing bar was required as the
groove geometry was of a U-groove configuration.

terial constituents in Grade 91 steel (base, HAZ, weld, or

mal-heat treated).
HV = 1.8544F/d2
where F = force of Vickers indenter in kgf (i.e., 0.5 kgf); d =
mean diagonal measurement of the pyramid Vickers inden-
ter in material of interest in mm; and HV = Vickers hardness
value of the material of interest and for the utilized load.
The 0.5-kgf load for the Vickers hardness mapping was
C
(1)
Fig. 7 — A, B — As-machined creep specimen and represen-
tative for all cross-weld creep tests. Note that the gauge
length is not shown in the image (125 mm). C — Post-test
cross-weld creep test.

Table 6 — Definitions and Values Used in the Calculation of the Distribution of Peak Temperatures through the Width of the Heat-Affected Zone
(i.e., as a function of distance from the weld interface)

Variable Definition Value Units

To Interpass temperature 205 °C

I Amperage 115 A
U Voltage 23.3 V
v Travel speed 2.34 mm/s

 Arc efficiency (Ref. 25) 0.75 N/A

a Thermal diffusivity (Ref. 26) 6.1 mm2/s
Tm Melting temperature 1500 °C
H Enthalpy increment (Ref. 24) 7.5 J/mm3

Table 7 — Location of Macro Failure and Test Results for Samples 7C-1 and 7C-2

Sample Test Conditions Macro Failure Location

Stress (MPa) Temp. (°C) Hours (m)

7C-1 80 625 3743 1440 [R]

7C-2 60 625 13201 1625 [T]

[R] = Ruptured
[T] = Terminated

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 WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 8 — Details for the extraction of a sample for macro-

evaluation following cross-weld creep testing.

selected to minimize the standard deviation in the data.

This effect has been previously investigated in Ref. 19 where
the standard deviation was seen to increase dramatically for
lower loads of 0.1 or 0.2 kgf. This deviation is possible due Fig. 9 — Evaluation of the macro-damage location in the
to a number of potential sources of error, namely due to the heat-affected zone and for samples taken to failure.
sharpness of the indenter or due to the quality of optics
used to measure each of the indents. the 5th to the 75th percentiles, as indicated in Fig. 4B.
To ensure sufficient resolution in the data was obtained, After the hardness mapping was completed, the sample
that is to achieve enough indents in the HAZ, a very large was etched in Vilella’s reagent containing 45-mL glycerol,
area was analyzed so that a portion of the base metal, HAZ, 15-mL nitric acid, and 30-mL hydrochloric acid.
and deposited filler metal were captured in the hardness map.
This approach resulted in a final hardness map size that was Evaluation of As-Fabricated Welding Thermal
25  25 mm, including a total of 10,000 indents — Fig. 3. Cycle
If a conservative assumption is made regarding the width
of the HAZ for the SMAW process of 2.0 mm, then it can be Solutions for thick-plate thermal heat flow have been in-
reasoned that at least 250 indents in the HAZ are obtained. vestigated and evolved since Rosenthal introduced solutions
Although this sounds insufficient on the basis of the total in the early 1940s (Refs. 22, 23). Available solutions exist
number of indents captured in the hardness map, a conven- for an approximate determination of the calculated peak
tional analysis of the HAZ region in Grade 91 steel normally temperature with respect to the weld interface using a range
involves a single line trace or triplicate line traces at the of potential solutions. The selected solution is provided as
root, midwall, and cap regions. In the case of a triplicate line an example problem in Ref. 24 and summarized here.
trace and using an identical procedure to that detailed here With regard to any simplified solution, it is imperative
for an indent-to-indent spacing (i.e., 250 m) and indent that reasonable assumptions and, more ideally, actual meas-
load (i.e., 0.5 kgf) would only result in a total of ~ 25 indents urements be utilized to reduce the uncertainty in the calcu-
in the HAZ. Thus, using a mapping procedure ensures at lation. The simplified solution requires a set of five basic cal-
least an order of magnitude better resolution through the culations provided in Equations 2–6. The terms used in the
HAZ of the weldment and allows for a meaningful statistical calculations are defined in Table 6.
analysis of the obtained data.
Color hardness maps were produced using the software
package Origin. The hardness map data were sorted using  4a2  H
= (2)
obtained data from the base metal hardness as reference. n3 I U  v  
One thousand data points in the unaffected base material
(shown in Fig. 3) were used for the reference data. Using
this data, a simple boxplot was created — Fig. 4A. n3 1
= used to estimate 1 ( 3)
The data in Fig. 4A were used to set the minimum thresh- p 
old value for an optimized color scheme based on the recom- n3
mendations in Refs. 20 and 21. The 10th percentile was used
as the minimum threshold for the color hardness map creat-
ed from the 10,000 indent dataset. Thus, data below the n3 1
=
(T  T )
 m o used to estimate  m (4)
10th percentile were potentially flagged as being in the
overtempered zone (OTZ) and given the color white.
p 
n3
(
Tpeak  To )
Subsequent analysis of the ≤ 190 HV 0.5 data was per-
formed in Fig. 4B. For all data ≤ 190 HV 0.5, the location of
each hardness value was referenced with respect to the weld 2
interface. The location of the weld interface was determined  m =  m   1 ( 5)

after etching the hardness map. In the boxplot provided in Fig.
4B, the data are plotted as the location of each hardness indent 2a   m
≤ 190 HV 0.5 as a function of distance from the weld interface. ym = (6)
v
The OTZ was considered to span the distance represented by

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 69-s

WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 10 — Location of the damage analysis performed using

the laser microscope and in cross-weld sample 7C-2 [625°C
(1157°F) and 60 MPa (8.7 ksi)].

As the melting temperature for Grade 91 steel is not

widely reported in the open literature, a simulation was per-
formed in ThermoCalc using the TCFe5 database to calcu-
late this temperature (Ref. 27). The reference composition
used to perform this assessment is as follows (in weight per-
cent): 0.10C-8.5Cr-1.0Mo-0.40Mn-0.045N-0.07Nb-0.15Ni-
0.35Si-0.20V-Balance Fe. As provided in Table 6, the utilized
melting temperature was 1500°C (2732°F).
To ensure that the selected, simplified calculation was
valid, the calculation in Equations 2–6 was compared to ac-
tual thermocouple measurements in a 9% Cr martensitic
CSEF steel thick pipe weldment documented in Ref. 28 —
Fig. 5. In this comparison, it is shown that the calculated
data using the simplified solution is in very good agree-
ment with the elevated temperature portion of the meas-
Fig. 11 — Routine used for data collection using the Keyence VK-
ured HAZ isotherms [i.e., for the measurements where the
105 confocal laser microscope and a 20 objective; location of
Tpeak >875°C (1607°F)]. It is noted that the utilized equa- the weld interface provided as a solid blue line for reference.
tions in their current form were unable to account for the
hypothesized latent heat of transformation that “shifts” the
cooling rate below 875°C (1067°F). Future assessment may Evaluation of As-Fabricated Condition Using
include modification of these equations to account for this Feature Cross-Weld Creep Testing
potentially important effect. Since failure in the HAZ oc-
curs in a region that is approximated by this value (and will Creep specimens were machined from the completed
be shown in the Results section), the most critical portion weldment. These specimens had a gauge cross section of
of the reported data in Ref. 28 is the portion >875°C nominally 50.0 mm (2.0 in.) through the thickness, “t,” of
(1607°F). Reasons for the discrepancy in the calculated and the weld and 12.7 mm (0.50 in.) through the width, “w,” of
documented peak temperatures below 875°C (1607°F) will the weld — Fig. 6. The gauge length, “L,” was sufficient to
be addressed in the Discussion section. include both weld interfaces and both HAZs and was nomi-
Sensitivity measurements for the simplified solution nally 125 mm (5.0 in.). The gauge length was sufficient to
were conducted to determine the impact of the inputs on provide metallographic analysis of the failure location as
the calculation. Although not detailed here, the following well as damage assessment in the unfailed HAZ. A machined
variables can affect calculations and are listed in order of specimen prior to testing is shown in Fig. 7A and B and fol-
highest to lowest impact on the calculated isotherms: arc lowing testing in Fig. 7C.
efficiency and/or heat input (high impact), melting temper- All testing was conducted using constant load machines
ature (medium impact), and thermal diffusivity (low im- under a set of standard test conditions for an applied tem-
pact). It is particularly important to have an accurate set of perature of 625°C (1157°F) and test stresses of 80 MPa
measurements for the welding parameters such as those (11.6 ksi) [sample 7C-1] and 60 MPa (8.7 ksi) [sample 7C-2].
given in Fig. 2 and for multiple passes to confirm consisten- These testing parameters have been shown to result in HAZ
cy in the weld procedure and provide sufficient confidence failure in typical Grade 91 steel samples with cross-weld
in thecalculation. creep lives of around 3000 to 10,000 h, respectively (Refs.
29, 30).

70-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98


A B
Fig. 12 — Comparison of damage maps for the entirety of the
dataset (A) and a filtered dataset to a 5-pixel threshold (B).
Three thermocouples were distributed along the gauge
length to monitor the temperature. The central “hot zone”
where the test temperature was recorded was within ± 2°C
over the gauge length. Samples were taken to either 100%
rupture (sample 7C-1) or terminated at ~ 95% life fraction
(sample 7C-2). For sample 7C-2, which did not completely
rupture, testing was terminated upon indication of tertiary
creep as the strain was continuously monitored during test-
ing. Upon termination of the test, a large, subsurface macro
crack was documented in one of the HAZs. Because failure
often occurs with little macro tertiary creep in cross-weld
samples in 9% Cr steels, it is sometimes not possible to in-
terrupt the test immediately before failure. However, when
possible, the test is always interrupted so as to preserve ad-
vanced stages of damage that might otherwise be difficult to
assess due to macro tearing and local plasticity in the imme-
diate sequence of events leading to final fracture.
Data recorded during each creep test included extension
from two sides of an extensometer that extended over the
total sample length, a calculated average extension, time to
rupture, and temperature. Initially, the average extension
has been used to calculate creep strain based on the full
original gauge length. However, it is apparent that when de-
formation occurs locally in the HAZ, this approach underes-
timates the actual local strain values.
Evaluation of Samples for Macro Damage
After creep failure or termination of the creep test, a
macro sample was removed from the post-test feature creep
test using fine wire, electrostatic discharge machining
(EDM). All specimens were removed from the approximate
center in the “w” dimensions so as to analyze the most rep-
resentative distribution of damage in the sample — Fig. 8.
Previous studies have highlighted the need to examine this
center plane (Refs. 31, 32) as damage in materials suscepti-
ble to HAZ failures always occurs subsurface. Creep damage
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 13 — Data filtering of the counted “cavities” by pixel size.
Fig. 14 — Color contour hardness map results for the post-
weld heat treatment condition; base metal on left (blue re-
gion), through heat-affected zone, to the weld interface
(indicated) and into the deposited weld metal.
is unable to extend to the surface because the free surfaces
do not experience a multiaxial stress state and effectively
see no stress. Preparation of each sample involved the previ-
ously detailed procedure for grinding and polishing.
Evaluation of Macro-Failure Position in
Cross-Weld Creep Tests
A Keyence VK-105 confocal laser microscope and a 5X ob-
jective was utilized to obtain through-thickness images for
the failed and interrupted samples. Data was collected that
included the failure, HAZ, and a portion of the weld metal to
identify the location of the weld interface. Calculation of the
mean distance between fracture and the weld interface is
provided in Fig. 9. To identify the location of the weld inter-
face, the image can either be adjusted using the VK Image
Analyzer software or etched prior to evaluation. The area, as
identified in Fig. 9 by the blue cross-hash marks, is obtained
through measurement using the “area function” in the VK
Image Analyzer software. Similarly, the through-thickness
distance “D” was measured using a “line measurement”
function in the VK Image Analyzer software.
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 71-s
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 15 — Distribution of peak temperature through the heat-
affected zone and for the referenced welding parameters in
Fig. 2 and Table 6. Note that the referenced Ac1 and Ac3 values
are provided in Ref. 15.
Assessment of Damage through the
Heat-Affected Zone
The procedure provided in this section presents an
evolved procedure beyond the one detailed in Ref. 33. In the
procedure described herein, an emphasis was placed on the
development of a method to scan a larger area than in Ref.
33 and to evaluate the collected data in its full resolution.
A Keyence VK-105 confocal laser microscope and a 20 ob-
jective was utilized to collect images in the HAZ. The selected
objective provides a magnification on a standard monitor that
is ~ 400 magnification. However, and more importantly, due
to the standard collection size of each image (695  522 m)
and the resolution (1024  768 pixels), the theoretical mini-
mum cavity size that can be analyzed is 0.70 m (1 pixel) in di-
ameter. Due to the need for data filtering, the use of the stated
20 objective provides a more realistic analysis of the large
dataset here where the minimum cavity size is on the order of
~ 3.5 m (5 pixels) in diameter.
In the example shown in Figs. 10 and 11, a total of 270
images (6 images through the width  45 images through
the thickness) were collected in the HAZ for the failed creep
test sample 7C-2. An overlap of ~ 1.5% was used such that
the effective area captured was 685  515 m (1010  755
pixels) to facilitate meshing of the entire captured area in
the VK Assembly software. Accurate spatial position was
maintained by an automated stage that has a maximum
travel distance of 100 mm in either the X or Y orientation.
After the collection of the images, each image is convert-
ed into a picture file that is postprocessed in either ImageJ
or MatLab. These postprocessing software packages are able
to binarize each image, locate the image in X and Y space,
and count and locate each cavity with respect to a specified
origin. Locating the weld interface requires an additional se-
quence of steps, provided below and in more detail with ex-
amples in Ref. 33. The collected images are stitched together
and the contrast/brightness/laser intensity values are modi-
fied in the stitched image to reveal the weld interface. The
weld interface is traced using an image-editing software and
the location of the weld interface is digitized. Once the X
and Y location for each individual cavity are known, the lo-
72-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98
A B
Fig. 16 — A — Ruptured cross-weld sample; heat-affected
zone failure in sample 7C-1 [625°C (1157°F), 80 MPa (11.6 ksi),
and 3743 h]; B — terminated cross-weld sample, heat-af-
fected zone macro-damage in sample 7C-2 [625°C (1157°F), 60
MPa (8.7 ksi), and 13,201 h].
Fig. 17 — Damage distribution through the heat-affected zone
and as a function of the distance of each identified cavity
from the weld interface. Note that the data highlighted in red
is that which corresponds to the region of “peak damage,” a
concept that is discussed in more detail in Ref. 33. The val-
ues for 25th P, 50th P, and 75th P represent the 25th, 50th, and
75th percentiles, respectively, for the entirety of the evaluated
dataset of damage (shown as the black histogram).
cation of each cavity with respect to the weld interface loca-
tion can be calculated using a variety of available tools. For
the data presented here, the function “LOOKUP” in Excel
was utilized to perform this calculation.
After the initial dataset is obtained, the data is evaluated
as a function of the initial data, Fig. 12, and for a series of
threshold sizes as shown in Fig. 13. To remove the false cavi-
ties that arise as a consequence of subtle differences in the
image brightness and contrast, and as seen in Fig. 12A
(shown as large cavity populations in the form of apparent
“black” boxes), the data is evaluated as a boxplot for multi-
ple threshold cavity sizes — Fig. 13. Of particular impor-
tance is to remove the long tail in the data that extends well
below zero (in this case values < 0 are in the weld metal). Ap-
plying a 5-pixel threshold for this dataset was effective in
this regard, and a reasonable damage map is created for
analysis (as shown in Fig. 12B). As seen in the provided
analysis, the important statistical measurements for the
25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles (i.e., the location of “peak
damage”) do not dramatically change in Fig. 13 once a
threshold of 5 pixels is applied.
For the selected sample 7C-2, a total of ~ 50,000 “cavi-
ties” were documented in the initial dataset. After postpro-
cessing and filtering, the total number of cavities were re-
duced to ~ 11,000 cavities for detailed evaluation. The pri-

Fig. 18 — Location of the soft zone in the HAZ relative to the
peak temperature distribution through the HAZ. The estimated
peak temperature through this region is ~ 900° to 635°C; note
that the measured Ac1 for the base metal is ~ 875°C.
mary objective in mapping the damage is to provide a set of
data that is sufficient to analyze for trends and to determine
the location in the HAZ where damage is observed. The ob-
jective is not to attempt an analysis of every potential “real”
cavity. It is recognized that the filtering process removes
some of the actual damage. More accurate peak cavity densi-
ties, for example, are created through local measurements
and assessment that is inherently less sensitive to the chal-
lenges posed by the capturing of large datasets.
Results
The approach to collect results for the macro-based
analysis is given in Fig. 1. In the following sections, each of
the highlighted analyses are presented to provide support-
ing information to each objective.
Hardness Mapping Results in As-Fabricated
Condition
The results for the hardness map generated using a color
contour map are given in Fig. 14. As shown, there is a dis-
tinct low hardness region (white) sometimes referred to as
the “soft zone” and ~ 2 mm removed from the weld inter-
face. The width of this zone consistently averages ~ 1.5 to 2
mm. Regarding the balance of the test results, the mean
hardness of the base material is consistently >190 HV 0.5
(acceptable per Ref. 34) and the maximum hardness in the
deposited weld metal and HAZ has been sufficiently reduced
to < 340 HV 0.5 following PWHT.
Evaluation of the Welding Thermal Cycle
The calculated peak temperatures through the HAZ are
provided in Fig. 15. In a previous publication, and for rep-
resentative heating rates in a welding thermal cycle, the
measured Ac1 and Ac3 temperatures for the same base mate-
rial of interest to this study are reported to be 865° to
890°C (1589° to 1634°F) and 965° to 990°C (1769° to
1814°F), respectively. The HAZ thermal cycles were simu-
lated using a Gleeble thermomechanical simulator, and
more details can be found in the open literature in Ref. 15
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 19 — Published data for a thick-section weldment in a
9% Cr steel that was thermocoupled through the heat-
affected zone and a proposed explanation for the overtem-
pered zone being associated with a local, sustained region
near the Ac1 value.
(note that in Ref. 15 the base metal is identified as “forg-
ing”). The Ac1 and Ac3 in Fig. 15 are given values of 875°
and 975°C, respectively.
Macro-Failure Position in Selected Cross-Weld
Creep Tests
The failed creep tests are shown in Fig. 16A, B for the
cross-weld tests at 625°C (1157°F) and 80 MPa (11.6 ksi)
and 625°C (1157°F) and 60 MPa (8.7 ksi), respectively. The
measured position of macro-failure is provided in Table 7.
Note that the failure location in sample 7C-1 is calculated
from a length of the severed side of the test while for sample
7C-2 the large macrocrack in the upper left-hand HAZ re-
gion was utilized to perform a similar measurement.
Macro-Damage Assessment — Cavitation
through the Heat-Affected Zone in Cross-Weld
Creep Test 7C-2
The analyzed macro-damage through a region in the HAZ
of sample 7C-2 and measuring ~ 23.5  4.2 mm, including
~ 11,000 cavities through the HAZ is provided in Fig. 17 as a
histogram. The histogram compares the entirety of the data
(black histogram) to the data that lies in the peak damage
region (red histogram and indicated 25th, 50th, and 75th per-
centiles). The concept of peak damage relies on an analysis
of the entirety of the damage (Fig. 17) with respect to a box-
plot and to identify the 25th and 75th percentiles. The macro-
failure location in 9% Cr steel cross-weld tests has consis-
tently been located within the 25th and 75th percentiles for
the documented damage and as explained in Ref. 33.
Discussion
In this section, the results are interlinked so as to present
trends in the measured damage to the hardness mapping re-
sults and the calculated distribution of peak temperatures
through the HAZ. The discussion is divided into three pri-
mary sections:
1. The location of peak temperatures in the HAZ relative
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 73-s
WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 20 — Color contour hardness map results for the as-

welded condition; base metal on left, through heat-affected
zone, to the weld interface (indicated) and into the deposited
weld metal.

Fig. 21 — Local electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) im-

to the weld interface and association of the calculated peak ages for the grain boundaries with a misorientation of 2 to
temperatures with distinct regions characterized by hard- 180 deg for a location with very low hardness characteristic
ness mapping; of the overtempered zone (left) and the unaffected base ma-
2. The location of damage in the HAZ relative to the weld terial (right).
interface and association with hardness and calculated peak
temperatures; and
cation appears to be best discussed as an overtempered region
3. The importance of the findings will be summarized
or OTZ and consistent with the description in Table 3. There is
with respect to the concepts of creep deformation, creep
no evidence the OTZ should be classified as an intercritical or
damage, and stress state.
fine-grained region since the peak temperatures do not appear
to be consistently greater than the Ac1 value.
The location of peak temperatures in the HAZ relative
The proper classification of the low hardness values ob-
to the weld interface and association of the calculated
served in a hardness trace or hardness map as an OTZ is fur-
peak temperatures with distinct regions character-
ther reflected in the measured isothermal profile diagramed in
ized by hardness mapping
Fig. 19 (Ref. 28). It is proposed that the explanation for the
uniform, low hardness region classified as the OTZ is a result
The identification of a local zone of reduced hardness was
of a sustained temperature very close to the Ac1 value in the
first documented in the original Oak Ridge National Laborato-
HAZ. The stabilization of this temperature is believed to be a
ry (ORNL) reports and classified as a “tempered zone”
result of the release of latent heat associated with the decom-
(TMPZ). In the ORNL research, the TMPZ was associated with
position of austenite to ferrite in the PTZ immediately adja-
peak temperatures below the Ac1 but above the typical temper-
cent to the OTZ. To the authors’ knowledge, this has not been
ing temperature (Ref. 35). In the literature, there is general
fully appreciated in the literature.
confusion as to the significance of this locally reduced hard-
To further advance the observations, it is useful to investi-
ness region. The confusion is persistent for the as-fabricated
gate the as-welded condition to see if there is evidence for lo-
condition where it is sometimes classified as the “intercritical”
cally reduced hardness values after welding (note that the pre-
or “fine-grained” or “subcritical” HAZ or simply as the “soft-
vious discussion is based on results obtained after PWHT). A
zone.” These descriptions are in addition to the previous classi-
hardness map for the as-welded condition is provided in Fig.
fication as the overtempered zone (OTZ) (authors’ preferred
20 and shows evidence for a discontinuous OTZ. By definition,
description) or the TMPZ (as described by ORNL).
regions of the PTZ must transform on-heating to austenite
Comparing the hardness with the peak temperature in Fig.
and result in the reversion to a mix of fresh martensite and al-
18, there is an association of the hardness indents in HAZ,
pha ferrite on-cooling in the as-welded state. Thus, the PTZ
which are  190 HV 0.5 to a peak temperature range of 635° to
must possess a higher hardness than that of the base metal or
900°C (1175° to 1652°F). Since the dramatic increase in the
OTZ. Upon application of PWHT, the OTZ and PTZ regions
number of indents ≤ 190 HV 0.5 begins in the HAZ at a dis-
are less resistant to tempering, resulting in the more clearly
tance of ~ 2 mm from the weld interface where the estimated
defined softened region reflected in Fig. 14. It is possible that
peak temperature is ~ 875°C (i.e., the same as the measured
a small extent of the PTZ is tempered to a hardness below that
value for the Ac1 in the base metal), the classification of this lo-

74-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98


Fig. 22 — Hardness trace through a failed cross-weld creep
test in Grade 91 steel (Ref. 36).
Fig. 24 — Distribution of damage through the heat-affected
zone, as compared to the macro-failure location in Samples
7C-1 and 7C-2 and as compared to the calculated peak tem-
perature in the heat-affected zone.
of the base material and as suggested by the distribution of
peak temperature. Although advanced microscopy is not the
focus of this paper, following PWHT the lowest hardness re-
gions are located in the OTZ and the microstructure is clearly
martensitic — Fig. 21. It is thus the case that the majority of
the reduced hardness zone in the HAZ is martensitic, consis-
tent with the previous definition for the OTZ and the region
with reduced hardness does not consistently reflect a region
that has undergone phase transformation.
The local reduction in hardness in the 9% Cr HAZ (referred
to as the OTZ from this point forward) has previously been
identified as the preferential failure location in cross-weld
creep tests such as shown in Fig. 22 (Ref. 36). The measure-
ment of hardness in the post-test condition is of little value
since there are complications that can occur due to measure-
ment (i.e., identification of the indent tips that can be affected
by cavitation), distortion of the results (i.e., local softening due
to the presence of creep cavities), and end-of-test plasticity
(i.e., local softening). It is far more appropriate to link the
post-test damage state to the as-fabricated state. This point
will be emphasized in the second part of the discussion.
The location of damage in the HAZ relative to the
weld interface and association with hardness and
calculated peak temperatures
In Fig. 23, the observed damage is plotted against the
PWHT macro weldment hardness values ≤ 190 HV 0.5. As
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 23 — Location of damage in the heat-affected zone
(black histogram), macro-failure locations (indicated) and as
compared to the location of hardness values in the heat-af-
fected zone  90 HV 0.5 (red histogram). Note that the peak
damage does not overlap that of the peak location of soft
hardness indents.
shown, there is not a direct overlap of the hardness measure-
ments in the OTZ with the observed damage nor the failure lo-
cation. As shown in the population of damage in Fig. 23, there
is clear evidence the damage is evolving away from the OTZ
and preferentially in the PTZ. To underscore this point, the
75th percentile for damage (Fig. 17) is ~ 2,000 m from the
weld interface. Thus, in the HAZ region where the reduced
hardness is beginning to form in the as-fabricated state, nearly
75% of the damage in the post-test state has evolved in a HAZ
region offset from the OTZ. Based on these observations, the
location of failure in 9% Cr steel cross-weld samples cannot be
linked to the OTZ. Furthermore, the position of maximum
damage and failure does not occur in a region characterized by
reduced hardness values.
The calculated distribution of peak temperature through
the HAZ is plotted against the measured damage in Fig. 24. In
the case of samples 7C-1 and 7C-2, the macro-failure locations
are concentrated near the median value for the peak damage
— Fig. 23. The median value for damage corresponds to a cal-
culated peak temperature of ~ 955°C (1751°F) during the
welding thermal cycle. This value is much closer to the docu-
mented Ac3 value [~ 975°C (1787°F)] than that of the Ac1 value
[~ 875°C (1607°F)].
The distribution of peak damage, and its association with
the calculated peak temperature is indicated in Fig. 24 as being
within a range of 875° to 1035°C. This region spans a zone in
the HAZ that has classically been defined as the intercritical
and/or fine-grained HAZ region using the borrowed HAZ de-
scription originally developed for bainitic, low-alloy steels. A
better interpretation for this region (Table 3) is to simply char-
acterize this region as the PTZ.
Implications of the Results
There does not exist a direct, empirical relationship for
martensitic CSEF steels to link a given hardness value to the
creep behavior in the base material or HAZ (Ref. 37). Hardness
values have long been linked to the yield or tensile strength,
such as in Ref. 38. CSEF steel cross-weld creep properties are
not easily linked to the creep deformation resistance in
martensitic CSEF steels, although it is recognized that some
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 75-s
WELDING RESEARCH
have attempted to do so (Refs. 39, 40). With respect to the dis-
tribution of HAZ hardness values, the location of the lowest
values in the as-fabricated state are not directly linked to the
evolution of maximum damage or macro-failure in the post-
test condition. This observation suggests the OTZ does not
possess the lowest creep deformation resistance in the struc-
ture, and the resistance to the evolution of creep damage in
the PTZ is a more important concept to take into account.
There is increasing evidence the resistance to the evolution
of creep damage is a controlling factor in the performance of
martensitic CSEF steel cross-weld creep samples. The forma-
tion of creep damage in the HAZ requires a distribution of nu-
cleation-susceptible particles. Previous research assessing the
behavior of two welded heats of CrMoV in Ref. 41 clearly
showed the preferential formation of damage in the HAZ of
the CrMoV heat that possessed a higher inclusion density.
More recent assessment of Grade 92 weldments has shown an
association of damage in the HAZ with BN (Ref. 42). It is obvi-
ous that hardness measurements, either directly or empirical-
ly, are unable to characterize the damage susceptibility inher-
ent to the base material or in the HAZ. Damage assessment
can only be quantified through scanning electron microscopy-
based techniques and is the subject of future research.
Because the welding thermal cycle results in a damage-
susceptible region in the HAZ (e.g., the PTZ), this will occur in
every structure that requires fabrication by welding. It follows
simple logic then that the resulting PTZ in all structures will
be similarly “weak” with respect to creep deformation resist-
ance as the precipitation-strengthened, martensitic matrix is
severely degraded by the welding process. It is thus postulated
that the type and distribution of nucleation-susceptible parti-
cles is an important and underappreciated characteristic de-
serving of more detailed research and assessment.
The evolution of damage will not only be affected by the
distribution and type of cavity-susceptible particles, but also
the sample geometry and resulting stress state. In this study,
feature-type cross-weld creep samples with a cross-sectional
area more than 20 greater than that for conventional round
bar (e.g., 6.35 mm diameter) samples were utilized. The fea-
ture-type cross-weld creep sample subjected the PTZ to a more
consistent level of constraint in the HAZ. Previous analyses for
similar geometries have shown that, upon reaching a steady-
state creep rate, the development of the maximum principal
stress or triaxiality factor is sustained through the thickness
(Ref. 43). Thus, the feature-type cross-weld creep test geome-
try provided a resulting stress state that was more comparable
to component behavior and enhanced the development of
damage in the HAZ. The distribution of the maximum princi-
pal stress and triaxiality factor are potentially important fac-
tors in the nucleation and growth of cavities. It is possible that
due to the reduced constraint in small, round bar-type tests
the failure location is subtly different than documented in this
research. Such an explanation would follow on from the fact
the lower constraint in such tests reduces the extent of dam-
age through the HAZ, thus promoting a change in the failure
location.
Conclusions
The results in this manuscript emphasize the need to adopt
a set of descriptive regions for the HAZ specific to martensitic
76-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98
9% Cr steels. The detailed hardness mapping and damage eval-
uation support the observation that damage preferentially oc-
curs in a region in the HAZ that is not characterized by a local
reduction in hardness values in the as-fabricated condition.
The local hardness reduction in the HAZ should be appropri-
ately defined as the overtempered zone (OTZ).
The observed trends in this research linking damage to the
as-fabricated state are provided based on test results taken
from large, feature-type test cross-weld specimens. These tests
are classified as “feature-type tests” because the constraint in
the sample provides a resulting stress-state that is more repre-
sentative of installed power plant components. The detailed
assessment of damage shows the greatest concentration of
damage is in the partially transformed zone (PTZ) where the
peak temperature is > 875°C and extends to a value of
~ 1030°C. This upper value is just below the recommended
minimum temperature for normalization of Grade 91 base
material (e.g., 1040°C). Macro-failure was observed within the
location of peak damage and centered at a peak temperature of
955°C. This value is very close to the Ac3 value for the investi-
gated heat of Grade 91 steel.
Future work will be focused on linking the observed dam-
age to specific microstructural features and link these features
to the as-fabricated state using micro-based assessment and
primarily electron microscopy. It is clear on the basis of the
provided results that an appreciation of the factors that affect
the accumulation of damage in the HAZ must be elucidated for
9% Cr CSEF steels.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions of
the following individuals who assisted in the development of
procedures utilized in this manuscript: Guilherme Abreu Faria
at The Ohio State University for writing the MatLab script to
postprocess the heat-affected zone cavitation data; Dr. John
DuPont at Lehigh University for determination of the melting
temperature of Grade 91 steel; and Mary Kay Havens and
Kendall McCord at The Electric Power Research Institute for
the preparation of macro-samples for hardness mapping, eval-
uation of damage, and position of macro failure.
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JOHN A. SIEFERT (jseifert@epri.com) and JONATHAN D. PARKER
are with the Electric Power Research Institute, Charlotte, N.C.
RACHEL THOMSON is with the Department of Materials, Lough-
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Loughborough University.
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 77-s
WELDING RESEARCH
Weldability of Duplex Stainless Steels —
Thermal Cycle and Nitrogen Effects
Duplex stainless steel weld microstructures were investigated as a
function of weld thermal cycles and shielding gas nitrogen content
BY B. VARBAI, Y. ADONYI, R. BAUMER, T. PICKLE, J. DOBRÁNSZKY, AND K. MÁJLINGER
ABSTRACT
Much development work has been performed worldwide
on the welding of duplex stainless steels (DSSs), where loss-
es in base metal nitrogen during welding have been compen-
sated by filler metal and nitrogen additions to the shielding
gas. However, some heat-affected zone (HAZ) microstructural
changes have not always responded consistently to nitrogen
mixtures added to the shielding gas. In this work, DSS weld
microstructures were investigated as a function of weld ther-
mal cycles and shielding gas nitrogen content. Physical simu-
lations, actual gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) in controlled
atmospheres, and entrapped nitrogen measurements were
used to relate to the weld austenite-to-ferrite (A/F) phase ra-
tios. Results showed the thermal cycles had a stronger effect
on the weld A/F ratio than shielding gas nitrogen content.
Physical simulations and actual GTAW trials also showed the
A/F ratio changes in the opposite way in the fusion zone than
in the HAZ. Reheating was also found to have an important
effect on the microstructure. The above findings should allow
fabricators to better design the welding process with DSS.
Better control of nitrogen-containing shielding gas mixtures,
along with heat input limitations, should result in more con-
sistent weld properties and wider use of DSS by industry.
KEYWORDS
• Duplex Stainless Steel • Physical Simulation
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding • Microstructure
• Phase Transformation
Introduction
Background
All duplex stainless steels (DSSs) contain some nitrogen,
typically in the 0.15 to 0.35 wt-% range (Ref. 1) with higher
values found in the lean, super, and hyper duplex grades. The
most widely used DSS type 2205 (UNS S32205/EN 1.4462)
contains 0.14–0.20 wt-% nitrogen, which effectively replaces
nickel with this less expensive alloying option. The addition of
nitrogen strengthens both ferrite and austenite phases by dis-
solving as an interstitial alloying element in solid solutions.
Nitrogen is a well-known strong austenite former, and it in-
creases the base metal yield and ultimate tensile strength.
78-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98
To quantify the austenite stabilizing effect of nitrogen,
the nickel equivalent formula can be used. According to the
WRC-1992 (Ref. 2) diagram’s formula, nitrogen is 20 times
more potent than nickel is as an austenite stabilizer. Other
resources indicate a 30 times higher potency than Ni (Ref.
3). Adding nitrogen content increases the austenite trans-
formation temperature and promotes austenite formation
at high temperatures during the cooling cycle (Ref. 4).
The DSSs were originally developed not only for their
higher strength, but also their resistance against stress cor-
rosion cracking when compared to austenitic stainless
steels. The DSSs were also found to have good resistance
against pitting corrosion (Ref. 5). Nitrogen also helps in pre-
venting the precipitation of brittle intermetallic phases,
such as  and , by reducing chromium partitioning (Refs. 5,
6). However, if some Cr-rich nitride precipitates form in the
ferritic phase, they can decrease ductility, toughness, and
corrosion resistance (Refs. 7–9).
Nitrogen can be lost from the base metal during fusion
welding as it evaporates in the heat generated by the electric
or thermal plasma. For practical solutions to this N loss (N
refers to monatomic nitrogen, while N2 refers to diatomic
nitrogen), welding handbooks and recommendations often
offer a narrow technological window in case of using nitro-
gen as shielding or backing gas. They also recommend using
2–5% of N2 into the shielding gas to compensate for the ni-
trogen loss (Ref. 10). Some researchers (Refs. 11, 12) used
10–20% nitrogen content in argon shielding gases to com-
pensate the nitrogen loss in the weld metal (WM).
The kinetics of nitrogen reactions are more complicated
and very dependent on solidification and cooling rates.
Therefore, a brief review of nitrogen/molten metal reactions
follows in the following order: 1) sources of atomic nitrogen
in fusion welding, 2) nitrogen absorption into or rejection
from the weld pool, 3) nitrogen solubility in the molten met-
al, 4) nitrogen entrapment under nonequilibrium solidifica-
tion, and 5) nitrogen’s role in subsequent solid-state diffu-
sion and reactions upon weld cooling.
Literature Review, Problem Statements
Review of other studies (Refs. 11, 13, 14–25), which de-
scribe the impact of nitrogen in DSS welding, revealed a
strong emphasis on explaining nitrogen solubility, solid-
state ferrite-to-austenite phase transformations, and gas
https://doi.org/10.29391/2019.98.006
 WELDING RESEARCH

A B

Fig. 1 — Optical microscope image of optimally etched (Ref.
26) DSS 2205 weld metal and digitally processed image for
austenite fraction determination. (The images were taken at
the same magnification.)
porosity formation. Yet the basic understanding of nitrogen
use in fusion welding is still not complete.
First, the established models are referring to solubility and
diffusion kinetics of atomic nitrogen in the solid state, not in
the liquid. Second, most papers do not differentiate between
the role of atomic and diatomic nitrogen in the case of molten
state during fusion welding. Third, there is no differentiation
on the solidification rate driven vs. the solid state (diffusion
driven) phase transformations, which are governed by the sub-
sequent cooling rate. Fourth, the role of free, dissolved nitro-
gen in reheating, simulating multipass welding is also not well
covered in the open literature. Detrimental phase transforma-
tions can form during multipass welding, such as chromium-
nitride precipitation and secondary austenite formation,
which can lead to a significant unbalance between the austen-
ite-to-ferrite (A/F) ratios. Finally, understanding complicated
thermal effects, dilution, filler metal nitrogen content, heat in-
put, reheat cycles, and the effect of nitrogen backing gas is not
complete from the open literature. What is known provides so-
lutions in a narrow operational envelope (heat input, type of
filler metal, shielding gas, chamfering, and so on) for industri-
al partners.
Objectives
In conclusion, the present research was needed for a more
comprehensive understanding of the role of nitrogen on DSS
welding. The aim of this work was to systematically separate
Fig. 2 — A — Simulation of HAZ in Gleeble® setup; B —
schematic of used thermal cycle with special emphasis on
the 1200˚ to 800˚C cooling rate.
the effects of atomic from molecular nitrogen effects in fusion
welding of DSSs. Heat input, solidification and cooling rates,
and reheating effects were to be included in the study, while
analyzing the effect of nitrogen additions on microstructure
via the shielding gas, filler metal, and multiple-pass welding.
Experimental Procedures
Chemical Composition of Duplex Stainless
Steel Grades
To investigate the effects of nitrogen and thermal cycles
on duplex stainless steels, three different types of DSSs were
used in our research (Table 1, chemical composition by
manufacturer): lean duplex grade UNS S82441 (LDX 2404)
sheet in 3 mm thickness, standard duplex grade UNS
S32205 (DSS 2205) sheets in 2 and 6 mm thicknesses, and
3
⁄8-in. (9.525-mm) rod form and one superduplex grade UNS
S32750 (SDSS 2507). All of the utilized grades contain a
high amount of nitrogen (0.160–0.276 wt-%) as the alloying
element. The base metals were received in the annealed con-
dition as coming from the manufacturer.
Microstructure Evaluation
Optical microscopy was used to evaluate the weld metal and
heat-affected zone (HAZ) microstructures. The samples were
etched using Beraha’s II reagent with the composition of 85-
mL distilled water, 15-mL HCl, and 1-g K2S2O5. The etchant

Table 1 — Main Alloying Elements of the Used DSS Grades*

Grade Form Main Alloying Elements (wt-%)

Cr Ni Mn Mo N C Si Cu Fe
LDX 3-mm sheet 24.11 3.56 3.12 1.62 0.276 0.020 0.70 0.40 bal.
2404
2-mm sheet 22.41 5.78 1.25 3.10 0.191 0.020 0.35 0.32 bal.

DSS 6-mm sheet 22.37 5.76 1.36 3.14 0.160 0.020 0.38 0.30 bal.
2205
⁄8-in.- (9.525-mm-)
3
22.21 5.95 1.55 3.10 0.160 0.019 0.51 0.32 bal.
diameter rod

SDSS 6-mm sheet 25.04 6.93 0.76 3.78 0.270 0.016 0.44 0.40 bal.
2507

*These are according to the manufacturer.

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 79-s

WELDING RESEARCH
A B
Fig. 3 — A — Comparison of DSS 2205 samples between
Gleeble® physically simulated and B — actual gas tungsten
arc welded HAZ microstructures with approximately the
same cooling rates. (The images were taken at the same
magnification.)
tints the ferrite (bcc lattice structure) phase dark and leaves
the austenite (fcc lattice structure) phase bright, which is suit-
able for austenite fraction measurements.
For austenite fraction measurements, the Image Pro® im-
age analysis software, Feritscope® measurements, and man-
ual point count method according to the ASTM E562 Stan-
dard were used. To validate the image analysis results to the
Feritscope® measurements, a double-etching method with
Beraha’s II reagent was used, which results in high contrast
between the austenite and ferrite phases — Fig. 1. The de-
veloped method for optimal etching and image analysis can
be found from previous work (Ref. 26).
To validate the developed process of image analysis,
quantitative optical microscopy was also used to determine
the volume fraction by a manual point count method, ac-
cording to the ASTM E562 Standard (Ref. 27). In this
method, an array of points formed by a grid line is superim-
posed upon a magnified image, and the number of points
falling within the microstructural constituent of interest is
counted and averaged for a selected number of fields. If the
amount of volume fraction of interest is more than 20%
(which is true for almost all cases of DSS welds), 100 points
should be evaluated of 20 fields for a 10% relative accuracy.
While the point-counting method is acceptable according to
standards, this analysis is slow, highly subjective, and not
repeatable for all users. In this research, 108 intersection
points were evaluated in each of the 10 images for compari-
son to the image analysis and Feritscope® techniques.
Total Nitrogen Content Measurements
The total dissolved nitrogen content measurement was
performed according to the ASTM E1019 Standard (Ref.
28). Four samples were machined out from the weld metal
or the simulated HAZ and burned in a Horiba Emga 620-W
nitrogen analyzer. The total nitrogen content was measured
with an inert gas thermal conductivity detection method.
The measurement range was 0–5000 ppm with the mini-
mum accuracy of 1.5 ppm and sensitivity of 0.01 ppm.
Heat-Affected Zone Simulations in a Gleeble®
Physical Simulator
For HAZ simulations, the DSS 2205 rods in 3⁄8 in. (9.525
mm) diameter were reheated in a Gleeble® 1500 physical
simulator in 99.996% pure argon atmosphere. The samples
80-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98
A B
Fig. 4 — A — Comparison of reheated weld metal microstruc-
tures of DSS 2205 samples between a Gleeble® physically
simulated and B — actual GTA welded reheated by the sub-
sequent passes. (The images were taken at the same
magnification.)
were heated to 1350°C peak temperature under 10 s and
kept for 1 s at the maximum temperature to develop an al-
most fully ferritic initial microstructure. Different con-
trolled cooling rates were chosen between 1350˚ and 800°C,
and then air cooled to room temperature — Fig. 2.
The used cooling rates were as follows: 10˚, 19˚, 27˚, 36˚,
54˚, 80˚, 113˚, 149˚, and 500˚C/s (water quenched) to 800˚C
(dT12/8) following free cooling to room temperature. The
temperature measurement was done using R-type thermo-
couples. Typical simulated HAZ and actual HAZ microstruc-
tures were compared (e.g., Fig. 3) and good correlations in
microstructure and A/F phase ratios (measured by the image
analysis method) were found. For comparison of the Glee-
ble® simulated sample (with 54 °C/s cooling rate), single-
pass autogenous gas tungsten arc welded 2-mm-thick DSS
2205 sheets were used, with an average measured 51°C/s
cooling rate (dT12/8) in the HAZ.
Pseudo-Nitriding Simulations in a Gleeble®
Physical Simulator
The pseudo-nitriding experiments were done on the DSS
2205 rod samples using a constant peak temperature of
1350°C, different peak temperature holding times, and sub-
sequent 50°C/s controlled cooling rate (dT12/8). Using pure
argon gas for comparison, the Gleeble® chamber was flood-
ed with 100% nitrogen for short times (total times 5 to 60
s), which is much longer than used in real-life welding.
These samples were cross sectioned and the thickness of the
pseudo-nitrided outside diameter (OD) layer was measured
for each sample. The diffusion distance of the monatomic
nitrogen (N) was calculated, using the 1D diffusion model
with the diffusion coefficient (m2/s) of nitrogen in ferrite
phase DN = 4.64·10–7·e–10223.7/T (Ref. 29).
Single-Pass Autogenous GTAW with Argon
Shielding Gas
To investigate the effects of arc energy (cooling rate) on
the weld metal A/F phase ratio and nitrogen loss, the 3-mm-
thick LDX 2404 sheets were autogenously gas tungsten arc
welded with argon shielding gas, with the flow rate of 25
ft3/h (12 L/min) in all cases and without filler metal. The
LDX 2404 base material was chosen because of its highest
initial nitrogen content in the base metal (0.276 wt-%, Table
1) among the investigated grades, thus the nitrogen loss in

Fig. 5 — Comparison of the image analysis and Feritscope®
methods to determine austenite fraction.
the weld metal was expected to have a significant effect on
the A/F phase ratio. The used tungsten electrode was 2%
thoriated in 1⁄8 in. (3.2 mm) diameter and ground to a 40-deg
electrode angle. The arc length was constant 2 mm. The
used arc energies were as follows: 0.33, 0.43, 0.58, 0.64,
0.86, and 0.90 kJ/mm, equal to 8.4, 10.9, 14.7, 16.3, 21.8,
and 22.8 kJ/in., respectively. For simplicity, the thermal ef-
ficiency was taken as 1.0 for the arc energy calculations.
Another set of autogenous gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) trials were done on the 6-mm-thick DSS 2205
sheets with argon shielding gas, with the same flow rate of
25 ft3/h (12 L/min) in all cases, using these even improper
arc energies: 0.25, 0.85, 1.00, 1.57, 2.36, and 2.95 kJ/mm,
equal to 6.25, 21.25, 25.0, 40.0, 60.0, and 75.0 kJ/in., re-
spectively. The purpose of this study was to compare the
austenite fraction changes (as a function of the cooling rate)
in the HAZ (Gleeble® simulated) and WM (actual GTA weld-
ed). The temperature readings in the HAZ were done using
K-type thermocouples, which was supported by a FLIR-type
thermal imaging camera (emissivity constant of 0.25). The
root side of the welds were protected with argon shielding
through a diffuser box.
Single-Pass Autogenous GTAW with Different
Nitrogen Content in the Shielding Gas
For the investigation of the nitrogen content (N2) in the
shielding gas, GTAW trials were done on the 2-mm-thick DSS
2205 and LDX 2404 sheets. The used tungsten electrode was
2% thoriated with 18⁄ in. (3.2 mm) diameter and ground to a 40-
deg electrode angle. The arc length was initially 2 mm, which
was controlled with the automatic arc voltage system to keep a
constant arc energy. For grade DSS 2205, the used arc energy
was constant 0.43 kJ/mm (11 kJ/in.) with the shielding gases
of Ar, Ar + 2N2, Ar + 5N2, and Ar + 10N2.
Table 2 — Main Alloying Elements of the Used ER2594 Filler Metal*
Filler Metal Grade
ER2594
*These are according to the manufacturer.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 6 — Gleeble® simulated HAZ austenite volume fractions
and the total dissolved nitrogen content as a function of the
dT12/8 cooling rate.
For grade LDX 2404, the used arc energy was constant
0.86 kJ/mm (21.8 kJ/in.), using even improper shielding gas
mixtures of Ar, Ar + 2N2, Ar + 5N2, Ar + 10N2 Ar, Ar + 20N2,
and even Ar + 50N2.
For both cases, the root side was protected using argon
shielding. The shielding gas flow rate was 25 ft3/h (12 L/min)
in all cases.
Multipass Welding Simulations in a Gleeble®
Physical Simulator
One set of autogenous GTA welded DSS 2205 samples,
welded with different nitrogen content in the shielding gas
(four samples, described in the previous section), were re-
heated in a Gleeble® physical simulator in argon atmos-
phere. The reheating was done with 1250°C peak tempera-
ture, 1-s holding time, and 50°C/s cooling rate to 800°C, as
this cooling rate was measured in the HAZ during the actual
GTAW. The purpose of this experiment was to investigate
the effect of multiple thermal cycles (e.g., multipass weld-
ing) on the austenite fraction. An example of the evolved
microstructure can be found in Fig. 4, where a Gleeble® sim-
ulated reheated weld metal microstructure is compared to
an actual multipass GTA welded root pass of DSS 2205 grade
welded with a ER2209 filler consumable.
Actual Gas Tungsten Arc Multipass Welding
Finally, to investigate the effects of the subsequent pass-
es on the root pass austenite fraction, one set of welding tri-
als was done on the 6-mm-thick SDSS 2507 sheets using au-
tomated welding wire feed welding equipment. The sheets
were prepared with a 75-deg chamfering and 2-mm root
opening to create a single-side V-groove geometry. The filler
Main Alloying Elements (wt-%)
Cr Ni Mn Mo N C Si Fe
25.0 9.5 0.4 3.9 0.25 0.015 0.35 bal.
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 81-s
WELDING RESEARCH

A B C

Fig. 7 — A — Microstructure of the DSS 2205 rod in the as-received form (annealed); B — the evolved austenitic OD layer thickness
after a 5-s holding time; and C — 60-s holding time in nitrogen atmosphere. (The images were taken at the same magnification.)

material used was 1.2-mm-diameter ER2594 for SDSS 2507
(chemical composition from the manufacturer in Table 2).
For the investigation of the effects of the number of subse-
quent passes above the root pass, different welding parame-
ters were used (Table 3). For all of the welding trials the same
Ar + 2N2 gas mixture was used with the flow rate of 30 ft3/h
(14 L/min). The root side was protected with argon shielding
during the single-pass welds. For the multipass welding trials,
a backing plate was used. The root pass cooling rates between
the 1200˚ and 800°C (dT12/8) were measured using implement-
ed K-type thermocouples, supported by infrared thermal cam-
era measurements. The used tungsten electrode was 2% thori-
ated with 18⁄ in. (3.2 mm) diameter and ground to a 40-deg elec-
trode angle. The arc length was constant at 2 mm.
Results and Discussion
Microstructure Evaluation Results
The austenite fraction of the WM of autogenously welded
DSS 2205 sheet with 40 kJ/in. arc energy was evaluated us-
ing three methods: 1) developed image analysis method
(Ref. 26), 2) Feritscope® measurements, and 3) ASTM E562
manual point count method. The results are presented in
Table 4. For proper investigation, ten images were evaluated
in the case of all three methods. In all cases, the same
austenite fraction was practically measured.
The highest standard deviation was experienced in the
case of the ASTM E562 manual point count method, which
represents the subjectivity of the measurement. The differ-
ence between the average A/F ratio of the image analysis
measurements and Feritscope® measurements is 1.4%. Fig-
ure 5 represents the correlation between the image analysis
method and the Feritscope® measurements, collected from
ongoing and previously published (Refs. 26, 30) research.
For simplicity and accuracy, the image analysis method is
used as the basis for determining the austenite fraction
measurements (Ref. 26) for experiments in this research.
Heat-Affected Zone Simulations in a Gleeble®
Physical Simulator Results
The results of the HAZ simulations of DSS 2205 base
metal rods are represented in Fig. 6. It was found the cooling
rates in the 1200˚ to 800°C range (dT12/8) had a more signifi-
cant effect on the austenite fraction in the simulated HAZ
than the total dissolved nitrogen content. All of the duplex
stainless steels solidified as delta-ferrite and the ferrite-to-
austenite transformation occurred in the solid state (Ref. 1).
As the samples were heated to 1350°C peak temperature,
the initial microstructure was believed to be practically fully
ferritic, according to the chromium-nickel pseudobinary
phase diagram (Ref. 1). This presupposition was verified on
water-quenched samples after 1-s peak temperature holding
time. The measured austenite fraction in the water-
quenched sample was 9.5 area-%. The measured austenite
fraction in the simulated HAZ varied between 9.5 and 56.4
area-%. The lowest applied cooling rate (dT12/8 = 10°C/s) re-
sulted in the highest austenite fraction (56.4 area-%), which
is close to the DSS 2205 base metal austenite fraction (57.0

Table 3 — The Used Main Welding Parameters for Actual Multipass GTAW Trials

6-mm-Thick Total Number Welding Current Arc Voltage Travel Speed Arc Energy (kJ/in.) and Welding Wire Root Pass
Sheet Grade of Passes (A) (V) (in./min) (kJ/mm, in brackets) Feed Speed (in./min) dT12 (°C/s)
⁄8
SDSS 2 170 12.3 2.0 63 (2.5) 20 35.5 ± 5.8
2507 4 123 11.0 2.0 41 (1.6) 15 46.5 ± 2.5
6 102 10.9 2.5 27 (1.1) 6 44.7 ± 2.9

82-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98


Fig. 8 — Comparison of the calculated atomic nitrogen diffu-
sion distance and the measured austenitic layer thickness.
Fig. 10 — Opposite trend of austenite fraction in the HAZ and
WM as a function of cooling rate.
area-%) in as-received (annealed) condition. The increasing
dT12/8 resulted in decreasing austenite fraction. Cooling rates
more than 100°C/s resulted in less than 30% austenite frac-
tion, which is mostly accepted as the lowest austenite con-
tent limit in DSSs (Ref. 5). The measured total nitrogen con-
tent of the HAZ simulated samples has not changed com-
pared to the base metals 0.163 wt-% with the applied cool-
ing rates. These results show the cooling rate has a very sig-
nificant impact on austenite volume fraction, and nitrogen
content does not change in solid-state reheating/cooling
over the times and rates investigated.
Pseudo-Nitriding Simulations in a Gleeble®
Physical Simulator Results
The as-received DSS 2205 base metal rod microstructure
consists of evenly distributed ferrite and austenite phases —
Fig. 7A. After a 5-s holding time at 1350°C peak temperature
in 99.996% pure nitrogen atmosphere and 50°C/s cooling rate
(dT12/8), a HAZ-like microstructure evolved with an average 43
Table 4 — Comparison of Different Methods to Determine Phase Ratio in DSS
Base Material Arc Energy (kJ/mm)
DSS 2205 1.57
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 9 — The effect of arc energy on the austenite fraction
and nitrogen loss in the weld metal.
area-% austenite fraction — Fig. 7B. On the 5-s held sample,
no evolved austenitic layer appeared on the outside diameter
by optical microscope analysis. However, a detectable
austenitic layer can be seen by optical microscopy when in-
creasing the peak temperature to 30, 45, and 60 s — Fig. 7C.
The maximum thickness of the evolved austenitic OD
layer was measured in the case of the 60-s holding time,
which is an average 77.3 m — Fig. 8. In this case, the initial
0.163 wt-% nitrogen content increased to 0.182 wt-% of the
sample cut out from the cross section. Comparing the calcu-
lated atomic nitrogen diffusion distance to the measured
austenitic layer thickness (Fig. 8), the calculated distances
are much larger at the investigated temperature and holding
time. The possible reason for this is the numerical model
only calculates with one dimension of nitrogen diffusion in
the purely atomic form and in Gleeble® simulations diatomic
nitrogen atmosphere presents, which dissociates (Ref. 31).
Our results confirmed diatomic nitrogen could have a sig-
nificant effect on the evolving microstructure even in a
plasma-less environment. This finding can be important
when using nitrogen or nitrogen-containing mixtures as
backing gas (Refs. 13, 32, 33) and requires more attention in
the case of multipass welding, where the root pass is contin-
uously reheated.
Single-Pass Autogenous GTAW with Argon
Shielding Gas Results
The results of austenite fraction in the WM and the total
dissolved nitrogen content of the autogenously GTA welded
grade LDX 2404 can be seen in Fig. 9. The increasing arc ener-
gy resulted in decreasing austenite fraction in the WM. The
reason for this is the dissolved nitrogen loss from the base
metal (escaping from the molten pool) is increasing with the
increasing arc energy (Ref. 23). The low austenite and high fer-
Determined Austenite Fraction in the
Weld Metal by Three Methods
Image Analysis Feritscope® ASTM E562
(area %) (%) (area %)
30.3 ± 1.6 28.9 ± 1.9 31.6 ± 2.7
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 83-s
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 11 — The relationship between the austenite fraction and
dissolved nitrogen content in the WM and the shielding gas
N2 content. The LDX 2404 samples were autogenously GTA
welded using 0.86 kJ/mm (21.8 kJ/in.) arc energy.
rite fraction can lead to a degradation of mechanical properties
(Ref. 19) and decreasing corrosion resistance (Ref. 34).
The nitrogen loss can be described by the model devel-
oped by Du Toit (Ref. 35). According to the model, during
the arc welding of high-nitrogen stainless steels (such as
DSS), the possible sources of nitrogen that can enter the
weld pool are as follows: 1) from the arc atmosphere and 2)
from the nitrogen-alloyed base metal. The possible desorp-
tion (evolution) of nitrogen can take place 3) to the arc plas-
ma, recombining as diatomic N2, and 4) solidifying at the
rear of the molten pool, toward the base metal. If the first
source of nitrogen (from the arc plasma) is restricted, as in
this case of autogenous GTAW with pure argon shielding
gas, this absorption-desorption balance is upset.
As a result, nitrogen loss can be measured in the weld
metal, which leads to decreasing austenite fraction. The
amount of nitrogen loss is proportional to the applied arc
energy and the molten pool volume. Figure 9 shows a higher
arc energy resulted in a larger molten pool volume, which re-
sulted in lower austenite fraction due to increasing nitrogen
loss. Although the Du Toit model (Ref. 35) does not take
into account the effects of diatomic nitrogen (see the pseu-
do-nitriding simulations section) and the interaction be-
tween the HAZ and the WM, this model describes the
molten pool size effect on the level nitrogen loss.
To compare the different behaviors of HAZ and WM
austenite fraction and nitrogen content, one set of autoge-
nous GTAW trials was done on DSS 2205 6-mm sheet, using
even improper arc energies (see the single-pass autogenous
GTAW with argon shielding gas section). To compare the ef-
fect of nitrogen and thermal cycle on the austenite fraction
between the HAZ and WM, an infrared thermal camera was
used to measure the dT12/8 cooling rate in the GTA welded
WM during welding. As the chemical composition of the
DSS 2205 rods used for Gleeble® simulations and the 6-mm-
thick DSS 2205 sheets used for autogenous GTAW is the
same (with the same 0.160 wt-% nitrogen content, Table 1),
the results can be compared to each other. From Fig. 10, op-
posite trends can be visible in the austenite fraction as a
function of the dT12/8 cooling rate between the HAZ and
WM. The austenite fraction monotonically increases in the
WM with decreasing heat input (increasing cooling rate),
while the austenite fraction monotonically decreases in the
HAZ with decreasing heat input.
84-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98
Fig. 12 — The effects of subsequent reheating on the austen-
ite fraction in the WM on the GTA welded (arc energy 0.43
kJ/mm, 11 kJ/in.) DSS 2205 sheets, welded with different N2
content in the shielding gas.
Fig. 13 — The effects of the number of welding passes above
the root pass, on the root pass austenite fraction in case of
SDSS 2507 heterogeneous GTAW.
Figure 10 suggests that the austenite volume fraction is
more sensitive (responsive) to fusion zone weld pool size (i.e.,
higher cooling rates have smaller weld pool so more retained
nitrogen under autogenous welding) than HAZ cooling rates.
In the fusion zone, the thermal cycle affects the molten pool
volume and thus the nitrogen loss from the molten pool, and
the thermal cycle defines the atomic nitrogen diffusion dis-
tance in the HAZ (in solid state). The total dissolved nitrogen
content remained the same in the case of HAZ simulations
(see the heat-affected zone simulations in the Gleeble® physi-
cal simulator results section) and decreased in the WM with
the increasing heat input (lower cooling rate).
Some of the reasons for this behavior must be based on
the increased austenite content in the HAZ at the slower
cooling rate, because previously dissolved atomic nitrogen
has more time for diffusion and to form austenite. On the
other hand, in the weld metal, increasing nitrogen loss is
taking place with increased heat input, because nitrogen has
more time to escape from the molten pool.
While the reason for this opposite behavior in austenite
content between the HAZ and WM is not clear at this point,
it is hypothesized that while the volume of HAZ affected in
these experiments was more or less the same, cooling rates
(determined by the arc energy changes) greatly affected the
molten pool size as well (i.e., the area where nitrogen ab-
sorption and/or dissolution/evaporation can take place).
More experiments and modeling should be used to verify

the aforementioned trend. If proven true, the difference in
dissolved nitrogen between the two zones could be used in
the future to bring an equilibrium to these two zones by a
low temperature postweld heat treatment with taking care
to sigma phase formation.
Single-Pass Autogenous GTAW with Different
Nitrogen Contents in the Shielding Gas Results
Two sets of welding trials were done on LDX 2404 3-mm-
thick and DSS 2205 2-mm-thick sheets. In the case of the
LDX 2404 base metal, nitrogen containing shielding gas mix-
tures up to 50% N2 content were used. Figure 11 shows the
results of austenite fraction and nitrogen content in the WM.
Increasing N2 content in the shielding gas resulted in in-
creasing austenite fraction and dissolved nitrogen content;
however, the relationship is not proportional. Because of the
solubility and ionization limits of nitrogen, the ideal 50%
austenite and 50% ferrite phase fraction can hardly be
achieved with autogenous welding. More than 30% N2 be-
side argon is needed for the shielding gas to reach 50%
austenite fraction for autogenous GTA welds of LDX 2404
base metal with 0.86 kJ/mm arc energy. To reach the base
metal’s average ~ 60% austenite fraction, ~ 45% N2 contain-
ing gas mixture should be used with the investigated arc en-
ergy. These levels of nitrogen shielding gases are highly im-
practical and cannot be applied in industrial conditions. Us-
ing 10% N2 in the shielding gas mixture resulted in almost
the same dissolved nitrogen level (0.264 wt-%) as in the
base metal (0.276 wt-%). Although the dissolved nitrogen
content increased to this level, the austenite fraction re-
mained much lower (35.7 area-%) than in the base metal.
The reason for this is the high dependency of the austenite
fraction on the thermal cycle. As the ferrite-to-austenite
transformation occurs in the solid state, through a diffu-
sion-driven process, lower cooling rates (higher heat inputs)
promote more austenite formation. On the contrary, higher
heat inputs will result in larger molten pool volume, which
promotes nitrogen loss and results in decreasing austenite
fraction (see the single-pass autogenous GTAW with argon
shielding gas results section). The balance between nitrogen
loss, solubility, shielding gas nitrogen content, and arc ener-
gy should be considered variables for future research of DSS
autogenous welds. As a result, proper filler material selec-
tion and, most importantly, proper welding thermal cycle
should be considered when seeking to reach the desired level
of A/F phase ratio in the WM and HAZ.
Multipass Welding Simulations in a Gleeble®
Physical Simulator Results
A second set of GTAW trials with subsequent solid-state
reheating was also done (according to the multipass welding
simulations in a Gleeble® physical simulator section) to sim-
ulate multipass welding effects on the austenite phase frac-
tion in the WM. The increasing nitrogen content in the
shielding gas used for GTAW resulted in increasing austenite
fraction in the WM — Fig. 12.
However, as was shown previously (in the single-pass au-
togenous GTAW with different nitrogen content in the
WELDING RESEARCH
shielding gas results section), the relationship is also not
proportional. Between the 2 and 5% N2 shielding gas mix-
tures, practically no austenite fraction increase (an average +
0.1 area-%) is measurable. The subsequent solid-state re-
heating (thermal cycle) had more of a significant effect on
the microstructure formation between 2 and 5% N2. The
largest increase, + 6% austenite fraction, is measured in the
case of the argon shielding welded WM. We hypothesized
that the reason for this is the secondary austenite (2) for-
mation, related to the previously formed chromium nitride
(Cr2N) precipitations. The argon shielded WM showed the
lowest average austenite fraction (32.1 area-%) in the as-
welded condition. This means the dissolved atomic nitrogen
in the molten pool remained in the relatively large (~ 300
m) ferrite grains during solidification. As the solubility
limit of nitrogen in delta-ferrite is very low (0.01 wt-% at
700°C (Ref. 1)) and the delta-ferrite has a lot of chromium,
the trapped nitrogen precipitate as Cr2N (Ref. 36). The Cr2N
precipitations are in relationship with the 2 formation
(Refs. 37, 38). For the evolution of 2 from Cr2N, a model
was developed by Zhiqiang et al. (Ref. 39). They stated
e Cr2N precipitations will occur in the nitrogen supersaturat-
ed delta-ferrite, which are not stable at the 2 formation
temperature (see Ellingham’s diagram for nitrides). During
reheating above 950°C, the Cr2N growth will cause Cr deple-
tion and Ni enrichment in the surroundings, which is favor-
able for 2 formation. When 2 nucleates, Cr2N can dissolve
due to the short diffusion path of nitrogen.
Figure 12 also shows that a higher N2 shielding gas re-
sulted in higher austenite fraction (48.5 area-% in the case
of the 10% N2 welded sample), where the solid-state reheat-
ing only had a minor effect on the microstructure (+ 2%
austenite). As the initial, as-welded microstructure had
more austenite fraction, the dissolved atomic nitrogen could
diffuse to the austenite phases during solid-state phase
transformation. As the solubility of nitrogen is much larger
in austenite than in delta-ferrite (~ 0.4 wt-% at 1100°C (Ref.
1)), the trapped nitrogen can dissolve in austenite, and less
atomic nitrogen in delta-ferrite will form Cr2N, which later
can promote 2 formation.
Actual Gas Tungsten Arc Multipass Welding
Results
To verify the reheating effects on the evolving mi-
crostructure, actual heterogeneous GTAW trials (see the ac-
tual gas tungsten arc multipass welding section) were done
on high-nitrogen alloyed superduplex stainless steel SDSS
2507 (Table 1). Figure 13 shows the austenite fraction in-
creases in the root pass WM with increasing subsequent
passes (lower heat input per pass).
This finding needs great attention by industrial partners.
For example, welding heavy-walled DSS pipes with multiple
welding passes can lead to difficulties in the prediction of the
A/F phase ratio of the root pass. As the subsequent reheating
cycles will mean increasing austenite fraction in the root pass,
a highly austenitic microstructure can form at the contact
surface of the stored product. A very high austenite fraction
(more than 70%) can lead to higher susceptibility to stress
corrosion cracking (Ref. 40) and a possible corrosion degrada-
tion of the weld root. Moreover, the diatomic nitrogen also
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 85-s
WELDING RESEARCH
influences the surface microstructure (as shown in the pseu-
do-nitriding simulations in the Gleeble® physical simulator re-
sults section). Thus, pure nitrogen as a backing gas needs to
be considered for welding procedures in pipe welding.
Conclusions
Several of the objectives of this work have been con-
firmed by other researchers, but a few new conclusions also
arose from this work. From the simulation results, the fol-
lowing conclusions can be drawn:
• The cooling rate between 1200˚ and 800°C (dT12/8) had a
significant effect on the austenite fraction of the simulated
HAZs. Austenite fraction close to the initial base metal mi-
crostructure was measured in the case of dT12/8 = 10°C/s. On
the other end, the water-quenched samples with dT12/8 =
500°C/s resulted in an almost fully ferritic microstructure.
The total dissolved nitrogen content in the HAZ simulated
samples did not change significantly.
• The diatomic nitrogen had an effect on the microstruc-
ture in a plasma-less environment at high peak temperatures
and longer holding times than what normally occurs in the
case of arc welding. Diatomic nitrogen could dissociate and
diffuse into the microstructure, resulting in a fully austenitic
outside layer with a thickness of ~ 70 m after 60 s.
• Multipass welding simulations showed solid-state re-
heating of as-welded microstructures will result in an in-
crease in austenite fraction in the WM. The degree of
austenite fraction growth depends on the nitrogen content
of the shielding gas used for the initial welding. Higher ni-
trogen content in the shielding gas will result in higher ini-
tial austenite fraction in the WM and less austenite fraction
growth after the subsequent solid-state reheating.
From the GTAW results, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
• In the case of autogenous GTAW with argon shielding, a
higher arc energy creates a higher molten pool volume,
which resulted in increasing nitrogen loss. The nitrogen loss
from the molten pool caused a lower austenite fraction in
the WM after cooling to room temperature.
• Opposite trends in austenite fraction of the WM and
HAZ can be measured. The lower dT12/8 cooling rate (higher
arc energy) resulted in decreasing austenite fraction in the
WM because of nitrogen loss from the molten pool. On the
other hand, the lower dT12/8 cooling rate resulted in an in-
creasing austenite fraction in the HAZ because there was
more time for nitrogen diffusion during the solid-state
ferrite-to-austenite phase transformations.
• In the case of autogenous GTAW of LDX 2404 duplex
stainless steel with argon and nitrogen mixture shielding, the
increasing nitrogen content in the shielding gas resulted in in-
creased austenite fraction in the WM. However, impractical (~
45% N2) nitrogen levels in the shielding gas resulted in ideal
austenite-to-ferrite phase balance because of the solubility and
ionization limits of nitrogen. Thus, the thermal cycle has the
most significant effect on the evolving microstructure.
• Actual multipass heterogeneous GTAW of SDSS 2507
superduplex stainless steel showed an increased number of
welding passes resulted in increasing austenite fraction in
the root pass microstructure, which needs great attention
from industrial partners.
86-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98
Separation of atomic from molecular nitrogen effects was
partially successful in this work. More work needs to be per-
formed in this area, with emphasis on finding the volume frac-
tion of nitrides, another trap of the missing atomic nitrogen
needed to stabilize austenite on cooling. Yet, it became obvi-
ous that controlling thermal cycles is a more effective way of
obtaining reproducible duplex stainless steel welds.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Dr. Ben Pletcher from
Bechtel Corp., Houston, Tex., for funding part of this re-
search and invaluable technical input. Thanks also go to Dr.
Elin Westin, voestalpine Böhler Welding, Austria, for her ex-
pertise and helpful discussions. We’d also like to recognize
Outokumpu Corp. and voestalpine Böhler Welding USA for
providing base and filler metals for the welding experi-
ments. Parts of this paper have been supported by the János
Bolyai Research Scholarship of the Hungarian Academy of
Sciences grant number Bo/00196/16/6 and National Re-
search, Development and Innovation Office – NKFIH, OTKA
PD 120865 (K. Májlinger).
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BALÁZS VARBAI (varbai@eik.bme.hu) and KORNÉL MÁJLINGER
are with the Budapest University of Technology and Econom-
ics, Budapest, Hungary. YONI ADONYI, RICHARD BAUMER, and
TIMOTHY PICKLE are with LeTourneau University, Longview, Tex.
JÁNOS DOBRÁNSZKY is with the MTA–BME Research Group for
Composite Science and Technology, Budapest, Hungary.
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 87-s
WELDING RESEARCH
Effect of Multiple Weld Thermal Cycles
on HSLA-100 Steel
The microstructure and mechanical properties of high-strength low-alloy
steel during multipass welding was analyzed
BY J. E. DUCH AND J. N. DUPONT
ABSTRACT
High-strength low-alloy (HSLA)-100 is a precipitate-
strengthened low-alloy steel that is often used for its
good combination of high yield strength and impact
toughness. During initial fabrication and service, multipass
welds and weld repairs often need to be made. Work has
been done to determine the properties in the heat-affect-
ed zone (HAZ) for HSLA-100, but fewer results are available
to understand microstructural evolution and the resultant
properties of the HAZ under multipass welding conditions.
Variations in the HAZ hardness were observed and shown
to be associated with compositional banding. These dif-
ferences between the enriched and depleted solute
bands led to differences in hardenability. Thermodynamic
and diffusion simulations demonstrated that carbon pref-
erentially segregates to the regions of higher concentra-
tion of substitutional elements, thus increasing the hard-
ness. This difference in composition also led to changes
in the transformation temperatures and caused local dif-
ferences in the HAZ microstructure. Multiple-pass autoge-
nous welds confirmed that this compositional banding
has a greater effect on hardness than multiple weld ther-
mal cycles. HAZ simulations showed the hardness in all
regions of the HAZ was higher than that of the base metal
(BM). The impact toughness of the HAZ was equal to or
higher than the BM, except for the coarse-grain HAZ (CG-
HAZ), which was slightly below the acceptable minimum
for the BM. However, the CGHAZ toughness did not de-
grade further after three weld thermal cycles. The reheat-
ed CGHAZ showed a rejuvenation in toughness for subse-
quent thermal cycles with peak temperatures of 810° and
900°C. The phase transformations in the intercritical HAZ
(ICHAZ) region were still unfinished after three weld ther-
mal cycles, and the progressive transformation with each
successive pass increased the hardness and decreased
the toughness. However, fully transformed ICHAZ samples
still maintained excellent impact toughness and high
hardness. Additional samples underwent weld simulations
after a 10% prestrain to study how plastic strain from
residual stress and service would influence the resulting
properties. Except for the CGHAZ, all regions of the
strained BM and HAZ still exhibited toughness values
above the minimum requirements.
88-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98
KEYWORDS
• HSLA-100 • High-Strength Steels • Martensitic Steels
• Ferritic Steels • Mechanical Properties • GTAW • HAZ
• Impact Toughness • Hardness Maps • HAZ Simulations
• Thermodynamic Simulations • EPMA
Introduction
Modern high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) structural steels
are used in the construction of buildings, bridges, pipelines,
and ships requiring high strength and toughness along with
good weldability. HSLA-100 obtains high strength through
fine precipitates (niobium carbonitrides and copper), high
toughness through microstructural features like fine acicu-
lar ferrite, and good resistance to hydrogen cracking by hav-
ing low carbon levels (less than about 0.08 wt-%). The mi-
crostructure and properties of the heat-affected zone (HAZ)
of HSLA-100 and other HSLA steels have been explored
(Refs. 1–6). During the heating stage of the weld thermal cy-
cle, the HAZ may transform the matrix phase into austenite
and coarsen or dissolve strengthening precipitates. The
austenite will then retransform to martensite, bainite, or
ferrite, depending on the cooling rate.
Many welding processes used for fabrication and repair of
HSLA steels require multiple weld passes associated with rela-
tively large section thicknesses. In this case, the HAZ under-
goes a wide range of peak temperatures during each successive
weld thermal cycle. The “starting microstructure” will no
longer be that of the unaffected base metal, but can be a pre-
HAZ region that subsequently experiences a completely new
set of thermal conditions. Weld repairs will expose a section of
the HAZ to many successive thermal cycles within the same
region. The potential effect of these multiple thermal cycles
and cumulative plastic strain from residual stress, which can
accelerate precipitation kinetics (Refs. 7–12), has yet to be ad-
dressed in HSLA-100. Thus, it is currently unknown if an up-
per limit exists to the number of weld repairs that can be made
while maintaining adequate properties for the intended serv-
ice. Studies on other low-alloy steels have shown the presence
of a local brittle zone (LBZ) in reheated sections of the HAZ,
https://doi.org/10.29391/2019.98.007

A B
Table 1 — Alloy Composition (in wt-%) of the HSLA-100 Steel Employed in This Study
C Mn P S Si Cu
0.08 0.85 0.01 0.002 0.24 1.53
which may locally decrease the toughness of that region (Refs.
13–20). Considering that HSLA steels rely on a complex heat
treatment, copper precipitation strengthening, and tempered
low-carbon martensite to achieve the desired strength and
toughness, it is essential to develop a fundamental under-
standing of how the HAZ strength and toughness change with
different thermal cycle combinations.
This study analyzes the hardness of multipass autoge-
nous welds along with the hardness and toughness of simu-
lated HAZ samples in HSLA-100. The results of this work
provide insight into the microstructural evolution and con-
comitant mechanical properties during multipass welding of
this steel, and demonstrate that multiple weld thermal cy-
cles do not have a significantly detrimental effect on me-
chanical properties.
Experimental Procedure
HSLA-100 material was obtained with procurement speci-
fication ENG-TS-JEI-0083(U), Rev. B. The chemical composi-
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 1 — Banding in HSLA-100 as seen by the dark and light
etched bands: A — Low-magnification LOM; B — high-magnifi-
cation LOM; C — SEM of enriched (dark etched) band and hard-
ness; D — SEM of depleted (light etched) band and hardness.
Ni Cr Mo Al Nb V Fe
3.58 0.58 0.61 0.027 0.025 0.002 Bal.
tion of the HSLA-100 was determined by using the spark op-
tical emission spectroscopy (spark-OES) method, shown in
Table 1. A 3-in.-thick section of the steel was formed at
1165°C for 180 min and air cooled, followed by two separate
austenization treatments at 930° and 891°C for 228 min each
with a water quench after each treatment. The alloy was
quenched and then aged at 602°C for 200 min followed by an
additional age at 630°C for 240 min and then water quenched
to achieve the desired mechanical properties.
Autogenous gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) passes
were made on HSLA-100 weld plates at heat inputs of 980
and 1730 J/mm, which covered the typical range for the ap-
plication of interest. Multipass weld samples, where an au-
togenous weld pass was made directly on top of the previous
weld pass, were prepared for each heat input. This process
was repeated up to ten passes. Vickers microhardness maps
with a 100-g load and dwell time of 5 s were performed on
sections of the weld that included the base metal, HAZ, and
fusion zone for each weld pass at each heat input.
Thermal cycles that were used for the HAZ simulations
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 89-s
WELDING RESEARCH

were calculated by Sandia’s SmartWeld (SOAR) program under

A
three-dimensional heat flow conditions (typical for thick
plates) using a heat input of 1730 J/mm (Refs. 21–23). A Glee-
ble® 3500 thermomechanical simulator was used to perform
the HAZ simulations. Five peak temperatures of 675°, 750°,
810°, 900°, and 1300°C were used to represent the subcritical
HAZ (SCHAZ), intercritical HAZ (ICHAZ), high-intercritical
HAZ (HICHAZ), fine-grain HAZ (FGHAZ), and coarse-grain
HAZ (CGHAZ), respectively. Multipass samples are described
by the thermocycle reheat condition followed by the first-pass
thermocycle. For example, the intercritically reheated coarse
grain heat-affected zone would be written ICR CGHAZ. The
two intercritical temperatures were chosen to be at the low
temperature (750°C) and high temperature (810°C) of the in-
tercritical region. Single-pass HAZ samples were made as well
as multipass samples, which exposed a sample to back-to-back
identical thermal cycles. The CGHAZ samples that were ex-
posed to a single thermal cycle were also exposed to subse- B
quent thermal cycles with different peak temperatures.
The influence of a pre-strain on the HAZ properties was
also considered. This was done to investigate the influence Fig. 2 — A — LOM of base metal; B — with WDS semiquantita-
of strain that can occur in the HAZ due to residual stress tive chemical composition.
along with plastic deformation that may occur in service be-
tween weld repairs. For this part of the study, a bar of
HSLA-100 with dimensions 30  40  155 mm was com-
pressed to 10 strain before the HAZ simulations. The 10%
plastic strain level was based on the upper limit to plastic
strain that would be expected based on known service con-
ditions. The samples used for all the HAZ simulations were
11  11  70 mm rectangular bars. Charpy testing was per-
formed at –84°C on standard size samples machined down
from the HAZ bars. The HAZ samples were also analyzed via
microhardness and microscopy.
Samples for microstructural characterization were pre-
pared using standard metallographic techniques with a 0.05-
m colloidal silica final polish. Samples were etched in 2
Nital. Microstructural characterization was performed on a
Reichert-Jung MeF3 inverted light optical microscope
(LOM). Higher magnification scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) was performed using a Hitachi 4300 FEG/SEM with a
15-kV acceleration voltage. Local chemical information from
electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) measurements em- Fig. 3 — DICTRA diffusion simulation after typical heat treat-
ploying wavelength-dispersive spectrometry (WDS) was per- ment to determine carbon segregation. Simulated Ac1 tem-
formed using a JEOL JXA-8900 microprobe with a step size peratures are labeled along the carbon composition line.
of 4.5 m. Thermodynamic and diffusion simulations were
carried out with Thermo-Calc and DICTRA software (Refs. cycles was found to be controlled, in large part, by remnant
24–28) using TCFE8 and MOBFE4 databases. segregation in the base metal and associated variations in
microstructure. The remnant segregation persists from seg-
Results and Discussion regation during solidification of the original ingot that was
not fully homogenized by subsequent thermal treatments,
Dilatometry data for HSLA-100 was collected, and it was or from thermal fluctuations from the initial casting, and is
found that at 300°C/s (a typical heating rate for welding) the commonly observed in HSLA and other steels (Refs. 1, 29,
Ac1 temperature was 740°C and the Ac3 temperature was 30). An example of this microstructural banding is shown
840°C. The Ac1 temperature was higher than literature val- by the LOM images, with SEM micrographs and hardness
ues of 600°C (Ref. 1), but those literature values are for slow values in Fig. 1.
heating rates. The remnant segregation and associated variation in mi-
crostructure is shown by the regions in Fig. 1A that, when
Remnant Segregation in the Base Metal etched, appear light and dark within the base metal. Higher
magnification images of the bands are shown in the LOM
As discussed in more detail later in this paper, mi- images in Fig. 1B. SEM images of each region are provided in
crostructural evolution in the HAZ during multiple thermal Fig. 1C and D, which show a finer structure of lath marten-

90-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98

 WELDING RESEARCH

A B A

Fig. 4 — A — LOM of indented multipass weld at 1730 J/mm

heat input; B — with hardness map with Vickers color scale.

site in the enriched band than in the depleted band. Note

that these local variations in microstructure produce varia-
tions in hardness of the BM between 264 and 285 HV.
EPMA results acquired across a banded region (Fig. 2)
demonstrate that Ni, Mn, and Cu are enriched in the darkly
etching band and depleted in the lightly etching band. These
gradients in substitutional elements will produce a carbon
chemical potential gradient that will, in turn, produce local
variations in the carbon concentration.
A diffusion simulation using DICTRA (Fig. 3) was per-
formed in which the measured solute profiles of the substi-
tutional elements, nominal carbon concentration, and
known thermal history of the base metal (described earlier
in the Experimental Procedure section) were used as inputs
to the model calculations. The carbon was enriched to
~ 0.094 wt-% in the enriched regions and depleted to
~ 0.066 wt-% in the depleted regions. The observed differ-
ence in hardness within these regions can be attributed to
the higher concentrations of both substitutional elements
and carbon that will locally increase the hardness due to sol-
id solution strengthening. The locally increased carbon con-
centration is particularly important, since carbon is the
most significant martensite strengthener (Refs. 31, 32).
Thus, this banding difference will be more exaggerated
Fig. 5 — Histogram of hardness in the HAZ for each weld
pass. A — Low-heat input; B — high-heat input.
when fresh martensite is present, which often occurs in the
HAZ when the peak temperature is above Ac1.
The composition of each band from the EPMA data and
DICTRA diffusion simulations as well as their calculated trans-
formation temperatures (from Thermo-Calc) are shown in
Table 2. These simulations estimate an Ac1 and Ac3 tempera-
ture of 460° and 760°C, respectively, for the nominal composi-
tion. The depleted band had calculated Ac1 and Ac3 tempera-
tures of 480° and 770°C, respectively, while the enriched band
had calculated Ac1 and Ac3 temperatures of 420° and 750°C.
The lower Ac1 temperature for the enriched band means that,
for a given HAZ intercritical temperature, there is a greater
driving force for austenite growth than for the depleted band.
The actual Ac1 and Ac3 temperatures as determined by
dilatometry (which provide average transformation tempera-

Table 2 — Thermo-Calc Simulation Results for Slight Changes in Composition from Banding

Sample Fe Si Mn Cu Al Ni Cr Mo Nb C P S Ac
1 [C] Ac
3 [C]

Enriched Band 91.71 0.24 0.96 1.81 0.027 3.90 0.60 0.62 0.025 0.094 0.01 0.002 240 750
Depleted Band 93.26 0.24 0.77 1.40 0.027 3.23 0.52 0.45 0.025 0.066 0.01 0.002 480 770
Nominal Composition See Table 1 460 760
Actual (300°C/s Heating) See Table 1 740 840

MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 91-s

WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 6 — Hardness and impact toughness for single-pass and
multipass simulated HAZ samples.
Fig. 8 — Hardness and toughness for reheated CGHAZ samples.
tures) are much higher, 740° and 840°C, respectively.
However, the trends should be consistent. The enriched
band will have lower Ac1 and Ac3 temperatures than the
nominal composition, while the depleted region will have
higher transformation temperatures. This difference in
transformation temperatures will lead to microstructural
differences between the bands in the HAZ, especially in the
intercritical region. The enriched band, with a lower Ac1, will
more rapidly nucleate and grow austenite than the depleted
band. The higher solute composition in this region can also
affect stability of the resultant transformation products due
to local changes in the hardenability.
Autogenous Welds
Figure 4 shows a typical example of hardness variations
in the HAZ after successive passes were applied with autoge-
nous GTA welds. The hardness variations due to banding in
the BM ranged from 259 to 277 (19 HV difference). In the
HAZ, in comparison, the largest hardness variance was from
92-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98
Fig. 7 — Dilation plot of ICHAZ and HICHAZ with the transfor-
mation start and finish labeled.
360 to 440 HV (80 HV difference). The enriched bands
(shown by the red areas on the hardness map) and depleted
bands (shown by the light green areas on the hardness map)
in the HAZ have corresponding higher and lower hardness,
respectively.
Figure 5 provides a summary of all the hardness maps in
the form of a histogram for each heat input considered. The
maximum hardness in the hardness histograms, 440 HV, is
typical of the enriched region. The depleted region hardness
is typically 360 HV. The most frequent hardness value,
around 390 HV, is in fact the transition region between the
enriched and depleted band. If there was a hardening or
softening trend with subsequent weld passes, the most fre-
quent hardness, which is the peak of the graph, would shift
left or right to indicate a trend toward an increase or de-
crease in hardness.
However, the histogram does not show any systematic dif-
ferences in hardness frequency values when all ten weld passes
are considered. Any possible trend in HAZ hardness with suc-
cessive weld passes appears to be masked in the histogram by
the relatively large variations in hardness between the solute
enriched and depleted regions (that is clearly evident in the
hardness map shown in Fig. 4). Some small peaks do emerge,
especially for the low-heat-input samples, but this is most like-
ly due to the banding effect as well. The number of indents in
the HAZ for the low heat input (525) was smaller than for the
high heat input (805) simply due to the smaller HAZ size for
the low heat input. Therefore, it was more sensitive statistical-
ly to oversampling from the enriched or depleted band. Thus,
the effect of banding on the HAZ hardness is more significant
than any possible change in hardness from multiple weld ther-
mal cycles.
Simulated HAZ Gleeble Samples
The hardness and impact toughness for each section of
the HAZ for single, multipass (two and three pass), “fully
transformed,” and prestrained samples are summarized in
Fig. 6 (the “fully transformed” samples are further discussed
later in this paper).

A B
D E
Fig. 9 — SEM of single pass with hardness: A — Base metal; B — SCHAZ; C — ICHAZ; D — HICHAZ; E — FGHAZ; F — CGHAZ.
Considering the single-pass results first, the hardness of
the HAZ remained above the BM value, sharply increasing
through the intercritical region and reaching a maximum for
the FGHAZ. There was a relatively wide variation in hardness
that is attributed to banding. This hardness variation was
greatest for the ICHAZ and HICHAZ due to the shift in trans-
formation temperatures for each band. The impact toughness
of the HAZ increased from the base metal to the SCHAZ and
reached a peak toughness in the HICHAZ. The FGHAZ had
lower toughness, but it was still comparable to the BM. The
toughness in the CGHAZ was slightly below the accepted mini-
mum for the intended application of the BM, but it did not de-
grade further when exposed to up to three thermal cycles. The
hardness of the CGHAZ also stayed consistent.
The results of the pre-strained (PS) HAZ showed that the
toughnesses for the BM and SCHAZ were both lower than
the strain-free samples. This was expected because the plas-
tic strain will exhaust some of the ductility of the BM, and
the thermal cycle of the SCHAZ was not of sufficient time
and temperature to increase the ductility significantly via re-
covery and recrystallization. Application of plastic strain re-
duced the toughness in the ICHAZ and HICHAZ relative to
the strain-free specimens. Both of these regions showed an
increase in toughness relative to the BM and SCHAZ re-
gions, albeit a smaller increase than for the single-pass sam-
ple. The FG and CGHAZ both had toughness values close to
the single-pass samples, as the temperature was high
enough to induce recovery, recrystallization (for the FG-
Table 3 — Minute Isothermal Hold Results
Isothermal Hold tpeak [s] tstart [s]
Temperature
750C 10 47
810C 15.5 2 40
WELDING RESEARCH
C
F
HAZ), and grain growth (for the CGHAZ) (Ref. 33). The
hardness of the BM was only slightly higher for the PS as
compared to the strain-free sample. This was expected since
HSLA-100 has low work hardening (Ref. 34–36). The hard-
ness of the PS samples in the HAZ above the Ac3 tempera-
ture are generally slightly softer than the strain-free
samples.
In the intercritical region, the hardness increased after
each thermal cycle, and the impact toughness remained be-
low that of the first pass. This trend was not picked up by
the HAZ hardness histogram for the autogenous weld pass-
es, as the change in hardness was comparable in scale to the
scatter as a result of banding. Additionally, it was clear here
that the peak hardness of the ICHAZ as well as the HICHAZ,
FGHAZ, and CGHAZ all had similar hardness. An increase in
hardness in the ICHAZ masked the hardness of the higher
peak temperature HAZ sections. HAZ simulations allow for
the hardness of each HAZ to be analyzed separately from
each other, resulting in clearer trends. Although there is a
decrease in impact toughness, it is still above the required
minimum for the base metal. In both cases, the impact
toughness was comparable to the base metal, but it was still
lower than the peak toughness after the first pass.
To analyze these changes, dilatometry was performed on
a sample that was held at the ICHAZ and HICHAZ peak tem-
perature — Fig. 7. These dilatometry tests were identical to
the ICHAZ and HICHAZ thermal cycles, except that at the
peak temperature the temperature remained constant for 5
ttransform [s] Dilationtransform [m]
188.5 5.1
8.4
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 93-s
WELDING RESEARCH
A C
B D
Fig. 10 — SEM with hardness of ICHAZ: A — Single-pass depleted band; B — single-pass enriched band; C — two-pass depleted
band; D — two-pass enriched band; E — full-transform depleted band; F — full-transform enriched band.
min. The time it took to cease the transformation was
recorded. The ICHAZ took 240 s from the peak temperature
to fully transform, while the HICHAZ took only 45 s to fully
transform (Table 3).
A single weld pass most likely does not remain at the peak
temperature long enough to permit full transformation. It is
important to note that “full” transformation as used here does
not imply that the sample will completely transform into
austenite. The austenite transformation will still not be com-
plete since the peak temperature is between the Ac1 and Ac3
temperatures. Thus the “full” transformed state is reached
when the thermodynamic equilibrium ratio of ferrite and
austenite at that temperature is met. For example, for a heat
input of 2150 J/mm, an ICHAZ thermal cycle remains above
the Ac1 temperature for only 1.6 s, well below the 240 s for a
full transformation. However, with successive weld passes, the
intercritical regions of the HAZ specimens would get closer
and closer to a “fully” transformed state, as is supported by the
changes in properties. Thus, the increase in hardness and
change in toughness with successive passes observed in Fig. 6
can be attributed to the additional extent of transformation
that occurs with each additional pass. However, when these
regions of the HAZ are “fully” transformed, there should be no
further significant changes in properties (assuming no signifi-
cant effect from tempering of the fully transformed
microstructure).
Fully transformed samples were prepared by heating the
sample up to the peak temperature, holding it until it fully
transformed (240 or 45 s depending on the sample), and
then cooling it as a typical thermal cycle. These fully trans-
formed samples had higher hardness and lower toughness
than the single-pass samples, but the toughness values were
still above that of the BM.
For weld repairs and multipass welding, low-alloy steels
may experience the LBZ phenomena. The LBZ usually con-
tains blocky martensite–austenite constituent (M–A con-
94-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98
E
F
stituent) phases, which can significantly reduce toughness
due to phase debonding and crack formation (Refs. 13, 37–
41). The LBZ has been found in low-alloy steels to occur pri-
marily in the intercritically reheated CGHAZ (ICR CGHAZ)
or the CGR CGHAZ (Refs. 13, 39) where a sample under-
went a CGHAZ thermal cycle, followed by a reheat thermal
cycle to the ICHAZ or CGHAZ, respectively. Thus, HSLA-
100 CGHAZ samples were reheated to a secondary peak
temperature, and the hardness and impact toughnesses of
the samples were determined — Fig. 8.
The subcritically reheated CGHAZ (SCR CGHAZ) showed
only a small reduction in toughness, and the ICR CGHAZ for
HSLA-100 was within scatter of the single-pass CGHAZ.
The high intercritically reheated CGHAZ (HICR CGHAZ)
and the fine-grained reheated CGHAZ (FGR CGHAZ) both
showed a toughness rejuvenation, which increased the
toughness to a value above the minimum for the BM. Thus,
subsequent reheating of the CGHAZ does not appear to
cause a significant decrease in toughness.
Microstructural Evolution
SEM micrographs of the simulated single-pass samples
are shown in Fig. 9. The BM is primarily tempered marten-
site and acicular ferrite (Ref. 1). Previous TEM studies have
shown that HSLA-100 is strengthened by copper precipi-
tates and niobium carbonitrides (Refs. 1, 42–44).
Figure 9A and B shows the BM and SCHAZ both have
tempered phases present. Figure 9C shows the ICHAZ has
the same tempered base structure with some small trans-
formed lath-like phases apparent on lath and prior austenite
grain boundaries. The increase in hardness between the BM
and ICHAZ is associated with this new transformation prod-
uct (which is likely bainite and/or martensite). Figure 9D
and E shows the HICHAZ and FGHAZ, respectively. These

A B
Fig. 11 — Depleted and enriched band of the PS ICHAZ with transformed phases labeled.
Table 4 — Nominal HSLA-100 Simulated Carbide Phase Dissolution
Temperature
Thermo-Calc Simulated Phase Dissolution Temperature [C]
Cementite 652
M23C6 672
M6C 715
Nb (C,N) 1120
regions look very similar, with refined grain structure, but
the average hardness values are higher for the FGHAZ, indi-
cating full transformation. Figure 9F shows the CGHAZ mi-
crostructure. The large prior austenite grains, fresh marten-
site, and coarse autotempered martensite explain why the
CGHAZ has low toughness. Coarse martensite is a well-doc-
umented phase that often appears in the CGHAZ of HSLA-
100 (Refs. 1, 45, 46) and other low-carbon steels (Refs. 47–
49). It should be mentioned that it is different than plate
martensite, which occurs for high-carbon steels. Differences
often can only be determined using transmission electron
microscopy (TEM), which can identify twin boundaries and
midrib features typical of plate martensite but not coarse
martensite. However, it is known to significantly lower the
toughness (Refs. 49, 50).
The intercritical samples, ICHAZ and HICHAZ, showed
the largest change in toughness with multiple weld thermal
cycles. Although the SCHAZ and FGHAZ both showed a
change in hardness and toughness, the change was relatively
small and within scatter of the first pass. The CGHAZ
showed no substantial change in hardness or toughness.
Figure 10 shows the ICHAZ as it progresses through the
increasing amount of transformation from the single-pass
ICHAZ, to the ICR ICHAZ, to the “full” ICHAZ. The trans-
formed regions were identified as the lath structure of the
transformed regions was noticeably finer than the tempered
martensite matrix. Additionally, the globular shape of the
transformed regions for the ICHAZ-enriched band stood out
against the larger prior austenite grain boundaries. The
hardness in the depleted band of the first pass was on aver-
age 275 HV, while the hardness of the enriched band was
WELDING RESEARCH
330 HV. The microstructure of the depleted band was very
similar to the tempered martensite of the BM and SCHAZ,
with similar hardness to both samples. Any phase transfor-
mation in the depleted band was subtle. However, the en-
riched band showed these transformed phases discussed
previously, with an increase in hardness by 55 HV. The ICR
ICHAZ showed transformed phases in the depleted band
that were not visible in the single-pass ICHAZ, as well as a
corresponding increase in hardness by almost 20 HV. For the
enriched band, the small transformed phases appear to have
grown to cover almost the entire sample, only leaving a few
untransformed regions visible. The hardness of the enriched
band increased by 36 HV. This progressive phase transfor-
mation led to the increase in hardness and change in tough-
ness that were described earlier. The differences between
the depleted and enriched band were harder to discern mi-
crostructurally in the fully transformed samples, but there
was still a significant difference in hardness due to the com-
positional variations previously described.
The PS samples that underwent HAZ simulations showed
lower toughness for the BM and SCHAZ due to nonrecovered
cold working. The PS FGHAZ and PS CGHAZ both showed
similar hardness and toughness values as their counterpart
strain-free samples. The microstructure of the PS samples did
not appear significantly different than their single-pass coun-
terparts, except for the ICHAZ. The PS ICHAZ had hardness
and toughness values closer to the ICR ICHAZ instead of the
ICHAZ. The microstructure of the PS ICHAZ (Fig. 11) showed
the same transformed austenite phases seen in the ICHAZ.
However, the amount of phase transformation was signifi-
cantly increased as compared to the single-pass ICHAZ. The
depleted band, which did not show any transformed phases
for the single-pass ICHAZ, had transformed regions for the PS
ICHAZ. The enriched band, which saw limited phase transfor-
mation for the ICHAZ, had substantially higher volume frac-
tion of transformed phases for the PS ICHAZ. This trend, lim-
ited transformed phases in the depleted band and substantial
transformed phases in the enriched band, was similar to the
ICR ICHAZ, which has toughness and hardness values within
the scatter of the PS ICHAZ. Comparing the enriched and de-
pleted bands of the PS ICHAZ and the unstrained ICHAZ
showed there is an apparent increase in transformation when
MARCH 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 95-s
WELDING RESEARCH

A B

C D

Fig. 12 — SEM of the following: A — CGHAZ; B — ICR CGHAZ; C — HICR CGHAZ; and; D — FGR CGHAZ.

strain is applied. However, this potentially could be due to
compositional differences like those seen for the enriched and
depleted band. EPMA traces would need to be done to confirm
the differences in transformation are due to the large amount
of cold working, not compositional differences.
The low toughness of the CGHAZ can be attributed to as-
quenched martensite, coarse prior austenite grains, and
coarse martensite (Ref. 1). The FGHAZ may also likely ex-
hibit as-quenched martensite, so this factor is most likely
not as important as the other two. Coarse grains reduce the
amount of crack diversion in a given area, reducing the
amount of energy absorbed. Coarse martensite is the larger
auto-tempered phases that have been shown to reduce
toughness (Refs. 49, 50).
The CGHAZ and the ICR CGHAZ both looked very simi-
lar, except that for the ICR CGHAZ sample; the cementite
particles in the coarse martensite had mostly dissolved —
Fig. 12A and B. The dissolution of carbides in the ICR CG-
HAZ and the increase in hardness was studied in greater de-
tail. Thermo-Calc simulations of the nominal HSLA-100
composition were done to determine the dissolution tem-
perature of different carbides, as shown in Table 4. All car-
bides present in the simulation, except for the Nb (C,N), dis-
solved in the intercritical region. It is well known that Nb
(C,N) help with grain refinement and are stable in the HAZ
up until the CGHAZ, where they dissolve (Ref. 1). The simu-
lation estimates the following: cementite dissolves at 652°C,
well below the peak temperature of 750°C for the ICHAZ. Al-
though Thermo-Calc simulations assume equilibrium and
thus tend to show lower temperatures for phase dissolution
or transformation, it can be assumed there was some, if not
complete, dissolution at 750°C.
Thus, the increase in hardness in the ICR CGHAZ was
due to two factors. First, there was locally increased carbon
content in the coarse martensite grains due to the dissolu-
tion of these carbides, as mentioned previously. This in-
crease in carbon content will strengthen the martensitic ma-
trix, similar to what was observed for the enriched band, as
compared to the depleted band. Secondly, the increase in
composition due to this dissolution of carbides will lead to a
decrease in the Ac1 temperature. This was also shown in the
enriched band, where the enriched band started transforma-
tion before the depleted band. This decrease in the Ac1 tem-
perature will lead to more austenite transformation on heat-
ing. This austenite transformation on heating would lead to
grain refinement, increasing the toughness. Since there is
not a substantial change in toughness of the ICR CGHAZ as
compared to the single-pass CGHAZ, there is likely limited

96-s WELDING JOURNAL / MARCH 2019, VOL. 98


austenite transformation on heating. This limited transfor-
mation is associated with the short time above the Ac1 tem-
perature and the reduction of boundaries the austenite
would precipitate on. Therefore, the increase in hardness for
the ICR CGHAZ is mostly due to the local carbon enrich-
ment due to dissolved carbides, which would cause the small
hardness increase (20 HV) as compared to the CGHAZ.
There is no evidence of M–A constituents in any section
of the reheated CGHAZ and thus no LBZ phenomena. The
HICR CGHAZ and FGR CGHAZ samples both show a great
deal more grain refinement, and a reduction in the size of
the coarse martensite — Fig. 12C and D. This grain refine-
ment and coarse martensite reduction is the most likely
cause for the increase in toughness. The increase in hard-
ness may be due to grain refinement as well, following the
Hall-Petch relationship.
Conclusion
The influence of multiple thermal cycles in the mi-
crostructure and properties of HSLA-100 was investigated
with autogenous GTA welds and HAZ simulations. The me-
chanical property results were complemented by microstruc-
tural modeling and characterization. The main results and
conclusions are summarized as follows:
1. Thermo-Calc and DICTRA simulations show the solute-
rich bands have higher carbon content and higher hardenabili-
ty than the solute-depleted band, and this primarily accounts
for the higher hardness in the solute-rich bands.
2. For autogenous welds, local hardness variations due to
compositional banding are more significant than the influ-
ence of multiple weld thermal cycles.
3. The ICHAZ experiences increasing transformation
with each successive pass that generally produces increases
in hardness and decreases in toughness. However, the
“fully” transformed ICHAZ region still maintained tough-
ness values above that of the BM.
4. The CGHAZ toughness (46 ft-lb) is slightly below the
minimum toughness for the base metal (60 ft-lb), but appli-
cation of three CGHAZ thermal cycles did not induce any ad-
ditional decrease in toughness.
5. Application of 10% strain prior to the weld thermal cy-
cle reduces the toughness of the BM, SCHAZ, and ICHAZ re-
gions, but the toughness of these regions are still main-
tained above minimum acceptable levels. The toughness of
the FGHAZ and CGHAZ regions exposed to 10% strain was
similar to that of the strain-free samples.
6. The toughness of the CGHAZ is improved when heated
to the high temperature intercritical and fine grain HAZ re-
gions due to microstructural refinement.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial sup-
port from the National Science Foundation through the
industry/university cooperative research center grant to the
Manufacturing and Materials Joining Innovation Center
(Ma2JIC). They would also like to thank Matthew Johnson,
Daniel Javernick, and David Tung from Los Alamos National
Laboratory for their assistance and discussion.
WELDING RESEARCH
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JONAH E. DUCH and JOHN N. DUPONT are with Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, Pa.