Caudata Magazine Issue 1

Caudata.
org Magazine
A publication of Caudata.org
ISSN 1649-5934
Issue 1, Autumn 2004
Available from: http://www.caudata.org
Editors
John P. Clare, Founder of Caudata.org
Jennifer Macke, Principle Editor of Caudata Culture (http://culture.caudata.org)
Consultant
Nate Nelson, Co-Founder of Caudata.org
Contact Information
Email: magazine@caudata.org
Phone: International Dialing Code + 353 85 720 6194
Postal Address: Available on request via email to the above email address
This is a free electronic publication. It is available from Caudata.org’s web site. You are hereby granted
permission to print your own personal copy. Please feel free to distribute the original PDF file (unaltered) and
without fee. Distribution of printed copies without prior permission from the editors named above is
forbidden. Please note that the articles and photos presented in this magazine are the property of the authors
named herein and are used with permission. This magazine is copyright  2004 John P. Clare for Caudata.org
and as such it is protected by International Copyright law. Permission is granted to students and educators to
reproduce individual articles in part or in whole for non-profit use in their institutional studies and
assignments. For commercial usage, please contact the editors via the above email address.
Article Submission Details

Authors submitting articles for publication should conform to the following guidelines:
• Our preferred submission method is electronic, via the email address above. Conventional documents
can also be submitted but please arrange this with us first.
• All text should be in written English, with the exception of species names or text relevant to the
article (e.g., the Spanish common name of a newt native to Spain). Due to the international audience
of Caudata.org, authors for whom English is not their first language and who may not consider
themselves fluent are still encouraged to submit their articles for consideration – we can usually
arrange for someone to help you finalise your article.
• All images should be submitted electronically at an absolute minimum size of 500 pixels in the
longest dimension at 72 dpi – images of 1000 pixels in the longest dimension at 300 dpi are preferred.
Conventional photographs can be scanned (no fee, and your photos will be returned but please ensure
you don’t send originals).
• Submission does not guarantee acceptance. While not a peer-reviewed journal in the strictest sense,
Caudata.org Magazine will accept or reject articles primarily on the basis of relevance and reader-
appeal, as judged by the editors and consultants.
• We welcome questions from authors and potential authors – please use the contact information
detailed above.
Caudata.org Magazine
Table of Contents
An Introductory Message from John P. Clare................................................................................................................... 4
Photos from the last year .................................................................................................................................................. 5
Leader Article
Observations of Cynops ensicauda popei habitats in the subtropical rainforests of Yambaru, Okinawa, Japan .............. 7
by Timothy Johnson
Triturus Special
i) A Beginner’s Guide to Breeding Triturus.......................................................................................... 26
by David Nash
ii) Triturus boscai: a profile of Bosca’s Newt in the Wild and its Maintenance in Captivity................. 29
by Yago Alonso Giménez
iii) Keeping and Breeding the Southern Marbled Newt (Triturus pygmaeus) ......................................... 36
by Sergé Bogaerts
Husbandry and Breeding of the Narrow-Striped Dwarf Siren (Pseudobranchus axanthus) .......................................... 40
by Edward Kowalski
Clouded Futures: a short discussion of recent publications on the effects of climate change on species extinction ...... 44
by Alan Cann
3 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

An Introductory Message from John P. Clare
Caudata.org has been in existence since February Timothy discusses the threats faced by this species and
2001. As a web site-come-Internet portal, its primary issues related to the preservation of its environment.
goal is to facilitate the sharing of accurate information Are you interested in the genus Triturus, the
about newts and salamanders, with an emphasis on majority of European newts? Then you are in for a real
their maintenance in captivity. treat. David Nash from Michigan, USA, Yago Alonso
This electronic publication that you hold now in Giménez from Spain, and Sergé Bogaerts from the
your virtual hands – or real hands, if you’ve printed Netherlands have written three very interesting articles
your personal copy and please feel free to do so – is an about several members of this genus. David takes the
important milestone in Caudata.org’s development. humble approach, describing things from the point of
The community, made up of enthusiasts and view of a hobbyist new to the genus. His experiences
professionals who frequent the site, has come together should be very helpful to those aspiring to breed large-
to produce the first English language publication bodied Triturus species in captivity. Yago is quite
devoted to newts and salamanders that is not aimed privileged in that he lives in the same country as his
solely at the academic. I find the term “community” to species of interest, Triturus boscai, Bosca’s Newt. He
be highly appropriate in describing the people reading describes not only its care in captivity but also its
and posting on our forum, writing species and care natural history. Sergé’s article is focused on Triturus
articles for the Caudata Culture web site, and the pygmaeus, the Southern Marbled Newt. He shares his
participants in our live online chat room, who, as I considerable experiences with this rarely talked-about
write this, are talking about Asian Salamandrid newts. species for the first time outside of academic journals
The authors of the articles published in this magazine in the English language.
are drawn from across our community and from across The Salamandridae receive a lot of attention in this
the world. Their backgrounds are equally diverse, and issue, but I’m pleased to say that Edward Kowalski,
this is reflected, to some extent, in their individual Lead Keeper in Herpetology at Philadelphia Zoo, has
writing styles. The articles are pitched at a broadly chosen to talk about the Narrow-Striped Dwarf Siren,
similar audience, and they should be accessible to most Pseudobranchus axanthus. This somewhat mysterious
people with a working knowledge of tailed amphibians. genus is rarely encountered in captivity, so it is
Some scientists may disparage care and breeding particularly pleasing that Edward has shared his
articles such as some of those published here, but experience with this unusual species.
information from enthusiasts regarding the behaviour Climate change, and its effects on amphibians
and care of unusual species can be just as insightful to around the world, has become a topic of grave concern
scientific research as, for example, phylogenetic and to many scientists. Amphibians are frequently
ethological studies. Whilst hobbyist observations are considered an indicator of pollution and climate change
rarely made in controlled and verifiable circumstances, due to their permeable skins and their reliance on more
they frequently offer new lines of enquiry for pursuit than one habitat for their development. For anyone
by those who can provide such conditions. A few of interested in this subject, Alan Cann analyses and
the articles presented here were written by hobbyists discusses some recent relevant publications in his
who are professional biologists. These people article.
willingly share and exchange information with the lay No matter where your interests lie, I’m sure you
people of our community and I’m sure they will freely will find that this first issue of Caudata.org Magazine
admit to having learned a lot from their fellow “non- has an article for you. If you receive this magazine as a
professional” enthusiasts. print-out from a friend and it’s your first encounter
This brings me to the articles themselves. I with anything related to Caudata.org, I urge you to get
recently spoke with a professional biologist who on the Internet and join in with us – you’re missing out
lamented the lack of locality data in hobbyist articles and we would very much like to meet you.
and discussions. Our leader article, by Japan-based We plan to publish bi-annually and we have a few
Timothy Johnson, just goes to show that of which a articles already for this coming Spring’s issue. The
hobbyist is capable. Timothy’s article demonstrates his magazine is testament to the sense of community and
passion to learn more about a species in his favourite inclusiveness that pervades Caudata.org. I would like
genus, Cynops ensicauda popei, the Gold-Dust Newt. to thank everyone involved in Caudata.org, the authors
Timothy travelled to the island of Okinawa to explore of the articles in this issue, and you the reader. You’ve
the Yambaru rainforest. He truly delved into the made Caudata.org a community to be proud of, and an
nitty-gritty of this species – and it’s all here. An article information resource second to none. Jennifer Macke
like this describing a species in nature is not only of deserves particular thanks – without her careful edits
interest to scientists but also to most hobbyists. Why? and patience there would be no magazine.
Well if you want your charges to live healthy,
“normal” lives and reproduce successfully, it pays to - John P. Clare, Monday 11th October, in Dublin, Ireland.
know their preferred conditions, the seasonal
temperature changes to which they are subject and the
variety of habitats in which they spend different times
of the day or year, and the various stages of their lives.

Photos from the last year
Caudata.org has helped many people to make new contacts and new friends all over the world, or even down the
street! Some photos from a few members’ gatherings are presented here.
David Herbert’s Meeting, May 15th 2004 International Amphibian Days, April 3rd 2004
Suffolk, England, UK. Baltimore, MD, USA.
L to R: Yago Alonso Giménez, Mike East, David Donaire L to R: Jennifer Macke, Pin-pin Wei, Paris Reilley, Dick
Barroso, Paul Lambourne, David Herbert, Gustavo Bartlett, Henk Wallays, Edward Kowalski and Chris
Espallargas, Matthew Dyke, Alan Cann, and Caleb Leeke. Gagnon.
Chris Mattison’s Meeting, December 13th 2003 Caudata.org Meet 'n' Greet, October 13th 2003
Sheffield, England, UK. Tinley Park, Illinois, USA.
L to R: Alan Cann, Chris Michaels, Morg, Caleb Leeke and L to R: David Nash, Aaron LaForge and Rob St. John.
Chris Mattison.
Thanks to David Nash from Illinois, USA, Caudata.org T-Shirts are now available from the web site. Here, Mary
Jane models the back of the two shirts for us.

Many of Caudata.org’s members have decided to show off their new shirts; some were even brave enough to put
them in the magazine. Here is a selection of photos from some of our least camera-shy members!
Jesper Danielsson, Uppsala, Sweden Pin-pin Wei, California, USA Colin Dunlop, Glasgow, Scotland
Jennifer Macke, New Mexico, USA Jeffrey Whiteley, a galaxy far far Kim Bray, Milton Keynes, England
away, South Yorkshire, England
Ira Bradford, Pennsylvania, USA Morg, South Yorkshire, England Dot Stasny, Connecticut, USA

Leader Article
Observations of Cynops ensicauda popei habitats in the subtropical rainforests of Yambaru, Okinawa, Japan
By Timothy Johnson
Photographs by the author unless otherwise indicated
conservation status of C. e. popei, which – despite its

seeming abundance in some areas – has been declining
alarmingly in the absence of legal protection.
Cynops ensicauda popei in southern Okinawa, where the

few remaining populations seem doomed to extirpation.
Introduction Distribution, biogeography, and morphology

My layman’s observations of the Sword-Tailed C. ensicauda is among three species of tailed
Newt (Cynops ensicauda) in its natural habitat were amphibians or “caudates” (from the Order name,
conducted in December 2003 in the Ryukyu Islands, a Caudata) and two species of the genus Cynops
subtropical archipelago of Japan that sustains a large occurring in the Ryukyu Archipelago. This chain of up
number of animals and plants found nowhere else in to 200 islands and islets stretches for 1,300 kilometers
the world. In view of their rich biodiversity and between Kyushu, the southernmost of Japan’s four
unusual patterns of endemism, these islands have been main islands, and Taiwan, and which divides the East
acclaimed as “the Galapagos of the East” and included China Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Unlike the
by scientists in the “Global 200” list of the Earth's most Galapagos, the Ryukyus are not oceanic islands but
biologically outstanding ecoregions. rather continental islands that were formerly part of the
I confined my observations to habitats of the Asian mainland. These islands, which have a
subspecies Cynops ensicauda popei on Okinawa, the complicated geohistory, have been repeatedly joined
largest island in the Ryukyus. I spent the bulk of my and separated from the continent over the millennia.
time in Yambaru, the remote and relatively unspoiled
northern third of the island. I also briefly visited the
far south of the island to investigate some reported
external morphological differences between northern
and southern C. e. popei populations.
In this report, I summarise the biogeography of the
central Ryukyus, the distribution of the two C.
ensicauda subspecies therein, their morphological
differences, and their phylogeographical associations
with the sympatric Anderson’s Newt (Echinotriton
andersoni) and the allopatric Japanese Fire-bellied
Newt (C. pyrrhogaster). I then focus on the natural
history of C. e. popei as observed on Okinawa Island
and give an overview of the topography, climate and
biodiversity of Yambaru itself. After identifying a
number of threats faced by C. e. popei populations
A topographical map showing the submerged continental
there, I conclude with a brief discussion of the current shelf and the Ryukyu Islands.

The islands consist of the Osumi and Tokara Faunal species composition differs significantly
groups (the northern Ryukyus), the Amami and between the C. ensicauda-inhabited islands south of
Okinawa groups (the central Ryukyus), and the the Tokara Gap and the C. pyrrhogaster-inhabited
Miyako, Yaeyama, and Senkaku groups (the southern islands to the north of it. The Watase Line drawn
Ryukyus). Both C. ensicauda and E. andersoni inhabit through the gap marks the zoogeographic boundary
only the central Ryukyus that lie between the Tokara between the Palearctic faunal realm to the north and the
and Kerama tectonic straits. To their north, across Oriental realm to the south. This boundary extends
what is known as the Watase Line, the Osumi group west through the East China Sea, the mouth of the
constitutes the southernmost part of the range of C. Yangtze River, the Qui Ling Mountains of northern
pyrrhogaster, a species that also occurs in Japan’s main China, the Hengduan Shan Mountains of northern
islands and adjacent isles as far north as the Blakiston Yunnan Province in south-central China and the
Line between Honshu and Hokkaido. In contrast, the Himalayas, reaching all the way to the Arabian Sea.
southern Ryukyus between the Kerama Gap and While the fauna of the islands north of the Tokara Gap
Taiwan support no caudate species at all. is more closely associated with that of Japan’s main-
islands and northeastern China, that of the Okinawa
and Amami groups includes relict species like E.
andersoni whose closest phylogenic relatives are found
only in southeastern China or Southeast Asia.
C. e. popei has the widest range of the two

subspecies of C. ensicauda, occurring on eight islands
of the Okinawa Group – Okinawa, Sesoko, Hamahiga,
Tonaki, Tokashiki, Zamami, Geruma, and Aka. The
latter four are part of the Kerama Islands, which lie
some 30-40 km west of Okinawa.
The nominate subspecies, C. e. ensicauda, is

distributed on four islands of the Amami Group –
Amami Oshima, Kakeroma, Uke, and Yoro. There
have been reports of C. ensicauda once existing on
Tokunoshima, but these have not been substantiated by
herpetologists.

University of the Ryukyus’ Hidetoshi Ota, the

foremost expert on Ryukyu herpetofauna, has
determined through analysis of distribution patterns
and through genetic testing that the amphibians and
reptiles of the Okinawa and Amami groups are the
oldest in the Ryukyu Archipelago. He has
hypothesised that the central islands, with their higher
frequency of relict taxa compared with the southern
islands, have remained geographically isolated from
other land masses for over 5 million years (Ota 1998).
In recent years, analysis of mitochondrial DNA
samples taken from snakes and frogs in China and in
the Ryukyus has supported this hypothesis (Ryukyu
Shimpo 2004).
Incidentally, Tokunoshima is the only island where

E. andersoni occurs allopatrically† (it and C. ensicauda
occur sympatrically‡ on Okinawa, Sesoko, Amami
Oshima, and Tokashiki).
The history of how C. ensicauda evolved as a
species and came to inhabit the central Ryukyus Pliocene Early Pleistocene Late Pleistocene
remains murky, and there are conflicting explanations 5 million 1.5 million years 20,000 to 15,000
as to how the islands themselves came to be years ago ago years ago
(Kizaki, Oshiro, (Hikida, Ota, 1997) (Ota 1998)
configured. The ancestors of C. ensicauda may have 1980)
migrated to the Ryukyu region across land bridges
from the Asian continent millions of years ago. The formation of the Tokara Gap is thought to
Alternatively, they may have existed in the area even have most assuredly marked the cessation of gene
before rising sea levels submerged the continental shelf exchange between newts in the area of the main islands
and formed islands from mountaintops. Either way, of Japan and their relatives in the Ryukyu area, and the
cut off by the sea from mainland populations, isolated beginning of speciation to an endemic species for the
from their original gene pool, they took a separate latter. The next geological event of great consequence
evolutionary path. Through many generations of to occur for C. ensicauda was the formation of a strait
natural selection, they acquired the morphological and through the super-island, separating it into the Okinawa
behavioural traits best suited to their ecological niche, and Amami groups, most likely in the mid-Pleistocene.
and became an endemic species. The pattern of genetic differentiation among E.
One leading hypothesis has it that over 5 million andersoni from Okinawa, Amami-Oshima, and
years ago during the Pliocene, partial submergences of Tokunoshima (Nei's genetic distance values ranging
a large Miocene land bridge that extended from eastern between of 0.094 to 0.119) and between C. ensicauda
China to the main-islands of Japan formed several from Okinawa and Amami-Oshima (Nei’s values
separate landmasses in the Ryukyu region, with one of ranging between 0.059 and 0.140) have been found to
two “super-islands” encompassing the area of the coincide with that geological estimate (Hayashi,
central Ryukyus and the other covering that of the Matsui, Utsunomiya, Tanaka & Ota 1992).
southern ones (Kizaki & Oshiro 1980). C. ensicauda and its closest relative C.
The shifting of the Earth’s crust around 1.5 million pyrrhogaster (genetically differentiated with Nei's
years during in the early Pleistocene is widely thought values ranging between 0.239 and 0.724) are in some
to have regenerated a land bridge that extended from ways similar in appearance, but are easily
the southeast of the continent through northern Taiwan distinguishable. C. ensicauda is larger, the head is
to the southern super-island. Scientists differ as to as broader, the parotoid glands are less prominent, the
to how far this “Ryukyu Peninsula” extended, however, skin is smoother, the dorso-median ridges are higher,
with some suggesting it stretched as far north as the the tail is longer and more slender, the tail fin of the
Tokara Gap, encompassing both super-islands, and male does not develop a filamentous projection during
others saying it only encompassed the southern super- the breeding season, and the venter colour extends to
island, which would mean the fauna of the Okinawa the soles of the feet and the toes.
and Amami insular groups have remained in The two subspecies of C. ensicauda also differ
geographical isolation since the Pliocene. from each other to a lesser extent in terms of their
external morphology. On an individual basis, however,
†
they can occasionally be difficult to tell apart.
Allopatric: occurring in separate, nonoverlapping geographic areas. C. e. popei exhibits a wide variety of markings and
Often used of populations of related organisms unable to crossbreed
because of geographic separation. patterns on the dorsum, often with lichen-like blotches
‡
Sympatric: occupying the same or overlapping geographic areas or speckles of varying degrees of brightness that are
without interbreeding. Used of populations of closely related species.

variously described as gold, yellow, or white. Some Individuals of the two subspecies both show a
C. e. popei have an orange or red dorsal ridgeline variety of ventral patterns, with most having irregular
stretching from head to tail and/or dorso-lateral stripes black spots or blotches on an orange and sometimes
similar in colour to that of their venter and sometimes yellowish-coloured venter, as seen below in these
fragmented. Yet many specimens of C. e. popei do not Yambaru C. e. popei:
display blotches, speckles, or stripes. The blotches are
known to fade in some cases. Goris (2004) has
reported that this may occur if the animal is kept in
captivity under conditions of low light.
A ventral view of several Yambaru C. e. popei.
Some C. e. popei examined in Yambaru had almost

no ventral markings, while the venter of one was
largely black:
C. e. popei from Yambaru showing distinctive markings.
In contrast, C. e. ensicauda individuals are

generally lighter-coloured on the dorsum with some
having orange or yellowish dorso-lateral stripes that
match their belly colour. In some cases,
C. e. ensicauda individuals exhibit tiny speckles, but
they do not get as large as those of C. e. popei or as
bright as those of the most brightly coloured
C. e. popei. The males develop a bluish-silvery nuptial
tail sheen that has not been observed in C. e. popei.
Some minor morphological differences have been

noted between C. e. popei specimens found in the north
and in the south-central part of Okinawa Island.
C. e. popei in the south of Okinawa Island are reputed
to exhibit especially vivid colouration.
A specimen of C. e. popei from the southern tip of Okinawa

Island.
C. e. ensicauda males from Amami-Ooshima Island with
nuptial colouration on their tails.

Habitats and life history
Ventral colouration is closer to red in some southern

C. e. popei.
Tokashiki Island is known to have a higher

proportion of animals with distinctive ventral patterns
such as these:
On Okinawa Island, C. e. popei occurs in a variety

of habitat types at elevations from sea level to over
In both subspecies, females can be easily 400 metres (the highest point on the island being
distinguished from males because their tails are longer 503-metre Mt. Yonaha in Yambaru). In contrast with
than their bodies, thinner than those of males, and more C. pyrrhogaster, which is said to be aquatic for most of
sharpened. Males average 10-12 cm in total length and the year, C. ensicauda is primarily terrestrial outside of
5-7.5 cm in snout-to-vent length, while females its breeding season (Tanaka 2003). During the
average 12-15 cm total length (6-8 cm snout to vent). breeding season, adults in nature congregate in a
Individuals haven been known to reach 18 cm in total variety of shallow water bodies, including ponds,
length. The cloaca is larger in males and becomes swamps, ephemeral puddles, rivulets, pools at the
swollen during the breeding season. bottom of ravines, jungle backwaters covered with
emergent vegetation, and slow-moving parts of rivers
and streams flowing down from the mountains.
On Okinawa, central and southern C. e. popei are

said to be larger in size than the northern variety,
though their average size has been steadily decreasing
due to hunting pressure. Conversely, eggs of the south-
central variety tend to be smaller than those of the
This photo and the next five show two different forest
northern variety, possibly a function of water habitats (a ravine bottom and a slow-flowing river) and
temperature (Tanaka 2003). close-ups of C. e. popei newts present in them.

While showing a preference for calmer waters,

newts were observed in Yambaru foraging for food and
actively engaged in courtship along the banks of rivers
with moderate flow and even in rock-bottomed mid-
river sections where the current was strong enough to
have dislodged any soft muddy sediment. Seemingly
oblivious to predatory birds, some move through open
aquatic areas devoid of any vegetation.
Newts were present even in parts of the river with moderate

flow.
Sand bars in the river serve to provide areas of calm water.
Newts and particularly larvae could be found in cavities

carved into the river bank.

Tail-fanning males were frequently seen courting

females, as well as triadic encounters in which one
male interfered with another male’s attempts to court
and inseminate a female.
The well also contained C. e. popei larvae.
A male Cynops ensicauda popei tail-fans a female during

courtship.
Some newts were found in a crater formed by World War II

bomb (night photo, southern Okinawa).
Shedding newts often had fine particles of clay soil caught

under their loose skin:
Newts that occupy puddles formed in tyre tracks often fall

victim to vehicles.
Reports on the breeding season for C. e. popei

vary, but according to the Red Data Book published by
Japan’s Environment Ministry, it lasts from December
to May. Other literature suggests it starts in February
in some locations – or even as late as April – and can
A newt on the river bank. last until August. I learned from my talks with locals,
wildlife experts, and herpetologists that the
Being highly opportunistic, they also take reproductive cycle begins in Yambaru as early as late
advantage of man-made water bodies, including October at lower elevations and from mid-November at
irrigation ditches, wells, drains, rice paddies and even higher elevations. Male C. e. popei gather in water
puddles formed from tyre tracks on dirt roads. followed later by females, and the breeding season
generally peaks in December, stretching into March in
some locations. This appears to suggest that, in the
case of C. ensicauda, breeding may be stimulated by
the onset of cooler weather. This contrasts with
C. pyrrhogaster, which is believed to be stimulated by
the onset of warmer weather after a cooling period. At
the time of my December 6th – 12th visit, in which air
temperatures at mid-level elevations in Yambaru
ranged from a high of 20 ºC during the day to a low of
14 ºC at night, the season was clearly underway, and
well-developed larvae could already be observed in the
This striking specimen was found in an ancient well on water (C. e. popei larvae typically take 3 – 4 months to
southernmost tip of Okinawa Island.

reach metamorphosis, compared with only about 2

months for E. andersoni larvae).
Only adults and larvae were found in the water.

Little is known about the land habits of metamorphs,
juveniles, and subadults. They are rarely sighted
during the several years it takes them to reach sexual
maturity. Terrestrial adults, however, are active and
are frequently observed crossing roads and wandering
through leaf litter along roadsides, especially after rain.
Most of the newts in the water were males, which not Satellite image of Yambaru (source: National Space
Development Agency of Japan).
only tend to appear at breeding sites before females,
but also to remain in the water longer. According to
Tanaka (2003), there may also be some regional Layout of the land
variations in breeding habits, with C. e. popei females Yambaru is composed mostly of low mountains of
in some areas having a tendency to lay their eggs on 300-500 metres in altitude. Although natural forest
patches of damp moss or between fallen leaves on land cover has been progressively reduced by logging,
areas above the water rather than on plants in the water. primary and secondary forests still cover
Tanaka speculates that this may depend on the density approximately 266 sq. km of its 340 sq. km territory.
of newts in the water, occurring as a means of By Japanese standards, the region is sparsely
minimising predation on eggs by other newts. E. populated, with only about 11,500 people, or less than
andersoni females also lay eggs out of the water, 1% of Okinawa Island’s population of 1.3 million. The
though in less-damp areas further from the water’s mountains run down the centre of Yambaru, forming a
edge. ridge that divides the flow of water down either side.
In most of the region, only a small strip along the coast
lies below 100 metres. While the mountains are not
very high, the terrain is rugged with steep ravines cut
into the mountains.
Echinotriton andersoni larvae were also present in the

water.
Relief map of Okinawa (Source: GIS Okinawa Research
Yambaru Laboratory).
Yambaru (alternatively spelled “Yanbaru”), the
northern part of 1,202-square-km Okinawa Island, has The mountains are composed mainly of clay slate
some of the last tracts of subtropical forests left in and phyllite, although limestone is also found. The
Asia. Despite accounting for only 0.08% of Japan’s predominant soil is acidic, reddish-brown in colour,
total land area, Yambaru supports a notably large and contains kaolinite, a clay material. This soil,
proportion of threatened endemic plants and animals. formed of weathered sedimentary rocks, is a special
The warm summers, mild winters, frequent rainfall, type in geological terms. Due to its unique properties,
and high humidity combine to keep it green and lush it is highly susceptible to erosion and washes away in
all year-round. red streams whenever it rains.

Yambaru’s rivers are much shorter and steeper Climate

compared with those in mainland Japan. This causes Although located within the Temperate Zone,
water to flow very quickly, which can easily result in Yambaru, like elsewhere in the Ryukyu Islands, has a
floods when the islands are hit by typhoons. On the subtropical marine climate characterised by high
other hand, the amount of water in rivers is normally rainfall, high humidity and relatively high and equable
very small due to limited catchments, making Okinawa temperatures throughout the year. Temperatures
prone to water shortages during dry spells. As most of average 22.4 ºC in the Okinawa Prefecture capital of
Okinawa’s water resources are in Yambaru, water Naha, situated in the south of the island, and are
captured in five dams there is sent to the central and approximately 1-2 degrees lower in Yambaru. The fact
southern areas of the island for consumption. that Okinawa experiences neither extremely cold nor
Compared with the rivers of central and southern extremely warm temperatures is due largely to the
Okinawa, the northern rivers remain relatively moderating influence of the Kuroshio Current, which
unpolluted and rich in wildlife. flows north-eastward among the Ryukyu Islands,
transporting a massive volume of warm water into the
colder waters of the western Pacific region. The
climate is also influenced by monsoon winds from East
Asia and strong, cool winds blowing in from the
northeast during the winter months. The islands lie
within the typhoon belt of the East China Sea.
Temperature: In 2003, the average temperature

recorded for the year in Oku, a typical village in
northern Yambaru, was 21.1 ºC compared with 23.4 ºC
in Naha and 16.0 ºC in Tokyo. Average monthly
temperatures in Oku ranged from 13.5 ºC to 16 ºC
between December and March, with January and
February being the coldest months, and from 20.2 ºC to
27.8 ºC between April and November, with July and
August being the warmest months. Monthly average
temperatures in Naha were around 2 ºC higher
throughout the year. In the summer, temperatures in
Okinawa can reach as high as 33 ºC, though the intense
summer heat is moderated by sea breezes. The coldest
temperature on record in Oku is 4.8 ºC (6.6 ºC in Naha)
and the warmest is 33.9 ºC (35.6 ºC in Naha). See the
graphs on the following page for more data.
Precipitation: Whereas most subtropical climatic

zones are arid, average annual precipitation in Okinawa
is over 2,000 millimetres – considerably higher than
the average for the rest of Japan – and it is not unusual
for rainfall to be recorded for over half of the days of
the year. Some 45% of total annual rainfall is
concentrated during the rainy season from May to June
and typhoon season from August to September. The
winter months, from November through February,
receive the least rainfall.
Annual mean precipitation is higher in Yambaru
than in the rest of the island. Compared with the
average 2,037 mm (1971-2000) for Naha and
1,467 mm (1971-2000) for Tokyo, precipitation in Oku
averages 2,474 mm (1979-2000). It is considerably
higher in the mountainous interior, reaching 3,147 mm
(1979-2000) on 503-metre Mt. Yonaha, the island's
highest mountain, which is on record as having
received as much as 4,125 mm in a year. There can be
considerable yearly variation, however, with 1,978 mm
of rain falling in Oku in 2003 (1,461 mm in Naha),
2,530 mm in 2002 (2,028 mm in Naha), 2,520 mm in
Yambaru’s short rivers tend to flow swiftly to the sea or to 2001 (2,643 mm in Naha), and 3,603 mm in 2000
dams. (2,614 mm in Naha).

Average temperatures from 1979 – 2003 and average temperatures from January to December 2003 (Source: Japan Meteorological Agency).
Average precipitation in millimetres from 1979 – 2003 and average precipitation from January to December 2003 (Source: Japan
Meteorological Agency).
The amount of rainfall in any single month also Flora and fauna
varies considerably from year to year. But in contrast Of the world’s six floral kingdoms, most of Japan
with the yearly, seasonal, and monthly variations in belongs to the Holarctic kingdom. The Ryukyu Islands
precipitation, the number of rainy days is fairly as a whole, however, belong to the Paleotropical
uniform throughout the year. kingdom and are the northern limit for Southeast Asian
tropical and subtropical plants and flowers. There are
approximately 45 times more plant species within a
unit of land area in the Ryukyu Archipelago than on
the Japanese mainland (Izawa 2000).
The oaks species Castanopsis sieboldii forms a canopy over

the forest.
Yambaru, which is less than 1/1,000 the size of

mainland Japan, hosts some 1,250 plant species,
compared with around 4,000 in the mainland, and its
tree species diversity is possibly the highest among
Yearly rainfall in millimetres (Source: North Dams Office, Japanese forests (Ito, Miyagi & Ota 2000). Its natural
Okinawa Central Bureau)
forests consist mainly of subtropical broadleaf

evergreen trees dominated by the oak species Yambaru hosts 48.1% of all bird species in Japan
Castanopsis sieboldii. It occurs from midway to the (320 of 665), 35.9% of its amphibian species (14 of
top of the mountainous areas and reaches up to 20 39), 19.5% of its reptile species (17 of 87), and 7.4% of
metres in height, forming a canopy over the forest its mammal species (14 of 188). The number of bird
below. species per unit land area is 233 times greater than in
The natural forests also include such broadleaf Japan as a whole, and the figure is 174 times higher for
trees as Distylium racemosum and Schefflera amphibians, 94 times for reptiles, and 36 times for
octophylla, and have a dense undergrowth of ferns and mammals. Most of the herpetofauna of the Ryukyu
distinctive flowers and shrubs. Islands is endemic, including 70-80% of amphibian
species, reflecting a long geological period of isolation
from the continent and poor dispersal ability.
New species are still being discovered in Yambaru,
including an almost flightless bird known as the
Okinawa Rail (Gallirallus okinawae) in 1981, the giant
Jambar Long-Armed Scarab Beetle (Cheirotonus
jambar) in 1983, and two species of bat the Yambaru
Whiskered Bat (Myotis yanbarensis) and the Ryukyu
Tube-Nosed Bat (Murina ryukyuana) in 1997. The
rail and the even more rare Okinawa Woodpecker or
Pryer’s Woodpecker (Sapheopipo noguchii), in
particular, have become flagships for the promotion of
conservation in Yambaru.
The Habu, feared by local residents because of the high

frequency of encounters and severe consequences of its bite,
has helped protect Yambaru’s forests from human
encroachment.
Some examples of the distinctive plant species that make up

the undergrowth of the forests.
Forests cover some 269 sq. km of Yambaru’s total

area of 340 sq. km, or about 26% of the total for
Okinawa Prefecture. True virgin forest, however, is
very restricted and much of the original vegetation has
been replaced through afforestation with fast-growing
varieties of pine. An exception to this trend – and one
of the best hopes for the survival of C. e. popei and The nationally protected Ryukyu Black-Breasted Leaf
other endemic species in Yambaru – is the extensive Turtle (Geoemyda japonica) is the only native terrestrial
turtle in the Ryukyu Islands. It has a close relative in China
area of pristine forest on the eastern slopes of the (G. spengleri), shedding light on the Ryukyus’ ancient
central mountain area, which has been sheltered from connection with the continent.
development by its status as a U.S. Marine Corps
Jungle Warfare Training Center.

of Okinawa Island, where the number of animals at one

breeding site decreased by over 75% in 15 years.
The principle reasons cited for the decrease are:

1) Loss of habitat and shrinking of breeding
areas as a result of land development activities
2) Fragmentation of breeding populations caused
by the construction of roads and adjacent U-
shaped drainage gutters into which newts fall,
become trapped and die
3) Commercial collection for the pet trade
Ishikawa’s frog (Rana ishikawae) only inhabits the islands
of Okinawa and Amami Oshima (Photo courtesy and Habitat loss and degradation
copyright of Taku Shimada). In recent decades, Yambaru's natural landscape
and its ecosystem have been severely altered or
destroyed. Before World War II, the north’s
inaccessibility, rugged terrain, and fear of the deadly
poisonous and aggressive Habu Pit Viper
(Trimeresurus flavoviridis) had long kept people from
venturing into its thick forests. But after the war, in
which the 80-day Battle of Okinawa left a quarter of
the island’s civilian population dead and the
environment in the south devastated, Yambaru was
opened up to human activity and its trees felled for
timber needed to rebuild houses and other war-
damaged property. Still, at the time of Okinawa's
reversion to Japanese control in 1972 after 27 years of
U.S. occupation, its forests still remained more or less
Cantao excellens bugs (Heteroptera) resting on the backs of intact. Aerial photographs taken by U.S. forces in
leaves.
1946 over Yambaru show its forests unspoiled except
for some areas along the coast, and little change is seen
Conservation status
in aerial photos taken in 1962 (Yokota 2000). But in
C. ensicauda is not directly afforded any legal
the more than three decades since Okinawa’s reversion,
protection. It is neither covered by the Convention on
a string of national and prefectural government-
International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
subsidised development projects has been pursued with
nor by national or local laws on wildlife protection in
minimal consideration for the environment. The
Japan, though a few important habitats in Yambaru are
natural forests have been progressively reduced by
incidentally protected.
clear-cutting and stripped of undergrowth, whilst a
In recent years, however, C. ensicauda has come to
network of mostly paved logging roads rimmed with
be regarded as a species of concern by herpetologists,
gutters has been built deep into Yambaru’s interior.
and Japan's Environment Ministry has been persuaded
Land continues to be cleared for cultivation, livestock
to add it to the Red List of Threatened Amphibians of
farms, and recreational facilities like golf courses. The
Japan. Since 1997, the species has been included in the
fragile ecosystem has been dealt a further blow by
list’s lower risk category of "Near Threatened", which
construction of five dams and their access roads in the
covers those species "facing difficulty in maintaining a
area.
viable population". Even so, C. e. popei has not been
The loss and degradation of habits have had a
listed at all in Okinawa Prefecture’s Red Data Book.
major impact on C. e. popei, causing local extinctions
The IUCN (World Conservation Union) in 2004
of populations in some parts of Okinawa Island. The
designated C. ensicauda as an “endangered” species in
disproportionate habitat loss in the southern part of the
its Red List. According to the rationale given, “its
island can largely explained by the concentration of
extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 sq. km, its
human habitation there and the disastrous
distribution is severely fragmented, and there is
consequences of the war. In the sparsely populated
continuing decline in the extent and quality of its
north, however, the situation stems more from the
habitat, and in the number of mature individuals, in the
numerous "public works" and "land improvement"
Amami-Okinawa group”. To date, no comprehensive
projects that the national and local governments have
surveys have been carried out to ascertain the species’
implemented. Government subsidies have for decades
conservation status and none are known to be currently
played a critical role in the Okinawan economy and
underway.
facilitated various kinds of development activities. The
According to Japan’s Red Data Book entry for
aim has been not only narrowing the gap in economic
C. ensicauda, in recent years there has been a marked
development between the Japanese mainland and
decrease in the population of the species throughout its
Okinawa, which has the lowest per capita income in
range, especially in the heavily developed southern part

Japan with an unemployment level double that of the

rest of the country, but also winning public support for
(or at least tolerance of) the policy of concentrating
U.S. military bases on the island. As a result,
Okinawa’s economy has become highly dependent on
these government-subsidised public infrastructure
projects for jobs and to supplement revenue from
tourism and from U.S. bases. Visiting villages in
Yambaru, one is struck by the disproportionate number
of small-scale construction companies. The income of
these villages depends largely on these companies
securing contract after contract. In addition to
construction projects, substantial grant assistance has
been extended to the local forestry industry for “natural
forest improvement projects" and “reforestation
programs”, over the objections of conservationists.
These have in fact entailed the clearance of intact
natural forest and the cutting and removal of
undergrowth. Amid the shrinking and the aging of the
human population in the north, farmland created in the
forest with government subsidies often lies barren,
while agricultural works lie disused. Many plantations
have been abandoned after receiving subsidies from the
government.
Circled above is one of the many newt fatalities that can be
seen on roads after it rains.
In June 2003, Okinawa residents won a lawsuit

against a former Okinawa governor over the “illegal”
and “unnecessary” construction in Yambaru of another
14-km forest road and a 37-hectare farming area that
they claimed not only harmed precious wildlife, but
were virtually unused. Both projects were completed
in 1998 despite conservationists’ efforts to stop them.
In its landmark ruling, the court found, “The ecosystem
in the Yambaru forest was fragmented by the work and
the sea was polluted by red clay that was washed away
afterwards, reducing the habitat of precious animals
Neglected irrigation ponds like this can become concrete and plants and paving the path to their extinction”.
prisons for Cynops ensicauda popei. However, this district court ruling was overturned by a
high court in October 2004, which acknowledged an
Roadkill “error” in procedures taken by the prefectural
Roadway mortality takes a heavy toll on government for disbursing funds to the projects, but
C. e. popei in Yambaru, especially during and after noted their necessity in terms of public utility. The
rain. Approximately 56 logging roads with a total plaintiffs, members of an Okinawa conservation group,
length of 224 km have been built in the region, which plan to appeal to the Supreme Court.
corresponds to 78% of all logging roads in Okinawa
Prefecture and 83% of their total length. The most
controversial of the roads intersecting C. e. popei
habitats, the 35.5-km Okuni Forest Road, was
constructed between 1977 and 1994 through the centre
of Yambaru at a cost of over ¥4.5 billion (US $42.7
million), harming habitats of rare species, fragmenting
populations, and degrading more than 100 watersheds.
This 5-metre wide, paved road has opened up the forest
not only to loggers but also to alien carnivores like
dogs, cats, and mongooses, as well as to poachers,
motorcyclists and increasing numbers of tourists. In
1998, this road project, which conservationists claim
was built largely to provide work for local construction
companies, was listed as one of "the 100 unnecessary An Echinotriton andersoni specimen that has been killed
public enterprises" in a report compiled by Japan’s while crossing a road (Photo courtesy and copyright of
Fumiaki Nakamura).
independent 21st Century Environment Committee.

Another problem is that unpaved tracks through In recent years, under pressure from
the forests are increasingly used by 4-wheel-drive conservationists, some U-shaped gutters have been
vehicles and off-road motorcycle enthusiasts, which modified or replaced by environmentally friendly ones
results in numerous newt casualties, since the with sloping curbs that enable small animals to climb
opportunistic newts take advantage of a variety of out. But these have not proven to be entirely effective,
damp areas, including puddles created by tyre tracks. and some small animals like turtles still find it difficult
to escape the sloped gutters – frequently found clogged
with leaves, branches and soil – or to scale the roadside
curbs.
Echinotriton andersoni suffer from road deaths. Signs have

been posted warning drivers to exercise caution.
Roadside drainage ditches

C. ensicauda foraging about on rainy days
frequently become trapped in U-shaped roadside
gutters with 30 cm deep vertical sides, which make it
impossible for most animals, once fallen in, to escape.
In the warm months of the year, newts trapped in these
ditches after rainfall ceases die from desiccation or
from heat absorbed by the concrete.
Some of the gutters have sloping banks on the verge sides

and vertical walls on their road sides so the animals will be
guided toward natural ground.
The U-shaped guttering that runs along many roads.
A turtle struggles to exit a gutter (Photo courtesy and

copyright of Fumiaki Nakamura).
Over-collection for the commercial pet trade

Though not to the same extent as C. pyrrhogaster
in years past, C. e. popei has acquired economic
importance and become the target of massive collection
efforts in recent years. It is commonly found in the
Japanese pet trade, especially in the winter and spring
A specimen of Cynops ensicauda popei trapped in the when the newts gather in water bodies in large numbers
guttering. and become easy prey for commercial collectors. In
contrast, C. e. ensicauda, the less attractive nominate
form, is rarely found offered for sale, and the incentive

to collect and sell it is relatively low. No statistics are when the once ubiquitous C. pyrrhogaster was hunted
available on the number of C. e. ensicauda sold within to near-extinction in the environs of Tokyo and
Japan or exported abroad. One herpetile shop in Tokyo elsewhere for the tropical fish trade of Europe and
processed over 1,000 C. e. popei from Yambaru in a America.
recent two-month period, retailing the newts for 500
yen (US $4.50) to 3,800 yen (US $35), depending on
their degree of attractiveness.
Cynops ensicauda popei are sometimes sold via Internet

auction sites, such as the ones in this advertisement photo.
While both subspecies of C. ensicauda have been

successfully bred in captivity, captive-bred adults are
almost never found for sale in Japan due to the easy
availability of inexpensive wild-caught ones. Some
breeding efforts are under way among hobbyists,
especially in Europe, but it is likely that wild-collected
specimens will remain in high demand for many
reasons:
• The species is popular and hardy in captivity
• Prices are relatively low
• The gene pool of captive-reared adults is
Mass-collected Cynops ensicauda popei, separated by restricted
degree of colouration, on sale at a Tokyo pet shop.
• Captive-bred newts take as long as three years
to reach sexual maturity, entailing a
considerable investment of time, money and
effort
Another threat to C. e. popei is their capture from

the wild in large numbers for use by laboratories in
medical experiments, as is also the case with
C. pyrrhogaster. Furthermore, it is said that some are
caught and exported to Taiwan for use in Chinese
traditional medicine. Japanese herpetologists have also
voiced concern over the capture of Okinawan
herpetofauna for overseas markets by some of the tens
This high-gold specimen and others like it were being sold
of thousands of U.S. military personnel and their
at yet another Tokyo shop for the equivalent of US $130 dependents stationed in Okinawa.
each.
Natural predators and invasive alien species
Plain-looking C. e. popei specimens sometimes sell C. e. popei larvae are often preyed upon, but adults
for as little as 350 yen (US $3.20) in Tokyo pet shops – appear to have few natural enemies because of the
only slightly higher than the price for most C. toxin (tetrodotoxin) contained in their tissues and skin
pyrrhogaster. But those with brighter colours and secretions. Snakes are known to be generally less
higher concentrations of gold flecks can fetch prices as susceptible than mammals and birds to tetrodotoxin.
high as 28,000 yen (US $250) at specialty shops and Much as the Red-spotted Garter Snake (Thamnophis
Internet auctions. C. ensicauda are also shipped in the sirtalis) is known to eat adult Taricha granulosa
thousands via Hong Kong to pet markets overseas, without ill effects (Petranka 1998), the frog and lizard-
especially to Europe. This is reminiscent of years past eating Ryukyu Water Snake (Amphiesma pryeri pryeri)

has been reported to prey occasionally on both seen whether the recent designation of C. ensicauda as
C. e. popei adults and larvae (Sparreboom & Ota 1995, an endangered species by the IUCN will provide the
Goris 2004). necessary stimulus.
The voracious North American bullfrog (Rana C. e. popei indeed seems abundant in some
catesbeiana), introduced to Okinawa Island in the localities, especially at certain times of the year, and its
1950s for commercial farming, is regarded as a serious year-round terrestrial activity makes it more
menace to native herpetofauna. It has also been conspicuous than is the case with C. pyrrhogaster in its
observed preying upon C. e. popei adults (Otani 1987). habitats on Japan's main islands. But herpetologists
Most species of fish in Okinawan rivers are now warn against misinterpreting the density of aquatic
introduced ones, though less so in Yambaru than in the congregations of C. e. popei in any given area as a sign
rest of the island. Non-native cichlid fishes of the that the local population is healthy and sustainable.
genus Tilapia and the mosquito fish Gambusia affinis As local herpetologist Satoshi Tanaka put it,
are thought to feed on C. e. popei larvae. Tilapia fish “Newts from wide areas congregate at certain breeding
are on record as having caused local population locations when their options are limited due to habit
declines of Taricha torosa in southern California. loss. At such times, they seem extremely plentiful and
C. e. popei larvae are also susceptible to crayfish thus people without an understanding of their biology
predation, while both larvae and eggs fall prey to assume there are infinite numbers. So they tend to not
dragonfly nymphs. While cannibalism among think twice about collecting newts as pets or for use in
C. e. popei larvae and by adults upon larvae is less experiments, having no sense of guilt since the animals
common than in some other caudate species, adult are not protected as ‘natural monuments’. But this can
C. e. popei commonly eat newt eggs, both those of severely impact the species since there are so few new
their own kind as well as those of E. andersoni, while recruits into the population every year. Even if many
C. e. popei larvae and E. andersoni larvae are known to eggs are laid, very few hatchlings survive to
prey on each other and on conspecific larvae (Tanaka metamorphosis. Those that make it to adulthood tend
1994). to have a long life span, but the species is highly
The mongoose (Herpestes javanicus), released on susceptible to local extinctions when these adult
Okinawa and Amami Oshima almost a century ago for populations fall below a certain threshold.”
the purpose of controlling the venomous Habu, has The stability and viability of C. ensicauda
caused the population demise or extinction of several populations is thought to depend on there being a large
animal species and has even been found to eat E. number of sexually mature adults. Unlike many other
andersoni (Okinawa Times, 2004). It is interesting to amphibian species in which predation probably is the
note that the Japanese weasel (Mustela itatsi), imported major mortality factor, C. ensicauda is long-lived
to Okinawa from the mainland to kill rats, has because it has few enemies in the wild. Ages
decimated much of the herpetofauna on Zamami exceeding 20 years have been reported for this species
Island, but C. e. popei continues to thrive there in captivity, with the females often still laying eggs at
(Nishida & Shikatani & Shokita 2003). this age (Reinartz 2004). But the number of
It has been speculated that birds like egrets and metamorphosing young recruited into the population
herons might incidentally prey on C. ensicauda but the each year is thought to be extremely limited due to low
newts' toxic skin secretion probably makes them survival of eggs to hatching and of larvae to
unpalatable. Even crows, which can normally be seen metamorphosis (Tanaka 2003). Many breeding sites
eating animal corpses on roads, avoid dead newts are ephemeral, and a whole season’s cohort of larvae
(Sparreboom & Ota 1995). perishes when they dry up due to insufficient rainfall
(Goris 2004). Larvae take three months to
Present conservation status and future prospects metamorphose, and the tiny percentage of those that
C. ensicauda continues to be regarded as a reach metamorphosis require several years to become
“common” amphibian species, and as such, scant sexually mature. At any given time, populations may
attention has been paid by local authorities to its consist primarily of adults, and unpredictable
dwindling numbers and shrinking range, while public catastrophic events like mass collections can cause
awareness of and interest in the status of the species are crashes in local populations.
negligible. Accordingly, there is no program targeted However, there are a few rays of hope on the
at C. ensicauda conservation, nor does there appear to horizon for C. ensicauda conservation, one of which is
be much or any movement in that direction. the proposed future incorporation of all or part of the
Compounding this, there is a profound lack of large chunk of Yambaru that is presently utilised as the
biological data about the population ecology, adult U.S. Marine Corps Jungle Warfare Training Center
movements during and outside the breeding season, into a national park. This 7,513-hectare area of pristine
juvenile dispersion patterns, etc, making it difficult to forest on the eastern slopes of the central mountains
plan effective conservation actions even if the need for constitutes the largest contiguous protected area in the
them were recognised. The IUCN-associated Global Ryukyus.
Amphibian Assessment, released in October 2004, U.S. military bases occupy about 20% of
cited a need for policy-based actions, including Okinawa's land area and have been widely viewed as
management plans and legislation, as well as research being a large component of the island’s environmental
into the habitat status, threats, uses and harvest levels, problems. Okinawans frequently complain about the
and trends regarding C. ensicauda. It remains to be huge U.S. military presence and are quick to point out

that while their island has only 0.6% of Japan's total engage in forestry and agriculture with the support of
land mass and 1% of its population, it is compelled by prefectural government planners, who reportedly are
the central government to host 75% of the land used for already advocating the “timely development of former
U.S. bases in the whole of Japan. Yet in Yambaru, military properties”.
while most natural forest on the western slopes has Another area of hope for the preservation of C.
been replaced by secondary forest, the climax forest ensicauda lies in the efforts underway to protect more
tracts in the U.S.-held zone remain more-or-less intact “charismatic” species with which it shares habitats. In
because development and entry by civilians is banned. this regard, the de facto adoption of the unique
There exist only a few facilities, one main road, and a Okinawa Rail as a “flagship species” in Yambaru has
few small helipads, and the training involves neither inspired conservation efforts that bode well not only
the firing of live bullets nor the use of many vehicles. for the critically endangered bird itself but for the
thousands of lesser known plants and animals with
which it coexists. The rail, according to BirdLife
International (2003), “has a fund of goodwill and
familiarity on which to build stronger environmental
awareness”.
While less appealing to the public than the rail, the
Okinawa Prefectural Government’s designation of E.
andersoni in 1978 as a “Natural Monument” can only
be seen as beneficial to C. ensicauda, considering that
both adults and larvae of the two species share the
same habitats. The status was granted not only by
virtue of its rarity but also in recognition of its
scientific importance from the viewpoint of
systematics, with its primitive morphology and its
usefulness as an indicator of the evolutionary and
geological history of the islands.
(Adapted from map in Ito et al. 2000).
The U.S. has agreed to return about half of the area

(3,987 hectares), which is formally leased from villages
or individuals, but only on condition that the helicopter
landing zones there be relocated to the part remaining
A relict species with close relatives in China, Echinotriton
under U.S. control. The handover has been delayed as andersoni is regarded as a good model organism for
conservationists complain the helipad construction research on the historical biogeography of Ryukyu Islands
would imperil the environment. They say the (Photo courtesy and copyright of Taku Shimada).
construction of new roads to build and service the sites
will permit greater access by introduced predators, and The modification of gutters and other efforts to
lead to vehicles causing more casualties among the rail protect E. andersoni and other natural monuments
population. A resolution of the World Conservation undoubtedly have a trickle-down effect for C.
Congress in October 2000 warned that the proposed ensicauda. But as Miyagi (2002) has pointed out, the
helicopter pads “will cause large-scale destruction of designation may be mostly symbolic: while the
habitats in the most important remaining natural forest importance of the designated species is nominally
area”, and thus called on the Japanese government to recognised, the habitat in which it lives does not
prepare a conservation plan for the area and consider necessarily receive protected status, as is the case in
nominating it as a World Heritage Site. Some people Yambaru.
fear that the real threat to the area would be its Conservationists, led by organizations like the
reversion to Japanese control. Conservationists warn Wild Bird Society of Japan and the Nature
its forests could meet the same fate as those in Conservation Society of Yambaru, which have
adjoining areas and on the western slopes if adequate purchased patches of forest themselves to ensure their
protection measures are not put in place. While the protection, say their ultimate aim is to see a major
Japanese government is currently studying whether to protected area created that will embrace all remaining
designate the area as a national park, landowners and natural forest in Yambaru, much of which is already
other locals are reportedly insisting on their right to earmarked for logging. While some areas of Yambaru

are already designated as Wildlife Protection Areas or IUCN, Conservation International, and NatureServe,
Nature Conservation Areas by the Okinawa Prefecture Global Amphibian Assessment, 2004.
government, the Special Protection Area where www.globalamphibians.org
development is controlled and protection is effective Masako IZAWA, The Galapagos of the East, Look
are said to be too fragmented and small. To protect Japan, 2000.
Yambaru effectively, they say, it is essential that large
tracts of oak forest be designated as protected areas and Japanese Ministry of Environment, Council of
linked together to counter problems inherent in Ministers for Global Environmental Conservation,
fragmented habitats (Miyagi 2000). National Strategy of Japan on Biological Diversity,
Having evolved for millions of years in their 1999.
current habitat, C. e. popei now face local extirpations Japan Wildlife Research Center, Survey for
after only a few decades of human activity. Yambaru Consideration of the Basic Plan for Conservation of
appears to be one of the few places where they have a the Natural Environment of the Yanbaru Region [in
good chance to survive on Okinawa Island. But even Japanese], 1988.
here, pressure from human activities has brought Toshijiro KAWAMURA, Shozo SAWADA, On the
drastic changes to the natural environment, many of Sexual Isolation among Different Species and Local
which may be irreversible. Nevertheless, efforts to Races of Japanese Newts, J. Sc. Hiroshima Univ.,
convince the people of Okinawa and their political (Zool.), 1959.
leaders of the immense biological value Yambaru and
its unique wildlife appear to be gaining momentum, Koshiro KIZAKI, Itsuro OSHIRO, The origin of the
and will undoubtedly be key to ensuring the viability of Ryukyu Islands, pages 8-37. In: K. Kizaki (ed.),
the remaining populations of C. e. popei. Natural History of the Ryukyus, Tsukiji Shokan,
Tokyo, 1980. [in Japanese]
Ministry of Environment, Japan, Threatened wildlife
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A Beginner’s Guide To Breeding Triturus

By David Nash
Photographs by the author
this was not an ideal situation, and it often had tragic

results. Pet stores didn’t carry crickets year-round and
when the ground was frozen there were no more
worms. Some of these animals made it to the next
year, but then summer would come and the deadly
cycle would start again. This went on for about four
years and then, fortunately for the salamanders, I
learned about girls and cars and they became the new
centre of my universe. Salamanders were things of my
past.
About 5 years ago I got an aquarium and went to
Walmart to buy some tropical fish. Nothing was really
tickling my fancy when I stumbled upon a tank with
goldfish and “waterdogs”. The smouldering embers of
a lost love were ignited and, before I knew it, I had a
Triturus montandoni, the Carpathian Newt (male). dozen tanks with tiger salamanders and axolotls
(Ambystoma mexicanum). I had learned that there was
Foreword enough room for salamanders, cars, and women in my
I consider myself to be a beginner newt keeper. life. And with the Internet and other sources of
With this article I hope to share my somewhat limited information, air conditioning, and food sources
experience of breeding Triturus species. Suffice it to available year-round, this time I could succeed. It was
say that I do not consider myself to be any kind of an a bold new world.
expert on this subject. On the positive side, if I can do
it, it doesn’t take a rocket scientist to achieve some
success. Hopefully others can learn from my successes
and failures.
Author’s background
My interest in salamanders began back in the early
1960s. I was 11 years old and spent a great deal of my
time catching frogs and fish in the local swamps. I was
always dragging home “critters” and coming home
covered in algae and mud. My parents hated it. There
wasn’t any Internet and only a limited number of books
on the subject of amphibians for people of my level in
the local library. I had caught salamander “tadpoles”
before but I didn’t know what they were. Then one
day there was a “miracle” and my life changed. A
friend of mine at school had a house with a basement
and crawl space. Every year, as the snows melted and A pair of Triturus vittatus (the Banded Newt).
the rains came, his basement flooded and a plague of
tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum) invaded his Just add water
home. For them it was a mess – for me, paradise. I I kept tigers, did my studies, and was able to
had my first source of salamanders. successfully breed axolotls, although I’ve never been
Obtaining salamanders and keeping them are two comfortable with calling what I do “breeding”. All that
very different things. Each spring for the next couple I do is provide them with a comfortable environment
of years I would catch some of the tigers from my where they become willing to breed, and then let them
friend’s basement and stick them in some 20 US gallon do the real work. I also started pouring through
(76 litre) aquariums that I had set up as half land, half websites and I started doing quick studies to try and
water. This was not an ideal setup, as I would later determine my next challenge. I was lucky enough to
learn. I fed them with worms, crickets and be able to borrow some of the brainpower of
grasshoppers. Summer would come each year and, as experienced keepers like many on
the temperatures soared into the 90s ºF (30s ºC), the http://www.caudata.org, Günter Schultschik, and
salamanders would die. We didn’t have much money others. Preliminary research showed me to be
or air conditioning so they never really had much of a fascinated with the genus Triturus and, in my usual
chance. Occasionally, I would find some in the fall. compulsive way, I decided to find a way to acquire
The temperatures worked, but, as winter descended, some of these magnificent creatures. In the U.S. this is
their diet changed from worms and crickets to strips of not a simple task. I was able to pick up some loose
lunchmeat dangled in front of their noses. Once again, T. cristatus (the Great Crested Newt) and T. marmortus

(the Marbled Newt), but no real “breedable” stock. I

was fortunate enough to acquire some adult T. karelinii
(the Northern Crested Newt) from someone called
“Jennewt” on a small but tasty website called
Caudata.org, but I suffered a major set-back when
some circuit breakers kicked off while I was gone for a
long hot summer weekend – of course the air
conditioner’s circuit breaker was one of them. Then I
finally caught a break.
I found a contact who had adult Triturus vittatus
(the Banded Newt) and I ordered a bunch. My timing
was lucky and I fell into a “Just Add Water” situation. Triturus marmoratus, the Marbled Newt (male).
I call it a “Just Add Water” situation because that’s all
it was. The females came in plump and the males
already had the initial signs of crests. Instead of having
to spend a great deal of time conditioning them to be
able to breed, all I had to do was provide the breeding
conditions. No major care taking, no hibernation, just
some 20 US gallon (76 litre) tanks of water (10 inches -
25 cm deep), plants and some playing with the lighting.
For plants I chose Anacharis, for lighting I just
gradually increased the duration of the lighting from
about 8 hours per day to about 12. Due to my
experience with axolotls I figured that the change in
lighting would help. During the next couple of weeks
the crests grew and all of a sudden I had four 20
US gallon (76 litre) tanks with a successful breeding
Triturus marmoratus, the Marbled Newt (female).
trio (one male and two females) pumping out eggs in
each tank. One big advantage to the banded newts is marmoratus, some nice T. cristatus, and some T.
that they don’t suffer from the genetic disorder that can montandoni (the Carpathian Newt). For a while it
occur at the time of embryotic tail-bud formation. This appeared that I wouldn’t be able to attempt to breed the
is a genetic condition that causes half of the eggs to not T. marmoratus this year due to the fact that I had no
develop fully and it’s is a problem for the “crested females, but I was fortunate enough to find a couple of
newt” group of species in the genus Triturus nice looking girls.
(specifically T. cristatus, T. karelinii, T. dobrogicus, As for conditioning the animals to prepare them for
T. carnifex, T. marmoratus, and T. pygmaeus). All of breeding, I’ve decided to do something a little
my eggs were developing and all of them were different. Although many experienced keepers swear
hatching. There were very few bad eggs to remove to by it, I decided to forego any formal hibernation.
keep fungus from becoming a problem. Instead of a true hibernation I’ve kept them in a cooler
So, basically, my first attempt at breeding a species room at approximately 55 ºF (13 ºC) for a couple of
of Triturus was very successful and very lucky. months, with decreasing duration of lighting. Then I
Unfortunately, in raising such a large amount of larvae increased the temperature and the duration of lighting
I wasn’t quite as lucky. I started them off on newly- to simulate an early spring. Over the next five years or
hatched brine shrimp and Daphnia for food (the latter so I want to conduct a more formal study of the results
were a mix of Moina spp. and Daphnia pulex). I then achieved from the difference of using a formal
moved them to chopped black worms (Lumbriculus hibernation and the method that I’m currently using. I
spp.). Everything was going well for the first week or want to see if there is a significant change in the
so, and then I lost about half of the larvae. I was number of eggs produced and the number of eggs that
treating them like axolotl larvae, doing daily water develop.
changes. From the lessons I have learned I think that This year I started off by setting up four trios of T.
they are more sensitive to water conditions than axolotl cristatus in two 40 US gallon (152 litre) long tanks,
larvae. I wasn’t able to stabilize the rest of the with two trios in each. This has gone well and they
population until I returned them to their parents’ tanks laid lots of eggs and I now have many larvae. After the
(after removing the parents of course). I carried out T. cristatus started to produce eggs I decided to set up
minimal water changes after that. Another relatively the marbled newts. I replaced the 20 US gallon
uncommon issue with this species is that you can lose a (76 litre) long tanks I used for the banded newts last
lot about the time they metamorphose. They seem to year with some 29 US gallon (110 litre) high tanks to
have a problem with the change over of eating habits. increase my water depth a bit. Firstly, since I only had
That was last year. two female T. marmoratus, I decided, after doing some
reading, to attempt to cross breed the two male T.
This year (2004) marmoratus with T. cristatus females. The hybrids are
This year my efforts are more ambitious. Early sometimes referred to as “Triturus blasii”, though this
last year I was able to pick up 4 beautiful male Triturus

is not a real species. I set up two of the 29 US gallon Lessons learned

(110 litre) highs with lots of Anacharis and put one Now for a short piece on lessons I’ve learned. I’ve
male T. marmoratus with two female T. cristatus in got larval T. cristatus, and hopefully soon I’ll have
each tank. The crests came up nicely and I got decent larval T. marmoratus and T. montandoni. Recently,
egg production. I did this first because I wanted to see my fire salamanders produced young and I’ve got some
how the T. marmoratus did without formal hibernation. young T. alpestris (the Alpine Newt) and T. karelinii –
After they crested, I set up the two pairs of T. they will all be eating like pigs.
marmoratus in two similar tanks. If the male T. Don’t bite off more then you can chew. My
marmoratus hadn’t crested nicely during the combined weekly salamander and newt grocery bill
hybridisation experiments I would still have had time looks like this:
to hibernate them.
The crossbreeding attempt has failed. Although • 6,000 Daphnia US $80.00
there was good egg production, the eggs were infertile. • 1,000 Pinhead crickets US $16.00
The T. marmoratus pairs entered the water about three • 1,000 Ten day old crickets US $16.00
weeks ago and although egg production started off • Blackworms US $10.00
slowly, it’s picking up and there are good signs of
initial development. That comes to US $122.00 and that’s just for the
youngsters. Toss in a few bucks for adult crickets and
worms and this tells me a few things.
1. If it’s not just for the love of the hobby, don’t

breed, because you sure can’t make up the cost
by selling the young.
2. It look’s like I had better spend most of my

next off-season reading “The Encyclopaedia
of Live Foods” by Charles Masters and other
such books to learn how to grow and maintain
my own adequate cultures for next year’s
endeavours.
3. Better keep the day job. If it didn’t pay well,

Triturus montandoni, the Carpathian Newt (male). me and the hundreds of “kids” would starve!
Hopefully this article has proven itself to be a

useful insight into my experiences.
-David Nash is from the Chicago area, in the

Midwestern United States. He considers himself to be
a novice keeper, but he says he’s learning fast. His
main area of interest is the genus Triturus. He says
he’ll probably expand into other genera this year.
Triturus montandoni, the Carpathian Newt (female).
I set up the Carpathian newts, T. montandoni, a

week before writing this article. The setup was a little
different. As far as conditioning to prepare them for
breeding is concerned, they were treated in the same
fashion as T. marmoratus and T. cristatus. However,
for the tank I used a 20 US gallon (76 litre) long with a
water depth of about 6 inches (15 cm). I read that they
often breed in puddles so I decided on shallower water
for them. I put 2 males and 4 females in the tank.
Judging by the girth of the females and their colours, I
think they’re adapting nicely. I’m pleased so far.

Triturus boscai: a profile of Bosca’s Newt in the Wild and its Maintenance in Captivity
By Yago Alonso Giménez
lakes, rivers, streams, moderately rapid brooks, etc.

Interestingly, Bosca’s newts have a high pH tolerance.
They can be found in water bodies from pH 4 to almost
pH 9. Acidity does not seem to affect adults, larvae, or
even egg development. On land they can be found in a
great varity of soils from damp to rocky or even sandy
soils.
The very first contact I had with newts was 20

years ago. I was 6 years old, and I was walking
through a eucalyptus forest with slowly flowing
streams in Galicia. I came to one of those streams and
I saw my first newt, a Bosca’s newt. Since that day, I
have been fascinated by caudates, and I have a
particular affection for Triturus boscai. In the
following article I will try to put in writing 20 years of
knowledge and experience with Bosca’s newt.
Nomenclature and taxonomy

Bosca’s newt was originally given the name
Pelonectes boscai by Lataste in 1879. The description
was based on animals from the region of Ciudad Real.
Curiously, in the same year, Boettger described the
species from Sierra del Monchique (southern Portugal)
as Triton maltzani. In 1882, Boulenger proposed the A male Triturus boscai.
name Molge boscae, but it wasn’t until 1981 that Dunn
included the species in the genus Triturus. Since then,
the species has been known as Triturus boscai. Amphibian coexistence
Nowadays, the common names for Triturus boscai in In some regions Bosca’s newts coexist in water
its native lands are triton ibérico (Spanish), tritao-de- bodies with other amphibians and their larvae such as
ventre-laranja (Portuguese), and pintafontes común Triturus marmoratus, T. pygmaeus, T. helveticus,
(Galician). Chioglossa lusitanica, T. alpestris cyreni, Pleurodeles
walt, larvae of Salamandra salamandra (subspecies
Distribution and habitat gallaica, crespoi, bejarae, bernardezi, morenica, and
Bosca’s newt is an endemic species of the Iberian longirostris), Rana perezi, Rana iberica, larvae of Bufo
Peninsula. It lives in Portugal and the western part of bufo, larvae of B. calamita, larvae of Alytes
the Iberian Peninsula: Galicia (even on the island of obstetricans, larvae of A. cisternasii, larvae of Hyla
Ons), Asturias (Picos de Europa being the eastern arborea, larvae of Hyla meridionalis, larvae of
limit), Castilla y León, Salamanca, Madrid, Pelodytes ibericus, larvae of Pelodytes cultripes, larvae
Extrermadura, and Andalucía. There are exceptionally of Pelodytes punctatus, and larvae of Discoglossus
small individuals in the southernmost populations of galganoi.
Doñana (Huelva).
The species occurs from sea level (30 metres in Threats
Doñana) to 1870 metres (Estrela Plateau). This climate Bosca’s newt is an endangered species in Spain
zone is characterised as being Mediterranean oceanic and protected by national law. There are healthy
and continental, with moderate temperatures (yearly populations in northern regions such as Galicia, but it
average bewteen 12-15 ºC) and rainfall less than is very rare and endangered along the southern border
1000 mm per year. of its distribution. The situation in Portugal is very
T. boscai live in a great variety of environments, different, since it is not a threatened species, and it is
including eucalyptus forests, pine woods, oak woods, quite common throughout the country.
wetlands, country yards, fields, agricultural ditches,
mines, caves, temporary pools, ponds, ditches, deep

Several factors have hurt populations of T. boscai Description

during the last decade. The main ones are: Adults: Bosca’s newts can reach over 11 cm in total
length, my biggest female being 11.2 cm. The species
• Loss of natural habitats and changes in the varies in size according to genetic origin, with the
area (fragmentation) northernmost populations being the largest, and
• Introduction of exotic species (mainly sport southernmost the smallest. As an example, individuals
fish) measured at Parque de Doñana were smaller than the
smallest adults from a Galician population.
• Ecological disasters (summer fires) The dorsal colouration is olive, brown, broken
• Modern agriculture, loss of traditional yellow, copper, or almost black during the terrestrial
farming, use of pesticides phase. There may be black dots along the body. The
venter can be bright red, orange, or yellow, sometimes
• Urban growth with dots on the abdomen and throat. The colouration
fades along the throat and tail. The colourful venter
• Tourism and recreation
and the dorsum colour are separated by a white band.
• Impact of human activity on forests and rivers. The irises are golden or copper with a dark banded line
in the middle. The skin is shiny and smooth during
• Desertification their aquatic phase and a slightly granular during the
• Pollution terrestrial stage. The parotoid glands are very
apparent. The tail is compressed laterally. The length
of the tail is normally the same size or longer than the
body length.
Male Bosca’s newts have dorso-lateral ridges,
giving them an angular appearance. It is also quite
common for males to have black marks on their backs
and sides. During the breeding season, the male’s
cloaca gets very rounded and enlarged with a long,
obvious opening. They can also develop a small tail
crest and a tiny filament smaller than 2 mm at the end
of the tail. During this time, males develop silver
highlights along the white band between the venter and
sides, and especially along the tail, giving them a
metallic appearance. In relation to the body length, the
limbs of the male are longer than those of the female,
A female Triturus boscai. and overall size is about 20% smaller than that of the
female. The female has a rounded torso and the cloaca
Bosca’s newts also have some natural predators is conical and pointed backwards. Females are usually
such as fish (Salvelinus fontinalis, Tinca tinca), darker than males, with a beautiful dark olive colour.
mammals (Lutra lutra), snakes (Natrix natrix, Natrix The vertebral line is often visible.
maura, Vipera Seoanei), birds (Athene noctua), and
aquatic insects and their larvae (Hydrous piceus, Nepa
rubra). Carnivorous larvae such as Salamandra
salamandra may attack T. boscai larvae. And finally,
T. boscai preys upon its own species. Older females
frequently enjoy eating their own eggs by hunting
through the folded leaves, and adults of both sexes may
eat the larvae.
An old female Triturus boscai exhibiting fading colouration.
Female Triturus boscai and egg.

As individuals get older their colouration fades experience them, but are totally natural and have no
towards brownish with yellow marks. The brightness side effects apart from stress. If such behaviour is
of the venter fades as well. In some very old displayed, it means that the newt was not handled
individuals the venter may fade to a whitish colour and carefully or is under stress for some other reason, and
they may develop a broken yellow copper colouration this should be investigated.
on their backs. Complete albinism is very rare in
Triturus boscai, though some cases have been reported.
Albino individuals possess red eyes, whitish backs, and
yellowish bellies.
Eggs, larvae, and juveniles: Eggs of Bosca’s newts are

very easy to distinguish from those of other Triturus
species. The eggs are oval with a dark upper side and a
whitish underside. Egg diameter is around 2 mm,
which is large when compared to other small Triturus
(e.g., T. helveticus, T. vulgaris).
Newly-hatched larvae are 7-12 mm in total length.
Interestingly, larvae of Bosca’s newt, which is
classified as a pond-type newt, have very prominent
gills and develop all four legs early compared to other Triturus boscai larva.
Triturus. Their colouration is pale brownish-orange,
and they often have tiny dark dots along their body. The most spectacular defensive mechanism is
The venter is yellowish with tiny dark dots. In known as the “unken” reflex. Bosca’s newts display
behaviour, Bosca’s larvae are voracious. They dwell at this behaviour only when terrestrial. Terrestrial
the bottom and in floating plants, rather than living juveniles and adults under a situation perceived as an
“suspended” like larvae of the crested and marbled attack may exhibit a rigid arched posture by raising up
newts (e.g., Triturus cristatus). Larvae metamorphose the tail, head, and arms. The aim is to show their
at a size of 20-35 mm. Curiously, some late larvae ventral colouration in order to let the attacker recognise
from northern populations may spend their first winter their toxicity. The unken reflex may last from a few
aquatic, metamorphosing the following spring or seconds to more than 10 minutes in Bosca’s newts.
summer at a length of 50-75 mm, close to adult size. You can provoke the unken reflex by tapping softly
with a hard thin object on the back near the head.
Other strategies used for defence are immobility, active
running, and searching for a hiding place. When
grasped, they may produce a curious ‘quack’ sound by
projecting air through their mouth. In the water, both
adults and larvae respond by actively swimming and
searching for a hiding place. Also, T. boscai may bury
itself in the bottom mud, if available.
Triturus boscai egg in early development (the appearance of

two eggs is due to reflection in the water’s surface).
Juvenile colouration is brown or grey, sometimes

with blue and yellow tones, with darker spots on the
backs. Initially the venter is whitish or yellowish.
After 15-45 days, the venter colouration develops. The
brightness of the venter colour depends on their diet
during the larval and juvenile periods. Juveniles are
completely terrestrial in nature until adulthood.
Adulthood is reached at the third year in both sexes, A paludarium designed and laid out for Triturus boscai.
while in captivity it may take between 2 and 4 years.
Growth rate is higher in females during the juvenile Housing and temperature
stage. Male growth rate slows soon after maturation, Bosca’s newts can be kept equally successfully in
whereas females continue to grow for a longer time. completely aquatic setups or in paludariums (an aqua-
terrarium for newts) all year long. These newts can be
Triturus boscai in captivity kept in still or moderately flowing water. T. boscai is
When Bosca’s newts are handled, they may one of the most aquatic European newts, and in the
respond with several natural defensive behaviours. wild these newts may spend a large portion of the year
These reactions are very impressive the first time you

in the water. A terrestrial setup should be used only Keep in mind that, in the wild, northern
during summer months when temperatures are populations have a winter dormancy period and
constantly over 20 °C. I keep them in fairly large southern populations have a summer dormancy period.
setups (100 x 40 x 40 to 140 x 60 x 70 cm) due to my Northern populations leave the water when water
devotion, though they can be kept in relatively small temperatures decrease to 2-3 ºC, then stay on land in a
aquariums equally successfully. It is not an aggressive stage of dormancy. Occasionally, some animals
species, so several males can be kept together. remain in the water in a lethargic state. Southern
populations aestivate when moisture becomes scarce
and the substrate warms and dries out.
Ideally these newts should be maintained at no
more than 20 ºC during the warmest part of the year.
In winter, the aquarium water temperature can be
dropped to 4 ºC without risk. Southern individuals will
tolerate summer temperatures of 25 ºC for short periods
of time, but a decrease in temperature at night is
essential. If you cannot keep temperatures cool enough
Another setup for adult T. boscai. Note the emergent rocks
at the rear of the setup should the adults choose to leave the in summer, I highly recommend that you keep the
water. newts completely terrestrial. This is a species that
doesn’t need to hibernate for breeding success, even
Water depth does not seem very important. I have though it tolerates and remains active at very low
kept adults in water depths from 10 to 50 cm equally temperatures. It is not tolerant of high temperatures, so
successfully. However it is very important to avoid the facility to aestivate should always be provided
water depths above 10 cm for juveniles being kept during summer heat waves. These newts can be kept
aquatic. I highly recommend well-planted aquariums outdoors during summer months in order to provide a
since females of this species like to rest in floating natural temperature drop at night. They will burrow
plants waiting for passing prey. Waxworms, into the substrate as the temperature becomes
butterflies, and crickets are all well received. Males, in uncomfortably high.
contrast, are bottom dwellers and fairly active, always
looking for females since their breeding condition can Water temperature and light periods experiment
last for more than 8 months under ideal conditions. It I carried out an experiment with different water
is a very curious species, so wood or complex rock temperatures and light periods. This experiment was
structures with holes are much appreciated. Keep in performed with one paludarium of Bosca’s newts, from
mind that if a false background or any decoration has September to January. I started the experiment in
an unexpected gap, a newt will undoubtedly crawl in. September when the water temperature was 18 ºC. I
Surprisingly, they always know how to get out of these dropped the temperature to 12 ºC in October. At that
spaces, but for your own peace of mind I recommend temperature, males were completely aquatic and
that you make holes in any fake rock background to females were mostly aquatic, leaving the water only
facilitate escape. occasionally. Then, in November, I dropped the
temperature again, this time down to 8 ºC. Finally, in
December, the temperature was dropped to 4 ºC. The
light period was decreased accordingly from 12 hours
of light and 4 of ‘moonlight’ to 6 hours of light and 4
of ‘moonlight’.
A male Triturus boscai tail-fans a female during courtship.
The males commenced courtship at 18 ºC and

A male Triturus boscai shows off its colourful venter.
maintained this behaviour regardless of water

temperature changes until December when the summer. However females don’t lay any eggs until
temperature fell to 4 ºC. The females were mainly February or later when water temperature and light
aquatic, but the youngest females made a few terrestrial period increase. Breeding males are also greatly
trips for hours or even a few days. During the affected by temperature. An increase in water
4 months, there were several successful sperm temperature (>17 ºC) causes males to lose breeding
transfers, but the females did not lay eggs. Even at condition.
4 ºC, both sexes were very active and eating frequently. I would like to emphasise that Triturus boscai is
The same experiment was performed in paludariums not very tolerant of warm water. A temperature of
with T. marmoratus, T. alpestris cyreni, T. carnifex, 18 ºC or higher will cause symptoms of stress, loss of
T. vittatus ophryticus, and all left water and decreased appetite, etc. Keep in mind that environmental cues
their activity between 7 and 4 ºC. play an important role in influencing aquatic/terrestrial
During the experiment, Bosca’s newts exhibited behaviour. The newts will remain aquatic as long as
behaviour that indicated a direct relationship between water temperature, water volume and depth, rate of
activity and light periods. The least activity was pond desiccation, and ease of finding prey are
exhibited during dark periods: September (23:00-6:00), appropriate. In contrast, most other European species
October (22:00-5:00), November (21:00-5), and become terrestrial at certain times of the year.
December (20:00-5:00). Maximum activity was
observed at twilight hours: September (20:00-22:00, Feeding
7:00-9:00), October (19:30-21:30, 7:30-9:00), Feeding and maximum activity usually take place
November (17:00-21:00, 7:30-9:00), December (19:00- during twilight hours. Nevertheless, Bosca’s newts are
21:00, 7:30-10:00). All times given are approximate. quite voracious, so they will accept prey anytime.
Interestingly, Bosca’s newts are very active during When kept aquatic, these newts will eat earthworms
daylight, which is quite rare in the genus Triturus. (also known as nightcrawlers), Daphnia, whiteworms,
live or frozen bloodworms, live blackworms, tubifex
(live, frozen, or dry), live brine shrimp, beef heart, beef
liver, chicken liver, chicken heart, pellets, etc.
When terrestrial, they will take crickets,
waxworms, earthworms (not the red-ringed species
though), whiteworms, fruitflies, etc. I recommend
gut-loading crickets with flaked fish food or cricket
gut-load food prior to feeding. Mineral supplements
are not required if a varied diet is provided. In spite of
this, I highly recommend adding colour powder and
vitamin powder to juveniles’ food in order to guarantee
healthy juveniles with bright colourful venters. This
should be provided until the juveniles reach a
reasonable size when a wider variety of food and
therefore a more balanced diet can be supplied.
Breeding
Adults must be healthy and well fed all year round
in order to breed successfully. Well-fed females will
guarantee a great number of eggs. Bosca’s newts can
be kept aquatic all year, and a moderate variation of
water temperature is enough to elicit breeding. A
yearly range of water temperature between 20 ºC in
summer and 12 ºC in winter is sufficient. However,
much lower temperatures are tolerated, and these lower
temperatures will prolong their breeding condition for
months for the enjoyment of the enthusiast.
A female Triturus boscai carefully lays an egg.
If kept terrestrial, a greater temperature variation is
required to elicit breeding. For winter dormancy,
Temperature also plays a clear role in ovipositing
keeping them outdoors or in a cool place for a couple
activity. The females that were removed from the
of months with day temperatures of less than 10 ºC and
cooled paladarium to a warmer aquarium started laying
a few degrees lower at night will be enough. For
eggs after a few days (November and December). Egg
aestivation, the keeper should provide a variety of
laying starts at 12 ºC and above (this may vary from
terrestrial hiding places with varied humidity,
northern to southern populations). The females in the
substrates, and depths. Temperatures should be over
cooled paludarium started to lay eggs at the end of
25 ºC during the day with a notable decrease at night.
January when temperatures got back up to 12 ºC. This
During courtship, the males are very active,
may explain why in nature there is no record of autumn
constantly looking for females. When a female is
breeding, even though the newts may remain in
detected, the male approaches her and starts tail-
breeding condition from October until the following
fanning. The tail is folded against the side of the body

nearest the female and oscillated rapidly. When the Initially, the larva will be nourished by the egg yolk
female shows a clear sign that she is interested in the (vitellin), until the organs develop. After 60-80 hours,
male’s visual and olfactory cues, he will do the the balancers, which permit the larva to adhere to
flamenco by raising up the tail from the body, waving vegetation, are absorbed and the larva begins
the silvery end from side to side. Then the swimming freely and will begin to hunt for food. Keep
spermatophore will be deposited. The male will start in mind that Bosca’s newt larvae are very tough, since
moving about, and his tail will perform a wiggle, which a wide range of pH is accepted (pH 4-9), and the water
moves the tail in a serpentine movement. The female quality is not a critical factor for success.
will follow the tail’s shiny silvery end, and the male
will direct her to the position of the spermatophore.
Then the male will start flicking the female repeatedly
in order to move the cloaca forward and backward with
the aim of catching the spermatophore with her cloaca.
The male may start doing the flamenco again since
several spermatophores may be deposited in one
courtship.
Throughout the breeding season, females may
mate several times a day with various males, but eggs
won’t be laid until water temperatures are above 11 ºC
for a period of time. The females will start folding
leaves and doing the egg laying ritual, but in the
absence of eggs for some hours or even a few days.
Females may produce 100-250 eggs in a season, and
oviposition lasts between 50 and 100 days. Water
temperature will affect the number of eggs laid each
day. Eggs are deposited singly, and folded between
leaf tips of submerged vegetation, partially submerged
moss, holes in wood, etc.
Containers for rearing small larvae.
For the first stages of their development, I feed the

larvae by using pond water along with small
invertebrates captured with a net. As they grow, other
foods may be provided, such as live Daphnia, brine
shrimp, live Tubifex, frozen redworms, chopped
earthworms, etc.
In behaviour, Bosca’s larvae are voracious and stay
at the bottom and on floating plants. Larvae will
metamorphose at a size of 20-35 mm. At this stage it is
necessary to lower the water level and provide some
surfaces out of the water. My method is to incline the
plastic box in order to create a dry area, which I then
cover with moss.
Bosca’s juveniles are very delicate and not easily
raised. Correct care for the first 3 months is essential
for success. Temperature plays a major role, so you
should avoid temperatures higher than 20 ºC,
A female Triturus boscai lays an egg from an upside down preferably keeping them under 18 ºC. The size of the
position. newly-metamorphosed juveniles is also an important
factor for successful rearing, so try to grow the larvae
Rearing eggs, larvae, and juveniles as large as possible prior to metamorphosis by
For captive rearing purposes and for ease, it is providing plenty of food and keeping the water
highly recommended that Elodea or Egeria plants, or temperature low. It is helpful to feed them extra food
even plastic strips be provided in the breeding just before they leave the water. A size of 3 cm or
aquarium. Remove the strips or plants as they get more is reasonable for success in their development.
covered with eggs. Don’t forget that adult Bosca’s For terrestrial rearing, I put the newly-metamorphosed
newts enjoy eggs as a meal. juveniles in a setup with plenty of moss. Every week
One can use plastic boxes as the rearing setup with or so, I substitute the moss with new moss, which is
plenty of plants and bare bottoms. The larvae will normally full of small organisms. I complement this
hatch from the eggs between 12 days (at ~20 ºC) and diet with small crickets, waxworms, fruit flies, chopped
25 days (at ~10 ºC), depending on water temperature.

earthworms, and live Tubifex, which I place on a wet

surface.
The author and companions on a Bosca’s newt field trip 18

years ago.
A large Triturus boscai larva. -Yago Alonso Giménez is a young entrepreneur

running Update Business, a company focused on new
Since the colour of the venter develops during the market demands, branding, publicity and visual
first 15-45 days after metamorphosis, it is critical to communication. A native of Spain, at the age of 6 he
provide foods that will allow the colour to develop found his first newt, a Bosca’s newt, and ever since
properly. As stated previously, I recommend dusting then he has being fascinated by these enthralling
the food with amphibian colour powder and vitamins in amphibians. Nowadays he enjoys a wide variety of
order to get healthy animals with bright and colourful caudates, his main interest being Salamandridae,
venters. with particular emphasis on the genus Triturus.
If you plan to have aquatic juveniles, I recommend
a decrease in water level to 1-2 cm prior to
metamorphosis, with plenty of plants in the water –
Java moss (Vesicularia dubyana) and Elodea spp. are
ideal. Plants above the water level should not be
provided, as the juveniles will use them to remain out
of the water. The juveniles should always stay in the
water and feed in the water. Then the water level is
gradually increased. The secret is to keep them in cold
oxygenated water (8-15 ºC) with plenty of live food
(such as Cyclops, Daphnia, Tubifex, earthworms) and
frozen food. In one extreme case, I have (in May
2004) a juvenile from spring 2003 that is thriving in the
same aquarium with adult Bosca’s newts and a water
level of 50 cm. The key factor is that the aquarium is
well oxygenated, and the temperature is always under
15 ºC.
Conclusion
I hope this article will give a broader insight into
Bosca’s newts and their captive care, since this species
has been quite forgotten in non-scientific literature. I
find that Bosca’s newts are a very rewarding species,
since they can be kept all year round in water and breed
easily, even for beginners. Although the rearing of
juveniles might be tricky, if you follow the tips given
here they might be a very gratifying challenge.
Currently, Bosca’s newts breed in captivity on a
regular basis for several enthusiasts and breeders,
including myself. They are offered at amphibian
meetings such as Hamm and Gersfeld, giving many
people the opportunity to embark on the captive care of
this fascinating species.

Keeping and Breeding the Southern Marbled Newt (Triturus pygmaeus)

By Sergé Bogaerts
This article is an English adaptation of an article originally published in Sauria (http://www.sauria.de):
S. Bogaerts, Der Zwergmarmormolch (Triturus pygmaeus) in Gefangenschaft, Sauria, 24(2), 2002.
in colour but also in size from the northern form. They

also studied animals from Cadiz (the population
described as T. marmoratus pygmaeus) and those
animals were practically identical to the southern form.
They concluded that T. m. pygmaeus therefore had a
much larger distribution than had been thought.
Meanwhile Garcia-Paris et al. (1993) had provided
proof that the southern form should be considered a
different species, because there are no intermediate
forms of the northern and the southern forms where
they border one another (the Sistema Central) in Spain.
There is no exchange of genetic material and the
researchers didn't find any animals with intermediate
An aquatic male Triturus pygmaeus in breeding garb.
morphological features. In 2001 the southern form was
finally described as the separate species T. pygmaeus
Introduction
(Garcia-Paris et al., 2001). According to Herrero et al.
The Southern Marbled Newt (Triturus pygmaeus)
(2003) there is also no cross-breeding in the Portuguese
has only recently been recognised as being a separate
overlap.
species (Garcia-Paris et al., 2001), though earlier
published articles (Garcia-Paris et al., 1993) had
already suggested that this former subspecies of
Triturus marmoratus should be classified as a species
in its own right. In this article I wish to provide a
description of this species and keys to its successful
maintenance and breeding. I shall refer to this species
as the Southern Marbled Newt in contrast to the
Northern Marbled Newt, Triturus marmoratus, as this
is consistent with the German name (see Herrero et al.,
2003). The name Pygmy Marbled Newt, or Small
Marbled Newt (Diaz-Paniagua et al., 1996; Diaz-
Paniagua, 1998), should be reserved for the small
A terrestrial female T. pygmaeus.
forms found in the south of Spain. I have kept and
bred this beautiful small newt since 1992 (Bogaerts,
1995), but ceased to do so in 2003. In this article I will Differences
try to convey this decade of experience to you. T. pygmaeus differs in a number of ways from its
cousin T. marmoratus. The main differences are
(adapted from Dorda and Esteban, 1986; Garcia-Paris
History and taxonomy
Triturus marmoratus form “pygmaea” was first et al., 2001):
mentioned by Wolterstorff in 1905. It wasn't a proper • Adult T. pygmaeus are smaller than adult
description of a subspecies, it is just mentioned as a T. marmoratus. Mean size for males is 106.5 mm
dwarf form of the Marbled Newt that lives in southern and 116.5 mm for females. The largest female that
Spain in the vicinity of Cadiz and Algeçiras. The most I have seen (from Sierra de Guadalupe) measured
important feature of this subspecies is that it reaches a 130 mm. An adult T. marmoratus is normally
smaller adult size than its northern cousin. The between 140 and 160 mm in length. Diaz-
subspecies was forgotten for years, and Diesener Paniagua et al. (1996) reported the mean sizes of
(1982) thought this subspecies might be extinct. Dorda animals from Doñana National Park as 77.32 mm
and Esteban (1986) published some details of their for males and 75.59 for females.
investigation concerning the populations of the
Marbled Newt in Spain. They had studied animals • The colouration of T. pygmaeus is different from
from 14 different populations throughout the country. that of T. marmoratus. The belly is almost always
The main conclusion from their research was that lightly coloured (pink, orange, brown) or
T. marmoratus in Spain clearly existed as two forms, a transparent with many white spots. These spots
northern form (the same as French animals) and a can cover large areas, making the belly white in
southern form. The border between the two forms is appearance. In other cases there may also be large
formed by the Sistema Central (central mountains black dots. However T. marmoratus from
running from Lisbon, via Madrid, through the Iberian northern Iberia can also have this colour pattern.
peninsula to the east coast). This southern form differs Animals from France normally possess very dark

venters. The dorsal pattern of T. pygmaeus can be grow to a total maximum size of 10-11 cm in a few
of two distinct types. The most common type years.
possesses black or brown parts on the dorsum
which form isolated dots on a green background. Housing
These dots can be circular or more edged, but they T. pygmaeus is relatively easy to keep and breed. I
never blend into each other to form the use two sets of terraria. One is an aquarium for the
characteristic marbled patterns of T. marmoratus. breeding period, the other is a terrarium for the period
The other type is found only in the provinces spent on land. If you can keep water temperatures
Huelva and Cadiz and seems to have only some lower then 20 ºC it is possible to keep these newts
marbled or reticulated patterning of green on the completely aquatic (W. Mudrack, personal
dorsum. Small stripes of green are only sparsely communication).
present on the lateral side. The two types however Besides the aquarium and terrarium, I also use
seem to form intermediate patterns in areas some smaller terrariums to rear the young. For four
bordering these coastal zones. animals I use a terrarium of 60 x 30 x 30 cm (L x D x
H). T. pygmaeus live in this terrarium from April/May
• The crest of the male T. pygmaeus is lower than until October/November. The soil consists of a 5 cm
that of T. marmoratus and shows almost no thick layer of fine peat (used in gardens) mixed with
inflection at the pelvic level. forest soil (from oak-beech forests). Half of the soil
• During the breeding season the colours of male T. stays completely dry while the other is moist. A small
pygmaeus can change and bronze coloured areas water bowl is placed in the moist part. For shelter I use
may appear. pieces of tree bark. I lay these on the soil, and I also
partially bury them.
Habitat The top of the terrarium is covered with gauze to
The habitats of T. pygmaeus and T. marmoratus prevent the animals from escaping and to provide
are different. T. marmoratus in France is found in optimal ventilation. The last ingredient for the
ponds mostly near or surrounded by woodland. In terrarium is a feeding dish. Food consists primarily of
Spain and Portugal I have found T. pygmaeus in ponds worms, mealworms and crickets. Food items are
which hold water for a few months, mostly in open always fed with vegetables and then with powdered
plain areas with only a sparse presence of trees (in vitamins and minerals.
Spanish these plains are called Dehesa). Water The terrarium is placed somewhere where it
vegetation (like Ranunculus spp.) was frequently doesn’t receive direct sunlight. The temperature must
present. The ponds were up to one metre in depth. not rise above 22-23 ºC for longer than a few days.
T. pygmaeus was found together with the Sharp-ribbed In September a larger water bowl measuring about
Newt (Pleurodeles waltl), Bosca’s Newt 20 x 10 x 5 cm is placed inside the terrarium of
(Triturus boscai) and even with larvae of the Fire T. pygmaeus. From this point onwards I start spraying
Salamander (Salamandra salamandra longirostris). with water more frequently and the animals will start to
enter the water. The animals acquire a smoother skin
Activity periods and the males develop a small ridge on the back where
T. pygmaeus has its most active period in winter. the crest will arise.
The breeding season commences with the fall of the After that they are placed in an aquarium. To
first rains in October or November. The animals then ensure that the animals won't drown during the first
go to their breeding ponds. The first eggs are laid in few days, I place a small piece of cork bark in the
January and February. At the end of the spring when water. The aquarium for one pair of T. pygmaeus must
the ponds start to dry up, the newly metamorphosed be about 60 x 30 x 30 cm. The water depth must be
and adult T. pygmaeus leave the water. They then seek about 15-25 cm. The bottom is covered with river sand
shelter to begin aestivation to pass the hot and dry or small gravel, but to facilitate cleaning this can be
summer period. In comparison, T. marmoratus breeds omitted. Other ingredients are flat stones, which can
in spring after hibernation. They stay in the water until be built to form shelters for the animals during the day,
the end of summer. In autumn they seek shelter for but other kinds of hiding places can be created. I
protection during the cold winter period. consider hiding places during the day (especially for
T. pygmaeus is capable of breeding in the year of females) highly important.
its metamorphosis. This is particularly the case for The most important features are of course the
males because they can reach maturity at a very small plants on which the female can lay her eggs.
size. Females normally begin to breed at two years of Preference is shown for plants with long leaves, like
age. If the animals enter breeding mode they put all of Potamogeton spp., but the best plants indoors seem to
their energy into reproduction and therefore cannot be Elodea spp. The aquarium can be placed in a light
invest energy in growth. In the Doñana National Park place (not in full sunshine) at a temperature of 10-
animals exhibit extremely short juvenile and terrestrial 20 °C. Additional light (especially for the growth of
phases (Diaz-Paniagua et al. 1996). I have kept the plants) can be provided by a fluorescent lamp. In
animals from nearby places, like Jerez de la Frontera. the water the animals are fed with earthworms, red
These animals can also breed after one year, but due to mosquito larvae, blackworms and whiteworms.
the better feeding conditions in terrariums they can still However, the newts will eat all available food, and it is
even possible to get them used to dead prey, for

instance pieces of heart, liver or frozen food items like clear however if fungal infections are the cause or just
shrimp. But I always prefer live food. an effect of egg abortion. The best thing to do is to
place the eggs (with pieces of the plants to which they
are attached) in separate rearing aquariums
(20 x 15 cm), where up to 10 larvae can be raised if a
lot of water plants are included. Every two weeks a
new aquarium is used for the freshly laid eggs. This is
to make sure that the first larvae to hatch won't eat the
last ones. However while rearing the larvae they must
be divided into groups by length every once in a while.
They are carnivores and they will eat each other. The
larvae are reared in these small aquariums or in larger
aquariums (depending on what I have available) with a
water depth of 8 cm. Feeding takes place two or three
times a week with Tubifex, Daphnia and mosquito
A male T. pygmaeus solicits a female. larvae (mostly bloodworms).
After metamorphosis a new and difficult period in
Breeding the rearing of young newts begins. Young freshly
The mating ritual of the Southern Marbled Newt is metamorphosed newts are 4-5 cm in total length at the
similar to that of other Triturus species. The males time of emergence. For the rearing of mass numbers
perform a courtship display that is beautiful to watch. (more than 10 animals) I now use a method described
According to Hidalgo-Vila et al. (2002), males exhibit by Rimpp (1994). The two key factors he described
differences in their courtship behaviour when are the use of a compost heap and the interior of the
compared to other Triturus species, even the closely terrarium. The soil in the terrarium consists of river
related T. marmoratus, but according to them it can be sand or very fine gravel. This covers 4/5 of the floor.
classified within the group of the large-bodied newts 1/5 is water. The water is separated from the sand with
(Triturus cristatus, Triturus karelinii, Triturus stones. The water level influences the moisture of the
dobrogicus, Triturus carnifex, Triturus marmoratus, soil. On this soil you place many layers of bark, on top
and Triturus vittatus). When courtship is successful, of each other. In this way you create many hiding
the female takes up the spermatophore, which the male places with varying humidity. At the level of the soil it
has deposited for her. is very moist and at the highest level it is completely
Shortly after mating the female starts to lay her dry. The newts can then decide which level they
eggs. I estimate that a female lays about 100-150 eggs. prefer. The terrarium is covered with gauze to prevent
It is impossible for me to determine exactly how many the animals from escaping. Rimpp (1994) uses broad
eggs are laid because I keep more than one female cellotape to prevent the animals from escaping and this
together in an aquarium, with many plants. The eggs is very effective. Rimpp (1994) also uses his compost
are white and about 4 mm in diameter. The eggs are heap to gather very small and diverse food for the
laid from October to February, depending on the small newts. He places some material from his
temperature of the water. MacGregor and Horner compost heap on top of the bark. This material dries
(1980) have found that for crested newts (T. cristatus) out and the small food is forced to come out and go to
and probably all sister species, 50% of all eggs are the more moist areas below. They then encounter the
aborted when the tail begins to develop, because of a newts, which, of course, eat them. Once or twice each
chromosomal failure. I have never really counted it, week he changes the compost heap material for fresh
but this seems to be a fact for T. pygmaeus as well. material.
Many people however don't have a compost heap
in their garden (if they have a garden at all) and
therefore other food sources are required. I use the
same terrarium as Rimpp describes but I mostly feed
with home-cultured fruitflies (and their larvae) during
the first few weeks. After that period I start to feed
with Tubifex and red mosquito larvae on folded wet
kitchen tissue (paper towels). All food items are
sprinkled with a calcium, vitamin and mineral powder.
Feeding with small crickets is an even better option.
Getting small newts used to quick moving prey items
makes them more rapid and vivid in my opinion. The
young newts are kept at the same temperature as their
A larval T. pygmaeus in mid-water. parents (15-20 °C). In the winter the temperatures are
lower (5-10 °C), but of course they grow faster when
Predators are another problem for the eggs. The you keep the temperatures higher. After one year on
eggs must be protected against the likes of flatworms land T. pygmaeus is capable of reaching 10 cm in
(Planaria spp.), snails, and water mites. Another length and it is then possible to breed them.
problem that can arise is fungal infection. It is not

J. HIDALGO-VILA, N. PÉREZ-SANTIGOSA, C.
DÍAZ-PANIAGUA, The sexual behaviour of the
Pygmy newt, Triturus pygmaeus, Amphibia-Reptilia,
-Sergé Bogaerts, 35, has a special interest in 4:393-406, 2002.
Mediterranean salamanders and skinks. He has H. C. MACGREGOR, H. A. HORNER,
published several articles on these subjects and makes Heteromorphism for chromosome 1, a requiement for
yearly fieldtrips to Mediterranean countries to study normal development in crested newts, Chromosoma,
these animals in the wild. He studied biology at 76:111-122, 1980.
university, and he works as an ecologist for the
Ministery of Traffic, Transport, and Water K. RIMPP, Urodelen-Aufzuchtterrarium für die
Management in the Netherlands. He is active in Massen- oder Schnellaufzucht, Elaphe (N.F.), 2(1):15-
several societies, among them the Dutch Salamander 17, 1994.
Society: http://www.salamanders.nl. R. THORN, Les Salamandres, Editions Lechevalier,
s.a.r.l., Paris, 1968.
References W. WOLTERSTORFF, Zwergformen der
S. BOGAERTS, Over de Dwergmarmersalamander
Paläartischen Urodelen, C.R., 6e Congr. Int. Zool.,
(Triturus marmoratus pygmaeus), Lacerta, 53, 179-
Berne: 258-263, 1905.
186, 1995.
S. BOGAERTS, Der Zwergmarmormolch (Triturus
pygmaeus) in Gefangenschaft, Sauria, 24(2): 37-42.,
2002.
G. DIESENER, Der Marmormolch Triturus
marmoratus (Latreille) und der Bandmolch Triturus
vittatus (Jenyns), Herpetofauna, 20: 12-16, 1982.
C. DÍAZ-PANIAGUA, J.A. MATEO, A.C. ANDREU,
Age and size structure of populations of small marbled
newts (Triturus marmoratus pygmaeus) from Doñana
National Park (SW Spain). A case of dwarfism among
dwarfs. J. Zool., London 239: 83-92, 1996.
DÍAZ-PANIAGUA, Reproductive dynamics of a
population of small marbled newts (Triturus
marmoratus pygmaeus) in south-western Spain,
Herpetological Journal, 8: 93-98, 1998.
J. DORDA, M. ESTEBAN, Evolution and
Subspecification of Iberian T. marmoratus. In: Rocek
Z. (ed.). Studies in Herpetology, Prague, p. 159-164,
1986.
M. GARCIA-PARIS, P. HERRERO, C. MARTIN, J.
DORDA, M. ESTEBAN, B. ARANO, Morphological
charaterisation, cytogenetic analysis, and geographical
distribution of the Pygmy Marbled Newt Triturus
marmoratus pygmaeus (Wolterstoff, 1905) (Caudata:
Salamandridae), Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde, 63(1): 3-
14, 1993.
M. GARCIA-PARIS, B. ARANO, P. HERRERO,
Molecular characterisation of the contact zone between
Triturus pygmaeus and T. marmoratus (Caudata:
Salamandridae) in central Spain and their taxonomic
assessment, Rev. Esp. Herp., 15:115-126, 2001.
W. R. GRÖSSE, U. KOEPERNIK, Erfahrungen bei
der aquatischen Haltung und Aufzucht von Molchen,
Elaphe (N.F.), 1:8-11, 1993.
P. HERRERO, A. MONTORI, B. ARANO, Triturus
pygmaeus (Wolterstorff, 1905) – Südlicher
Marmormolch 543-553, In: K. Grossenbacher & B.
Thiesmeier (Editors), Handbuch der Reptilien und
Amphibien Europas, Schwanzlurch IIA, Aula-Verlag,
2003.

Husbandry and Breeding of the Narrow-Striped Dwarf Siren (Pseudobranchus axanthus)

By Edward Kowalski
The aquarium should have several flat stones or

small pieces of PVC pipe to give the sirens shelter.
The substrate in the aquarium can consist of ~2.5 cm
(1 inch) of clean pea gravel. The gravel should consist
of quartz or other gravel that won't leach minerals into
the water.
Planting the aquarium with floating plants and
bunches of plants will help the sirens feel secure and
promote more activity. A good choice for the floating
plant is Water Sprite (Ceratoperis spp.) whilst any
number of plants such as Ambulia spp., Rotala spp.,
Introduction and Hygrophila spp. can serve as the bunch plants if
Narrow-striped dwarf sirens are an eel-like aquatic the lighting is adequate to support them. Otherwise,
salamander with only two front legs and an external plants that require low light such as Java Fern
bushy gill structure. In general, dwarf sirens are only (Microsorum pteropus) and Java Moss (Vesicularia
found in the southeastern United States, ranging from dubyana) can be substituted. The plants can be planted
southeastern South Carolina through the southern part in a manner that will be decorative to the
of Georgia and through the majority of Florida. herpetoculturist, as well as making the dwarf sirens feel
Narrow-striped dwarf sirens are located only in north- secure. If the dwarf sirens feel insecure they will spend
eastern and central Florida. Dwarf sirens prefer the majority of the time hidden or burrowed into the
shallow, still, or slow-moving waters that contain substrate. Frequently the only part of the siren that
heavy amounts of plant cover. If the habitat in which may be visible will be the tail. If the enclosure will be
the dwarf sirens reside dries up, the sirens may filled close to the top with water then a tight fitting lid
aestivate until the pool fills back up with water. will be required to prevent the sirens from escaping. If
Depending upon the author, dwarf sirens are either there will be at least 10 cm (4 inches) between the
two species with one (P. axanthus) having two surface of the water and the top of the aquarium then
subspecies while the second (P. striatus) has three the sirens can be kept in an open top enclosure with
subspecies (Moler, Kezer, 1993), or all of the dwarf minimal concern of the dwarf sirens escaping.
sirens belong to a number of subspecies with
P. striatus being the nominate species (Conant, Collins,
1991). Recent chromosomal studies have
demonstrated that they are two distinct species with
P. axanthus having 32 chromosomes and P. striatus
having 24 chromosomes (Moler, Kezer, 1993). Due to
this information, I am treating these as two different
species. At this time, the biology of P. striatus is
poorly understood. Husbandry requirements should be
very similar for the two species, however reproductive
cues may be very different. An axanthic specimen of Pseudobranchus axanthus. As far
as the author can determine, this is the first recorded colour
Dwarf sirens can reach an adult size of 12-19 cm
aberration in this genus.
(4.75-7.5 inches) and can be distinguished from the
larger species of siren by counting the toes on their
Sponge filters, canister filters and submersible
feet. Greater (Siren lacertina) and Lesser Sirens (Siren
filters all make excellent choices for maintaining the
intermedia) both have four toes on each foot while
water quality required for dwarf sirens. Caution should
dwarf sirens only have three toes on each foot.
be taken to make sure that the power filter's intakes are
Distinguishing between the different types of dwarf
covered by a screen to prevent the dwarf sirens from
sirens may require information as to the origin of the
being pulled in and trapped by the filter, and
animal as well as comparison of the pattern to a field
potentially injured or drowned. Water quality should
guide.
be maintained through regular water changes. The
water changes should ideally not exceed 30% of the
Captive maintenance total water volume to prevent excessive changes to the
Depending upon the number and size of the dwarf
water chemistry. When refilling the enclosure, the
sirens you wish to maintain, the size of the enclosure
water should be chlorine free as well as aged for at
will vary. I have had considerable success keeping
least 24 hours. The aging process is not to remove the
three to four adult dwarf sirens in a 75 L
chlorine (as is often believed) but to allow excess gases
(20 US gallon) aquarium. There are no external sex
to escape from the water. Water directly from the tap
differences so, if breeding is the goal, groups need to
is often saturated with gases, and these gases can harm
be housed together.
or stress the salamanders. Dwarf sirens that are under
stress from chlorine or gas super-saturation will

produce a thicker mucous layer, giving the siren a

whiter appearance. If this warning sign is noted and no
actions are taken to resolve the issue, death can result
in less than 24 hours (personal observation).
Depending upon the feeding schedule and the number
of the dwarf sirens maintained in the enclosure, water
changes could be conducted either once a week or
twice a week. Care must be taken when conducting the
water changes to prevent the dwarf sirens from
panicking and leaping out of the enclosure. If the
dwarf siren does manage to escape, assisting the siren
into a damp net with wet hands will minimize any
damage to the siren's skin. Additionally the total Two eggs of Pseudobranchus axanthus with an American
hardness of the water should not be allowed to exceed ten cent piece to give a sense of scale.
200 ppm as this may cause unnecessary stress to the
sirens. Regular monitoring of the water quality by If the dwarf sirens do not spawn using the above
testing the water is recommended to maintain the best technique, the addition of several gallons of
water quality possible. If ammonia or nitrite is distilled/deionised/reverse-osmosis water to the
detected in the water then immediate water changes enclosure may trigger breeding and spawning, as this
should be conducted to avoid the possibility of death. will simulate a decrease in the water hardness due to
Narrow-striped dwarf sirens can be easily rain.
maintained in a filtered aquarium in a cool location. As an experiment, a group of the dwarf sirens was
An appropriate temperature range for simply cycled and then placed on a 12:12 photoperiod at 22 °C
maintaining narrow-striped dwarf sirens is 21-27 °C (72 °F). The adults were fed with blackworms
(70-80 °F). If the temperature in the enclosure exceeds (Lumbriculus variegatius) to satiation and a population
27 °C (80 °F), the dwarf sirens will need to be watched of blackworms was maintained in the aquarium at all
for signs of thermal stress such as rigidity, and constant times. Under these conditions, spawning occurred
escape behaviour. If these behaviours are observed the every 3-5 weeks for over a year. During this period,
sirens will need to be immediately moved to a cooler portions of the courtship and spawning behaviours
location. were observed. The male drove the female around the
aquarium by nudging the female around the cloaca and
vibrating his head. The head vibrations lasted up to
five seconds at a time, but the durations observed were
not always the same length and did not seem to follow
a pattern of increasing or decreasing duration. These
behaviours continued until the female located a suitable
egg deposition site. During these observations, the
female would only deposit a single egg at a time,
although the same egg deposition site was chosen
several times in a row, resulting in clumps of eggs.
During egg deposition, the male continued the nudging
behaviour, as well as vibrating his head around and
near the female’s cloaca.
A close-up photo of Pseudobranchus axanthus.
Breeding
If you wish to breed the narrow-striped dwarf siren
then some temperature and photoperiod fluctuations
will prove beneficial. The temperature of the aquarium
should be reduced slowly to 18 °C (65 °F). At the
same time, the photoperiod should be reduced to 9-10
hours per day. After cycling the animals with these
conditions for about two months, the aquarium should
be warmed slowly to 22 °C (72 °F), whilst increasing
the photoperiod to 11-12 hours. The sirens will spawn
some time during the warming period while the lights
are off (at night). The sirens may spawn for several
days in a row or different females may be ready at
different times so spawns can be up to several weeks Three embryos of Pseudobranchus axanthus at different
stages of development.
apart. The eggs will be scattered about the aquarium,
either singly, or in small clumps. The eggs may be
attached to various items in the aquarium, or loose and After the female laid the egg, the male would
not attached to any items. locate the egg by following the female, at which time
he would coil and twine around the egg, passing his

cloaca over the egg several times. Presumably solution and then rinsed well. After rinsing, the item
fertilisation occurred at this time, but a quick water should be dried until the odour of bleach is no longer
sample collected near the egg did not show any free- detectable. If the item in question needs to be re-used
swimming sperm, although development of the embryo immediately after rinsing, then rinsing the item in a
was detectable after several days. water solution that contains aquarium chlorine remover
While the eggs appeared to stick to the deposition until the odour of chlorine is no longer detectable will
site, the actions of the male, and occasionally the allow rapid re-use of the item in question. Disinfecting
female, would knock the egg loose. Either the adults with ammonia is very similar to bleach except that the
or the eggs should be moved to a separate aquarium to item is rinsed and simply air-dried. Organic items,
prevent the adults from cannibalising the eggs such as pieces of wood or bark, will not benefit from
(Petranka, 1998). bleaching/cleansing with ammonia as these items have
At 22 °C (72 °F) the eggs take about 24 days to multiple small crevices that would prevent adequate
hatch. The newly hatched larvae are best housed in a disinfection, as well as retaining the disinfectant
bare-bottomed shoebox or small aquarium decorated solution. These items should simply be replaced as
with floating plants and 7.5-10 cm (3-4 inches) of needed.
water. When first moving the larvae to the shoebox,
make sure that the initial set-up contains water from the Feeding
hatching tank to prevent stressing or possibly killing In the wild, dwarf sirens feed on aquatic insects
the larvae by varying the water conditions. The bare and worms. As the mouths of dwarf sirens are rather
bottom will assist the larvae with locating food and in small, their food must be of comparable size. In
monitoring their feeding rate. Whiteworms or finely captivity, brine shrimp (Artremia salina), blackworms
chopped blackworms both make excellent beginner (Lumbriculus variegatus), whiteworms (Enchytraeus
foods, although attempts to rear dwarf sirens on a diet albigulas), redworms (or other earthworms),
consisting solely of whiteworms has led sirens to bloodworms, and Tubifex are appropriate substitutes.
develop severe metabolic bone disease (see photo There are some reports that indicate that if the food has
below). All uneaten food should be removed after 24 started to decompose the dwarf sirens will refuse the
hours to minimise water pollution. At the same time, a food (Freeman; 1967). If frozen foods are going to be
small daily water change will facilitate the maintenance used as a substitute for live foods then the frozen food
of excellent water quality. A piece of airline tubing should be fed as close as possible to the time at which
will allow the siphoning of waste and uneaten food the lights are turned off in order to prevent refusal of
while minimising the risk of damaging larval sirens. A the food due to decomposition.
small air stone or sponge filter can be added to Care must be taken when feeding live Tubifex
facilitate the oxygenation of the water and the removal worms to the dwarf sirens to avoid introducing
of ammonia. predatory invertebrates, such as water boatmen
(Notonecta spp.) and water tigers (the larvae of diving
beetles, Dytiscus spp.), as these may prey upon small
or immature sirens. Tubifex worms also have some
additional drawbacks – they may become established in
the aquarium substrate and reproduce there. While this
may provide a constant supply of food to the dwarf
sirens, the worms will predate upon and destroy any
eggs that are laid in the enclosure (personal
observation). Another problem with Tubifex is that
they are collected from sewage outflow areas and may
be contaminated with pathogenic bacteria.
Adults can also be fed redworms that have been
sorted for size. A dwarf siren can consume redworms
This narrow-banded dwarf siren is suffering from severe up to a third of its own body length (Freeman, 1967).
metabolic bone disease, due to dietary imbalance. Depending upon the size and the type of food being
offered, the dwarf sirens could be fed either daily or
As the larvae grow, the depth of the water can be several times a week. Hatchling and juvenile dwarf
increased slowly until the conditions are the same as sirens can be reared upon brine shrimp and
those in which the adults are kept. If while observing appropriately sized whiteworms. The larval dwarf
the dwarf sirens the gills appear to be becoming larger sirens should be fed daily until sated. When larval
and more branched, this may be an indication that the dwarf sirens are approximately 10 cm (4 inches) in
water quality in the enclosure has deteriorated (Wright, length, they can be moved to an adult feeding schedule
1996) and that water tests and changes may need to be and diet.
undertaken immediately.
If any of the fixtures in the aquarium need to be Companions
cleaned then bleach or ammonia are the disinfectants of Unlike some of the larger sirens that regularly bite
choice. Never use soap or iodine-based cleansers as and inflict wounds on other sirens during mating or
these may leave a toxic residue (Wright, 1993). The territorial displays, in my observations dwarf sirens are
items to be cleaned should be washed in the bleach generally not aggressive. However if dwarf sirens are

confined together in a small container then they may James W. PETRANKA, Salamanders of the United
damage each other’s tails (Freeman, 1967). States and Canada, Smithsonian Institutional Press,
Dwarf sirens can be kept with other amphibians Washington, 1998.
and fish, provided that the other occupants of the Kevin M. WRIGHT, Disinfection for the
enclosure will not attack the dwarf sirens. Other Herpetoculturist, The Vivarium, 5(1):31-33, 1993.
occupants that could be housed with dwarf sirens are
the Red-Spotted newts (such as Notophthalmus Kevin M. WRIGHT, Amphibian husbandry and
viridescens louisianensis and N. v. piaropicola), the medicine, In: Reptile Medicine and Surgery, edited by
Striped Newt (N. perstriatus; these newts will prey Douglas W. Mader, W. Saunders Company,
upon the dwarf siren eggs), and any of the small Hylid Philadelphia, 1996.
tree frogs such as the Squirrel Tree Frog (Hyla
squirella) or the Green Tree Frog (Hyla cinerea).
Small peaceful fish that won't nip the dwarf sirens’
gills, such as the Least Killifish or Pygmy Livebearer
(Heterandia formosa), are an excellent choice, as long
as zoogeography is important to the herpetoculturist;
otherwise White Cloud Minnows make an excellent
addition.
Acquisition
Dwarf sirens are readily available through Internet
advertisements. As with all herpetiles, a prospective
owner should review their local regulations to ensure
compliance with the law. If you wish to collect your
own dwarf sirens, check with the local regulatory
agencies to ensure compliance with the various state
regulations. Dwarf sirens can be readily collected
through the use of a large net or sieve. The net or sieve
should be brought up under floating plant matter,
which can then be sorted through for the dwarf sirens
(beware of venomous snakes such as cottonmouths,
Agkistrodon piscivorous). Bottom substrate may also
be raked into the net or sieve and sorted through in the
same manner. At this time, the narrow-striped dwarf
siren is at low risk of extinction. However, with the
increased pace of development and water usage
occurring in Florida, this interesting salamander’s
future may soon be jeopardised.
-Edward Kowalski is the Lead Keeper for the

Philadelphia Zoo's Department of Herpetology. He
has cared for the Zoo's amphibian collection for
almost 10 years. He has personally kept salamanders
and newts off and on for almost 30 years and in
addition he has authored several articles on the care
and husbandry of various caudates. These can be
seen on the Caudata Culture website:
http://culture.caudata.org.
References
Roger CONANT, Jospeh T. COLLINS, Reptiles and
Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America,
Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1991.
John R. FREEMAN, Feeding behavior of the narrow-
striped dwarf siren Pseudobranchus striatus axanthus,
Herpetologica, 23(4):313-314, 1967.
Paul E. MOLER, James KEZER, Karyology and
systemics of the salamander genus Pseudobranchus
(Sirenidae), Copeia, 1:39-47, 1993.

Clouded Futures: a short discussion of recent publications on the effects of climate change on species extinction
By Alan Cann
Two articles in the January 8th 2004 issue of the (cited as E. La Marca, personal communication). Few
journal Nature consider the impact of global warming studies have examined how climatic changes might be
on the abundance of plant and animal species. linked to the immediate causes of these declines.
Evidence that climate change is affecting life on Earth Outbreaks of the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium
continues to mount. Applying an ecological principle dendrobatidis thrive under cool, moist conditions. In
known as the species-area relationship, Thomas and culture, B. dendrobatidis grows at 6–28 °C but dies at
colleagues assessed extinction risks for sample regions higher temperatures. Experiments with Australian
covering some 20% of the Earth's land surface. The frogs, such as Litoria spp., show that elevated body
species-area relationship is a simple concept: smaller temperatures, reached naturally by basking in the sun
areas support fewer species. In 1859, the year in which or seeking warm microenvironments, can rid frogs of
Darwin’s Origin of Species appeared, H. C. Watson the fungus. Pounds and Puschendorf suggest that the
demonstrated this law applied to Britain’s vascular low humidity typical of warm microsites, might
flora by comparing sampling areas ranging from one therefore enhance frog survival. Both increased cloud
square mile (~2.6 sq. km) to all of England. On cover and unusually dry weather might hamper these
plotting the logarithm of the number of species as a defences. In highland tropical forests, ambient air
function of the logarithm of the area, he found a linear temperatures generally lie within ideal climate
relationship (Fig. 1): conditions for Batrachochytrium. But these forests
also include shaded and sunlit microhabitats. Under
clear skies, temperatures in the latter can quickly
exceed 30 °C, so an amphibian can ‘escape’ from these
conditions. Under cloudy skies however, microhabitat
temperatures mirror ambient temperatures, favouring
the fungus. Dry conditions may have similar
consequences: with limiting moisture, an amphibian
might have to stay in cool, damp places.
Thomas and colleagues end their paper by calling
for a reduction in concentrations of greenhouse gases
to minimise global warming, hence the number of
extinctions. Pounds and Puschendorf conclude their
commentary with the chilling thought "The threat to
life on Earth is not just a problem for the future. It is
part of the here and now".
Figure 1: Establishing the species:area relationship.
Thomas et al. used three different sets of -Alan Cann is a microbiologist at the University of
predictions to assess climate related extinction risk. Leicester, UK. He has been keeping tropical fish for
Their conclusions are the same with each. Based on over forty years and he has bred over 50 different
low (0.8–1.7 °C), mid-range (1.8–2.0 °C) and high species. In recent years, he rekindled his childhood
(>2.0 °C) predicted temperature increases, they predict fascination with amphibians, and he currently
that 18%, 24%, and 35% respectively of species are maintains a small (but growing!) collection of
committed to extinction. species.
In an accompanying News and Views commentary,
Alan Pounds and Robert Puschendorf point out that References
these estimates might even be optimistic. The risk of C. D. THOMAS et al., Extinction risk from climate
extinction increases as global warming interacts with change, Nature, 427, 145–148, 2004.
other factors, such as landscape modification, species J. A. POUNDS, R. PUSCHENDORF, Clouded futures,
invasions, and build-up of carbon dioxide – to disrupt Nature, 427, 107–109, 2004.
communities and ecological interactions. Thomas et Global Amphibian Assessment (GAA)
al. cite amphibian declines and disappearances in the The first-ever comprehensive assessment of the
mountains of Costa Rica as one example in which conservation status of the world's 5,743 known species
recent warming has been implicated in such losses. of frogs, toads, salamanders, and caecilians. This
Both the golden toad (Bufo periglenes) and the website presents results of the assessments, including
Monteverde harlequin frog (Atelopus spp.) were IUCN Red List threat category, range map, ecology
previously found in the mountainous Monteverde information, and other data for every amphibian
region of Costa Rica, but have not been seen since the species: http://www.globalamphibians.org/
late 1980s. Most of the 70-odd members of the
harlequin frog genus Atelopus, endemic to Central and
South America, have vanished or declined markedly

Alan Pounds is at the Golden Toad Laboratory

Conservation, Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve and
Tropical Science Center, Santa Elena, Puntarenas
5655-73, Costa Rica. e-mail: goldtoad@racsa.co.cr
Robert Puschendorf is in the School of Biology,
University of Costa Rica, San Pedro de Montes Oca,
Costa Rica. e-mail: rpuschen@biologia.ucr.ac.cr

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Issue 1, Autumn 2004

Available from: http://www.caudata.org

Article Submission Details

An Introductory Message from John P. Clare................................................................................................................... 4

Photos from the last year .................................................................................................................................................. 5

3 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

An Introductory Message from John P. Clare

4 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

Photos from the last year

5 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

6 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

conservation status of C. e. popei, which – despite its

Cynops ensicauda popei in southern Okinawa, where the

Introduction Distribution, biogeography, and morphology

7 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

C. e. popei has the widest range of the two

The nominate subspecies, C. e. ensicauda, is

8 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

University of the Ryukyus’ Hidetoshi Ota, the

Incidentally, Tokunoshima is the only island where

9 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

A ventral view of several Yambaru C. e. popei.

Some C. e. popei examined in Yambaru had almost

C. e. popei from Yambaru showing distinctive markings.

In contrast, C. e. ensicauda individuals are

Some minor morphological differences have been

A specimen of C. e. popei from the southern tip of Okinawa

10 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

Habitats and life history

Ventral colouration is closer to red in some southern

Tokashiki Island is known to have a higher

On Okinawa Island, C. e. popei occurs in a variety

On Okinawa, central and southern C. e. popei are

11 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

While showing a preference for calmer waters,

Newts were present even in parts of the river with moderate

Sand bars in the river serve to provide areas of calm water.

Newts and particularly larvae could be found in cavities

12 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

Tail-fanning males were frequently seen courting

The well also contained C. e. popei larvae.

A male Cynops ensicauda popei tail-fans a female during

Some newts were found in a crater formed by World War II

Shedding newts often had fine particles of clay soil caught

Newts that occupy puddles formed in tyre tracks often fall

Reports on the breeding season for C. e. popei

13 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

reach metamorphosis, compared with only about 2

Only adults and larvae were found in the water.

Echinotriton andersoni larvae were also present in the

14 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

Yambaru’s rivers are much shorter and steeper Climate

Temperature: In 2003, the average temperature

Precipitation: Whereas most subtropical climatic

15 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

The oaks species Castanopsis sieboldii forms a canopy over

Yambaru, which is less than 1/1,000 the size of

16 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

The Habu, feared by local residents because of the high

Some examples of the distinctive plant species that make up

Forests cover some 269 sq. km of Yambaru’s total

17 Issue 1, Autumn 2004

of Okinawa Island, where the number of animals at one