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Harmonics Optimization in Multilevel Inverter Using Real Coded Genetic
Algorithm
1
Aborisade, D.O., 2Adeyemo, I.A, and 3Oyeleye, C.A
1,2
Department of Electronic/Electrical Engineering, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Nigeria
3
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Nigeria
Abstract
In this paper, Real Coded Genetic Algorithm
(RCGA) is proposed for solving the transcendental
nonlinear equations characterizing harmonics in
multilevel converters. The proposed technique is
suitable for offline computation of the optimum
switching angles in higher level of multilevel inverter
(such as 11-level inverter) to produced the required
fundamental voltage as well as to minimized the low
order harmonics (e.g. 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th
harmonics) which are more harmful and more
difficult to be remove with filters. Experimental
A
results show the ability and high performance of
proposed algorithm in obtaining all possible solution
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sets in regions thought to be infeasible to find
solution. Computational and MATLAB simulation
results are given to validate the proposed method.
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Keywords: Multilevel inverter, Selective Harmonics
Elimination (SHE), Real Coded Genetic Algorithm
(RCGA)
1. Introduction
In recent years, there has been a substantial
increase in global power demand but the expansion
of power generation is severely limited by energy
crisis and environmental restrictions like Kyoto
protocol. However, the advent of fast switching solid-
state devices with high power handling capability has
enabled the power industry to respond to these
challenges with the deployment of distributed power
generation using sources of energy that are clean,
renewable and inexhaustible with the power
electronic converters as the core enabling technology.
A multilevel inverter is a power electronic converter
that synthesizes a desired Alternating Current (AC)
output voltage from several levels of Direct Current
(DC) input voltages such that a staircase voltage
waveform that is nearly sinusoidal is obtained with
minimum harmonic distortion.
Due to their spectral performance and ability to
attain a higher voltage without transformer,
IJEERAV1IS040012 www.ijeera.org
International Journal of Electrical Engineering Research & Applications (IJEERA)
Vol. 1 Issue 4, September - 2013
multilevel inverters have been drawing increasing
attention in recent years, especially in the distributed
power generation area, because several batteries, fuel
cells, solar cells, or rectified wind turbines or
microturbines can be connected through a multilevel
inverter to feed a load or interconnect to the ac grid
without voltage balancing problems [1]. In addition,
multilevel inverters have a lower electro-magnetic
interference (EMI), lower switching frequency than
standard PWM inverters and thus have reduced
switching losses. Other applications of multilevel
inverter include High Voltage Direct Current
(HVDC) transmission, electrical drives, and Flexible
AC transmission system (FACTs) devices.
Basically, there are three multilevel converter
topologies and they are as follows: Diode-Clamped
Multilevel Converter (DCMC) which is based on the
neutral-point-clamped (NPC) inverter topology
introduced by Nabae, et al, in 1981 [2], Capacitor-
Clamped Multilevel Converter (CCMC) also known
as flying capacitor or multicell converter proposed by
Meynard and Foch in 1992 [3], and Cascaded
Multicell Converter (CMC) otherwise known as
Cascaded H-bridge Multilevel Converter (CHBMLC)
[4, 5]. However many varieties of each topology as
well as hybrid of the fundamental topologies such as
Generalized P2 Converter, Mixed-Level Hybrid
Converter, Asymmetric Hybrid converter have been
developed but with the same underlying principle [6-
10].
Due to the versatility of multilevel converter,
various modulation techniques used in conventional
two-level inverter have been modified and deployed
in multilevel converters such as Sinusoidal Pulse
Width Modulation (SPWM), Selective Harmonic
Elimination (SHE) method, Space Vector Control
(SVC), and Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation
(SVPWM) [11, 12]. Among various modulation
schemes used for the implementation of multilevel
converter Selective Harmonics Elimination (SHE)
method at fundamental switching frequency arguably
gives the best spectral performance. The main
challenge associated with the SHE method is how to
obtain analytical solutions of the nonlinear
20
 International Journal of Electrical Engineering Research & Applications (IJEERA)

Vol. 1 Issue 4, September - 2013

transcendental equations that contain trigonometric

terms.
The traditional methods used for solving this kind
of optimization problems include derivative-
dependent method like Newton Raphson method
which diverges if the arbitrarily chosen initial values
are not sufficiently close to the roots. It also risks
being trapped at a local optimum and fails to give
best solution [13-16]. Evolutionary algorithms like
Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) [17], Particle
Swarm Optimization (PSO) [18] and the
conventional Binary Coded Genetic Algorithm
(BCGA) [19-21] are derivative free and are
successful in locating the optimal solution, but they
are usually slow in convergence and require much
computing time. Chiasson et al [22] proposed a
method based on Elimination theory using resultants
of polynomials to determine the solutions of the SHE
equations. A difficulty with this approach is that as
the number of levels increases, the order of the
polynomials becomes very high, thereby making the
computations of solutions of these polynomial
equations very complex. Another approach uses
Walsh functions [23-25] where solving linear
equations, instead of non-linear transcendental
A
equations, optimizes the switching angle. The method
results in a set of algebraic matrix equations and the
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Fig. 1: Configuration of an 11-level single-phase
calculation of the optimal switching angles is a cascaded H-bridge multilevel converter
complex and time-consuming operation.
3. Problem Formulation
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Among various modulation schemes used for the

2. Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverters implementation of multilevel converter, Selective
Cascaded H-bridge multilevel converters consist Harmonics Elimination method arguably gives the
of a number of H-bridge power conditioning cells, best spectral performance. The number of output
each supplied by an isolated source on the DC side phase voltage levels in a cascaded H-Bridge inverter
and series-connected on the AC side [5, 7, 11, 12, is defined by n =2s +1, where s is the number H-
16]. The structure of a single phase cascaded H- bridges per phase connected in cascade.
bridge multilevel converter is shown in Figure 1.
Each H-bridge switch can generate three different
voltage levels: + Vdc , 0, and - Vdc by connecting the
DC source to the AC output by different
combinations of the four switches S1 , S 2 , S3 , and
S 4 shown in the figure. To obtain + Vdc , switches S1
and S 4 are turned on, whereas – Vdc can be obtained
by turning on switches S 2 and S3 . By turning on S1
and S 2 , or S3 and S 4 , the output voltage is zero. The
outputs of H-bridge switches are connected in series
such that the synthesized AC voltage waveform is the
summation of all voltages from the cascaded H-
bridge cells [22].
Fig. 2: Output voltage waveform of an 11-level
cascaded H-bridge multilevel converter using
fundamental frequency switching scheme.

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 International Journal of Electrical Engineering Research & Applications (IJEERA)

Vol. 1 Issue 4, September - 2013

In general, the Fourier series expansion of the 4sVdc

staircase output voltage waveform shown in Figure 2 V1max  (7)

is given by equation (1).
V1 V1
V(t )  H n () sin(nt )  mi   (0  mi  1) (8)
(1) V1max 4sVdc
where
To develop an 11-level cascaded multilevel
inverter, five SDCSs are required. The modulation
4Vdc
H n ( )   cos(n k ) , for odd n
s index and switching angles that result in the synthesis
(2)
n k 1 of AC waveform with the least Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD) can be found by solving the
H n ( )  0 , for even n (3) following nonlinear and transcendental equations
characterizing the harmonics derived from equations
(1), (2) and (4) [16, 22] :
In three-phase power system, the triplen harmonics in
each phase need not be cancelled as they
4Vdc
automatically cancel in the line-to-line voltages as a (cos( 1 )  cos(  2 )  ...  cos(  5 ))  V1
result only non-triplen odd harmonics are present in 
the line-to-line voltages [22]. Combining equations cos(51 )  cos(5 2 )  ...  cos(5 5 )  0
(1), (2) and (3) cos( 71 )  cos( 7 2 )  ...  cos( 7 5 )  0
cos(111 )  cos(11 2 )  ...  cos(11 5 )  0 (9)


 4Vdc
v(t )  (cos( n1 )  cos( n 2 )  ... cos(131 )  cos(13 2 )  ...  cos(13 5 )  0
n 1,3,5... n (4)
 cos( n s )) sin nt ) The correct solution must satisfy the condition
A
subject to 0  1   2  ... s   0  1   2  ...  5  
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2 2 (10)

Generally for s number of switching angles, one Equation (8) in equation (9) yields:
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switching angle is used for the desired fundamental

output voltage V1 and the remaining (s-1) switching
angles are used to eliminate certain low order
harmonics that dominate the Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD) such that equation (4) becomes
V(t )  V1 sin(t )
cos( 1 )  cos( 2 )  ...  cos( 5 )  5m i
cos(51 )  cos(5 2 )  ...  cos(5 5 )  0
cos( 71 )  cos( 7 2 )  ...  cos(7 5 )  0
(11)
cos(111 )  cos(11 2 )  ...  cos(11 5 )  0
(5) cos(131 )  cos(13 2 )  ...  cos(13 5 )  0

From equation (4), the expression for the Generally equation (11) can be written as
fundamental output voltage V1 in terms of the
switching angles is given by F()  B(mi )
(12)
V1 
4Vdc
cos(1 )  cos( 2 )  ... cos( s ) (6)
 The Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is computed
as;
The relation between the fundamental voltage and
the maximum obtainable fundamental voltage V1max 49
is given by modulation index. The modulation index,
mi , is defined as the ratio of the fundamental output
V i
2

i 5,7 ,11,13.....
THD 
voltage V1 to the maximum obtainable fundamental V1 (13)
voltage V1max. The maximum fundamental voltage is
obtained when all the switching angles are zero [16]. 4. Real Coded Genetic Algorithm
From equation (6), The genetic algorithm proposed by Holland in
1975 is an evolutionary algorithm that was inspired
by the study of genetics [26]. He proposed a Binary-

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 International Journal of Electrical Engineering Research & Applications (IJEERA)

Vol. 1 Issue 4, September - 2013

Coded Genetic Algorithm (BCGA) modeled on

Darwinian principles of survival of the fittest, with a
Start
random but structured exchange of information. A
Input
random population of individuals, or potential simulation
parameters

solutions to the problem called strings or

Generate random
chromosomes, is created, and in turn the parameters switching angles
set

of these solutions are modified by the genetic Evaluate the

fitness function
operators (selection, crossover and mutation) to for each set

create new (and hopefully better) population of Perform GA and

eliminate the set

solutions. This process is repeated for a number of with the highest

fitness value

generations until the desired solution is obtained as

shown in the flowchart in Figure 3. Due to the m = m + 0.001 Increment Generation
number

inexact nature of genetic algorithm, its performance

Is fitness value > 0.01
depends on the population size as well as the choice &&
Generations < 100?

and values of the genetic operators used. Population

size has to be chosen in such a way that there is
balance between the execution time and accuracy, Store the resulting
switching angles

which means that an increase in the accuracy of a

solution can only come at the expense of the
convergent speed and vice versa. Is m < 1?

For real valued numerical optimization problems,

Real-Coded Genetic Algorithm (RCGA), whose Output results

chromosomes comprise real numbers outperforms

binary-coded genetic algorithms. The obvious Stop

advantages of RCGA include global search

capability, enhanced convergent speed resulting from
A Fig. 3: Flowchart of Genetic Algorithm
a reduced computational effort (BCGA uses binary
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code, which needs a lot of time to code and decode In this work, the GA for each state is run twice,
the values). In this research work, with the population because it may fall into local minima. The least
size set at 40, Real Coded Genetic Algorithm using fitness function between both runs is chosen. By
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floating-point representation together with the increasing the number of runs, the probability of
tournament selection, heuristic crossover at the rate reaching the global minimum increases but the
of 0.8, dynamic or non-uniform mutation at the rate convergent speed decreases due to the increase in the
of 0.02 and generational replacement strategy is execution time. Also, the default number of
proposed. generations is 100 but sometimes, GA converges to a
Each chromosome (potential solution) of the solution much before 100 generations are completed.
nonlinear and transcendental equations is encoded as In order to save time, generations are halted if the
a vector of floating-point valued or real numbers of result remains unchanged for 50 generations.
the same length as the dimension of the search space.
For each chromosome (potential solution), the fitness 5. Computational Results
function is calculated as follows [21]: A personal computer (1.83GHz Intel dual core
processor with 2.00 GB Random Access Memory
 4 2 and 286 GB Hard disk drive) running MATLAB
V1*  V1  5
1   (14)

V
f  min 100
i V1* 


s2
h
 50 hs
 V1




R2009a on Windows 7 Ultimate edition was used to
 
s
carry out the calculations. A plot of the switching
angles for values of modulation indices ranging from
i = 1, 2 …5 0 to 1.0 is shown in Figure 4. As the plot shows,
solutions do not exist at the lower end [0, 0.258] and
subject to 0  1   2 ...  5   upper end [0.93, 1] of the modulation indices,
2
*
solution sets are only found for modulation index in
where: V = desired fundamental output voltage,
1 the intervals [0.259, 0.27], [0.325, 0.874], and [0.892,
S = number of switching angles = the number of DC 0.929]. In the subinterval [0.482, 0.78] two sets of
sources = 5, h S  order of the 𝑠 th viable harmonic at solution exist, while in the subinterval [0.548, 0.55]
there are three sets of solutions. For those values of
the output of a three phase multilevel converter. For
modulation indices that multiple solution sets exist,
example, h 2  5, h 4  11 .

IJEERAV1IS040012 www.ijeera.org 23
 International Journal of Electrical Engineering Research & Applications (IJEERA)

Vol. 1 Issue 4, September - 2013

the set with the least Total Harmonic Distortion 0.1 to 1.0 is shown in Figure 6. For values of the
(THD) is chosen. fitness function less or equal to 0.01, SHE equations
are solvable, otherwise they are unsolvable. The
90
Graph of Switching Angles(degree) vs Modulation index notable feasible modulation indices are the set [0.259,
1 0.27], [0.325, 0.874], and [0.892, 0.929]. In these
80 2
regions, the 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th harmonics are
3
70 4 minimized. At low modulation indices [0, 0.258] as
5 well as at high modulation indices [0.93, 1], the
Switching angles (degrees)

60
resulting fitness value is high, hence no solutions are
50
obtained, and the low order harmonics are neither
40 minimized nor eliminated.
30
3
The Fitness Value of each Solution vs Modulation index
10
20

10
2
10
0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Modulation Index
1
10

Fitness Value
Fig.4: Optimal switching angles versus
modulation index for 11-level CHBMLI 0
10

The plots of Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

computed out to the 13th order labeled Low Order -1
10

Harmonic Distortion (LOHD), and Total Harmonic

Distortion (THD) computed out to the 49th order
A -2
10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
versus modulation index are shown in Figure 5. Modulation Index

From the plots, it is observed that the low order

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harmonics are not totally eliminated instead they are
Fig. 6: Optimal values of fitness function versus
only minimized. Also, the best solution set found at
modulation index for 11-level CHBMLI
modulation index of 0.927 has Total Harmonic
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Distortion (THD) of 3.35% with the low order

6. Simulation Results
harmonics constituting 42% of the Total Harmonic
In order to validate the observed analytical results,
Distortion (THD).
an 11-level single-phase Cascaded H-Bridge inverter
was modelled in MATLAB-SIMULINK using
The Voltage THD and low order harmonics( in % of the fundamental)
30 SimPower System block set. In each of the five H-
Total Harmonic Distortion
5th Harmonic Factor Bridges in the 11-level single-phase Cascaded H-
7th Harmonic Factor
25 11th Harmonic Factor Bridge inverter, 12V dc source is the SDCS, and the
13th Harmonic Factor
Low Order Harmonic Distortion switching device used is Insulated Gate Bipolar
20
Transistor (IGBT). Simulations were performed
using the best solution set of RGA calculated offline.
The switching scheme adopted in this research work
THD (%)

15
is the Fundamental frequency switching scheme
because of its simplicity and low switching losses.
10
The Fast Fourier Transform analysis of the simulated
phase voltage waveforms was done using the FFT
5 block to show the harmonic spectrum of the
synthesized AC voltage.
0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
The analytical and simulation values of THD
Modulation Index computed up to 13th order and 49th order are shown in
Table I for comparison purpose. It can be seen from
Fig. 5: Plot of THDs versus modulation index for the Table I that the analytical and simulation values
11-level CHBMLI of THD are in close agreement thereby validating the
analytical results. It should be noted that THD value
The plots of fitness value for each set of switching of 17.36% is shown in Figure 7; the reason for this is
angles versus modulation indices over the range of that the THD shown is for phase voltages which

IJEERAV1IS040012 www.ijeera.org 24
 International Journal of Electrical Engineering Research & Applications (IJEERA)

Vol. 1 Issue 4, September - 2013

include triplen harmonic components while analytical
value is for line voltages which exclude tripled
harmonic components.
values without much computational burden.
Analytical results are validated with simulation
results. It can be observed from Table I that both
results satisfy the maximum THD limit of 5%
specified by IEEE-519 standard which shows that the
method is efficient in reducing the undesired low
order harmonics as well as THD.

8. References
[1] J. Kumar, ‗‗THD Analysis for Different Levels of
Cascade Multilevel Inverters for Industrial
Applications,‖ International Journal of Emerging
Technology and Advanced Engineering, Volume 2,
Issue 10, October 2012, pp. 237-244.
[2] A. Nabae, I. Takahashi and H. Akagi, ―A new neutral-
point clamped PWM inverter,‖IEEE Trans. Ind.
Applicat., vol. IA-17, Sept./Oct. 1981, pp. 518–523.
[3] T. A. Meynard and H. Foch, ―Multi-level conversion:
High voltage choppers and voltage- source inverters,‖
in Proc. IEEE-PESC, 1992, pp. 397–403.
[4] R. H. Baker and L. H. Bannister, ―Electric power
converter,‖ U.S. Patent 3867643, Feb. 1975.
[5] P. Hammond, ―A new approach to enhance power
quality for medium voltage ac drives,‖ IEEE Trans.
Ind. Applicat., vol. 33, pp. 202–208, Jan./Feb. 1997
[6] F. Z. Peng, ―A generalized multilevel inverter topology
A
with self voltage balancing,‖IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat.,
Fig. 7: Harmonic spectrum for 11-level CHBMLI vol. 37, March/April 2001, pp. 611–618,.
ER
at modulation index, mi  0.927 [7] M. D. Manjrekar, T. A. Lipo, ―A Hybrid Multilevel
Inverter Topology for Drive Applications,‖ IEEE
TABLE I: Analytical and Simulation values of Applied Power Electronics Conference, 1998, pp. 523-
IJE

THDs for mi  0.927
Orders of Analytical Simulation
THD Results Results
13th 1.41% 1.41%
49th 3.35% 2.40%
7. Conclusion
The selective harmonic elimination method at
fundamental frequency switching scheme has been
implemented for computing the switching angles that
minimize the THD in 11-level inverter using Real
Coded Genetic Algorithm (RCGA). Experimental
results show that the proposed algorithm produces all
possible solution sets in regions previously thought to
be infeasible to find solution. Computational and
MATLAB simulation results are given to validate the
proposed method. In comparison with previous
methods, the proposed technique has many
advantages among which are: global search
capability, efficient utilization of DC sources and
ability to produce all possible solution sets for any
number of levels with any arbitrarily chosen initial
529.
[8] M. D. Manjrekar, P. K. Steimer, and T. A. Lipo,
―Hybrid multilevel power conversion system: a
competitive solution for high-power appli- cations,‖
IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 36, pp. 834–841,
May/June 2000.
[9] R. Lund, M. Manjrekar, P. Steimer, and T. Lipo,
―Control strategy for a hybrid seven-level inverter,‖ in
Proc. European Power Electronics Conf. (EPE‘99) ,
Lausanne, Switzerland, 1999.
[10]Y. S. Lai and F. S. Shyu, ―New topology for hybrid
multilevel inverter,‖ in Proc. Power Electron.
Machines and Drives, 2002, pp. 211–216.
[11] J. Rodríguez, J. Lai, F. Peng, ―Multilevel inverters: a
survey of topologies, controls and applications,‖ IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 49, no. 4,
Aug. 2002, pp. 724-738.
[12] S. Khomfoi, L. M Tolbert, Chapter31. Multilevel
Power Converters. The University of Tennessee.
pp.31-1 to 31-50.
[13] H. S. Patel and R. G. Hoft, ―Generalized harmonic
elimination and voltage control in thyristor inverters:
Part I—Harmonic elimination,‘‘ IEEE Trans. Ind.
Appl., vol. IA-9, no. 3, pp. 310–317, May/Jun. 1973.
[14] H. S. Patel and R. G. Hoft, ―Generalized harmonic
elimination and voltage control in thyristor inverters:
Part II—Voltagecontrol technique,‘‘ IEEE Trans.
Ind. Appl., vol. IA-10, no. 5, pp. 666–673, Sep./Oct.
1974.

IJEERAV1IS040012 www.ijeera.org 25
 International Journal of Electrical Engineering Research & Applications (IJEERA)

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[15] P. N. Enjeti, P. D. Ziogas, and J. F. Lindsay, Aborisade, David O. received his

―Programmed PWM techniques to eliminate
harmonics: A critical evaluation,‘‘ IEEE Trans.
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1990.
[16] J. Kumar, B. Das, and P. Agarwal, ―Selective
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Inverter,‘‘ 15th National Power System Conference
(NPSC), IIT Bombay, 2008, pp. 608-613.
[17] K. Sundareswaran, K. Jayant, and T. N. Shanavas,
―Inverter Harmonic Elimination through a Colony of
Continuously Exploring Ants,‖ IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Electronics, volume 54, no. 5, 2007, pp.
2558-2565.
[18] N. Vinoth, and H. Umesh prabhu, ‗‗Simulation of
Particle Swarm Optimization Based Selective
Harmonic Elimination‖, International Journal of
Engineering and Innovative Technology (IJEIT)
Volume 2, Issue 7, 2013, pp 215-218.
[19] A. I. Maswood, Shen Wei and M. A. Rahman, ―A
Flexible Way to Generate PWM-SHE Switching
Patterns Using Genetic Algorithm,‘‘ Conference
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[20] B. Ozpineci, L. M. Tolbert and J.N. Chiasson,
―Harmonic Optimization of Multilevel Converters
Using Genetic Algorithm,‘‘ 35 Annual IEEE Power
Electronics Specialists Conference, Germany 2004.
[21] R. Salehi, N. Farokhia, M. Abedi, and S.H. Fathi,
A
―Elimination of Low Order Harmonics in Multilevel
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ER
Power Electronics, volume 11, no. 2, Mar. 2011, pp.
132-139.
[22] J. N. Chiasson, L. M. Tolbert, K. J. McKenzie, and
Z. Du, ―Control of a Multilevel Converter Using
IJE
B. Eng. Degree in Electronic and
Electrical Engineering Tech.
from Federal University of
Technology, Owerri, in 1989. He
received M.Eng. and Ph.D.
degrees in Electrical Engineering
from University of Ilorin, in 1995
and 2006, respectively. He is
currently an Associate Professor
in the Department of Electronic
and Electrical Engineering, Ladoke Akintola University of
Technology, Ogbomoso. His research interests are Power
Electronics Drives, Digital Electronics, Control Systems
and signal processing.
Adeyemo, I. Adeyemi received
both his Bachelor of Technology
(B. Tech) and Master of Science
(M. Sc) degrees in Electronic and
Electrical Engineering from
Ladoke Akintola University of
Technology, Ogbomoso and
University of Lagos (UNILAG),
Nigeria in 1998 and 2002
respectively. He is currently
pursuing his Ph.D. degree in
Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Ladoke Akintola
University of Technology (LAUTECH), Ogbomoso, Oyo
State, Nigeria. His research interests include multilevel
converters, motor drives and distributed power generation.
Akinwale Christopher OYELEYE

received his Bachelor of

Resultant Theory,‘‘ IEEE Transaction on Control Technology (B.Tech) degree in
Systems Technology, vol. 11, no. 3, May 2003, pp. Computer Science at Ladoke
345- 353. Akintola University of
[23] F. Swift and A. Kamberis, ―A New Walsh Domain Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria
Technique of Harmonic Elimination and Voltage in 1998. He received his Masters
Control In Pulse-Width Modulated Inverters,‖ IEEE of Technology (M.Tech) and
Transactions on Power Electronics, volume 8, no. 2, Ph.D both in Computer Science
1993, pp. 170–185. in 2006 and 2012 respectively
[24] T. J. Liang and R. G. Hoft, ―Walsh Function Method at the same university. He is
of Harmonic Elimination,‖ Proceedings of IEEE currently a lecturer in the Department of Computer Science
Appl. Power Electron. Conference, 1993, pp.847– and Engineering, Ladoke Akintola University of
853. Technology, Ogbomoso. His research interest is in the area
[25] T. J. Liang, R. M. O‘Connell, R. M. and R. G. Hoft, of Database Technology, Soft Computing and Optimization
―Inverter Harmonic Reduction Using Walsh Function / Scheduling.
Harmonic Elimination Method,‖ IEEE Transaction
on Power Electron, volume 12, no. 6, 1997, pp. 971–
982.
[26] J. H. Holland, Adaptation in Natural and Artificial
Systems (U. Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Mich.,
1975).

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