Wat. Sci. Tech. Vol. 20, No. 617, pp. 155-164, 1988.

0273-1223/88 $0·00+·50
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved Copyright © 1988 IAWPRC

RESUSPENSION OF SEDIMENTS FROM

LONG ISLAND SOUND (U.S.A.)

Cheng-Han Tsai and Wilbert Lick

Department of Mechanical and Environmental Engineering, University of

California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT

Resuspension experiments were conducted in sea water in an annular flume on fine-grained

sediments from Long Island Sound. From these experiments, the resuspension rates and the
sediment concentrations at steady-state were quantitatively determined as a function of shear
stress and bed compaction. In addition, net resuspension experiments were conducted. From
these, the total amount of sediment that could be resuspended at a particular shear stress was
determined. In these tests, the resuspension rate decreased with time and the total amount of
sediment that could be resuspended at a constant shear stress approached a constant value as
time increased. This demonstrates a major difference between the resuspension characteristics
of fine-grained sediments and those of uniform-size, coarse-grained, non-cohesive sediments.
For the latter case, the resuspension rate ideally would be constant with time.

Resuspension experiments were also conducted with deposit-feeding Nucula clams seeded into the
sediment bed. In all cases, the steady-state concentrations as a function of shear stress
were significantly greater than those in tests without Nucula. The tests also suggest that
after sediments are seeded with Nucula for approximately 7 days, the sediment resuspension
does not change with time of consolidation.

KEYWORDS

Fine-grained sediments, resuspension rate, deposit-feeding Nucula clams, bottom shear stress.

INTRODUCTION

Fine-grained sediments (clays and silts) have large specific areas (surface area per unit
volume of solid). In addition, clay particles carry negative charges. Because of these
characteristics, fine-grained sediments readily adsorb contaminants such as heavy metals and
chlorinated hydrocarbons. As these sediments settle to the bottom, they act as a sink for
contaminants in the overlying water. At a later time, the sediments may be resuspended and
the contaminants may then be reintroduced into the overlying water and transported to other
areas. To predict the fate and transport of these contaminants, the transport processes of
fine-grained sediments need to be understood.

The purpose of the present study was to experimentally investigate the resuspension properties
of sediments obtained from Long Island Sound. The important parameters which govern the
resuspension of fine-grained sediments are (Lick, 19B2 and Task Committee, 1983): the turbu­
lent shear stress at the sediment-water interface, the water content or degree of consolida­
tion, structure of the sediment bed, composition and size distribution of the sediment, water
chemistry, and benthic organisms and organic matter. In the present study, the effects of
turbulent shear stress, the degree of consolidation, and benthic organisms were investigated.

155

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 156 C.·H. TSAI and W. LICK

The experiments were done in an annular flume 2 m in diameter with a channel width of IS cm.
A rotating top produced a turbulent flow which in turn exerted a shear stress on the sediment­
water interface. Azimuthal turbulent boundary layer velocity profiles were measured using a
1 aser doppler anemometer and this determined the bottom shear stress as a function of the
rotation rate of the lid. The sediments were obtained from a 20 m deep site in Long Island
Sound and consisted of organic silts and clays with a trace of fine sand. Ninety-five percent
of the sediments were finer than 74 �m.

From the resuspension experiments, the resuspension rates and the sediment concentrations at
steady-state were quantitatively determined as a function of shear stress and bed compaction
(time after deposition or water content). In addition, net resuspension experiments were
conducted by replacing the turbid water in the flume by clear water and, in this way, main­
taining the suspended sediment concentration at low values (well below the initial, steady­
state value) until resuspension essentially stopped. From this, the total amount of sediment
that could be resuspended at a particular shear stress was determined. In these tests, the
resuspension rate decreased with time and the total amount of sediment that could be resus­
pended at a constant shear stress approached a constant value as time increased. This
demonstrates a major difference between the resuspension characteristics of fine-grained
sediments and those of uniform-size, coarse-grained, non-cohesive sediments. For the latter
case, the resuspension rate ideally would be constant with time.

It is known that benthic organisms may greatly modify the properties of the sediment bed.
These organisms secrete mucus within the sediments, at the sediment-water interface, and on
burrow walls. This tends to bind the sediments. Benthic organisms also form fecal pellets
which are generally larger than the non-pelletized sediment particles. In addition, these
organisms burrow and this stirs the sediments, disrupts the existing sediment fabric, and
changes the water content. In order to make a pre1 iminary investigation of these effects,
resuspension experiments were conducted with deposit-feeding Nucula clams seeded into the
sediment bed at a density of 11S0/m2 after the sediments had settled for one day. These clams
are frequently found in Long Island Sound at approximately this density. Experiments were
made at different shear stresses with sediments consolidated for 7 days and 14 days. For both
cases, the steady-state concentrations as a function of shear stress were similar to each
other but significantly greater than those in tests without Nucula. The reason for this was
that the Nucula burrowed into the sediments, disrupted the structure of the sediment bed, and
did not allow the surficial sediments to compact as much as without Nucula. The tests also
suggest that after sediments are seeded with Nucula for 7 days or possibly less, the sediment
resuspension does not change with time of consolidation.

The experimental procedures are described in the following section. After that, the results
of the experiments are discussed. A summary and conclusions then follow.

RESUSPENSION EXPERIMENTS

The experiments were conducted in an annular flume which was made of 0.64 cm thick plexiglass
(Figure 1) and has a width of IS cm, a depth of 20.4 cm, and an outer radius of 1 m. A 14 cm
wide rotating plexiglass lid fits inside the channel, just touches the top of the water in the
channel, and can be adjusted to a height between 0 and IS cm above the channel bottom. The
rotating 1 id is driven by an adjustable speed motor and through its friction on the water
produces a flow in the channel and hence a bottom shear stress. The functional relationship
between the rotational speed of the lid and the bottom shear stress was derived from measure­
ments of the bottom turbulent boundary layer velocity profile (Fukuda and Lick, 1980; Massion,
1982; MacIntyre et �, 1986).

The sediments used in this investigat ion were obtained from a 20 meter deep site in Long
Island Sound. The sediments had a dark gray color and consisted of organic silts and clays
with a trace of fine sand and shell fragments. More than 9S% of the sediments were finer than
74 microns. The sediments were first washed by sand-filtered sea water and sieved through a
SOO �m-mesh to remove the she11 fragments. The sea water had a salinity of 33. 3 parts per
thousand and a pH value of 8.1.

To prepare the sediment bed, the sediments inside the flume were totally resuspended and then
allowed to settle and consolidate. This was done in two steps. The sediments were first
stirred to break up any consolidated portions. The second step was to lower the ring into the
flume and then rotate the ring at a high speed in order to create a bottom shear stress of 18
dynes/cm2 . After 10 minutes of rotation, the ring was gradually slowed to a stop. Settling
and consolidation of the sediments followed.

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 Resuspension of sediments 157

IoIr1t----- I.O m --......

-

Fig. 1 A schematic of the annular flume.

During the course of an experiment, the sediment concentration of the overlying water was
frequently measured. In order to do this, a piece of tubing was inserted into the flume
through a samp 1 ing port and a volume of flume water was sampled. The volume of the sample
ranged from 40 to 200 ml depending on the concentration of the water. Immediately after the
sampling, an equal amount of clean sea water was poured back into the flume in order to ensure
the proper contact of the rotating ring and the water. The sample was filtered through a
pre-weighed 0. 45 �m Millipore HA type filter. The filter with the wet sediments was dried in
an oven for 30 minutes at 105°C. The dried filter was then placed in a dessicator allowing it
to be cooled to room temperature before it was weighed. The sample concentration was then
determined from a knowledge of the volume and the dry weight of the sample.

Before starting the experiment, it was necessary to adjust the ring height and the flume water
level. During the calibration of the flume, it was found that the bottom shear stresses were
most uniform across the channel when the water depth was approximately 7.62 cm (3 inches).
Hence, before rotating the ring, its height was adjusted so that the distance between the
flume and the sediment surface was 7.62 cm. Next, the water level was adjusted so as to
ensure a proper contact between the ring and flume water.

Two types of experiments were performed: net resuspension experiments (to accurately measure
the total amount of sediment that can be resuspended at a particular stress) and multiple
shear tests (which were more rapid but less accurate). The net resuspension experiments will
be described first. Each net resuspension experiment can be divided into three phases:
initial resuspension phase, flushing phase, and after flushing phase. At the beginning of the
experiment, the overlying water was at rest and the sediment concentration in it was almost
zero. The sediments were then resuspended by rotating the annular ring at the desired speed.
The overlying water in the flume was then sampled at intervals in order to determine the time
variation of the sediment concentration. This initial phase ended when the sediment concen­
tration reached a steady state.

After this, flushing was started. In the flushing phase, the flume water containing resus­
pended sediments was gradually replaced by clean sea water while the ring was rotating at the
same speed. To do this, the water was pumped out from the flume and into the bottom of a tank
which was filled with clean sea water. The tank was equipped with an overflow port; any
amount of flume water pumped into the tank forced an equal amount of clean water back into the
flume. Near the end of the flushing phase, the time variation of the flume concentration was
measured. If the sample concentration was close to the value before resuspension, the
flushing was stopped and the test advanced to the after flushing phase. The procedure of this
final phase was similar to the initial phase. The flume water was sampled to determine the
time history of the flume concentration. The final phase was normally completed in 3 to 4
hours. The total amount of sediments that can be resuspended for a given shear stress was
determined by adding the sediments that were flushed out of the flume and the small amount of
sediments still left in the flume at the end of the experiment.

The procedures described above were for single shear, net resuspension experiments. The
procedures for multiple shear experiments were much simpler. These experiments included only

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 158 C.-H. TSAI and W. LICK

2
160 2 DAYS CONSOLIDATION, 2 DYNES/CM

..J •
;:, 120
�

Fig. 2(a)
�
�
II:
80
I­
Z
I.JJ
U
Z
o
40 AFTER FLUSHING -
u ... ...
-

0
0 2 :3 4
TIME (HOURS)

10
2 DAYS CONSOLIDATION
2
B DYNES/CM

8
::J
.....

�
z
0
Fig. 2(b) �
II:
I-
Z 4
w
u
z
8
2

2 3 4
TIME (HOURS)

Fig. 2 Time variation of sediment concentration in the overlying water.

the initial resuspension phase. The flume was first run at a given bottom shear stress and
flume samples were taken to measure the variation of concentration with time. When the con­
centration for this bottom shear stress attained its steady state, the speed of the ring was
increased to the next higher shear stress, and the sampling was repeated. This procedure was
repeated for four different shear stresses.

For the tests with Nucula, the sediment bed was first allowed to settle for 1 day and then the
overlying water was aerated and 1000 Nucula were randomly and carefully dropped onto the
sediment surface. This number of Nucula is equivalent to a density of 1150/m2. After they
were dropped onto the sediment bed, the Nucula would burrow into the sediments.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The results of the net resuspension experiments will be described first and then the results
of multiple shear experiments.

Net Resuspension Experiment

Figure 2(a) shows the typical variation of suspended sediment concentration with time for the
net resuspension tests; this particular case is for an experiment with 2 days consolidation
and 2 dynes/cm2 shear. It can be seen that the sediments are resuspended very rapidly at
first (in times less than one hour) and then more slowly until the sediment concentration
reaches an almost steady state (the upper curves).

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 Resuspension of sediments 159

In this type of experiment, the sediment beds were formed by sett1 ing. This type of bed
represents those formed by flow deposits during a slack water period. As the sediments are
deposited on the bottom, due to the cohesive nature of clay particles, these particles will
flocculate to form 1 arger flocs and eventually the deposits become a network of flocs. The
flocs under the sediment surface are crushed because of the overburden; their pore water is
expe11ed and their volume is reduced. The bed is in the process of consoli dation. Due to
these processes as well as chemical reactions, the sediments at the lower level become more
packed and stronger than those above them. Hence, the properties of a deposited bed vary with
depth and time; the deeper the layer the less the water content and the higher the shear
strength (Mehta et al. , 1982). The surface layer of a deposited bed is the least compacted;
this layer can 6e- relatively easily eroded. The sharp rise of the sediment concentration at
the beginning of the test represents the resuspension of the top layer of the sediment bed.
After this layer is resuspended, the sediment bed is scoured to a deeper and stronger layer.
The sediment concentration then increases more slowly until it reaches a steady state at which
time no net erosion occurs.

In most of the experiments, the sediment concentration reached a steady state within 30
minutes except in two tests with high bottom shear stresses. One was the experiment with 2
days consolidation and 8 dynes/cm2 shear and the other was the test with 7 days consolidation
and 12 dynes/cm2 shear. The time plots of sediment concentration for the former case is
shown in Figure 2(b). As can be seen, the sediment concentrations rises very rapidly in the
beginning and then more slowly. However, the concentrations did not reach a steady state in
3\ hours. Other researchers have also reported that in their laboratory resuspension tests
using deposited beds, the sediment concentrations in the overlying water reached a steady
state in short periods of time for low bottom shear stresses but did not reach a steady state
in the same period of time for large shear stresses, e. g. , Yeh (1979), and Mehta et al.
(1982). The reason for this phenomenon can also be explained by the variation of bed strength
with depth. With high shear stresses, the sediment bed is scoured to levels deeper than the
levels for low shear stresses. Since the aggregates at the lower level are stronger than the
upper levels, it will take a longer time to resuspend sediment particles and also a longer
time to reach a steady state.

Also shown in Figure 2 are the time plots of sediment concentration after flushing (lower
curves). It can be seen that after flushing the concentration ei ther does not increase or
increases at a rate much smaller than the initial rate.

The steady-state concentrations for all net resuspension experiments are plotted in Figure 3.
Also shown in the figure are the water contents of the sediment beds. As mentioned earlier,
there were two experiments which did not have a steady state. The concentration of 10, 000
mg/l and 26, 500 mg/l were used for the experiment with 2 days consolidation and 8 dynes/cm2
shear and the experiment with 7 days consolidation and 12 dynes/cm2 shear, respectively. As
can be seen from Figure 3, the steady-state concentration is strongly influenced by the bottom
shear stress and the time period of sediment consolidation (or water content). This figure
shows that (a) the steady-state concentration increases as the bottom shear stress increases,
and (b) for a given bottom shear stress, the concentration decreases as the number of days of
consolidation increases.

The resuspension rate can be written as E h (dC/dt) where h is the depth of the overlying
=

water, C is the sediment concentration in the water, and the derivative is evaluated at the
beginning of the resuspension. As an approximation, one can determine E from E h (C (t+L\.t) -
=

C(t))/L\.t, where C(t+L\.t) and C (t) are the sediment concentrations at the time t+L\.t and t,
respectively, and L\.t is the time interval. In the present experiments, the first hour resus­
pension rates were determined such that the time t is zero and L\.t is one hour. Plotted in
Figure 4 are the results of these rates. Figure 4 shows that the first hour resuspension rate
and the steady-state concentrations have similar variations and therefore Figures 3 and 4 are
similar. The reason for this is that in most experiments the steady-state concentration is
reached in 30 minutes, and therefore the first hour resuspension rates are only a function of
the steady-state concentration.

From the time variation of sediment concentration after flushing, the after flushing resus­
pension rates were computed. The results are shown in Figure 5. The resuspension rates for
the test with 1 day and 1 dyne/cm2 and for the test with 2 days and 1 dyne/cm2 were zero.
From the figure, it can be seen that the after flushing rate also increases as the bot tom
shear stress increases. When the after flushing rates are compared to the rates for the first
hour (see Figures 4 and 5), one can see that the former rates are, in general, one to two
orders of magnitude smaller than the latter rates.

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 160 C.-H. TSAI and W. LICK

DAYS OF H20 %
CONSOLIDATION BY WEIGHT
• I 70.4-72.2
.. 2 70.7-71.3
• 7 69.7-70.2
10���� __-* �
__ __� __ ��
o 2 4 6 B 10 12 14
SHEAR STRESS (OYNES/CM2)

Fig. 3 Steady-state concentration as a function of bottom shear stress.

DAYS OF
CONSOLIDATION
• I
.. 2
• 7
-5
10 � __ � __ 7- __ ±- __ *-
7..�� __ � __

o 2 4 6 B
12 14 10
2
SHEAR STRESS (OYNES/CM )

Fig. 4 First hour resuspension rate as a function of bottom shear stress.

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 Resuspension of sediments 161

�
0-2.c--,.--,--.,-----,--=I
8
(f)
I
'"
�
U

::::
t.:l : 10-3
�
W
�
a::
z

� 10-
Z
w
a..
(f)
::::>
(f)
w
a::
t.:l
?: 10-5
:I:
(f) DAYS OF
:3
lJ...
CONSOLIDATION
• I
a:: A 2
� • 7
� 10-6k- �--��--�--�--��--*'--�
__

o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
SHEAR STRESS (DYNES/CM2)

Fig. 5 After flushing resuspension rate as a function of bottom shear stress.

8
�
a::
�
�
z
::::>

ffi
a..
10-2
z
o
iii
z
w
a..
(f)

�
w
10-3
a:: DAYS OF
...J CONSOLIDATION
� • I
I? A 2
• 7
10-4
0�L-2�-�4-�6-�8-
2
�10--�12--�14
SHEAR STRESS (DYNES/CM )

Fig. 6 Total amount of sediment that can be resuspended vs. bottom shear stress.

JWST 20:6/1-L

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 162 C.·H. TSAI and W. LICK

Shown in Figure 6 is the total resuspension per unit area (total amount of sediments resus­
pended divided by sediment surface area) plotted against shear stress. This figure also shows
that (a) the higher the shear stress the higher the total resuspension and (b) the longer the
sediment bed was consolidated the lower the total resuspension.

Multiple Shear Stress Experiments

Two sets of multiple shear tests were performed to compare their time variations of sediment
concentration to those for single shear stresses. Both of them were conducted for the same
experimental conditions: 2, 4, 8, and 12 dynes/cm2 and 7 days consolidation. The time varia­
tion of the sediment concentration in the overlying water for both experiments are plotted in
Figure 7. In one of the multiple shear tests, the sediment concentration was zero throughout
the test with 2 and 4 dynes/cm2 shear and the time variation of the concentration for this
portion of the test is not shown in the figure. A1 so plotted in this figure are the concen­
tration-time variations of all 7 days consolidation single shear experiments.

The figure shows that, in general, there is excellent agreement among all three sets of ex­
periments not only for the steady-state concentrations but also for the time variations of the
concentration. There are some differences in concentrations, however, for the cases of 2 and
4 dynes/cm2• Since the differences occurred only at low shear stresses where only small
amounts of sediments were resuspended, the differences can be practically ignored. Figure 7
demonstrated that the results of the flume are reproducible.

The results obtained from the two multiple shear tests with Nucula seeded in the sediment beds
are plotted in Figure 8. One test was performed with sediments consolidated for 7 days and
seeded with Nucula for 6 days while the other test was performed with sediments consolidated
for 14 days and seeded with Nucula for 13 days. For comparison, the time variation of the
sediment concentrations from a multiple shear test with no Nucula are included in the figure.
It can be seen that the sediment concentrations from both tests with Nucula are higher than
the concentrations from the tests with no Nucula. It was observed that after the Nucula were
placed on the sediment surface, the Nucula burrowed into the sediment bed in a few hours, and
dug channels inside the sediments. Because of their activities inside the sediment bed,
Nucula disrupted the sediment structure, and the sediments were therefore easier to resuspend
than the sediments with no Nucula. The results shown in Figure 8 also suggest that after the
sediments are seeded with Nucula for a certain period of time (6 days or less), the sediment
resuspension behavior does not change with time of consolidation.

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

The present experiments confirmed that the resuspension of fine-grained sediments depends on
the bottom shear stress and the degree of consolidation. The higher the shear stress and the
less the time for consolidation the more sediments were resuspended. The multiple shear tests
were shown to be reproducible and consistent with the single shear tests.

The total amount of sediments that can be resuspended for a given shear stress is, in general,
greater than the amount resuspended at steady state. It is worthwhile to examine the ratio of
these two amounts determined in this experiment. Listed in Table 1 are the results, which
include the amount resuspended at steady state (E ), total resuspension (E ), and the ratio
t
(E IE ), obtained in the single shear tests. One � an see that in most of tHe tests the total
re � us� ension is less than 1.5 times the amount resuspended at steady state except for the two
cases with 2 days and 8 dynes/cm2 and 7 days and 12 dynes/cm2• As noted earlier, in these two
tests, sediment concentrations did not reach steady state and therefore the ratio (E /E ) for
t
these two cases can not be determined. The results shown in Table 1 suggest that, f 6r the
sediments used in this experiment, the amount of sediments resuspended at steady state is a
reasonable approximation to the total resuspension, at least for the lower stresses.

These results are consistent with those of Massion (1982) and demonstrate that, for fine­
grained sediments, the total amount of sediment that can be resuspended at a constant shear
stress approaches a constant value as time increases, i.e., is finite. In contrast, for
uniform-size, coarse-grained, non-cohesive sediments, the resuspension rate ideally would be
constant with time, i.e., the amount of sediment that can be resuspended increases indef­
initely with time (Massion, 1982).

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 Resuspension of sediments 163

-I- 8 --+12 DYNES/CM2

.6. SINGLE SHEAR TESTS
00 MULTIPLE SHEAR TESTS

7 DAYS
CONSOLI OAT ION
......
....J

C)
�
Z
o
�
3
<[ 10
a::
I­
Z
W
U
z
8
lri

10 A:>­
o 2 3 4 5 6 7
TIME (HOURS)

Fig. 7 Time variation of sediment concentration from multiple shear stress tests.

o 7 DAYS WITHOUT NUCULA

a 7 DAYS WITH NUCULA
.6. 14 DAYS WITH NUCULA
NUCULA:II50/M2

2 4 6
TIME (HOURS)

Fig. 8 Time variation of sediment concentration from multiple shear tests with Nucula.

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 164 C.-H. TSAI and W. LICK

TABLE 1. Amount of Sediments Resus2ended at Stead� State and Total Resus2ension.

Exp. series E
E
s
E
t l Es
1D1DYN 2 2 1.0
1D2DYN 25 26 1.0
1D4DYN 352 386 1.1
2D1DYN 1 1 1.0
2D2DYN 8 11 1.4
2D4DYN 29 38 1.3
2D8DYN 664("') 1012
7D2DYN 4 5 1.2
7D4DYN 9 10 1.1
7D8DYN 313 386 1. 2
7D12DYN 1760("'''') 3123

D = days of consolidation, DYN = dynes/cm2,

E =sediment resuspended at steady state (g ),
E � = total sediments resuspended (g ),
'" = sediment mass at end of 3� hours,
"'''' = sediment mass at end of 4 hours.

This investigation also showed that benthic organisms have an influence on the sediment re­
suspension process. It was found that deposit-feeding Nucula clams do not allow the sediments
to compact and hence increase the sediment resuspension. The tests with Nucula also revealed
that the resuspension wi11 not change with sediment consolidation time after the Nucula are
seeded in the sediments for six days or possibly less. It is felt that other organisms will
behave in a similar manner.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This study was supported by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Dr. John Paul
was the project officer. The authors also wish to thank Dr. Wayne Davis for his assistance in
the experiments with Nucula.

RE FERENCES

Fukuda, M. K. , and Lick, W., (1980). The entrainment of cohesive sediments in fresh water. J.
Ge02hysical Research, Vol. 85, � C5, 2813-2824.

Lick, W., (1982). Entrainment, deposition, and transport of fine-grained sediments in lakes.
Hydrobiologia, 91, 31-40.

Macintyre, S. , Lick, W. , and Tsai, C.H. , (1986). Entrainment of cohesive riverine sediments.
EPA Re20rt, Large Lakes Research Laboratory, Grosse Ile, Michigan.

Massion, E. , (1982). The resuspension of uniform-sized fine-grained sediments. Master

thesis, University of California, Santa Barbara.

Mehta, A. J. , Parchure, T. M., Dixit, J. G. , and Ariathurai, R., (1982). Resuspension potential
of deposited cohesive sediment beds. In: Estuarine Com2arisons, Victor S. Kennedy (Ed).,
Academic Press, New York, 591-609.

Task Committee on Causes and Effects of Shoaling in Navigable Waters of the Committee on
Waterways of the Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Division, (1983). Shoaling processes in
navigable waters. � of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 109, � g, 199-
221.

Yeh, H. Y. , (1979). Resuspension properties of flow deposited cohesive sediment beds. Master
thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville.

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