Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:1459–1473
DOI 10.1007/s12665-011-1289-0
SPECIAL ISSUE
Heavy load and high potential: anthropogenic pressures and their
impacts on the water quality along a lowland river (Western Bug,
Ukraine)
A.-M. Ertel • A. Lupo • N. Scheifhacken •
T. Bodnarchuk • O. Manturova • T. U. Berendonk
T. Petzoldt
Received: 22 November 2010 / Accepted: 2 August 2011 / Published online: 4 September 2011
Ó Springer-Verlag 2011
Abstract A pronounced pollution of surface water bodies
in the Western Bug River Basin, Ukraine, has been caused
by outdated or overloaded wastewater treatment plants,
agriculture, industry and coal mining. These pressures have
led to a generally poor state of both chemical and micro-
biological variables creating health risks of various kinds.
The state of surface water quality for the Western Bug and
five main tributaries was assessed by measuring physical,
chemical and microbiological indicators during field cam-
paigns in autumn 2009 and spring 2010. Longitudinal
profiles were sampled to identify major sources of
A.-M. Ertel (&)  A. Lupo  N. Scheifhacken 
T. U. Berendonk  T. Petzoldt
Institute of Hydrobiology, Technische Universität Dresden,
01062 Dresden, Germany
e-mail: anna-maria.ertel@tu-dresden.de
A. Lupo
e-mail: agnese.lupo@tu-dresden.de
N. Scheifhacken
e-mail: nicole.scheifhacken@tu-dresden.de
T. U. Berendonk
e-mail: thomas.berendonk@tu-dresden.de
T. Petzoldt
e-mail: thomas.petzoldt@tu-dresden.de
T. Bodnarchuk
State Inspectorate of Environment Protection in Lviv Region,
Ministry for Environmental, Protection of Ukraine,
79026 Lviv, Ukraine
e-mail: tanyabodnarchuk@rambler.ru
O. Manturova
Institute of Hydrobiology, National Academy of Science,
04210 Kyiv, Ukraine
e-mail: omanturova@ukr.net
•
pollution and to reveal dominant processes of matter
turnover. In addition, the occurrence of antibiotic resistant
strains in isolates from stations along the Bug River was
investigated. Results clearly underpin the negative impact
of the Poltva River as a major source of pollution for the
Bug River and further outline an elevated potential health
risk from pathogenic bacteria originating from this source.
Despite these devastating impacts, a high elimination
potential of the Bug River with respect to primary organic
loads as well as elimination of pathogenic bacteria was
observed particularly at Dobrotvir Reservoir. Further
downstream, pollution is kept high because of untreated
waste effluents and phytoplankton mass developments due
to high phosphorus concentrations.
Keywords Ukraine  Water quality  Organic load 
Eutrophication  Indicator bacteria  Antibiotic resistance
Introduction
The poor state of surface water quality is an issue in many
countries, especially those with emerging market econo-
mies (Chatterjee et al. 2009; Hanh et al. 2010; Qadir et al.
2010; Zambrano et al. 2009). In Ukraine, the Western Bug
is one example, where a pronounced and long-lasting
pollution of many surface waters is caused by obsolete or
overloaded wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), moni-
toring deficits for industrial discharges, and also diffuse
sources from agriculture and mining activities may account
for it (Dalton 2006). These pressures combined contribute
to a poor ecological state of the water body, which pri-
marily results in degraded physical and chemical charac-
teristics (Landsberg 2002; Tacis 2001). The situation is still
comparable to many regions and, therefore, assessment of
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1460
the water quality status in the Western Bug catchment can
be regarded as a case study stimulating related research in
the same (Blumensaat et al. 2011; Delfs et al. 2011;
Kalbacher et al. 2011; Leidel et al. 2011; Pavlik et al. 2011;
Tavares Wahren et al. 2011) as well as in other regions.
The most obvious effects of anthropogenic pollution are
oxygen depletion due to primary organic pollution and
eutrophication (Gücker et al. 2006). Additionally, organic
pollution is often accompanied by increased heavy metal
concentrations besides other toxic substances and,
increasingly recognised, the risk of pathogenic bacteria
(Stevik et al. 2004). Thus, a combined investigation of
chemical and microbiological indicators to identify both,
the state of water quality and potential health risks for
humans, has been recommended (Marques Da Silva and
Bueno Sacomani 2001; Mazari-Hiriart et al. 2008; Dji-
ukom et al. 2009; Ortega et al. 2009). On the one hand,
heterotrophic bacteria are the main decomposers of organic
matter (Ward 2006). Their abundance depends on the
availability of degradable substrates, temperature (Berry
et al. 1991) and light (Pommepuy et al. 1992), but pollu-
tants other than biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) can
play a modifying role as well (Pathak and Bhattacherjee
1994). On the other hand, certain heterotrophic bacteria
appear in relation to faecal contamination and result in
health risks to humans by both the pathogenic bacteria
themselves and cooccurrence of enteric viruses and pro-
tozoa (Leclerc et al. 2002).
The abundance of Escherichia coli is frequently used as
a proxy to indicate faecal contamination, because it would
be too difficult and expensive to obtain a complete over-
view of all potential pathogens during routine monitoring
(Doyle and Erickson 2006). Furthermore, the faecal con-
tamination of water, in addition to potentially disseminat-
ing pathogenic microorganisms, is ascribed to create a
reservoir of antibiotic resistant bacteria (Baquero et al.
2008). Bacterial antibiotic resistance is a worldwide health
threat, especially because of the development of multi-drug
resistance, i.e. resistance to three or more antibiotic classes,
which precludes the usage of antibiotics currently available
in clinics. Examples of such antibiotics are beta-lactams,
aminoglycosides and fluoroquinolones, which are used for
the effective cure of infectious diseases (Livermore 2004).
Human and animal related bacterial species, such as faecal
microorganisms, are likely to be selected by antibiotic
usage. It is assumed that the release of resistant strains in
the environment may promote the diffusion of genes
responsible for drug resistance (Martı́nez 2009). Indeed,
horizontal gene transfer between faecal related and
autochthonous bacteria facilitates the establishment of a
reservoir of antibiotic resistance in the environment (Kim
and Aga 2007) and, therefore, forms a major public health
risk (WHO 2000).
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Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:1459–1473
Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is
currently accepted and applied as the most efficient
approach to the management of water resources in large
parts of the world (UN-Water 2008). Within this frame-
work, state-of-the-art water quality assessment requires the
investigation of the ecological status of rivers in an inte-
grated manner by considering physical, chemical, hydro-
morphological and biological indicators (EC 2000). Apart
from the general understanding of river functioning, this
demanding approach relies on a dense monitoring scheme
to evaluate the overall ecological status of a river or water
body. However, in many emerging countries no sufficient
institutional monitoring has been established so far. This is
often in contrast to the pressurising demands of the low or
poor water quality status. Therefore, it is sensible to con-
duct physical and chemical analyses as the first step of an
overall integrating approach. To characterise health risks
for humans from the river’s water quality, it is an advan-
tageous approach to combine the analysis of physical and
chemical indicators with a microbiological assessment at
the same time.
Within the presented study, the investigation of water
quality for the heavily polluted Western Bug River focused
on two main tasks: the identification of main substances
and processes dominating the matter transformation in the
river as well as an assessment of health risks for humans
due to both chemical compounds and microbiological
components. The purpose of this paper is to present the
main sources of pollution and dominant patterns of nutrient
loading along the investigated river stretches. As such, the
approach to analyse pollution sources and transformation
patterns may serve as a model for dealing with other
surface waters at risk.
Materials and methods
Study site
The Western Bug is a transnational river with its spring in
the Podolian Highlands, Ukraine. From there, the river
flows north-westward constituting the border between
Ukraine, Poland and Belarus before it enters Poland and
discharges into the Vistula River near Warsaw. The total
length of the river is 755 km, of which 184 km are
located on Ukrainian territory and further 185 km mark
the border between Ukraine and Poland (Tacis 2001). The
Ukrainian part of the river basin consists of an area of
10,710 km2 (27% of the total catchment) and is mainly
characterised by agricultural activities and one major
urban agglomeration, the city of L’viv (Schanze et al.
2011; Tacis 2001). In contrast to the poor water quality
status, the river’s hydromorphology is of mainly good
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:1459–1473 1461

quality for large stretches (Scheifhacken et al. 2011;
Zingstra et al. 2009).
Two field campaigns were conducted in September 2009
and April 2010 producing three temporal replicates at each
campaign. Water quality data were collected at 17 sites
(Fig. 1). Station 1 was located at an upstream reference site
14.3 km from the spring (in the following, all river km
refer to the spring). Sites were partly located at the tribu-
taries, i.e. Zolochivka (station 3, 36.2 km), Poltva (station
5, 44.9 km), Kamianka (station 8, 81.4 km), Rata (station
12, 120.4 km) and Solokija (station 14, 122.7 km), and
were also positioned at the Bug River before the inflow of
those tributaries (station 2, 35.2 km; 4, 44.7 km; station 11,
115.8 km; station 14, 122.7 km). Station 7 (81.6 km) was
positioned below the confluence of the Kamianka and the
Bug River due to the accessibility of the site. Other sites
were located downstream of the Poltva River (station 6,
46.21 km), up- and downstream of Dobrotvir Reservoir
(station 9, 88.9 km, and station 10, 101.4 km), close to the
mining area of Chervonohrad (station 13, 118.5 km) and at
Sokal (station 17, 135.1 km). The stations were also
grouped according to primary characteristics of the sub-
catchments. These groups are further referred to as agri-
culture (station 1, 2, 3), urban (station 4, 5, 6, 7, 8), res-
ervoir (station 9, 10) and mining (station 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
16, 17) regions (Fig. 2).
Physical and chemical indicators
Measurements were conducted during daytime (approxi-
mately 9 am to 5 pm) and the profile was split into two,
with part 1 ranging from Sasiv (station 1) to upstream of
Dobrotvir Reservoir (station 9) and part 2 from down-
stream of the reservoir (station 10) to Sokal (station 17).
This procedure seemed appropriate as the reservoir dis-
connected the river system into two distinct water bodies.
Water quality indicators such as temperature (Tw), dis-
solved oxygen (DO), oxygen saturation (DOsat), pH and
electrical conductivity (Cond) were measured in situ using
a Hach-Lange HQd portable meter. Turbidity (Turb) was
determined using the Hach-Lange 2100P ISO Turbidime-
ter. Water samples were taken midstream as bucket

Fig. 1 Location of sampling

stations and their water quality 18
Western Bug
classes according to the German Chemical water quality
hydrochemical classification (LAWA)
(LAWA 1998) Poland Classes

I
II
17
Sokal
III
IV

16 14
V
k ija
Solo Chervonohrad
15 VI
12 13
VII
11
No data
Minor cities
Rata
10 Major cities
River
Ukraine Catchment
9 National border
7

8 W Source: DEM 30; Landsat 7 (2000)

es
Kamianka-Buzka te Scale 1:450.000
rn
Bu
g

Kamiank
a

6 4
Busk
5

2
Poltva 3
1 We
Sasiv ste
Zo

r nB
Lviv
l

ug
oc
hi
vk
a

0 5 10 20

Kilometers

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1462
Fig. 2 Ordination of the physical and chemical variables against the
components PC1 and PC2. Measured data were grouped according to
stations (colours) as well as subcatchment representative character-
istics (dotted areas)
samples and stored in 5 L plastic tanks. Except otherwise
stated below, analyses were carried out according to
Ukrainian standards that were proposed by the Ministry of
Environmental Protection of Ukraine: Methods of Mea-
surement Performance (MVV), Methods of Photometric
Measurements (CPV) and Guidance Normative Document
(KND). Attestation of the methods was done by the State
Committee of Standards of Ukraine (Ukrmetrteststandard
2006). The 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) was
measured by using an oximeter (MVV 081/12-0310-06)
and the chemical oxygen demand (COD) using the volu-
metric (titration) method with potassium dichromate (KND
211.1.4.021-95). Concentrations of sulphate (SO42-) were
determined with a gravimetric method (MVV 081/12-
0007-01). Ammonium nitrogen (NH4?-N, MVV 081/12-
0106-03), nitrate nitrogen (NO3--N, CPV 211.1.4.027-95),
nitrite nitrogen (NO2--N, CPV 211.1.4.023-95), ortho-
phosphate phosphorus (PO43--P, MVV 081/12-0005-01)
and total dissolved phosphorus (TDP, MVV 081/12-0018-
01) were analysed photometrically using a WTW Photolab
spectral photometer. Additionally, PO43--P, TDP and TP
(total phosphorus, unfiltered samples) analyses were car-
ried out using the Hach-Lange quick test LCK349-1 with a
photometer DR2800 during the spring campaign. Mea-
surement of chloride concentrations (Cl-) was based on
deposition of chloride ions in a silver nitrate solution as
silver chloride (MVV 081/12-0004-01). For the determi-
nation of the dry matter content (DM), water samples were
filtered through pre-dried and pre-weighed glass fibre filters
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Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:1459–1473
(MGF, 50 mm in diameter, Sartorius Stedim Biotech
GmbH). The filters were then dried to a constant weight at
105°C and weighed again after cooling in an exsiccator.
Total particulate organic matter (POM) was determined as
loss of ignition. The samples were burnt for 6 h in a pre-
heated muffle furnace at 555°C. After cooling, the ash-free
dry weight (AFDW) was determined by weighing the fil-
ters. POM was calculated as the difference between DM
content and AFDW. Particulate organic carbon (POC) was
determined from glass microfiber filters (MGF, 25 mm in
diameter, Sartorius Stedim Biotech GmbH) using a POC
analyser (LECO, C-200). Chlorophyll was measured at
least once at each station during the spring measurement
campaign. Measurements were conducted using an in situ
fluorometric probe (bbe FluroProbe, Moldaenke) that was
also able to differentiate between the main pigment groups
of phytoplankton (Beutler et al. 2002). In addition, phy-
toplankton samples were taken at both measurement cam-
paigns and fixed with aqueous iodine/potassium iodide
solution (J/JK) according to Utermöhl (1958) for half-
quantitative microscopic phytoplankton counting.
Microbiological indicators
The water samples were collected in 5 L tanks sterilised
with HCl 1 N (Merck) and analysed within 24 h. Total
bacterial cells (TC) were enumerated by epifluorescence
methodology as previously described (Porter and Feig
1980; Kepner and Pratt 1994). The water samples were
preserved with 4% of formaldehyde. An aliquot of 100 mL
was stained with DAPI (40 ,6-diamino-2-phenylindole,
Sigma-Aldrich, Hamburg, Germany) at a final concentra-
tion of 1 lg L-1, and 1 mL was filtered on dark polycar-
bonate filters (Sartorious) with pore size 0.22 lm. The
count was performed using an Axiophot microscope by
Zeiss with object magnification 1009. The fraction of
viable bacteria (total viable count, TVC) was measured
plating 100 lL of three dilutions (10-3, 10-5, 10-7 mL) on
the R2A medium (Roth, Nürtingen, Germany). The plates
were incubated for 24 h at 37°C and CFU (colony forming
units) were counted after 24 h. Total coliforms (Tcol) and
E. coli counts were obtained by filtration with acetate
cellulose filters of 0.22 lm (Sartorious) and seeding on
pads with the selective and differential medium m-Coli-
Blue24Ò Broth (Millipore, Schwalbach, Germany), which
allowed to distinguish between Tcol and E. coli according
to the colony pigmentation after 24 h of incubation at
37°C.
Antibiotic susceptibility test
Nonredundant strains randomly isolated from the viable
bacteria fraction were assayed for the susceptibility to
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:1459–1473 1463

clinically relevant aminoglycosides, beta-lactams and flu-
oroquinolones by the Kirby–Bauer method. Briefly, a
bacterial suspension equivalent to 0.5 McFarland was
diluted 1:100 and plated on Mueller-Hinton agar medium
(Roth, Nürtingen, Germany). Discs, treated with each
antibiotic, were placed on the plates and incubated for
24 h. Inhibition zones were measured and interpreted
according to CLSI breakpoints (Clinical and Laboratory
Standards Institute 2006).
Water quality standards and classification
Mainly, two standards are used by the water quality
monitoring and controlling agencies in Ukraine. The
SaNPiN (transl.: Sanitary terms and rules for the protection
of surface water bodies against pollution; Ministry of
Health of the USSR 1988) guideline is applied within the
district of towns, whereas the OBUV (transl.: Tentative
safe levels of pollutants impact (OBUV) in water bodies
with fish industry; Moscow 1999) standard is applied out
of town (Table 1). These guidelines derive from Soviet
times and are used in occasionally modified versions by
different agencies (Bodnarchuk, Kovalchuk, Bug River
Authority, 2010, personal communication). The percentage
was calculated of those samples that did not meet the
SaNPiN and OBUV standards for individual indicators
from the subsets of in-town stations and out of town,
respectively. Rather than setting specific limit values for
hydrochemical water quality indicators, the European
Water Framework Directive (WFD) encourages an
assessment approach based on structural and habitat
quality. However, water quality criteria for surface waters
that are in concordance with the WFD have been published
in several EU countries (Premazzi et al. 2003; UKTAG
2008). In Germany, chemical limit values are given by the
German Chemical Water Quality Classification (Irmer
et al. 1997; LAWA 1998) that was preceded by (and is
partly based on) the General Quality Requirements
(LAWA 1991). These criteria were used for comparative
purposes and for the calculation of water quality classes
for the stations. Additionally, the LAWA framework
concept for monitoring and the proposed distinction
between background and orientation limit values were
considered (LAWA-AO 2007). Microbiological water
quality and human health risks are mostly related to faecal
pollution and the presence of pathogens (Barrell et al.
2000). Escherichia coli has been recognised as usually
present when pathogens occur (Gleeson and Gray 2002)

Table 1 Selected chemical water quality criteria as given by Ukrainian (SaNPiN, OBUV) and German (LAWA) guidelines
Indicator (unit) SaNPiN OBUV LAWA

Temperature (°C) 20/3a

pH 6.5–8.5 6.5–8.5 6.5–8.5
Dissolved oxygen (mg L-1) C4 C6 C6
BOD5 (mg L-1) B6 B3 B5
COD (mg L-1) B30 B20
Ammonium, NH4?-N (mg L-1) B1.9 B0.4 B0.3
Nitrate, NO3--N (mg L-1) B2.3 B2.03 B0.56
-1
Nitrite, NO2)-N (mg L ) B0.3 B0.006 B0.03
Total phosphorus, TP (mg L-1) B0.15
Phosphate, PO43--P (mg L-1) B1.1 B3.8 B0.1
Sulphate, SO42- (mg L-1) B500 B3500 B100
Chloride, Cl- (mg L-1) B100
UA EU Directive 2006/7/EC
Excellent Good Sufficient
-1 b b
E. coli, CFU (100 mL ) 500 1000 900c

LAWA values are derived from both (LAWA 1991) and (LAWA 1998). The limit values for E. coli derived from the bathing water directive
(Directive 2006/7/EC) are presented below the chemical criteria. The evaluation is based on the percentile values for the microbiological
enumerations. Bathing waters are classified as ‘poor’ if the percentile values are worse than the ‘sufficient’ value
a
These values refer to optimum summer (20°C) and winter (3°C) temperatures for summer cool streams (LAWA 1998)
b
95-percentile evaluation
c
90-percentile evaluation

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1464 Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:1459–1473

and, therefore, has recently become a major indicator for
faecal contamination and health risks (Edberg et al. 2000;
Szewzyk and Knobling 2007). In this study, counts of
E. coli were compared to the EU Bathing Water Directive
2006/7/EC (Directive 2006/7/EC), which classifies water
bodies according to excellent, good, sufficient or poor
bathing water quality (Table 1).
Statistical procedures and calculations
Data sets for each season were characterised by summary
statistics where the coefficients of variation (CV) were
calculated for each season as well as the pooled data to
obtain information about variation within one and between
the two sampling campaigns (cf. Håkanson et al. 2005).
Data sets were plotted in a pooled manner as the CV values
of the pooled data were not considerably higher than the
CV values of the seasonal data (Table 2), thus implying
little more variation in data (Håkanson et al. 2003, 2005).
In addition to summary statistics of pooled data, the
complete data set was analysed by means of multivariate
techniques to detect relationships between the variables. A
principal components analysis (PCA) was conducted with
65 data sets of 17 variables. Relationships between physi-
cal, chemical indicators (independent or predictor vari-
ables) and each of the microbiological cell counts
(dependent or response variables) were assessed by means
of correlation and linear regression models. The statistical
tests were regarded significant if the p value was smaller
than 0.05. To assess the effect of Dobrotvir Reservoir, a
removal efficiency (RE) for the elimination of substances
from the water column was calculated after Howard et al.
(2004)
Cup  Cdw
RE ½% ¼  100
Cup
where Cup is the concentration of the upstream sample and
Cdw the concentration of the downstream sample. The R
software for statistical computing was used for all calcu-
lations (R Development Core Team 2011).

Table 2 Summary statistics of physical, chemical and microbiological water quality indicators. The minimum (Min) and maximum (Max)
values from both campaigns as well as mean values for the autumn ðxA Þ, the spring ðxS Þ campaigns and for both together ðxAS Þ are presented
Indicator, unit Min Max xA xS xAS CVA CVS CVAS

Tw, °C 9.7 22.9 17.6 14.8 16.2

Cond, mS cm-1 0.5 1.1 0.74 0.69 0.71 0.17 0.15 0.16
pH 7.4 9.0 8.1 8.2 8.2
Turb, NFU 6.5 31.7 21.7 17.2 18.2 0.4 0.36 0.38
DO, mg L-1 0.6 21.9 7.0 9.2 8.1 0.47 0.43 0.47
DOsat, mg L-1 11.4 241.3 76.2 92.8 84.9 0.45 0.44 0.46
BOD5, mg L-1 0.6 35.7 5.9 10.5 8.3 1.15 0.7 0.89
COD, mg L-1 4.5 84.1 19.1 25 22.2 0.52 0.52 0.54
DM, mg L-1 2.1 83.83 18.73 25.71 23.1 0.72 0.61 0.66
POM, mg L-1 2.3 33 10.4 12.9 12 0.64 0.57 0.6
POC, mg L-1 0.4 14.3 4.4 4.8 4.7 0.87 0.59 0.66
NH4?-N, mg L-1 0.0 15.2 1.4 1.2 1.3 2.0 1.03 1.65
NO3--N, mg L-1 0.0 4.6 1.6 3.1 2.4 0.73 0.31 0.54
- -1
NO2 -N, mg L 0.0 0.4 0.02 0.1 0.07 1.03 0.98 1.29
TDP, mg L-1 0.0 3.1 0.5 0.2 0.3 1.03 1.22 1.32
PO43--P, mg L-1 0.0 1.8 0.6 0.2 0.4 0.87 1.96 1.29
Cl-, mg L-1 8.8 81.4 44.2 34.1 38.9 0.4 0.35 0.4
SO42-, mg L-1 28.3 100.8 62.6 74.0 68.6 0.31 0.24 0.28
Indicator, unit Min Max MA MS MAS CVA CVS CVAS

TC, mL-1 5.8 9 105 3.5 9 106 1.3 9 106 2.2 9 106 1.6 9 106 0.38 0.36 0.43
-1 3 6 5 5
TVC, 100 mL 8.0 9 10 8.6 9 10 4.7 9 10 3.3 9 10 3.9 9 105 1.68 0.8 1.75
Tcol, CFU, 100 mL-1 2.0 5200 123.2 504.0 275.5 0.94 1.13 1.62
-1
E. coli, CFU, 100 mL 0.0 4400 7.0 441.0 113.5 1.57 1.17 1.78

Median values (MA, MS, MAS) are used for the bacterial concentrations. The coefficients of variation for data from the autumn (CVA), spring
(CVS) and both (CVAS) campaigns can be used as an indicator of relative variability between and within measurement campaigns

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Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:1459–1473 1465

250 (a) (b)

35 Tributaries
200 30 Bug River

BOD5 (mgL−1)
25

DOsat (%)
150
20
100 15
10
50
5
0 0
30 60 90 120 30 60 90 120

(c) (d)
15 80
NH4−N (mgL−1)

DM (mgL−1)
60
10

40
5
20

0 0
30 60 90 120 30 60 90 120

(e) (f)
4
NO3−N (mgL−1)

PO4−P (mgL−1)
1.5

3
1.0
2

0.5
1

0 0.0
30 60 90 120 30 60 90 120

(g) (h)
1.0
0.8
COD:DM (−)
Cond (mS cm−1)

0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
30 60 90 120 30 60 90 120
River km River km

Fig. 3 Longitudinal profiles along the Bug River and five tributaries
close to their confluence for a DOsat (oxygen saturation), b BOD5
(5 day biochemical oxygen demand), c NH4?-N (ammonium nitro-
gen), d DM (dry matter), e NO3--N (nitrate nitrogen), f PO43--P
(phosphate phosphorus) and g Cond (electrical conductivity). Error
bars indicate minimum and maximum values. Horizontal lines denote
the limit values of the SaNPiN guideline (dashed) and the OBUV
guideline (dotted), if available. h Ratio of COD (chemical oxygen
demand) to DM. Error bars indicate the standard error and the
horizontal line (dashed) marks the content of C in DM according to
an average stoichiometric composition of biomass (Stumm 1964)

Results below downstream of the confluence of the Western Bug

Physical and chemical indicators
The oxygen concentration was nearly saturated in the
agricultural region and reduced to about 40% and even
and the Poltva River (Fig. 3a). DOsat remained low in the
urban area, and then saturation was reached again in
Dobrotvir Reservoir and was also maintained in the mining
region. An excessive super-saturation of about 190% was
observed at 118.5 km.

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BOD5 values up to 3 mg L-1 were observed in the
upstream region, except for the Zolochivka River
(6 mg L-1, Fig. 3b). A mean BOD5 of 26 mg L-1 was
measured at the Poltva River causing an increase of BOD5
mean values to 15 mg L-1 in the Bug River (46.2 km).
BOD5 then slowly decreased in the downstream course and
increased again slightly at Dobrotvir Reservoir (88.9 km).
On average, BOD5 remained below 10 mg L-1 in the
mining region with an exception at 118.5 km (17 mg L-1).
NH4?-N concentrations ranged between 0.2 and
0.5 mg L-1 in the agricultural area, strongly increased to
2.7 mg L-1 due to the inflow of the Poltva River and
remained high in the urban region (Fig. 3c). Concentra-
tions then decreased in the reservoir region to below
0.5 mg L-1 and remained at this level in the mining area.
A mean concentration of 6.3 mg L-1 for NH4?-N was
observed at the Poltva River.
The content of DM in the water column was found to
continuously increase along the course of the river
(Fig. 3d). A pronounced increase (47 mg L-1) was
observed at 118.5 km.
NO3--N was highest at 35 and 44.7 km (12.7–
14.6 mg L-1, Fig. 3e). From 46.2 km on, concentrations
decreased below Ukrainian limit values (7.8 mg L-1) until
115.8 km. Further downstream, a slight increase above limit
values occurred. Minimum concentrations (7.2 mg L-1)
were observed at Kamianka (81.4 km) and Rata (120.4 km)
rivers.
Concentrations of PO43--P were below 0.05 mg L-1 up
to 44.7 km and increased to 1 mg L-1 as far as 88.9 km
(Fig. 3f). Concentrations then decreased in the downstream
reaches. Maximum values occurred at 44.9 km and values
below the detection limit were observed at 14.3 and
118.5 km.
Cond remained around 0.6 mS cm-1 until 44.7 km, then
increased to 0.8 mS cm-1 and remained at this level until
88.9 km (Fig. 3g). Highest mean values of Cond were
observed at the Poltva River (0.95 mS cm-1, 44.9 km) and
lowest at the Rata River (0.56 mS cm-1, 120.4 km).
The ratio of COD to DM was used to assess whether
organic carbon is more present in its dissolved or particu-
late form. A ratio of 0.5 was used as an approximate
benchmark for the average content of C in dry matter
(Stumm 1964). The ratio showed highest values around 0.8
at 14.3 and 81.6 km (Fig. 3h). Ratios of approximately 0.5
were calculated for 35.2, 44.9, 46.2, 81.4, 88.9, 118.5,
122.7 and 123.9 km. Ratios between 0.2 and 0.4 were
found for the other stations.
Mean values of DM and NO3--N were smaller in
autumn than spring, whereas NH4?-N, PO43--P and TDP
were higher (Table 2). However, variance coefficients of
most indicators showed similar values for the combined
data set (CVAS) to those of the subsets of the campaigns
123
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:1459–1473
(autumn: CVA, spring: CVS, Table 2). Coefficients for
NH4?-N and NO3--N differed more distinctly (Table 2).
The PCA revealed three components that are explanatory
for 73.5% of the variation in the data. BOD5, Cl-, Cond,
NH4?-N, PO43--P and NO2--N carried high loadings for
component 1 (PC1) explaining 38.3% of the variation
(Fig. 2). Component 2 (PC2) accounted for 24.4% of the
variation in the data and high loadings were observed for
DM, POM, pH, DOsat, POC and SO42-. Component 3
explained 10.8% of the variation and was characterised by a
high loading for NO3--N and Tw (not shown). The arrows of
COD and BOD5 were nearly congruent and, due to its higher
loadings in the two first PCA axes, BOD5 was considered
thenceforth. When comparing clusters of sampling stations,
the agricultural region possessed the smallest variation in
data, whereas the urban region showed the highest (Fig. 2).
Stations 1–3 showed highest concentrations of NO3--N,
whereas concentrations of TDP and PO43--P remained low.
The urban region (especially the Poltva River) was char-
acterised by increased Cond values as well as high con-
centrations of NH4?-N and PO43--P. NO2--N was found
strongly increased for stations 5–9. The reservoir region
showed a clear gradient of water quality. Station 9 showed
distinct lower concentrations in DO as well as pH and higher
concentrations in NH4?-N compared to station 10. Stations
11–17 showed increased values of DM.
Dobrotvir Reservoir marked a discontinuity within the
river and considerably changed the characteristics of the
water body. The estimated removal efficiency showed a
high removal of dissolved inorganic nutrients from the
water column, e.g. NH4?-N was reduced by 84.4%, NO3--
N by 18.7% and PO43--P by 45.3%. However, removal for
organic pollution indicators such as BOD5, DM and
POC showed negative values of -42.4%, -59.7% and
-135.6%, respectively, and thus indicated an increase in
80
Bacillariophyta
Cryptophyta
Chlorophyta
60 Cyanobacteria
Chlorophyll (µg L−1)
40
20
0
25 50 75 100 125 150
River km
Fig. 4 Longitudinal profile of fluorometrically determined chloro-
phyll concentration for the spring campaign. Only few cyanobacteria
(black area at the bottom) were found during the spring measurement.
Vertical grey lines mark the location of Dobrotvir reservoir
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:1459–1473 1467

their concentration. For the microbiological counts, cal-
culated removal rates were again positive. Escherichia coli
were removed from the water column by 85.4%, Tcol by
71.9%, TVC by 37.9% and TC by 20.2%. An enormous
amount of phytoplankton is produced in the reservoir
because inorganic nutrients are largely available (Fig. 4).
Where Bacillariophyceae (diatoms) were dominant during
the spring campaign, large abundances of cyanobacteria
were observed in autumn.
Microbiological indicators
Bacterial counts were higher in spring (mean: TC =
1.9 9 106 cells mL-1, TVC = 4 9 105 CFU 100 mL-1,
Tcol = 1131 CFU 100 mL-1, E. coli = 928 CFU 100 mL-1)
than in autumn (mean: TC = 1.3 9 106 cells mL-1,
TVC = 1 9 105 CFU 100 mL-1, Tcol = 123 CFU 100
mL-1, E. coli = 46 CFU 100 mL-1). However, the patterns
of the profiles were similar for both campaigns.
At the Bug River, TVC was the smallest at station 1,
gradually increased as far as station 7 and then gradually
decreased again from station 10 to 16 (Fig. 5a). A maxi-
mum value of 8.6 9 106 CFU 100 mL-1 was observed at
the Poltva River (station 5), which was 2.9-fold higher than
the maximum observed TVC within the Bug River.
Total coliforms counts up to 500 CFU 100 mL-1 were
observed until station 4 (Fig. 5b). The Poltva River (station
5) carried with up to 3470 CFU 100 mL-1 a nearly sev-
enfold higher load than the upstream Bug River stations.
The maximum range in total coliform counts was observed

1.0
(a) Bug River (d)
TVC · 106, CFU (100mL−1)

8
Tributaries
0.8
6 Ecoli:Tcol (−)
0.6

4
0.4

2
0.2

0 0.0
1 2 4 5 6 7 10 13 14 16 1 2 4 5 6 7 10 13 14 16

5 (b) (e) Total

Tcol · 103 , CFU (100mL−1)

5
Resistant Isolates (%)

Beta−lactams
4 Aminoglycosides
4 Fluoroquinolones
3
3

2 2

1 1
NA
0 0
1 2 4 5 6 7 10 13 14 16 1 2 4 5 6 7 10 13 14 16
16
(c) (f)
E. coli · 10 3 , CFU (100mL−1)

4 Bug River
RI · TVC · 10 4 (100mL−1)

Tributaries
12
3

8
2

1 4

NA
0 0
1 2 4 5 6 7 10 13 14 16 1 2 4 5 6 7 10 13 14 16
Station Station

Fig. 5 Bar plots of a total vital counts, b total coliforms and c E. coli groups of antibiotics. f Extrapolated number of antibiotic resistances
along the sampling stations. Error bars denote minimum and by using total vital counts. Nonmeasured sampling points are marked
maximum concentrations. d The ratio of E. coli to total coliforms. with NA (not available)
Error bars indicate the standard error. e Resistances of isolates to

123
1468
at station 6 just downstream of the inflow of the Poltva
River, where 2–5200 CFU 100 mL-1 were counted.
Counts observed at downstream Bug River stations
remained at a much lower level of up to 1500 CFU
100 mL-1. This level, however, was two to threefold
higher compared to upstream Bug River stations. With
2–245 CFU 100 mL-1, the by far lowest abundance of
total coliforms was observed just downstream of the
Dobrotvir Reservoir (station 10).
Counts of E. coli followed a very similar behaviour
compared to the total coliforms (Fig. 5c). Upstream Bug
River stations showed abundances up to 494 CFU
100 mL-1, the Poltva River again carried a fivefold
higher load and, downstream of the confluence, maximum
values of up to 4400 CFU 100 mL-1 were observed. Fur-
ther downstream, E. coli remained at a much lower level of
up to 1460 CFU 100 mL-1, which, nevertheless, was
higher than the upstream Bug stations. The distinctly
smallest counts (\60 CFU 100 mL-1) were observed at
station 10.
E. coli made up approximately 50% of the total coli-
forms and this mean ratio was already observed in the
upstream parts of the river (Fig. 5d). The highest mean
fraction was found at station 5 (70%) and the by far lowest
at station 10 (20%). Downstream of station 10, the ratio
increased again up to 60% (Fig. 5d).
Escherichia coli were found to be significantly corre-
lated to NO2--N, BOD5, SO24-, COD, NO3--N, POM,
DM and POC (all p values \ 0.05). Tcol showed signifi-
cant correlations to NO2--N, NO3--N, BOD5, SO24-,
COD, TDP, Tw, PO43--P, POM and DM (all p val-
ues \ 0.05). For TVC, significant predictor variables were
PO34--P, Cond, Tw, TDP and DO (all p values \ 0.05).
However, no significant correlation of TC was found for
any indicators. Log-linear regression showed a clear posi-
tive relationship between organic pollution and bacterial
abundance. Small E. coli and total coliform abundance was
observed at sampling stations with low concentrations of
BOD5 or DM.
Antibiotic susceptibility test
A total number of 86 isolates were tested for antibiotic
resistance, of which 21% showed resistance to at least one
class of antibiotic. The highest occurrence of resistant
strains was observed at station 5 (5.8% of the isolates),
station 2 (4.7% of the isolates) and station 14 (3.5%). No
antibiotic resistances were detected at stations 1, 4 and
10. A co-resistance to beta-lactams and aminoglycosides
was frequently observed, i.e. most of the isolates that
demonstrated resistance to aminoglycosides were also
resistant to beta-lactams at the same time (Fig. 5e). No
123
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:1459–1473
resistance to fluoroquinolones was detected in the ana-
lysed isolates, but a decreased level of susceptibility was
observed for six isolates, two at stations 2 and 10, and
one at stations 5 and 6, respectively. An extrapolation of
the resistant fraction by multiplication with the total vital
count (TVC) showed that the concentration at station 5
may be at least five times higher than at the other stations
(Fig. 5f).
Water quality standards and classification
Comparing the two Ukrainian water quality guidelines for
specific indicators, OBUV limit values are stricter than
SaNPiN limits for DO, BOD5, NH4?-N, NO3--N and
NO2--N. The SanPiN guideline is more restrictive than the
OBUV for PO43--P and SO42-. Whilst values for DO fell
below the SaNPiN guideline by 14.2%, values for BOD5
exceeded the guideline by 27.4%, COD by 5.7%, NH4?-N
by 14.2%, NO3--N by 44.3% and PO43--P by 6.6%.
Although TDP is a fraction of TP and thus smaller, values
of TDP exceeded the limit value for TP by 23.6%. The
actual percentage is assumed to be higher. DO concentra-
tions fell below the OBUV limit values by 5.6% and BOD5
exceeded the OBUV guideline by 21.7% and NH4?-N by
17%. The latter guideline did not give any limit values for
COD or TP, and the PO43--P limit was more than three
times as high as the respective SaNPiN value and therefore
could always be met. The results of the German water
quality classification showed moderate to considerable
pollution for stations 1–3 and very high pollution (worst
class) for stations 5, 6, 7 and 9 (Fig. 1). The reservoir
showed improvement by two classes for station 10. Further
downstream, water quality classes remained between V and
VI with exceptions for station 12 and 15, which were
classified as IV.
The new LAWA-AO guideline’s rigorous limit values
(LAWA-AO 2007) resulted in limit exceedance for most
stations. For example, the background limit value for
NH4?-N was exceeded by measured concentrations at all
stations (to 100%), whereas the orientation limit value
was exceeded at 14 stations (to 82%). The limit values
for TP were exceeded at 16 stations (to 94%) for the
background value and at 13 stations (to 77%) for the
orientation limit. The guideline could therefore not yet
be used for detailed classification of the water quality
status.
Regarding the EU Bathing Water Directive and the
classification of E. coli, an excellent water quality was
observed at stations 1, 2, 4, 7 and 10, whereas stations 5,
6, 14 and 16 were classified as poor in water quality. No
station was classified as good or sufficient in water
quality.
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:1459–1473
Discussion
Physical and chemical indicators
Both measuring campaigns essentially confirmed the
results of each other and revealed dominant patterns. The
observed ranges for the indicators were mostly caused by
the varying ecological state of the stations and to a much
lesser extent by seasonal changes. Diurnal dynamics of
water quality indicators, such as dissolved oxygen or pH,
have been reported for rivers (Nimick et al. 2011), but
these variations are not expected to be significant compared
to the spatial variation in the water quality caused by the
anthropogenic impacts on the Bug River.
The agricultural region showed highest concentrations
of nitrate, which was found to be in agreement with other
agriculturally used regions (Burt et al. 2011; Hill and
Bolgrien 2011). Fairly low concentrations of orthophos-
phate, TDP and BOD5 were observed. These results
probably reflect the less densely populated region and
hence small amounts of wastewater entering the streams.
Furthermore, no big farms were observed and farmers
appeared to own only small numbers of livestock, such as
cattle, keeping pollution by diffuse sources low to
moderate.
The Poltva River as well as the smaller urban regions
around Busk or Chervonohrad are permanently exposed to
large inputs of wastewater mainly originating from the
WWTP of L’viv (759000 inhabitants). This can be inter-
preted from the increased Cond and high concentrations of
NH4?-N or PO43--P, but most importantly from the strong
decrease in dissolved oxygen concentrations due to
reducing substances emanating from the wastewater. These
conditions were confirmed by other case studies that
investigated wastewater inflow into river ecosystems
(Derwich et al. 2010; Pasquini et al. 2011). Also, NO2--N
occurs where nitrification or denitrification takes place and
therefore was found to be significantly increased in the
urban area affected by organic pollution, which is in
agreement to other studies (Cébron and Garnier 2005;
Garcı́a-Ruiz et al. 1998). Due to a certain amount of self-
purification, a small improvement of the conditions
occurred up to the next point source. This pattern was
observed for nitrate and dissolved oxygen (Fig. 3).
Due to the elongated residence time (approximately
30 days), water quality changes strongly while passing the
reservoir. The downstream part shows distinctly higher
concentrations in oxygen and pH compared to the upstream
river sections caused by the presence of large amounts of
phytoplankton. NH4?-N concentrations in the water col-
umn are reduced due to uptake of ammonium by algae for
cell growth and due to nitrification, the latter also causing
elevated concentrations of NO2--N compared to other
1469
regions. Dobrotvir Reservoir works as a waste stabilisation
pond making up for a large fraction of the pollution caused
by the Poltva River. However, total organic load (BOD5,
COD) even increases as a result of phytoplankton mass
development because inorganic nutrients are excessively
available. Thus, the reservoir effectually stabilises the
primary pollution created by the input of untreated waste-
water, but also gives rise to secondary organic pollution. In
this way, one pollution replaces the other. The COD to DM
ratio generally suggested that organic carbon was available
in dissolved form at the tributaries and in particulate form
(algal biomass) at the reservoir as well as at downstream
Western Bug stations. This clearly supports the hypothesis
that the input of poorly treated wastewater gives rise to
primary pollution, which is then turned into secondary
organic pollution by phytoplankton in the reservoir.
Despite its positive effects on downstream water quality by
nutrient retention and increase of oxygen concentrations, a
reservoir can cause severe ecological problems due to river
fragmentation (Meybeck 2003), flow alteration (Bednarek
2001), accumulation of organic substances and toxic
compounds in the sediments (Gu et al. 2011) or the for-
mation of methane under anoxic conditions (St. Louis et al.
2000). Thus, reservoirs cannot be recommended for river
water quality improvement in general. In other countries,
removal of dams has been undertaken to restore river
ecosystems (Hart et al. 2002). However, this cannot be
recommended for Dobrotvir Reservoir mainly because of
its use as a cooling reservoir for a nearby power plant and
its positive effect on the hygienic status of the river. Phy-
toplankton development may be seen as a negative effect as
well, but this is a less severe pollution than municipal
wastewater and potentially pathogenic bacteria.
The mining region was characterised by large inputs of
dry matter that may be caused by surface runoff from
uncovered soil and even erosion. Negative impacts of acid
mine drainage on river ecosystems have been reported in
many cases (Bessho et al. 2010; Xiao et al. 2010), but, in
contrast to our expectations, an impact of acid mining
drainage on the Western Bug River was not detected within
the surface water of this region. Interestingly, the Rata
River contributed the least amount of pollution among the
tributaries and physical, chemical indicators suggested an
overall moderate ecological state comparable to the head-
water region at Buzhok and the Zolochivka River (Fig. 1).
This conclusion is further supported by results of macro-
invertebrate sampling from the Rata River (Scheifhacken,
unpubl. data, 2010).
Microbiological indicators
The results of the microbiological analyses showed sig-
nificantly higher bacterial abundances in spring than in
123
1470
autumn, which seemed to rely on higher discharges
occurring in spring in the present study. High discharges
may have caused flooding of the combined sewer system of
the WWTP in L’viv and, therefore, an increased number of
microorganisms were transported into the river (ten Vel-
dhuis et al. 2010). Also, an increase in bacterial load was
reported in connection to erosion and resuspension of river
bottom and bank sediments during high discharge periods
(Kistemann et al. 2002). Total vital counts were signifi-
cantly correlated to abiotic variables such PO43--P, Tw or
DO. These indicators are known to enhance conditions for
environmental bacteria and positive correlations were
reported before (Mallin et al. 2000). The total coliform
group primarily consisted of E. coli (Fig. 5b) and, conse-
quently, both were significantly correlated to the same
abiotic variables such NO2--N and BOD5. The observed
bacterial abundances longitudinal to the Bug River formed
a spatial pattern similar to the measured physical and
chemical profiles. High abundances of total coliforms,
particularly of faecal coliforms as the high E. coli counts
suggested, were observed at the tributaries, but a decrease
in abundance occurred along the Bug River. The Poltva
River released a dramatically high charge of bacteria and
antibiotic-resistant strains. The increase in abundance was
caused by a large input of poorly treated wastewater
originating from the WWTP in L’viv and the town of Busk.
Domestic discharges have been found as a major source for
faecal coliforms in other river ecosystems as well (Mitch
et al. 2010). Dobrotvir Reservoir served as a major sink for
bacteria due to sedimentation, and possibly elimination by
zooplankton. The positive effect of reservoirs in reducing
microbial contamination and pathogen risk for humans was
documented for a variety of pathogens throughout the
world (van Breemen et al. 1998; Brookes et al. 2004).
Antibiotic susceptibility test
The antibiotic resistance screening showed that resistant
bacteria belonged to several species. The prevalence of
drug resistance was surprisingly high at sampling site 2
compared to other parts of the longitudinal profile (refer-
ence site upstream, Fig. 1). However, no point source
pollution has been recognised at this site so far. It would be
advisable to consider this during future monitoring activi-
ties. As suspected, the urban region and especially the
Poltva River showed an alarmingly high prevalence of drug
resistance, which further highlights the large human impact
on those river stretches. Similar to the numbers of bacteria,
the reservoir seemed to reduce the number of antibiotic-
resistant strains as well. Although so far no multi-drug
resistant isolates according to a strict definition (Tenover
2006) were observed, resistance to both aminoglycosides
and beta-lactams was recurrent. In this case, it can be
123
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:1459–1473
inferred that either cross-resistance may be caused by
impermeability and/or multi-drug efflux pumps, which are
able to extrude more than one kind of antibiotic outside the
cells, or by co-resistance due to the simultaneous presence
of different resistance genes in the same isolate (Yazdan-
khah et al. 2006). This study provided preliminary results
on antibiotic resistance in the Western Bug and calls for a
more detailed investigation focusing on the antibiotic
resistance prevalence in the river ecosystem. However, the
results of the present study already highlight the risk of
spread of antibiotic resistant isolates and provide a broad
spectrum approach for future water quality evaluations.
Water quality standards and classification
The Ukrainian water quality standards differ in their
strictness. The OBUV guideline, valid out of town, is
stricter for most variables compared to the SaNPiN
guideline, e.g. DO, BOD5, ammonium, nitrate (Table 1).
Therefore, pronounced differences in the number of ex-
ceedances occurred particularly for ammonium and BOD5.
This hints towards inhomogeneity in the reasonability of
the chosen limit values, especially since in-town limits are
softer than out of town, although here generally higher
pollution loads occur. The Ukrainian water quality criteria
for nutrients generally lie above the German LAWA limits.
In comparison to international or EU-wide standards, both
Ukrainian standards are not strict enough as eutrophication
is very likely to occur at the given limit value and, even
more, is detectable in water bodies of the region. Thus, a
critical re-evaluation and, if necessary, an amendment of
the criteria is recommended. Looking at the EU Bathing
Water Directive and the strong division of the sampling
sites into excellent and poor water quality, the impact of
faecal pollution is huge and treatment of domestic waste-
waters by flocculation, filtration and disinfection using
chlorine and ozone is recommended (Wricke 2006). The
introduction of a Ukrainian-wide microbiological surface/
bathing water quality guideline may be a measure to
smoothen these differences in microbiological water qual-
ity as it is also proposed by others (EUWI 2008).
However, some intercalibration effort of Ukrainian
standards towards a WFD-based classification was
accomplished recently (EuropeAid/114957/C/SV/UA
2006). This effort should receive much credit and the
implementation and application of this classification should
be supported internationally. Also, people of the Western
Bug region are certainly aware of the precarious state of
surface water bodies and the need to protect or restore
them. A positive example is the attempt to establish a
Polish–Ukrainian biosphere reserve, the ‘Upper Bug’,
which includes selected rivers as well as flood land ele-
ments from the Ukrainian part of the Bug catchment
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:1459–1473
(Malynovsky et al. 2007). Here, promising approaches are
emerging by applying up-to-date practises on water man-
agement and IWRM issues by proposing a transboundary
(catchment based) eco-network jointly with Poland and
Belarus.
Conclusions
The presented investigations revealed a moderate status of
water quality for the headwater regions and identified the
Poltva River as the most important source of organic pol-
lution in the observed area. The huge amount of organic
waste input led to an abrupt deterioration of water quality
immediately downstream of the confluence. High values
were observed not only for COD or BOD5, but also for
phosphorus, bacterial abundance and antibiotic resistances.
Reducing the emission of pollutants from this tributary will
largely improve the surface water quality of the Western
Bug. To reach this goal, improvement of the existing and
construction of new wastewater treatment plants will be the
most effective measure. Currently, the river’s good mor-
phological state and Dobrotvir Reservoir, a river dam
unintentionally serving as an oxidation pond, help to
improve water quality and the hygienic state of the
downstream river stretches. However, these structural ele-
ments cannot replace the urgently needed reduction of the
wastewater load.
Acknowledgments This research was funded by the Federal Min-
istry of Education and Research (BMBF, Grant No.: FKZ
02WM1028). The authors wish to thank Lesya Gram-Radu, Susanne
Rolinski and Claudia Seiler for their support and project involvement.
Further thanks go to our student assistants Igor Abramyuk, Kristin
Berg, Felix Gutte, Sabine Hacker and Alexander Schellenberg who
participated in the field trips. The manuscript benefitted from proof-
reading and constructive criticism by Matthias Pitsch and Franziska
Schmidt. The authors would also like to thank the reviewers for their
thorough and useful comments on this work.
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