Elementary Math12

Elementary Math
Here is a list of our Elementary Mathematics pages, by subject.
Introduction to Numbers
Number Line
Place Value
Ordering Numbers
Kindergarten Worksheets
Basic Math Definitions
Powers of 10
Roman Numerals
Whole Numbers
Using Numbers
Multiplication Tables
Adding and Subtracting Positive and Negative Numbers
Multiplying Negatives
Equal, Less and Greater Than
Worksheets: Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division
Long Division, Long Division Worksheets
Associative, Commutative and Distributive Laws
Rounding Numbers
Number Theory
Common Number Patterns
Pascal's Triangle
Prime and Composite Numbers
Prime Numbers Chart
Prime Factorization
Divisibility Rules
Squares and Square Roots
Fractions
Introduction to Fractions
Fractions Menu
Decimals
Introduction to Decimals
Decimals Menu
Percentages
Introduction to Percentages
Percentages Menu
Graphs
Equation of a Straight Line
Straight Line Graph
Cartesian Coordinates
Interactive Cartesian Coordinates
Polar and Cartesian Coordinates
Bar Graph
Geometry
Solid Geometry Menu
Plane Geometry Menu
Transformations
Transformations
Symmetry
Reflection Symmetry
Rotational Symmetry
Point Symmetry
Symmetry Artist
Tessellation Artist
Elementary Algebra
Introduction to Algebra
Balance when Adding and Subtracting
Introduction to Algebra - Multiplication
Basic Algebra Definitions
Substitution
Order of Operations - BODMAS, or PEMDAS
Lengths, Areas and Volumes

How to Convert Lengths
Area and Perimiter Calculation, How to Convert Areas
How to Convert Volumes
Converting Temperatures (Celsius and Fahrenheit)
Accuracy and Precision
Time
Time - Clocks
Time AM/PM vs 24 Hour Clock
Adding and Subtracting Time
Sun Clock
World Time Zones
Earth's Orbit and Daylight
Leap Years
Scientific Calculator
Function Grapher
General Math Tools

Number Line
Writing numbers down on a Number Line makes it easy to tell
which numbers are bigger or smaller.
Negative Numbers (-) Positive Numbers (+)

(The line continues left and right forever.)
Numbers on the left are smaller than numbers on the right.
Examples:
 5 is smaller than 8
 −1 is smaller than 1
 −8 is smaller than −5
Numbers on the right are larger than numbers on the left.
Examples:
 8 is larger than 5
 1 is larger than −1
 −5 is larger than −8
Try this interactive number line (click to mark):
© 2015 MathsIsFun.com v0.77

You can also try the zoomable number line.
An Example
Example: John owes $3, Virginia owes $5 but Alex doesn't owe anything, in fact he has $3 in his
pocket. Place these people on the number line to find who is poorest and who is richest.
Having money in your pocket is positive.
But owing money is negative.
So John has "−3", Virginia "−5" and Alex "+3"
Now it is easy to see that Virginia is poorer than John (−5 is less than −3) and John is poorer than
Alex (−3 is smaller than 3), and Alex is, of course, the richest!
Using The Number Line
We can use the number line to help us add. We always move to the right to add.
We can use the number line to help us subtract. We always move to the left to subtract.
Read How to Use the Number Line to Add and Subtract.
Footnote: Absolute Value
Absolute Value means to think only about how far a number is from zero.
For example "6" is 6 away from zero, but "−6" is also 6 away from zero.
So the absolute value of 6 is 6, and the absolute value of −6 is also 6
Place Value
We write numbers using only ten symbols (called Digits).
Where we place them is important.
The Ten Digits
The Digits we use today are called "Hindu-Arabic Numerals" and look like these:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
We can use these on their own to count up to 9:
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
??
But what happens after 9?
Ten Or More ...
When we have more than 9 items, we start another column - the "tens" column - and we write down
how many "tens" we have, followed by how many "ones" (also called "units").
Example: this is how we write down twelve:
Tens Ones
1 2
The Number "12"
It says we have 1 Ten and 2 Ones, which makes 12.
This can also be written as 1 × 10 + 2 × 1.
Example: "35" means 3 Tens and 5 Ones, which is also 3 × 10 + 5 × 1
Tens Ones
3 5
The Number "35"
Zero
What if we have 1 Ten, but no Ones? We show "no Ones" by putting a zero there:
Tens Ones
1 0
The Number "10"
We have to put a zero in the Ones place, or "10" would look like "1".
A Hundred Or More ...
When we have more than 99 items, we start another column - the "hundreds" column. Now we need
to show how many Hundreds, Tens and Ones:
Hundreds Tens Ones
1 4 3
The Number 143
That shows we have 1 Hundred, 4 Tens and 3 Ones:
 The Place Value of the "1" is 100
This can also be written as 1 × 100 + 4 × 10 + 3 × 1.
Example: "369" means 3 Hundreds, 6 Tens and 9 Ones

Which is also 3 × 100 + 6 × 10 + 9 × 1
We can also use a Zero when there are no Tens:
Example: "104" means 1 Hundred, Zero Tens and 4 Ones.
Hundreds Tens Ones
1 0 4
The Number 104
And So On ...
Each time we want to show a bigger number we just add one column to the left and we know it is
always 10 times bigger than than the column on its right.
each new column on the left is ten times bigger
So, where we PLACE a digit is important!
Names for Each Column
These are the names of each column:
Hundred- Ten-
Millions Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones
Thousands Thousands
(For bigger amounts, see Metric Numbers)
Example: The number eleven thousand, three hundred and twenty seven in a place
value table:
Ten-
Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones
Thousands
1 1 3 2 7
The Number 11,327
Ordering Numbers
"Waiter, I would like a 7 and a 3, please..."
NO, not THAT type of ordering. We mean putting them in order ...
Ascending Order
To put numbers in order, place them from lowest (first) to highest (last).
This is called "Ascending Order". Think of ascending a mountain.
Example: Place 17, 5, 9 and 8 in ascending order.

 Answer: 5, 8, 9, 17
Example: Place 3, 1, 19, 12, 9, 2 and 7 in ascending order.
 Answer: 1, 2, 3, 7, 9, 12, 19
Descending Order
Sometimes you want the numbers to go the other way, from highest down to lowest, this is called
"Descending Order".
Example: Place 17, 5, 9 and 8 in descending order.
 Answer: 17, 9, 8, 5
Summary
Ascending Descending
Try it Yourself:
Move the ducks so they are in
Ascending or Descending Order
Practice
Practice by ordering your friends. Measure their heights, then place them in ascending order of height.
Try it again, but use their weights.
Game
Now, go practice with this special Ordering Game!
Kindergarten Math Worksheets

Also see our Time Worksheets
Number Black /
Worksheet (In Color)
Range White*
Early Counting 1 to 5 B/W
Counting 2 to 9 B/W
Advanced Counting 2 to 12 B/W
Fill in the Missing Number 1 to 5 B/W
1,2,__ Fill in the Missing Number 1 to 9 B/W
Fill in the Missing Number 4 to 12 B/W
1 + 1 = Easy Picture Addition

Picture Addition
1 to 4
2 to 6
B/W
B/W
Advanced Picture Addition 3 to 8 B/W
The following are great to help your child advance from pure counting:
Easy Half-Picture Addition 1 to 4 B/W
1+ 1 = Picture Half-Addition 2 to 6 B/W
Advanced Half-Picture Addition 3 to 8 B/W
These might be difficult for kinder kids:

Easy Addition 1 to 4 B/W
1+1= Addition 2 to 6 B/W
Advanced Addition 3 to 8 B/W
Explain what "More" and "Less" is:

Easy More or Less 1 to 4 B/W
More or Less 2 to 6 B/W
Advanced More or Less 3 to 8 B/W
Color in the first, last or middle pictures:

Easy Color Some (space clues) 3 to 6 B/W
Color Some (no clues) 3 to 6 B/W
Advanced Color Some 4 to 9 B/W
(* for
photocopying)
Basic Math Definitions

We have collected some basic definitions on this page.
For lots more definitions, explanations, etc, use search above.
Or look up your word in the:

Illustrated Mathematics Dictionary
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
The Basic Operations
In basic mathematics there are many ways of saying the same thing:
Symbol Words Used
+ Addition, Add, Sum, Plus, Increase, Total
− Subtraction, Subtract, Minus, Less, Difference, Decrease, Take Away, Deduct
× Multiplication, Multiply, Product, By, Times, Lots Of
÷ Division, Divide, Quotient, Goes Into, How Many Times
Addition is ...
... bringing two or more numbers (or things) together to make a new total.
The numbers to be added together are called the "Addends":
Subtraction is ...
... taking one number away from another.
Minuend − Subtrahend = Difference
Minuend: The number that is to be subtracted from.

Subtrahend: The number that is to be subtracted.
Difference: The result of subtracting one number from another.
Multiplication is ...
... (in its simplest form) repeated addition.
Here we see that 6+6+6 (three 6s) make 18:
It can also be said that 3+3+3+3+3+3 (six 3s) make 18
But we can also multiply by fractions or decimals, which goes beyond the simple idea of repeated
addition:
Example: 3.5 × 5 = 17.5
which is 3.5 lots of 5, or 5 lots of 3.5
Division is ...
... splitting into equal parts or groups. It is the result of "fair sharing".
Division has its own special words to remember.
Let's take the simple question of dividing 22 by 5. The answer is 4, with 2 left over. Here we see the
important words:
Which is the same as:

A Fraction is ...
... part of a whole.
A fraction is written with the bottom part (the denominator) telling us how many parts the whole is
divided into,
and the top part (the numerator) telling us how many parts we have.
See Fractions for more details.
A Decimal Number is ...
... a number that contains a Decimal Point.
See Decimals for more details.
A Percentage is ...
... parts per 100. The symbol is %
Example: 25% means 25 per 100 (25% of this box is green)
See Percentages for more details.
Average (Mean) is ...

... the sum divided by the count.
We calculate the average by adding up all the values, then divide by how many values.
Example: What is the average of 9, 2, 12 and 5?
Add up all the values: 9 + 2 + 12 + 5 = 28
Divide by how many values (there are four of them): 28 ÷ 4 = 7
So the average is 7
Index Notation and Powers of 10
The exponent (or index or power) of a number says

how many times to use the number in a multiplication.
102 means 10 × 10 = 100
(It says 10 is used 2 times in the multiplication)
Example: 103 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1,000

 In words: 103 could be called "10 to the third power", "10 to the power 3" or simply "10
cubed"
Example: 104 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 10,000
 In words: 104 could be called "10 to the fourth power", "10 to the power 4" or "10 to the 4"
You can multiply any number by itself as many times as you want using this notation (seeExponents),
but powers of 10 have a special use ...
Powers of 10
"Powers of 10" is a very useful way of writing down large or small numbers.
Instead of having lots of zeros, you show how many powers of 10 will make that many zeros
Example: 5,000 = 5 × 1,000 = 5 × 103
5 thousand is 5 times a thousand. And a thousand is 10 3. So 5 times 103 = 5,000
Can you see that 103 is a handy way of making 3 zeros?
Scientists and Engineers (who often use very big or very small numbers) like to write numbers this
way.
Example: The Mass of the Sun
The Sun has a Mass of 1.988 × 1030 kg.
It is too hard to write 1,988,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg
(And very easy to make a mistake counting the zeros!)
Example: A Light Year (the distance light travels in one year)
It is easier to use 9.461 × 1015 meters, rather than 9,461,000,000,000,000 meters
It is commonly called Scientific Notation, or Standard Form.
Other Way of Writing It
Sometimes people use the ^ symbol (above the 6 on your keyboard), as it is easy to type.
Example: 3 × 10^4 is the same as 3 × 104

 3 × 10^4 = 3 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 30,000
Some calculator use "E":
Examples:
 3E+4 is the same as 3 × 104
 6.103E−12 is the same as 6.103 × 10-12
 1.8004E+94 is the same as 1.8004 × 10 94
The Trick
While at first it may look hard, there is an easy "trick":
The index of 10 says ...

... how many places to move the decimal point to the right.
Example: What is 1.35 × 104 ?
You can calculate it as: 1.35 x (10 × 10 × 10 × 10) = 1.35 x 10,000 = 13,500
But it is easier to think "move the decimal point 4 places to the right" like this:
1.3
13.5 135. 1350. 13500.
5
Negative Powers of 10
Negative? What could be the opposite of multiplying? Dividing!
A negative power means how many times to divide by the number.
Example: 5 × 10-3 = 5 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 = 0.005
Just remember for negative powers of 10:

For negative powers of 10, move the decimal point to the left.
So Negatives just go the other way.
Example: What is 7.1 × 10-3 ?
Well, it is really 7.1 x (1/10 × 1/10 × 1/10) = 7.1 × 0.001 = 0.0071
But it is easier to think "move the decimal point 3 places to the left" like this:
0.7
7.1 0.071 0.0071
1
Try It Yourself
Enter a number and see it in Scientific Notation:
Example
Enter Number:
3.1416
Scientific Notation:
3.1416 × 100
© 2015 MathsIsFun.com v 0.85
Now try to use Scientific Notation yourself:
Scientific Notation:
× 10
2
Example
Number:
314.16
Summary
The index of 10 says how many places to move the decimal point. Positive means move it to the right,
negative means to the left. Example:
In Scientific
Number In Words
Notation
Positive Powers 5,000 5 × 103 5 Thousand
Negative Powers 0.005 5 × 10-3 5 Thousandths

Roman Numerals
Ancient Romans used a special method of showing numbers
Examples: They wrote V instead of 5

And wrote IX instead of 9
Read on to learn about Roman Numerals or go straight to the Roman Numeral Conversion Tool.
The Roman Symbols
Romans Numerals are based on the following symbols:
1 5 10 50 100 500 1000

I V X L C D M
Basic Combinations
Which can be combined like this:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
X XX XXX XL L LX LXX LXXX XC
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

C CC CCC CD D DC DCC DCCC CM
Forming Numbers - The Rules

When a symbol appears after a larger symbol it is added
 Example: VI = V + I = 5 + 1 = 6
But if the symbol appears before a larger symbol it is subtracted
 Example: IX = X - I = 10 - 1 = 9
To Remember: After Larger is Added
Don't use the same symbol more than three times in a row (but IIII is sometimes used for
4, particularly on clocks)
Really Big Numbers
Numbers greater than 1,000 are formed by placing a dash over the symbol, meaning "times 1,000",
but these are not commonly used:
5,000 10,000 50,000 100,000 500,000 1,000,000

V X L C D M
How to Convert to Roman Numerals
Break the number into Thousands, Hundreds, Tens and Ones, and write down each in turn.
Example: Convert 1984 to Roman Numerals.
Break 1984 into 1000, 900, 80 and 4, then do each conversion
 1000 = M
 900 = CM
 80 = LXXX
 4 = IV
1000 + 900 + 80 + 4 = 1984, so 1984 = MCMLXXXIV
Whole Numbers and Integers
Whole Numbers
Whole Numbers are simply the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... (and so on)
No Fractions!
Counting Numbers
Counting Numbers are Whole Numbers, but without the zero. Because you can't "count" zero.
So they are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... (and so on).
Natural Numbers
"Natural Numbers" can mean either "Counting Numbers" {1, 2, 3, ...}, or "Whole Numbers" {0, 1, 2,
3, ...}, depending on the subject.
Integers
Integers are like whole numbers, but they also include negative numbers ... but still no fractions
allowed!
So, integers can be negative {-1, -2,-3, -4, -5, ... }, positive {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... }, or zero {0}
We can put that all together like this:
Integers = { ..., -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... }
Example, these are all integers:
-16, -3, 0, 1, 198
(But numbers like ½, 1.1 and 3.5 are not integers)
These are all integers (click to mark), and they continue left and right infinitely:
Some People Have Different Definitions!
Some people (not me) say that whole numbers can also be negative, which makes them exactly the
same as integers.
And some people say that zero is NOT a whole number. So there you go, not everyone agrees on a
simple thing!
My Standard
I usually stick to this:
Name Numbers Examples

Whole Numbers { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... } 0, 27, 398, 2345
Counting Numbers { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... } 1, 18, 27, 2061
Integers { ... -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... } -15, 0, 27, 1102
And everyone agrees on the definition of an integer, so when in doubt say "integer".
And when you only want positive integers, say "positive integers". It is not only accurate, it makes
you sound intelligent. Like this (note: zero isn't positive or negative):
 Integers = { ..., -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... }
 Negative Integers = { ..., -5, -4, -3, -2, -1 }
 Positive Integers = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... }
 Non-Negative Integers = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... } (includes zero, see?)
Using Numbers
Learn Your Multiplication Tables
10× Multiplication Table
× 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
4
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
6
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
7
7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
8
8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
9
9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Notes:
7 × 12 = 84
Printable 10 Times Tables: Printable 12 Times Tables:
 10× Color,  12× Color,
 10× Black and White,  12× Black and White,
 10× Small (exercise book) size,  12× Small (exercise book) size,
 and a 10× blank version for you to  and a 12× blank version for you to
fill in. fill in.
Print one and put it on your wall, or paste it in an exercise book.
How to Learn
Your life will be a lot easier when you can simply remember the multiplication tables.
So ... train your memory!
First, use the table above to start putting the answers into your memory.
Then use the Math Trainer - Multiplication to train your memory, it is specially designed to help you
memorize the tables.
Use it a few times a day for about 5 minutes each, and you will learn your tables.
Try it now, and then come back and read some more ...
So, the two main ways for you to learn the multiplication table are:
 Reading over the table
 Exercising using the Math Trainer
But here are some "tips" to help you even more:
Tip 1: Order Does Not Matter
When we multiply two numbers, it does not matter which is

first or second, the answer is always the same.
(See Commutative Property.)
Example: 3×5=15, and 5×3=15
Another Example: 2×9=18, and 9×2=18
In fact half of the table is a mirror image of the other!

So, don't memorize both "3×5" and "5×3", just memorize that "a 3 and a 5 make 15" when
multiplied.
This is very important! It nearly cuts the whole job in half.
In your mind you should think of

3 and 5 "together" making 15.
so you should be thinking something like this:
Tip 2: Learn the Tables in "Chunks"
It is too hard to put the whole table into your memory at once. So, learn it in "chunks" ...
A Start by learning the 5 times table.
B Then learn up to 9 times 5.
C Is the same as B, except the questions are the other way around. Learn it too.
D Lastly learn the "6×6 to 9×9" chunk
Then bring it all together by practicing the whole "10 Times Table"
And you will know your 10 Times Table!
(We look at the 12x table below)
Some Patterns
There are some patterns which can help you remember:
2× is just doubling the number. The same as adding the number to itself.
2×2=4, 2×3=6, 2×4=8, etc.
So the pattern is 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20
(And once you remember those, you also know 3×2, 4×2, 5×2, etc., right?)
5× has a pattern: 5, 10, 15, 20, etc. It ends in either 0 or 5.
9× has a pattern, too: 9, 18, 27, 36, 45, 54, 63, 72, 81, 90
Now, notice how the "ones" place goes down: 9,8,7,6, ...? And at the same time, the "tens"
place goes up: 1,2,3,...? Well, your hands can help!
Example: to multiply 9 by 8: hold your 8th finger down, and you can count "7" and "2" ... the
answer is 72
10× is maybe the easiest of them all ... just put a zero after it.
10×2=20, 10×3=30, 10×4=40, etc.
The Hardest Ones
For me the hardest ones are 6×7=42, 6×8=48 and 7×8=56. I often have to say in my mind:
"six sevens are forty-two", "six eights are forty-eight", "seven eights are fifty-six"
What About the 12 Times Table?
Sounds tough, but once you have mastered the 10× table, it is just a few steps away.
Firstly, 11× is mostly easy: from 11×2 to 11×9 you just put the two digits together.
11×2=22, 11×3=33, ..., 11×9=99.
And of course 2×, 5× and 10× just follow their simple rules you know already, so it
just leaves these to remember:
 3×12=36,
 4×12=48,
 6×12=72,
 7×12=84,
 8×12=96,
 9×12=108
And the "Big 3":
 11×11=121,
 11×12=132 and
 12×12=144
More Help
I also have a longer list of multiplication tips and tricks if you are interested.
You can test yourself using the times tables test.
You can try out Speed Math.
Learn Long Multiplication.
And if you are really good, see if you can beat the high scores at Reaction Math.
How to Add and Subtract
Positive and Negative Numbers
Numbers Can be Positive or Negative:
Negative Numbers (−) Positive Numbers (+)

(This is the Number Line, read about Using The Number Line)
"−" is the negative sign. "+" is the positive sign
No Sign Means Positive
If a number has no sign it usually means that it is a positive number.
Example: 5 is really +5
Adding Positive Numbers
Adding positive numbers is just simple addition.
Example: 2 + 3 = 5
is really saying
"Positive 2 plus Positive 3 equals Positive 5"
You could write it as (+2) + (+3) = (+5)
Subtracting Positive Numbers
Subtracting positive numbers is just simple subtraction.
Example: 6 − 3 = 3
is really saying
"Positive 6 minus Positive 3 equals Positive 3"
You could write it as (+6) − (+3) = (+3)
Balloons and Weights
This basket has balloons and weights tied to it:
 The balloons pull up (positive)
 And the weights drag down

(negative)
Here is what adding and subtracting positive numbers looks like:
You can add balloons (you are adding positive value)
the basket gets pulled upwards (positive)
You can take away balloons (you are subtracting positive value)
the basket gets pulled downwards (negative)

Now let's see what adding and subtracting negative numbers looks like:
You can add weights (you are adding negative values)
the basket gets pulled downwards (negative)
And you can take away weights (you are subtracting negative values)
the basket gets pulled upwards (positive)
That last one was interesting ... subtracting a negative made the basket go up
Subtracting a Negative is the same as Adding
Example: What is 6 − (−3) ?
6−(−3) = 6 + 3 = 9
Example: What is 14 − (−4) ?
14−(−4) = 14 + 4 = 18
We also found that taking away balloons (subtracting positives) or adding weights (adding negatives)
both made the basket go down.
And Positive and Negative Together ...
Subtracting a Positive
or
Adding a Negative
is
Subtraction
Example: What is 6 − (+3) ?
6−(+3) = 6 − 3 = 3
Example: What is 5 + (−7) ?
5+(−7) = 5 − 7 = −2
The Rules:
It can all be put into two rules:
Rule Example
Two like signs become a positive +(+) 3+(+2) = 3 + 2 = 5

sign −(−) 6−(−3) = 6 + 3 = 9
Two unlike signs become a negative +(−) 7+(−2) = 7 − 2 = 5

sign −(+) 8−(+2) = 8 − 2 = 6
They are "like signs" when they are like each other (in other words: the same).
So, all you have to remember is:
Two like signs become a positive sign

Two unlike signs become a negative sign
Example: What is 5+(−2) ?
+(−) are unlike signs (they are not the same), so they become a negative sign.
5+(−2) = 5 − 2 = 3
Example: What is 25−(−4) ?
−(−) are like signs, so they become a positive sign.
25−(−4) = 25+4 = 29
Example: What is −6+(+3) ?
+(+) are like signs, so they become a positive sign.
−6+(+3) = −6 + 3 = -3
Start at −6 on the number line, move forward 3, and you end up at −3
Now Play With It!
Try playing Casey Runner, you need to know the rules of positive and
negative to succeed!
A Common Sense Explanation
And there is a "common sense" explanation:
If I say "Eat!" I am encouraging you to eat (positive)
But if I say "Do not eat!" I am saying the opposite (negative).
Now if I say "Do NOT not eat!", I am saying I don't want you to starve, so I am back to saying "Eat!"
(positive).
So, two negatives make a positive, and if that satisfies you, then you are done!
Another Common Sense Explanation
A friend is +, an enemy is −
+ + ⇒ + a friend of a friend is my friend
+ − ⇒ − a friend of an enemy is my enemy
− + ⇒ − an enemy of a friend is my enemy
− − ⇒ + an enemy of an enemy is my friend
A Bank Example
Example: You have $80 in your account right now.
Last year the bank subtracted $10 by mistake, and they want to fix it.
So the bank must take away a negative $10:
$80−(−$10) = $80 + $10 = $90
So you get $10 more in your account.
Another Example You Might Like
Ally's Points
Ally can be naughty or nice. So Ally's parents have said
"If you are nice we will add 3 points (+3).

If you are naughty, we take away 3 points (−3).
When you reach 30 Points you get a toy."
Ally starts the day with 9 Points:

Ally's Mom discovers spilt milk: 9−3 = 6
Then Dad confesses he spilt the milk and writes "undo".

6−(−3) = 6+3 = 9
Mom calculates:
So if you subtract a negative, you gain points

(i.e. the same as adding points).
So Subtracting a Negative is the same as Adding
A few days later. Ally has 12 points.
Mom adds 3 points because Ally's room is clean. 12+3 = 15
Dad says "I cleaned that room" and writes "undo" on the
15 − (+3) = 12
chart. Mom calculates:
Dad sees Ally brushing the dog. Writes "+3" on the chart.
12 + (+3) = 15
Mom calculates:
Ally throws a stone against the window. Dad writes "−3" on

15 + (−3) = 12
the chart. Mom calculates:
See: both "15 − (+3)" and "15 + (−3)" result in 12.
So:
It doesn't matter if you subtract positive points

or add negative points,
you still end up losing points.
So, Subtracting a Positive
or
Adding a Negative
is
Subtraction
Multiplying Negatives
When We Multiply:
Example
two positives make a positive: 3×2=6

×
two negatives make a positive: (−3) × (−2) = 6

×
a negative and a positive

(−3) × 2 = −6
× make a negative:
a positive and a negative

3 × (−2) = −6
× make a negative:
Yes indeed, two negatives make a positive, and we will explain why, with examples!
Signs
Let's talk about signs.
"+" is the positive sign, "−" is the negative sign.
When a number has no sign it usually means that it is positive.
Example: 5 is really +5
And we can put () around the numbers to avoid confusion.
Example: 3 × −2 can be written as 3 × (−2)

Two Signs: The Rules
"Two like signs make a positive sign,

two unlike signs make a negative sign"
Example: (−2) × (+5)
The signs are − and + (a negative sign and a positive sign), so they are unlike signs(they are
different to each other)
So the result must be negative:
(−2) × (+5) = -10
Example: (−4) × (−3)
The signs are − and − (they are both negative signs), so they are like signs (like each other)
So the result must be positive:
(−4) × (−3) = +12
Why does multiplying two negative numbers make a positive?
Well, first there is the "common sense" explanation:
When I say "Eat!" I am encouraging you to eat (positive)
But when I say "Do not eat!" I am saying the opposite (negative).
Now if I say "Do NOT not eat!", I am saying I don't want you to starve, so I am back to saying "Eat!"
(positive).
So, two negatives make a positive, and if that satisfies you, then you don't need to read any more.
Direction
It is all about direction. Remember the Number Line?
Well here we have Baby Steven taking his first steps. He takes 2 paces at a time, and does this three
times, so he moves 2 steps x 3 = 6 steps forward:
Now, Baby Steven can also step backwards (he is a clever little guy). His Dad puts him back at the
start and then Steven steps backwards 2 steps, and does this three times:
Once again Steven's Dad puts him back at the start, but facing the other way. Steven takes 2 steps
forward (for him!) but he is heading in the negative direction. He does this 3 times:
Back at the start again (thanks Dad!), still facing in the negative direction, he tries his backwards
walking, once again taking two steps at a time, and he does this three times:
So, by walking backwards, while facing in the negative direction, he moves in the positive direction.
Try it yourself! Try walking forwards and backwards, then again but facing the
other direction.
More Examples
Example: Money
Imagine you owe Sam money.
Then Sam takes $10 of that debt away from you 3 times ... the same as giving you $30.
That is −$10 ($10 of debt) taken away 3 times (−3):
−$10 × −3 = +$30
Example: Tank Levels Rising/Falling
The tank has 30,000 liters, and 1,000 liters are taken out every day. What was the amount of water in
the tank 3 days ago?
We know the amount of water in the tank changes by −1,000 every day, and we need to subtract that
3 times (to go back 3 days), so the change is:
−3 × −1,000 = +3,000
The full calculation is:
30,000 + (−3 × −1,000) = 30,000 + 3,000 = 33,000
So 3 days ago there were 33,000 liters of water in the tank.
Multiplication Table
Here is another way of looking at it.
Start with the multiplication table (just up to 4×4 will do):
× 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 6 8
3 3 6 9 12
4 4 8 12 16
Now see what happens when we head into negatives!
Let's go backwards through zero:
× 1 2 3 4
-4 -4 -8 -12 -16
-3 -3 -6 -9 -12
-2 -2 -4 -6 -8
-1 -1 -2 -3 -4
0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 6 8
3 3 6 9 12
4 4 8 12 16
Look at the "4" column: it goes -16, -12, -8, -4, 0, 4, 8, 12, 16. Getting 4 larger each time.
Look over that table again, make sure you are comfortable with how it works, because ...
... now we go further to the left, through zero:
× -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-4 16 12 8 4 0 -4 -8 -12 -16
-3 12 9 6 3 0 -3 -6 -9 -12
-2 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8
-1 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
2 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
3 -12 -9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9 12
4 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16
Same pattern: we can follow along a row (or column) and the values change consistently:
 Follow the "4" row along: it goes -16, -12, -8, -4, 0, 4, 8, 12, 16. Getting 4 larger each time.
 Follow the "-4" row along: it goes 16, 12, 8, 4, 0, -4, -8, -12, -16. Getting 4 smaller each
time.
 etc...
So it all follows a neat pattern!
What About Multiplying 3 or More Numbers Together?
Multiply two at a time and follow the rules.
Example: What is (−2) × (−3) × (−4) ?
First multiply (−2) × (−3). Two like signs make a positive sign, so:
(−2) × (−3) = +6
Next multiply +6 × (−4). Two unlike signs make a negative sign, so:
+6 × (−4) = -24
Result: (−2) × (−3) × (−4) = −24
Equal, Greater or Less Than

As well as the familiar equals sign (=) it is also very useful to show if something is not equal to (≠)
greater than (>) or less than (<)
These are the important signs to know:
When two values are equal

= we use the "equals" sign example: 2+2 = 4
When two values are definitely not equal

≠ we use the "not equal to" sign example: 2+2 ≠ 9
When one value is smaller than another

< we use a "less than" sign example: 3 < 5
When one value is bigger than another

> we use a "greater than" sign example: 9 > 6
Less Than and Greater Than
The "less than" sign and the "greater than" sign look like a "V" on its side, don't they?
To remember which way around the "<" and ">" signs go, just remember:
 BIG > small
 small < BIG
The "small" end always points to the smaller number, like this:
Greater Than Symbol: BIG > small
Example:
10 > 5
"10 is greater than 5"
Or the other way around:
5 < 10
"5 is less than 10"
Do you see how the symbol "points at" the smaller value?
... Or Equal To ...
Sometimes we know a value is smaller, but may also be equal to!
Example, a jug can hold up to 4 cups of water.
So how much water is in it?
It could be 4 cups or it could be less than 4 cups: So until we measure it, all we can say is "less
than or equal to" 4 cups.
To show this, we add an extra line at the bottom of the "less than" or "greater than" symbol like this:
The "less than or equal to" sign:

≤
The "greater than or equal to" sign:

≥
All The Symbols
Here is a summary of all the symbols:
Symbol Words Example Use

= equals 1+1=2
≠ not equal to 1+1≠1
> greater than 5>2
< less than 7<9
≥ greater than or equal to marbles ≥ 1
≤ less than or equal to dogs ≤ 3
Why Use Them?
Because there are things we do not know exactly ...
... but can still say something about.
So we have ways of saying what we do know (which may be useful!)
Example: John had 10 marbles, but lost some. How many has he now?
Answer: He must have less than 10:
Marbles < 10
If John still has some marbles we can also say he has greater than zero marbles:
Marbles > 0
But if we thought John could have lost all his marbles we would say
Marbles ≥ 0
In other words, the number of marbles is greater than or equal to zero.
Combining
We can sometimes say two (or more) things on the one line:
Example: Becky starts with $10, buys something and says "I got change, too". How
much did she spend?
Answer: Something greater than $0 and less than $10 (but NOT $0 or $10):
"What Becky Spends" > $0

"What Becky Spends" < $10
This can be written down in just one line:
$0 < "What Becky Spends" < $10
That says that $0 is less than "What Becky Spends" (in other words "What Becky Spends" is greater
than "$0") and what Becky Spends is also less than $10.
Notice that ">" was flipped over to "<" when we put it before what Becky spends - always
make sure the small end points to the small value.
Changing Sides
We saw in that previous example that when we change sides we flipped the symbol as well.
This: Becky Spends > $0 (Becky spends greater than $0)

is the same as this: $0 < Becky Spends ($0 is less than what Becky spends)
Just make sure the small end points to the small value!
Here is another example using "≥" and "≤":
Example: Becky has $10 and she is going shopping. How much will
shespend (without using credit)?
Answer: Something greater than, or possibly equal to, $0 and less than, or possibly equal to, $10:
Becky Spends ≥ $0
Becky Spends ≤ $10
This can be written down in just one line:
$0 ≤ Becky Spends ≤ $10
A Long Example: Cutting Rope
Here is an interesting example I thought of:
Example: Sam cuts a 10m rope into two. How long is the longer piece? How long is
the shorter piece?
Answer: Let us call the longer length of rope "L", and the shorter length "S"
L must be greater than 0m (otherwise it isn't a piece of rope), and also less than 10m:
L>0
L < 10
So:
0 < L < 10
That says that L (the Longer length of rope) is between 0 and 10 (but not 0 or 10)
The same thing can be said about the shorter length "S":
0 < S < 10
But I did say there was a "shorter" and "longer" length, so we also know:
S<L
(Do you see how neat mathematics is? Instead of saying "the shorter length is less than the longer
length", we can just write "S < L")
We can combine all of that like this:
0 < S < L < 10
That says a lot:
0 is less that the short length, the short length is less than the long length, the long length is less
than 10.
Reading "backwards" we can also see:
10 is greater than the long length, the long length is greater than the short length, the short length is
greater than 0.
It also lets us see that "S" is less than 10 (by "jumping over" the "L"), and even that 0<10 (which we
know anyway), all in one statement.
NOW, I have one more trick. If Sam tried really hard he might be able to cut the rope EXACTLY in half,
so each half is 5m, but we know he didn't because we said there was a "shorter" and "longer" length,
so we also know:
S<5
and
L>5
We can put that into our very neat statement here:
0 < S < 5 < L < 10
And IF we thought the two lengths MIGHT be exactly 5 we could change that to
0 < S ≤ 5 ≤ L < 10
An Example Using Algebra
OK, this example may be complicated if you don't know Algebra, but I thought you might like to see it
anyway:
Example: What is x+3, when we know that x is greater than 11?

If x > 11 , then x+3 > 14
(Imagine that "x" is the number of people at your party. If there are more than 11 people at your
party, and 3 more arrive, then there must be more than 14 people at your party now.)
Commutative, Associative and Distributive Laws

Wow! What a mouthful of words! But the ideas are simple.
Commutative Laws
The "Commutative Laws" say we can swap numbers over and still get the same answer ...
... when we add:
a+b = b+a
Example:
... or when we multiply:
a×b = b×a
Example:
Why "commutative" ... ?
Because the numbers can travel back and forth like a commuter.
Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5Question 6 Question 7 Question 8 Q

uestion 9 Question 10
Associative Laws
The "Associative Laws" say that it doesn't matter how we group the numbers (i.e. which we calculate
first) ...
... when we add:
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
... or when we multiply:
(a × b) × c = a × (b × c)
Examples:
This: (2 + 4) + 5 = 6 + 5 = 11
Has the same answer as this: 2 + (4 + 5) = 2 + 9 = 11
(3 × 4) × 5 = 12 × 5
This:
= 60
3 × (4 × 5) = 3
Has the same answer as this:
× 20 = 60
Uses:
Sometimes it is easier to add or multiply in a different order:
What is 19 + 36 + 4?
19 + 36 + 4 = 19 + (36 + 4) = 19 + 40 = 59
Or to rearrange a little:
What is 2 × 16 × 5?
2 × 16 × 5 = (2 × 5) × 16 = 10 × 16 = 160
Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5Question 6 Question 7 Question 8 Q

uestion 9 Question 10
Distributive Law
The "Distributive Law" is the BEST one of all, but needs careful attention.
This is what it lets us do:
3 lots of (2+4) is the same as 3 lots of 2 plus 3 lots of 4
So, the 3× can be "distributed" across the 2+4, into 3×2 and 3×4
And we write it like this:
a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
Try the calculations yourself:
 3 × (2 + 4) = 3 × 6 = 18
 3×2 + 3×4 = 6 + 12 = 18
Either way gets the same answer.
In English we can say:
We get the same answer when we:
 multiply a number by a group of numbers added together, or
 do each multiply separately then add them
Uses:
Sometimes it is easier to break up a difficult multiplication:
Example: What is 6 × 204 ?
6 × 204 = 6×200 + 6×4 = 1,200 + 24 = 1,224
Or to combine:
Example: What is 16 × 6 + 16 × 4?
16 × 6 + 16 × 4 = 16 × (6+4) = 16 × 10 = 160
We can use it in subtraction too:
Example: 26×3 - 24×3

26×3 - 24×3 = (26 - 24) × 3 = 2 × 3 = 6
We could use it for a long list of additions, too:
Example: 6×7 + 2×7 + 3×7 + 5×7 + 4×7
6×7 + 2×7 + 3×7 + 5×7 + 4×7 = (6+2+3+5+4) × 7 = 20 × 7 = 140
Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5Question 6 Question 7
And those are the Laws . . .
. . . but don't go too far!
The Commutative Law does not work for subtraction or division:
Example:
 12 / 3 = 4, but
 3 / 12 = ¼
The Associative Law does not work for subtraction or division:
Example:
 (9 – 4) – 3 = 5 – 3 = 2, but
 9 – (4 – 3) = 9 – 1 = 8
The Distributive Law does not work for division:
Example:
 24 / (4 + 8) = 24 / 12 = 2, but
 24 / 4 + 24 / 8 = 6 + 3 = 9
Summary
Commutative Laws: a+b = b+a

a×b = b×a
Associative Laws: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
(a × b) × c = a × (b × c)
Distributive Law: a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
Activity: Commutative, Associative and Distributive
Rounding Numbers
What is "Rounding" ?
Rounding means making a number simpler but keeping its value close to what it was.
The result is less accurate, but easier to use.
Example: 73 rounded to the nearest ten is 70, because 73 is closer to 70 than to 80. But 76
goes up to 80.
Common Method
There are several different methods for rounding, but here we only look at the common method, the
one used by most people.
First some examples (explanations follow):
How to Round Numbers
 Decide which is the last digit to keep
 Leave it the same if the next digit is less than 5 (this is called rounding down)
 But increase it by 1 if the next digit is 5 or more (this is called rounding up)
Example: Round 74 to the nearest 10
 We want to keep the "7" (it is in the 10s position)
 The next digit is "4" which is less than 5, so no change is needed to "7"
Answer: 70
(74 gets "rounded down")
Example: Round 86 to the nearest 10
 We want to keep the "8"
 The next digit is "6" which is 5 or more, so increase the "8" by 1 to "9"
Answer: 90
(86 gets "rounded up")
So: when the first digit removed is 5 or more, increase the last digit remaining by 1.
Why does 5 go up ?
5 is in the middle ... so we could go up or down. But we need a method that everyone agrees to.
So think about sport: we should have the same number of players on each team, right?
 0,1,2,3 and 4 are on team

"down"
 5,6,7,8 and 9 are on team
"up"
And that is the "common" method of rounding. Read about other methods of rounding.
A farmer counted 87 cows in the field, but when he rounded them up he had 90.
Rounding Decimals
First work out which number will be left when we finish.
 Rounding to tenths means to leave one number after the decimal point.
 Rounding to hundredths means to leave two numbers after the decimal point.
 etc.
3.1416 rounded to hundredths is 3.14
as the next digit (1) is less than 5
3.1416 rounded to thousandths is 3.142
as the next digit (6) is more than 5
1.2735 rounded to tenths is 1.3
as the next digit (7) is 5 or more
To round to "so many decimal places" count that many digits from the decimal point:
1.2735 rounded to 3 decimal places is 1.274
Rounding Whole Numbers
We may want to round to tens, hundreds, etc, In this case we replace the removed digits with zero.
134.9 rounded to tens is 130

12,690 rounded to thousands is 13,000
15.239 rounded to units is 15
Rounding to Significant Digits
To round to "so many" significant digits, count digits from left to right, and then round off from
there.
Note: if there are leading zeros (such as 0.006), don't count them because they are only there to
show how small the number is.
1.239 rounded to 3 significant digits is 1.24
134.9 rounded to 1 significant digit is 100
0.0165 rounded to 2 significant digits is 0.017
Significant Digit Calculator

Number:
3.1416
Significant Digits:
2
▼▲
3.1
(Try increasing or decreasing the number of significant digits. Also try numbers with lots of zeros in
front of them like 0.00314, 0.0000314 etc)
Number Theory
Common Number Patterns
Numbers can have interesting patterns.

Here we list the most common patterns and how they are made.
Arithmetic Sequences
An Arithmetic Sequence is made by adding the same value each time.
Example:
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, ...
This sequence has a difference of 3 between each number.

The pattern is continued by adding 3 to the last number each time, like this:
Example:
3, 8, 13, 18, 23, 28, 33, 38, ...
This sequence has a difference of 5 between each number.

The pattern is continued by adding 5 to the last number each time, like this:
The value added each time is called the "common difference"
What is the common difference in this example?

19, 27, 35, 43, ...
Answer: The common difference is 8
The common difference could also be negative:
Example:
25, 23, 21, 19, 17, 15, ...
This common difference is −2

The pattern is continued by subtracting 2 each time, like this:
Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5
Geometric Sequences
A Geometric Sequence is made by multiplying by the same value each time.
Example:
1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, ...
This sequence has a factor of 3 between each number.

The pattern is continued by multiplying by 3 each time, like this:
What we multiply by each time is called the "common ratio".
In the previous example the common ratio was 3:
We can start with any number:
Example: Common Ratio of 3, But Starting at 2
2, 6, 18, 54, 162, 486, ...
This sequence also has a common ratio of 3, but it starts with 2.
Example:
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, ...
This sequence starts at 1 and has a common ratio of 2.

The pattern is continued by multiplying by 2 each time, like this:
The common ratio can be less than 1:
Example:
10, 5, 2.5, 1.25, 0.625, 0.3125, ...

This sequence starts at 10 and has a common ratio of 0.5 (a half).
The pattern is continued by multiplying by 0.5 each time.
But the common ratio can't be 0, as we would get a sequence like 1, 0, 0, 0, ...
Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5
Special Sequences
Triangular Numbers
1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, ...
This Triangular Number Sequence is generated from a pattern of dots which form a triangle.
By adding another row of dots and counting all the dots we can find the next number of the sequence:
Square Numbers
0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, ...
They are the squares of whole numbers:
0 (=0×0)
1 (=1×1)
4 (=2×2)
9 (=3×3)
16 (=4×4)
etc...
Cube Numbers
1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729, ...
They are the cubes of the counting numbers (they start at 1):
1 (=1×1×1)
8 (=2×2×2)
27 (=3×3×3)
64 (=4×4×4)
etc...
Fibonacci Numbers
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...
The Fibonacci Sequence is found by adding the two numbers before it together.
The 2 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+1)
The 21 is found by adding the two numbers before it (8+13)
The next number in the sequence above would be 55 (21+34)
Can you figure out the next few numbers?
Other Sequences
There are lots more! You might even think of your own ...
Pascal's Triangle
One of the most interesting Number Patterns is Pascal's

Triangle (named after Blaise Pascal, a famous French
Mathematician and Philosopher).
To build the triangle, start with "1" at the top, then

continue placing numbers below it in a triangular
pattern.
Each number is the numbers directly above it

added together.
(Here I have highlighted that 1+3 = 4)
Patterns Within the Triangle
Diagonals
The first diagonal is, of course, just "1"s, and

the next diagonal has the Counting
Numbers (1,2,3, etc).
The third diagonal has the triangular numbers
(The fourth diagonal, not highlighted, has

the tetrahedral numbers .)
Odds and Evens
If you color the Odd and Even numbers, you end up with a pattern
the same as the Sierpinski Triangle
Horizontal Sums
What do you notice about the horizontal

sums?
Is there a pattern? Isn't it amazing! It

doubles each time ( powers of 2).
Exponents of 11
Each line is also the powers ( exponents )

of 11:
 110=1 (the first line is just a "1")
 111=11 (the second line is "1" and

"1")
 112=121 (the third line is "1", "2",

"1")
 etc!
But what happens with 115 ? Simple! The digits just overlap, like this:
The same thing happens with 116 etc.
Squares
For the second diagonal, the square of a number is

equal to the sum of the numbers next to it and
below both of those.
Examples:
 32 = 3 + 6 = 9,
 42 = 6 + 10 = 16,
 52 = 10 + 15 = 25,
 ...
There is a good reason, too ... can you think of it?

(Hint: 42=6+10, 6=3+2+1, and 10=4+3+2+1)
Fibonacci Sequence
Try this: make a pattern by going

up and then along, then add up the
values (as illustrated) ... you will
get the Fibonacci Sequence .
(The Fibonacci Sequence starts "0,

1" and then continues by adding
the two previous numbers, for
example 3+5=8, then 5+8=13,
etc)
Symmetrical
And the triangle is also symmetrical . The numbers on the left side have
identical matching numbers on the right side, like a mirror image.
Using Pascal's Triangle
Heads and Tails
Pascal's Triangle can show you how many ways heads and tails can combine. This can then show you
the probability of any combination.
For example, if you toss a coin three times, there is only one combination that will give you three
heads (HHH), but there are three that will give two heads and one tail (HHT, HTH, THH), also three
that give one head and two tails (HTT, THT, TTH) and one for all Tails (TTT). This is the pattern
"1,3,3,1" in Pascal's Triangle.
Tosses Possible Results (Grouped) Pascal's Triangle
H
1 1, 1
T
HH
2 HT TH 1, 2, 1
TT
HHH
HHT, HTH, THH
3 1, 3, 3, 1
HTT, THT, TTH
TTT
HHHH
HHHT, HHTH, HTHH, THHH
4 HHTT, HTHT, HTTH, THHT, THTH, TTHH 1, 4, 6, 4, 1
HTTT, THTT, TTHT, TTTH
TTTT
... etc ...
Example: What is the probability of getting exactly two heads with 4 coin tosses?
There are 1+4+6+4+1 = 16 (or 24=16) possible results, and 6 of them give exactly two heads. So the
probability is 6/16, or 37.5%
Combinations
The triangle also shows you how many Combinations of objects are possible.
Example: You have 16 pool balls. How many different ways could you choose just 3
of them (ignoring the order that you select them)?
Answer: go down to the start of row 16 (the top row is 0), and then along 3 places (the first place is
0) and the value there is your answer, 560.
Here is an extract at row 16:

1 14 91 364 ...
1 15 105 455 1365 ...
1 16 120 560 1820 4368 ...
A Formula for Any Entry in The Triangle
In fact there is a formula from Combinations for working out the value at any place in Pascal's
triangle:
It is commonly called "n choose k" and written like this:
Notation: "n choose k" can also be written C(n,k), nCk or even nCk.
The "!" is " factorial " and means to multiply a series of descending natural numbers.
Examples:
 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
 7! = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5040
 1! = 1
So Pascal's Triangle could also be

an "n choose k" triangle like this:
(Note how the top row is row zero

and also the leftmost column is zero)
Example: Row 4, term 2 in Pascal's Triangle is "6" ...
... let's see if the formula works:

Yes, it works! Try another value for yourself.
This can be very useful ... you can now work out any value in Pascal's Triangle directly (without
calculating the whole triangle above it).
Polynomials
Pascal's Triangle can also show you the coefficients in binomial expansion :
Powe
Binomial Expansion Pascal's Triangle
r
2 (x + 1)2 = 1x2 + 2x + 1 1, 2, 1
3 (x + 1)3 = 1x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 1, 3, 3, 1
4 (x + 1)4 = 1x4 + 4x3 + 6x2 + 4x + 1 1, 4, 6, 4, 1
... etc ...
The First 15 Lines
For reference, I have included row 0 to 14 of Pascal's Triangle
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
1 11 55 165 330 462 462 330 165 55 11 1
1 12 66 220 495 792 924 792 495 220 66 12 1
1 13 78 286 715 1287 1716 1716 1287 715 286 78 13 1
1 14 91 364 1001 2002 3003 3432 3003 2002 1001 364 91 14 1
The Chinese Knew About It
This drawing is entitled "The Old Method Chart of the

Seven Multiplying Squares". View Full Image
It is from the front of Chu Shi-Chieh's book "Ssu Yuan

Yü Chien" (Precious Mirror of the Four Elements),
written in AD 1303 (over 700 years ago, and more
than 300 years before Pascal!), and in the book it says
the triangle was known about more than two centuries
before that.
The Quincunx
An amazing little machine created by Sir Francis Galton is
a Pascal's Triangle made out of pegs. It is called The
Quincunx.
Balls are dropped onto the first peg and then bounce down
to the bottom of the triangle where they collect in little
bins.
At first it looks completely random (and

it is), but then you find the balls pile up
in a nice pattern: the Normal
Distribution.
Prime Numbers and Composite Numbers

A Prime Number can be divided evenly only by 1 or itself.
And it must be a whole number greater than 1.
Example: 7 can only be divided evenly by 1 or 7, so it is a prime number.
But 6 can be divided evenly by 1, 2, 3 and 6 so it is NOT a prime number (it is acomposite number).
Let me explain ...
Some whole numbers can be divided up evenly, and some can't!
Example:
6 can be divided evenly by 2, or by 3:
6=2×3
Like this:
or
divided into 2 groups divided into 3 groups
But 7 cannot be divided up evenly:
And we give them names:
 When a number can be divided up evenly it is a Composite Number
 When a number can not be divided up evenly it is a Prime Number
So 6 is Composite, but 7 is Prime.
And that explains it ... but there are some more details ...
Not Into Fractions

We are only dealing with whole numbers here! We are not going to cut things into halves or quarters.
Not Into Groups of 1
OK, we could have divided 7 into seven 1s (or one 7) like this:
7=1x7
But we could do that for any whole number!
So we should also say we are not interested in dividing by 1, or by the number itself.
It is a Prime Number when it can't be divided evenly by any number

(except 1 or itself).
Example: is 7 a Prime Number or Composite Number?
 We cannot divide 7 evenly by 2 (we get 2 lots of 3, with one left over)
 We cannot divide 7 evenly by 3 (we get 3 lots of 2, with one left over)
 We cannot divide 7 evenly by 4, or 5, or 6.
We can only divide 7 into one group of 7 (or seven groups of 1):
7=1x7
So 7 can only be divided evenly by 1 or itself:
So 7 is a Prime Number
And also:
It is a Composite Number when it can be divided evenly

by numbers other than 1 or itself.
Like this:
Example: is 6 a Prime Number or Composite Number?
6 can be divided evenly by 2, or by 3, as well as by 1 or 6:
6=1×6
6=2×3
So 6 is a Composite Number
Sometimes a number can be divided evenly many ways:
Example: 12 can be divided evenly by 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12:
1 × 12 = 12
2 × 6 = 12
3 × 4 = 12
So 12 is a Composite Number
And note this:
Any whole number greater than 1 is either Prime or Composite
What About 1?
Years ago 1 was included as a Prime, but now it is not:
1 is not Prime and also not Composite.
Factors
We can also define a Prime Number using factors.

"Factors" are numbers we multiply
together to get another number.
And we have:
When the only two factors of a number are 1 and the number,
then it is a Prime Number
It means the same as our previous definition, just stated using factors.
And remember this is only about Whole Numbers (1, 2, 3, ... etc), not fractions or negative numbers.
So don't say "I could multiply ½ times 6 to get 3" OK?
Examples:
3=1×3
Prime
(the only factors are 1 and 3)
6=1×6 or 6=2×3
Composite
(the factors are 1,2,3 and 6)
Examples From 1 to 14
Factors other than 1 or the number itself are highlighted :
Can be Evenly Prime, or

Number
Divided By Composite?
1 (1 is not considered prime or composite)
2 1, 2 Prime
3 1, 3 Prime
4 1, 2 , 4 Composite
5 1, 5 Prime
6 1, 2 , 3 , 6 Composite
7 1, 7 Prime
8 1, 2 , 4 , 8 Composite
9 1, 3 , 9 Composite
10 1, 2 , 5 , 10 Composite
11 1, 11 Prime
12 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 12 Composite
13 1, 13 Prime
14 1, 2 , 7 , 14 Composite
... ... ...
So when there are more factors than 1 or the number itself, the number is Composite.
A question for you: is 15 Prime or Composite?
Why All the Fuss about Prime and Composite?
Because we can "break apart" Composite Numbers into Prime Number factors.
It is like the Prime Numbers are the basic building blocks of all numbers.
And the Composite Numbers are made up of Prime Numbers multiplied together.
Here we see it in action:

2 is Prime, 3 is Prime, 4 is Composite (=2×2), 5 is Prime, and so on...
Example: 12 is made by multiplying the prime numbers 2, 2 and 3 together.
12 = 2 × 2 × 3
The number 2 was repeated, which is OK.
In fact we can write it like this using the exponent of 2:
12 = 22 × 3
And that is why they are called "Composite" Numbers because composite means "something made
by combining things"
This idea is so important it is called The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic .
There are many puzzles in mathematics that can be solved more easily when we "break up" the
Composite Numbers into their Prime Number factors. A lot of internet security is based on
mathematics using prime numbers.
Prime Numbers Chart and Calculator

Here is a list of all the prime numbers up to 1,000:
2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53 59 61 67
71 73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113 127 131 137 139 149 151 157 163
167 173 179 181 191 193 197 199 211 223 227 229 233 239 241 251 257 263 269
271 277 281 283 293 307 311 313 317 331 337 347 349 353 359 367 373 379 383
389 397 401 409 419 421 431 433 439 443 449 457 461 463 467 479 487 491 499
503 509 521 523 541 547 557 563 569 571 577 587 593 599 601 607 613 617 619
631 641 643 647 653 659 661 673 677 683 691 701 709 719 727 733 739 743 751
757 761 769 773 787 797 809 811 821 823 827 829 839 853 857 859 863 877 881
883 887 907 911 919 929 937 941 947 953 967 971 977 983 991 997 more...
Examples:
 Is 8 a Prime Number? No, because it can be divided evenly by 2 or 4 (2×4=8), as well as by 1 and 8.
 Is 73 a Prime Number? Yes, it can only be divided evenly by 1 and 73.
Calculator ... Is It Prime?
Find out if a number is Prime or not (works on numbers up to 4,294,967,295):
Prime Factorization
Prime Numbers
The first few prime numbers are: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, and 17 ..., and we have a prime number chart if
you need more.
Factors
"Factors" are the numbers you multiply together to get another number:
Prime Factorization
"Prime Factorization" is finding which prime numbers multiply together to make the
original number.
Here are some examples:
Example 1: What are the prime factors of 12 ?
It is best to start working from the smallest prime number, which is 2, so let's check:
12 ÷ 2 = 6
Yes, it divided evenly by 2. We have taken the first step!
But 6 is not a prime number, so we need to go further. Let's try 2 again:
6÷2=3
Yes, that worked also. And 3 is a prime number, so we have the answer:
12 = 2 × 2 × 3
As you can see, every factor is a prime number, so the answer must be right.
Note: 12 = 2 × 2 × 3 can also be written using exponents as 12 = 22 × 3
Example 2: What is the prime factorization of 147 ?
Can we divide 147 evenly by 2?
147 ÷ 2 = 73½
No it can't. The answer should be a whole number, and 73½ is not.
Let's try the next prime number, 3:

147 ÷ 3 = 49
That worked, now we try factoring 49, and find that 7 is the smallest prime number that works:
49 ÷ 7 = 7
And that is as far as we need to go, because all the factors are prime numbers.
147 = 3 × 7 × 7
(or 147 = 3 × 72 using exponents)
Example 3: What is the prime factorization of 17 ?
Hang on ... 17 is a Prime Number.
So that is as far as we can go.
17 = 17
Another Method
We showed you how to do the factorization by starting at the smallest prime and working upwards.
But sometimes it is easier to break a number down into any factors you can ... then work those
factor down to primes.
Example: What are the prime factors of 90 ?
Break 90 into 9 × 10
 The prime factors of 9 are 3 and 3
 The prime factors of 10 are 2 and 5
So the prime factors of 90 are 3, 3, 2 and 5
Factor Tree
And a "Factor Tree" can help: find any factors of the number, then the factors of those numbers, etc,
until we can't factor any more.
Example: 48
48 = 8 × 6, so we write down "8" and "6" below 48
Now we continue and factor 8 into 4 × 2
Then 4 into 2 × 2
And lastly 6 into 3 × 2
We can't factor any more, so we have found the prime factors.
Which reveals that 48 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3
(or 48 = 24 × 3 using exponents)
Why find Prime Factors?
A prime number can only be divided by 1 or itself, so it cannot be factored any further!
Every other whole number can be broken down into prime number factors.
It is like the Prime Numbers are the basic building blocks of all numbers.
This can be very useful when working with big numbers, such as in Cryptography.
Cryptography
Cryptography is the study of secret codes. Prime Factorization is very important to people who try to
make (or break) secret codes based on numbers.
That is because factoring very large numbers is very hard, and can take computers a long time to do.
If you want to know more, the subject is "encryption" or "cryptography".
Unique
And here is another thing:
There is only one (unique!) set of prime factors for any number.
Example The prime factors of 330 are 2, 3, 5 and 11:
330 = 2 × 3 × 5 × 11
There is no other possible set of prime numbers that can be multiplied to make 330.
In fact this idea is so important it is called the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic .
Prime Factorization Tool

OK, we have one more method ... use our Prime Factorization Tool that can work out the prime
factors for numbers up to 4,294,967,296.
Divisibility Rules
Easily test if one number can be evenly divided by another
Divisible By
"Divisible By" means "when you divide one number by another the result is a whole number "
Examples:
14 is divisible by 7, because 14 ÷ 7 = 2 exactly
15 is not divisible by 7, because 15 ÷ 7 = 2 17 (the result is not a whole number)
0 is divisible by 7, because 0 ÷ 7 = 0 exactly (0 is a whole number)
"Divisible by" and "can be evenly divided by" mean the same thing
The Divisibility Rules
These rules let you test if one number is divisible by another, without having to do too much
calculation!
Example: is 723 divisible by 3?
We could try dividing 723 by 3
Or use the "3" rule: 7+2+3=12, and 12 ÷ 3 = 4 exactly Yes
Note: 0 (zero) is a "yes" result to any of these tests.
2
The last digit is even (0,2,4,6,8)
128 Yes
129 No
3
The sum of the digits is divisible by 3
381 (3+8+1=12, and 12÷3 = 4) Yes

217 (2+1+7=10, and 10÷3 = 3 1/3) No
This rule can be repeated when needed:

99996 (9+9+9+9+6 = 42, then 4+2=6) Yes
4
The last 2 digits are divisible by 4
1312 is (12÷4=3) Yes

7019 is not (19÷4=4 3/4) No
A quick check (useful for small numbers) is to halve the number twice and the result is still a whole
number.
12/2 = 6, 6/2 = 3, 3 is a whole number. Yes

30/2 = 15, 15/2 = 7.5 which is not a whole number. No
5
The last digit is 0 or 5
175 Yes
809 No
6
The number is divisible by both 2 and 3 (it passes both the 2 rule and 3 rule above)
114 (it is even, and 1+1+4=6 and 6÷3 = 2) Yes

308 (it is even, but 3+0+8=11 and 11÷3 = 3 2/3) No
7
Double the last digit and subtract it from a number made by the other digits. The result must
be divisible by 7. (We can apply this rule to that answer again)
672 (Double 2 is 4, 67-4=63, and 63÷7=9) Yes

105 (Double 5 is 10, 10-10=0, and 0 is divisible by 7) Yes
905 (Double 5 is 10, 90-10=80, and 80÷7=11 3/7) No
8
The last three digits are divisible by 8
109816 (816÷8=102) Yes
216302 (302÷8=37 3/4) No
A quick check is to halve three times and the result is still a whole number:
816/2 = 408, 408/2 = 204, 204/2 = 102 Yes

302/2 = 151, 151/2 = 75.5 No
9
The sum of the digits is divisible by 9
(Note: This rule can be repeated when needed)
1629 (1+6+2+9=18, and again, 1+8=9) Yes

2013 (2+0+1+3=6) No
10
The number ends in 0
220 Yes
221 No
11
Add and subtract digits in an alternating pattern (add first, subtract second, add third, etc). Then the
answer must be divisible by 11.
1364 (1−3+6−4 = 0) Yes

913 (9−1+3 = 11) Yes
3729 (3−7+2−9 = −11) Yes
987 (9−8+7 = 8) No
12
The number is divisible by both 3 and 4 (it passes both the 3 rule and 4 rule above)
648
(By 3? 6+4+8=18 and 18÷3=6 Yes)
(By 4? 48÷4=12 Yes)
Both pass, so Yes
524
(By 3? 5+2+4=11, 11÷3= 3 2/3 No)
(Don't need to check by 4) No
There are lots more! Not only are there divisibility tests for larger numbers, but there are more tests
for the numbers we have shown.
Factors Can Be Useful
Factors are the numbers you multiply to get another number:
This can be useful, because:
When a number is divisible by another number ...
... then it is also divisible by each of the factors of that number.
Example: If a number is divisible by 6, it is also divisible by 2 and 3
Example: If a number is divisible by 12, it is also divisible by 2, 3, 4 and 6
Another Rule For 11
 Subtract the last digit from a number made by the other digits.
 If that number is divisible by 11 then the original number is, too.
Can repeat this if needed,
Example: 286
28 − 6 is 22, which is divisible by 11, so 286 is divisible by 11
Example: 14641
 1464 − 1 is 1463
 146 − 3 is 143
 14 − 3 is 11, which is divisible by 11, so 14641 is divisible by 11
Squares and Square Roots

First learn about Squares, then Square Roots are easy.
How to Square A Number

To square a number, just multiply it by itself ...
Example: What is 3 squared?
3 Squared = =3×3=9
"Squared" is often written as a little 2 like this:
This says "4 Squared equals 16"

(the little 2 says the number appears twice in multiplying)
Squares From 12 to 62
1 Squared = 12 = 1 × 1 = 1
2 Squared = 22 = 2 × 2 = 4
3 Squared = 32 = 3 × 3 = 9
4 Squared = 42 = 4 × 4 = 16
5 Squared = 52 = 5 × 5 = 25
6 Squared = 62 = 6 × 6 = 36
The squares are also

on the Multiplication Table:
Negative Numbers
We can also square negative numbers.
Example: What happens when we square (−5) ?
Answer:
(−5) × (−5) = 25
(because a negative times a negative gives a positive )
That was interesting!
When we square a negative number we get a positive result.
Just the same as squaring a positive number:

(For more detail read Squares and Square Roots in Algebra )
Square Roots
A square root goes the other way:
3 squared is 9, so a square root of 9 is 3
A square root of a number is ...
... a value that can be multiplied by itself to give the original number.
A square root of 9 is ...
... 3, because when 3 is multiplied by itself we get 9.
It is like asking:
What can we multiply by itself to get this?
To help you remember think of the root of a tree:
"I know the tree, but what is the root that made it?"
In this case the tree is "9", and the root is "3".

Here are some more squares and square roots:
4 16
5 25
6 36
Decimal Numbers
It also works for decimal numbers.
Try the sliders below. Note: the numbers here are only shown to 2 decimal places.
Using the sliders (remembering it is only accurate to 2 decimal places):
 What is the square root of 8?
 What is 1 squared?
 What is 1.1 squared?
 What is 2.6 squared?
Negatives
We found out before that we can square negative numbers:

Example: (−3) squared
(−3) × (−3) = 9
And of course 3 × 3 = 9 also.
So the square root of 9 could be −3 or +3
Example: What are the square roots of 25?
(−5) × (−5) = 25
5 × 5 = 25
So the square roots of 25 are −5 and +5
The Square Root Symbol

This is the special symbol that means "square root", it is sort of like a tick,
and actually started hundreds of years ago as a dot with a flick upwards.
It is called the radical, and always makes mathematics look important!
We use it like this:
and we say "square root of 9 equals 3"
Example: What is √25?
Well, we just happen to know that 25 = 5 × 5, so when we multiply 5 by itself (5 × 5) we will get 25.
So the answer is:
√25 = 5
But wait a minute! Can't the square root also be −5? Because (−5) × (−5) = 25 too.
 Well the square root of 25 could be −5 or +5.
 But when we use the radical symbol √ we only give the positive (or zero) result.
Example: What is √36 ?

Answer: 6 × 6 = 36, so √36 = 6
Perfect Squares
The Perfect Squares (also called "Square Numbers") are the squares of the whole numbers :
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 etc
Perfect
0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 121 144 169 196 225 ...
Squares:
Try to remember at least the first 10 of those.
Calculating Square Roots
It is easy to work out the square root of a perfect square, but it is really hard to work out other
square roots.
Example: what is √10?
Well, 3 × 3 = 9 and 4 × 4 = 16, so we can guess the answer is between 3 and 4.
 Let's try 3.5: 3.5 × 3.5 = 12.25
 Let's try 3.2: 3.2 × 3.2 = 10.24
 Let's try 3.1: 3.1 × 3.1 = 9.61
 ...
Getting closer to 10, but it will take a long time to get a good answer!
At this point, I get out my calculator and it says:
3.1622776601683793319988935444327
But the digits just go on and on, without any pattern.
So even the calculator's answer is only an approximation !
Note: numbers like that are called Irrational Numbers , if you want to know more.
The Easiest Way to Calculate a Square Root
Use your calculator's square root button!
And also use your common sense to make sure you have the right answer.
A Fun Way to Calculate a Square Root
There is a fun method for calculating a square root that gets more and more accurate each time
around:
a) start with a guess (let's guess 4 is the square root of 10)
b) divide by the guess (10/4 = 2.5)

c) add that to the guess (4 + 2.5 = 6.5)
d) then divide that result by 2, in other words halve it. (6.5/2 = 3.25)
e) now, set that as the new guess, and start at b) again
 Our first attempt got us from 4 to 3.25
 Going again (b to e) gets us: 3.163
 Going again (b to e) gets us: 3.1623
And so, after 3 times around the answer is 3.1623, which is pretty good, because:
3.1623 x 3.1623 = 10.00014
Now ... why don't you try calculating the square root of 2 this way?
How to Guess
What if we have to guess the square root for a difficult number such as "82,163" ... ?
In that case we could think "82,163" has 5 digits, so the square root might have 3 digits
(100x100=10,000), and the square root of 8 (the first digit) is about 3 (3x3=9), so 300 is a good
start.
Square Root Day
The 4th of April 2016 is a Square Root Day, because the date looks like 4/4/16
The next after that is the 5th of May 2025 (5/5/25)
Fractions
Fractions
A fraction is a part of a whole
Slice a pizza, and we get fractions:
1 1 3
/2 /4 /8
(One-Half) (One-Quarter) (Three-Eighths)
The top number says how many slices we have

The bottom number says how many slices the pizza is cut
into.
Equivalent Fractions
Some fractions may look different, but are really the same, for example:
4 2 1
/8 = /4 = /2
(Four-Eighths) Two-Quarters) (One-Half)
= =
1
It is usually best to show an answer using the simplest fraction ( /2 in this case ). That is
calledSimplifying, or Reducing the Fraction
Numerator / Denominator
We call the top number the Numerator, it is the number of parts we have.
We call the bottom number the Denominator, it is the number of parts the whole is divided into.
Numerator
Denominator
You just have to remember those names! (If you forget just think "Down"-ominator)
Adding Fractions
It is easy to add fractions with the same denominator (same bottom number):
1 1 2 1
/4 + /4 = /4 = /2
(One-Quarter) (One-Quarter) (Two-Quarters) (One-Half)
+ = =
Another example:
5 1 6 3
/8 + /8 = /8 = /4
+ = =
Adding Fractions with Different Denominators
But what about when the denominators (the bottom numbers) are not the same?
3 1
/8 + /4 = ?
+ =
We must somehow make the denominators the same.
1
In this case it is easy, because we know that /4 is the same as 2/8 :
3 2 5
/8 + /8 = /8
+ =
But when it is hard to make the denominators the same, use one of these methods (they both
work, use the one you prefer):
 Least Common Denominator, or
 Common Denominator
Other Things We Can Do With Fractions
We can also:
 Subtract Fractions
 Multiply Fractions
 Divide Fractions
Visit the Fractions Index to find out even more.
Fractions !
A fraction is a part of a whole
You can learn about ...
Fractions ...
Introduction to Fractions
Decimals, Fractions and Percentages , On the
Number Line
Match the Fraction:

Interactive Fractions
 Words to Pizza
 Words to Number Line
 Fraction to Pizza
 Fraction to Number Line
The three different types of fractions ...

Proper Fractions
Improper Fractions /3, 4/3, 11/3
1
Mixed Fractions
How to simplify a fraction, and how the "Greatest Common Factor" can help ...
Equivalent Fractions
Fraction Number Line
Simplifying Fractions
Greatest Common Factor
Greatest Common Factor Tool
How to compare fractions, and how the "Least Common Multiple" can help ...
Comparing Fractions
Least Common Multiple
Least Common Multiple Tool
Least Common Denominator
How to do add, subtract, multiply and divide fractions ...

♫ "Multiplying fractions no big problem,
Top times top over bottom times bottom,
Multiplying Fractions
Dividing Fractions
"Dividing fraction, as easy as pie,
Adding Fractions
Flip the second fraction, then multiply,
Adding Fractions Animation
Subtracting Fractions "If adding or subtracting is your aim,
The bottom numbers must be the same!
"Change the bottom using multiply or divide,
Dividing Fractions by Whole Numbers
But the same to the top must be applied,
Adding Mixed Fractions "And don't forget to simplify,

Multiplying Mixed Fractions ♫
Before it's time to say goodbye"
How to convert fractions to decimals and vice versa ...
Convert Decimals to Fractions

Converting Fractions to Decimals
How to convert fractions to percentages and vice versa ...
Convert Percentages to Fractions

Converting Fractions to Percentages
Decimals
Decimals
A Decimal Number (based on the number 10) contains a Decimal Point.
First, let's have an example:
Here is the number "forty-five and six-tenths" written as a decimal number:

The decimal point goes between Ones and Tenths.
45.6 has 4 Tens, 5 Ones and 6 Tenths, like this:
Now, let's discover how it all works ...
Place Value
It is all about Place Value !
When we write numbers, the position (or "place") of each digit

is important.
In the number 327:
 the "7" is in the Ones position, meaning 7 ones (which is 7),
 the "2" is in the Tens position meaning 2 tens (which is twenty),
 and the "3" is in the Hundreds position, meaning 3 hundreds.

"Three Hundred Twenty Seven"
As we move left, each position is 10 times bigger!
Tens are 10 times bigger than Ones

Hundreds are 10 times bigger than Tens
... and ...
As we move right, each position is 10 times smaller.
From Hundreds, to Tens, to Ones
But what if we continue past Ones?
What is 10 times smaller than Ones?
110ths (Tenths) are!

But we must first put a decimal point,
so we know exactly where the Ones position is:
"three hundred twenty seven and four tenths"
but we usually just say "three hundred twenty seven point four"
And that is a Decimal Number!
We can continue with smaller and smaller values, from tenths, to hundredths, and so on, like in this
example:
Have a play with decimal numbers yourself:
3.1416
Three Point One Four One Six

Large and Small

So, our Decimal System lets us write numbers as large or as small as we want, using the decimal
point. Digits can be placed to the left or right of a decimal point, to show values greater than one or
less than one.
The decimal point is the most important part of a Decimal Number. Without it we are lost, and don't
know what each position means.
17 591
On the left of the decimal point is a

whole number (such as 17)
As we move further left,

every place gets 10 times bigger.
The first digit on the right means

tenths (1/10).
As we move further right,

every place gets 10 times smaller
(one tenth as big).
Zoom into decimals ...

See decimals on the Zoomable Number Line
Definition of Decimal
The word "Decimal" really means "based on 10" (From Latin decima: a tenth part).
We sometimes say "decimal" when we mean anything to do with our numbering system, but a
"Decimal Number" usually means there is a Decimal Point.
Ways to think about Decimal Numbers ...
... as a Whole Number Plus Tenths, Hundredths, etc
We can think of a decimal number as a whole number plus tenths, hundredths, etc:
Example 1: What is 2.3 ?
 On the left side is "2", that is the whole number part.
 The 3 is in the "tenths" position, meaning "3 tenths", or 3/10
 So, 2.3 is "2 and 3 tenths"
Example 2: What is 13.76 ?
 On the left side is "13", that is the whole number part.
 There are two digits on the right side, the 7 is in the "tenths" position, and the 6 is the
"hundredths" position
 So, 13.76 is "13 and 7 tenths and 6 hundredths"
... as a Decimal Fraction
Or we can think of a decimal number as a Decimal Fraction.
A Decimal Fraction is a fraction where the denominator (the bottom number) is a number such as 10,
100, 1000, etc (in other words a power of ten )
So "2.3" looks like: 2310
And "13.76" looks

1376100
like:
... as a Whole Number and Decimal Fraction
Or we can think of a decimal number as a Whole Number plus a Decimal Fraction.

So "2.3" looks like: 2 and 310
And "13.76" looks

13 and 76100
like:
Those are all good ways to think of decimal numbers.
Percentages
Percentages (%)
When we say "Percent" we are really saying "per 100"
One percent (1%) means 1 per 100.
1% of this line is shaded green: it is very small isn't it?
50% means 50 per 100

(50% of this box is green)

Examples:
100% means all.
Example:
100
100% of 80 is × 80 = 80
100
50% means half.
Example:
50
50% of 80 is × 80 = 40
100
5
5% means /100ths.
Example:
5
5% of 80 is × 80 = 4
100
Using Percent
When 100% =
80
then:
75% = 60
Use the slider and try some different numbers
(What is 40% of 80? What is 10% of 200? What is 90% of 10?)
Because "Percent" means "per 100" think:

"this should be divided by 100"
So 75% really means /100

75
And 100% is /100, or exactly 1 (100% of any number is just the number, unchanged)
100
And 200% is /100, or exactly 2 (200% of any number is twice the number)
200
A Percent can also be expressed as a Decimal or a Fraction
A Half can be written...
As a percentage: 50%
As a decimal: 0.5
As a fraction: 1
/2
Read more about this at Decimals, Fractions and Percentages .
Some Worked Examples

Example: Calculate 25% of 80
25
25% =
100
25
And × 80 = 20
100
So 25% of 80 is 20
Example: 15% of 200 apples are bad. How many apples are bad?
15
15% =
100
15 200
And × 200 = 15 × = 15 × 2 = 30 apples
100 100
30 apples are bad
Example: if only 10 of the 200 apples are bad, what percent is that?
As a fraction, 10/200 = 0.05
As a percentage it is: (10/200) x 100 = 5%
5% of those apples are bad
Example: A Skateboard is reduced 25% in price in a sale.

The old price was $120.
Find the new price.
First, find 25% of $120:
25
25% =
100
25
And × $120 = $30
100
25% of $120 is $30
So the reduction is $30
Take the reduction from the original price
$120 - $30 = $90
The Price of the Skateboard in the sale is $90
The Word
"Percent" comes from the latin Per Centum. The latin word Centum means 100, for example a Century
is 100 years.
Percent vs Percentage
My Dictionary says "Percentage" is the "result obtained by multiplying a quantity by a percent". So
10 percent of 50 apples is 5 apples: the 5 apples is the percentage.
But in practice people use both words the same way.
Percentages (%)
When we say "Percent" we are really saying "per 100"
One percent (1%) means 1 per 100.
1% of this line is shaded green: it is very small isn't it?


Examples:
100% means all.
Example:
100
100% of 80 is × 80 = 80
100
50% means half.
Example:
50
50% of 80 is × 80 = 40
100
5
5% means /100ths.
Example:
5
5% of 80 is × 80 = 4
100
Using Percent
When 100% =
80
then:
75% = 60
Use the slider and try some different numbers
(What is 40% of 80? What is 10% of 200? What is 90% of 10?)
Because "Percent" means "per 100" think:

"this should be divided by 100"
So 75% really means /100

75
And 100% is /100, or exactly 1 (100% of any number is just the number, unchanged)
100
And 200% is /100, or exactly 2 (200% of any number is twice the number)
200
A Percent can also be expressed as a Decimal or a Fraction
As a decimal: 0.5
As a fraction: 1
/2
Read more about this at Decimals, Fractions and Percentages .
Some Worked Examples

Example: Calculate 25% of 80
25
25% =
100
25
And × 80 = 20
100
So 25% of 80 is 20
Example: 15% of 200 apples are bad. How many apples are bad?
15
15% =
100
15 200
And × 200 = 15 × = 15 × 2 = 30 apples
100 100
30 apples are bad
Example: if only 10 of the 200 apples are bad, what percent is that?
As a fraction, 10/200 = 0.05
As a percentage it is: (10/200) x 100 = 5%
5% of those apples are bad
Example: A Skateboard is reduced 25% in price in a sale.

The old price was $120.
Find the new price.
First, find 25% of $120:
25
25% =
100
25
And × $120 = $30
100
25% of $120 is $30
So the reduction is $30
Take the reduction from the original price
$120 - $30 = $90
The Price of the Skateboard in the sale is $90
The Word
"Percent" comes from the latin Per Centum. The latin word Centum means 100, for example a Century
is 100 years.
Percent vs Percentage
My Dictionary says "Percentage" is the "result obtained by multiplying a quantity by a percent". So
10 percent of 50 apples is 5 apples: the 5 apples is the percentage.
But in practice people use both words the same way.
Decimals, Fractions and Percentages

Decimals, Fractions and Percentages are just different ways of showing the same value:
As a fraction: 1
/2
As a decimal: 0.5
A Quarter can be written...
As a fraction: 1
/4
As a decimal: 0.25
Here, have a play with it yourself:

25%
One Quarter
Example Values
Here is a table of commonly used values shown in Percent, Decimal and Fraction form:
Percent Decimal Fraction
1% 0.01 1
/100
5% 0.05 1
/20
10% 0.1 1
/10
12½% 0.125 1
/8
20% 0.2 1
/5
25% 0.25 1
/4
331/3% 0.333... 1
/3
50% 0.5 1
/2
75% 0.75 3
/4
80% 0.8 4
/5
90% 0.9 9
/10
99% 0.99 99
/100
100% 1
125% 1.25 5
/4
150% 1.5 3
/2
200% 2
Conversions
FROM PERCENT TO DECIMAL

To convert from percent to decimal : divide by 100, and remove the "%" sign.
The easiest way to divide by 100 is to move the decimal point 2 places to the left:
From Percent To Decimal
move the decimal point 2 places to the lef, and

remove the "%" sign.
FROM DECIMAL TO PERCENT

To convert from decimal to percent : multiply by 100, and add a "%" sign.
The easiest way to multiply by 100 is to move the decimal point 2 places to the right:
From Decimal To Percent
move the decimal point 2 places to the right, and

add the "%" sign.
FROM FRACTION TO DECIMAL
The easiest way to convert a fraction to a decimal is to divide the top number by the bottom number
(divide the numerator by the denominator in mathematical language)
Example: Convert 2
/5 to a decimal
Divide 2 by 5: 2 ÷ 5 = 0.4
Answer: 2/5 = 0.4
FROM DECIMAL TO FRACTION

To convert a decimal to a fraction needs a little more work.
Example: To convert 0.75 to a fraction

Steps Example
0.75
First, write down the decimal "over" the number 1
1
0.75 × 100
Multiply top and bottom by 10 for every number after the decimal point (10 for 1
number, 100 for 2 numbers, etc)
1 × 100
75
(This makes a correctly formed fraction)
100
3
Then Simplify the fraction
4
FROM FRACTION TO PERCENTAGE

The easiest way to convert a fraction to a percentage is to divide the top number by the bottom
number. then multiply the result by 100, and add the "%" sign.
Example: Convert 3
/8 to a percentage
First divide 3 by 8: 3 ÷ 8 = 0.375,
Then multiply by 100: 0.375 x 100 = 37.5
Add the "%" sign: 37.5%
Answer: 3/8 = 37.5%
FROM PERCENTAGE TO FRACTION

To convert a percentage to a fraction , first convert to a decimal (divide by 100), then use the steps
for converting decimal to fractions (like above).
Example: To convert 80% to a fraction

Steps Example
Convert 80% to a decimal (=80/100): 0.8
0.8
Write down the decimal "over" the number 1
1
0.8 × 10
Multiply top and bottom by 10 for every number after the decimal point (10 for 1
number, 100 for 2 numbers, etc)
1 × 10
8
(This makes a correctly formed fraction)
10
4
Then Simplify the fraction
5
Decimals, Percents and Fractions

On the Number Line!
View Larger
Explanation
Convert Percents to Decimals

Just move the decimal point 2 places to the left and remove the "%" sign!
Converting From Percent to Decimal

Percent means "per 100", so 50% means 50 per 100, or simply 50
/100
If you divide 50 by 100 you get 0.5 (a decimal number).
So, to convert from percent to decimal: divide by 100, and remove the "%" sign.
The Easy Way
The easy way to divide by 100 is to move the decimal point 2 places to the left, so
From Percent To Decimal
move the decimal point 2 places to the lef, and

remove the "%" sign.
Example: Convert 8.5% to decimal
Move the decimal point two places to the left: 8.5 -> 0.85 -> 0.085
Answer 8.5% = 0.085
Convert Decimals to Percents

Quick Method: move the decimal point 2 places to the right and add a "%" sign!
Example: Convert 0.35 to percent
Move the decimal point two places to the right: 0.35 → 3.5 → 35.
Add a % sign: 35%

Answer 0.35 = 35%
Converting From Decimal to Percent
In this box 50 of the 100 squares are green, so /100 , or 0.5 of the box is green.
50
Percentage means "per 100", so 50% of the box is green.
So 0.5 (a decimal number) = 50%
(the "%" tells you that there is a hidden "/100" there)
To convert from decimal to percentage, multiply the decimal by 100, but remember to put the "%"
sign so people know it is per 100.
The Easy Way
The easy way to multiply by 100 is to move the decimal point 2 places to the right. so:
From Decimal To Percent
move the decimal point 2 places to the right, and

add the "%" sign.
Move the decimal point two places to the right: 0.68 → 6.8 → 68.
Answer 0.68 = 68%
You may also need to add zeros on the right to move the decimal point:
Move the decimal point two places to the right: 1.2 → 12. → 120.
Answer 1.2 = 120%
Convert Percents to Fractions
To convert a Percent to a Fraction follow these steps:
 Step 1: Write down the percent divided by 100 like this: percent100
 Step 2: If the percent is not a whole number, then multiply both top and bottom by 10 for
every number after the decimal point. (For example, if there is one number after the decimal, then
use 10, if there are two then use 100, etc.)
 Step 3: Simplify (or reduce) the fraction
Example: Convert 11% to a fraction
Step 1: Write down:
11100
Step 2: The percent is a whole number, go straight to step 3.
Step 3: The fraction cannot be simplified further.

Answer = 11100
Step 1: Write down:
75100
Step 3: Simplify the fraction (this took me two steps, you may be able to do it one!):
÷5 ÷5
75100 = 1520 = 34
÷5 ÷5
Answer = 34
Note: 75/100 is called a decimal fraction and 3/4 is called a common fraction !
Example: Convert 62.5% to a fraction
Step 1: Write down:
62.5100
Step 2: Multiply both top and bottom by 10 (because there is 1 digit after the decimal place)
× 10
62.5100 = 6251000
× 10
(See how this neatly makes the top a whole number?)
Step 3: Simplify the fraction (this took me two steps, you may be able to do it one!) :
÷ 25 ÷5
6251000 = 2540 = 58
÷ 25 ÷5
Answer = 58
Step 1: Write down:
150100
Step 3: Simplify the fraction (I did it one step):
÷ 50
150100 = 32
÷ 50
Answer = 32
(which also equals 1½, see Mixed Fractions )
Convert Fractions to Percents
Divide the top of the fraction by the bottom, multiply by 100 and add a "%" sign.
The simplest method is to use a calculator:
Steps:
 Divide the top of the fraction by the bottom,
 Then multiply the result by 100 and read off the

answer !
Example: What is 58 as a percent?
Get your calculator and type in "5 ÷ 8 =", the calculator should show 0.625, then multiply by 100 and
your answer is: 62.5% (remember to put the "%" so people know it is "per 100")
Of course you can do the division in your head or on paper if you don't have a calculator.
Another Method
Percent means "per 100", so try to change the fraction to ?100 form.
Follow these steps:
Step 1: Find a number you can multiply the bottom of the fraction by to get 100.
Step 2: Multiply both top and bottom of the fraction by that number.
Step 3. Then write down just the top number with the "%" sign.
Example 1: Convert 34 to a Percent
Step 1: We can multiply 4 by 25 to become 100
(why 25? because 100 divided by 4 is 25)
Step 2: Multiply top and bottom by 25:
×25
34 = 75100
×25
Step 3: Write down 75 with the percent sign:
Answer = 75%
Example 2: Convert 316 to a Percent
Step 1: We have to multiply 16 by 6.25 to become 100
(why 6.25? because 100 divided by 16 is 6.25)
Step 2: Multiply top and bottom by 6.25:
×6.25
316 = 18.75100
×6.25
Step 3: Write down 18.75 with the percentage sign:
Answer = 18.75%
Yet Another Method
Because a percent is actually a ratio (parts per 100) we can also use Proportions to do the
conversion.
First, put what you know into this form:
Top of FractionBottom of Fraction = Percent100
Then solve using "multiply across the known corners, divide by the third number":
Example: Convert 316 to percent
Fill in what you know:
316 = Percent100
Multiply across the known corners, then divide by the third number. The "known corners" are top left
and bottom right:
Percent = (3 × 100) / 16
= 300 / 16
= 18.75%
Answer: 316 is 18.75% (same answer as the previous example!)
Lengths, Areas and Volumes
Conversion of Length
Note: we also have Conversion Charts , and a Unit Converter .
How to Convert Lengths

To convert length from one unit to another: multiply by the correct number.
Follow these steps:
 Find the correct conversion number (see Conversion Charts)
 Then multiply by that number

Let's look at a detailed example:
Example: Convert 3 feet into meters
When we put a 1-meter ruler next to a

1-foot ruler, they look like this:
Look closely and we see that the 1-foot ruler comes to

exactly 0.3048 on the meter ruler:
So, the conversion for feet to meters is: 1 ft = 0.3048 meters
To convert feet to meters, multiply by 0.3048
In fact we could put three 1 foot rulers next to each other like this:
Now you can see that 3 feet = 3 × 0.3048 meters = 0.9144 meters
So: 3 ft = 3 × 0.3048 m = 0.9144 m
Example: Convert 5 kilometers into miles
The conversion for kilometers into miles is:
1 km = 0.6214 mile (to 4 digits of accuracy)
So, the length conversion is "multiply by 0.6214":

5 × 0.6214 = 3.107
So: 5 km = 3.107 miles (to 3 decimal places)
More or Less?
Sometimes you can get the conversion the "wrong way around", so it is a good idea to think "will my
answer be more or less?"
If you get the wrong answer, try dividing by the conversion number.
Example: You want to convert 8 meters into feet
Will the answer be more or less than 8? Feet are smaller than meters, so there should bemore feet
than meters.
The conversion is 1 ft = 0.3048 meters.
To the nearest 0.1 feet:
 try multiplying: 8 × 0.3048 = 2.5 feet (oops! that is smaller!)
 try dividing: 8 ÷ 0.3048 = 26.2 feet (that looks good)
Answer: 8 m = 8 ÷ 0.3048 = 26.2 ft
Area Calculator
Here is a handy little tool you can use to find the area of plane shapes .
Choose the shape, then enter the values.
Triangle
1 1
The height h is at right angles to b:
More Complicated Shapes
Conversion of Volume
Note: we also have Conversion Charts , and a Unit Converter .
First, you should understand Conversion of Length . If you are comfortable converting miles to
kilometers, etc, then you are half way there.
Volume is Length by Width by Height
To convert Volume, remember that

volume is length by width by height:
Volume = Length × Width × Height
So, you need to convert once for the length and once again for the width and once more for the
height. It is that easy:
Just do the length conversion three times.
Here are some examples for you:
Example: Convert 1 cubic yard into cubic feet.
Now, we know that three feet make a yard:
1 yd = 3 ft
So, the Length conversion is "multiply by 3".
And so the Volume Conversion must be to multiply by 3 and multiply by 3 again and then multiply by
3 once again (ie once each for length, width and height)
The result is:
3 × 3 × 3 = 27.
There are 27 cubic feet in a cubic yard.
Try to count the 1 ft cubes below, and you will see why:
Example 2: Convert 30 cubic feet into cubic meters (30 ft 3 to m3)
The conversion for feet to meters is:
1 ft = 0.3048 m
So, the length conversion is to multiply by 0.3048
And the Volume Conversion must be to multiply by 0.3048, and multiply by 0.3048 and multiply by
0.3048 again:
30 × 0.3048 × 0.3048 × 0.3048 = 0.85

So, 30 ft3 = 0.85 m3
Conversion of Temperature
Quick Celsius (°C) / Fahrenheit (°F) Conversion:
Conversion Tool
Just type a value in either box:
0
°C:
32
°F:
°C
Or use the Interactive Thermometer , °F
0° C = 32° F
Or this method:
°F to °C Deduct 32, then multiply by 5, then divide by 9
°C to °F Multiply by 9, then divide by 5, then add 32
( Explanation Below ... )
Typical Temperatures
°C °F Description
180 356 Moderate Oven
100 212 Water boils
40 104 Hot Bath

37 98.6 Body temperature
30 86 Beach weather
21 70 Room temperature
10 50 Cool Day
0 32 Freezing point of water
−18 0 Very Cold Day
Extremely Cold Day

−40 −40
(and the same number!)
(bold are exact)
16 is about 61
28 is about 82
Explanation
There are two main temperature scales:
 °F, the Fahrenheit Scale (used in the US), and
 °C, the Celsius Scale (part of the Metric System, used in most other countries)
They both measure the same thing (temperature!), but use different numbers:
 Boiling water (at normal pressure) measures 100° in Celsius, but 212° in Fahrenheit
 And as water freezes it measures 0° in Celsius, but 32° in Fahrenheit
Like this:
Looking at the diagram, notice:
 The scales start at a different number (0 vs 32), so we will need to add or subtract 32
 The scales rise at a different rate (100 vs 180), so we will also need to multiply
And so, to convert:
from Celsius to Fahrenheit: first multiply by 180/100, then add 32
from Fahrenheit to Celsius: first subtract 32, then multiply by 100/180
But 180/100 can be simplified to 9/5,

and 100/180 can be simplified to 5/9, so this is the easiest way:
°C to °F Multiply by 9, then divide by 5, then add 32
°F to °C Deduct 32, then multiply by 5, then divide by 9
We can write each as a formula like this:

Celsius to Fahrenheit: (°C × / ) + 32 = °F
9
5
Fahrenheit to Celsius: (°F − 32) x / = °C 5

9
Example: Convert 26° Celsius (a nice warm day) to Fahrenheit
First: 26° × 9/5 = 234/5 = 46.8

Then: 46.8 + 32 = 78.8° F
Example: Convert 98.6° Fahrenheit (normal body temperature) to Celsius
First: 98.6° − 32 = 66.6

Then: 66.6 × 5/9 = 333/9 = 37° C
Other Methods That Work
Use 1.8 instead of 9/5
9/5 is equal to 1.8, so we can also use this method:
Celsius to Fahrenheit: °C × 1.8 + 32 = °F

Fahrenheit to Celsius: (°F − 32) / 1.8 = °C
To make "×1.8" easier we can multiply by 2 and subtract 10%, but it only works for °C to °F:
Celsius to Fahrenheit: (°C × 2) less 10% + 32 = °F
Example: Convert 20° Celsius (A nice day) to Fahrenheit
 20x2 = 40
 less 10% is 40−4 = 36
 36+32 = 68° F
Add 40, Multiply, Subtract 40
Since both scales cross at −40° (−40° C equals −40° F) we can:

 add 40,
 multiply by 5/9 (for °F to °C), or 9/5 (for °C to °F)
 subtract 40
Like this:
Celsius to Fahrenheit: Add 40, multiply by 9/5, then subtract 40

Fahrenheit to Celsius: Add 40, multiply by 5/9, then subtract 40
Example: Convert 10° Celsius (A cool day) to Fahrenheit
 10+40 = 50
 50×9/5 = 90
 90−40 = 50° F
To remember 9/5 for °C to °F think "F is greater than C, so there are more °F than °C"
Quick, but Not Accurate

Celsius to Fahrenheit: Double, then add 30
Fahrenheit to Celsius: Subtract 30, then halve
Examples °C → °F:
 0° C → 0+30 → 30° F (low by 2°)
 10° C → 20+30 → 50° F (exact!)
 30° C → 60+30 → 90° F (high by 4°)
 180° C → 360+30 → 390° F (high by 34°, not good)
Examples °F → °C:
 40° F → 10/2 → 5° C (almost right)
 80° F → 50/2 → 25° C (low by about 2°)
 120° F → 90/2 → 45° C (low by about 4°)

 450° F → 420/2 → 210° C (low by about 22°, not good)
Footnote: Temperature is a measure of how fast an objects particles are moving.
Accuracy and Precision

They mean slightly different things!
Accuracy
Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the actual (true) value.
Precision
Precision is how close the measured values are to each other.
Examples of Precision and Accuracy:

Low Accuracy High Accuracy High Accuracy
High Precision Low Precision High Precision
So, if you are playing soccer and you always hit the left goal post instead of scoring, then you
arenot accurate, but you are precise!
How to Remember?
 aCcurate is Correct (a bullseye).
 pRecise is Repeating (hitting the same spot, but maybe not the correct spot)
Bias (don't let precision fool you!)
When we measure something several times and all values are close, they may all be wrong if there is
a "Bias"
Bias is a systematic (built-in) error which makes all measurements wrong by a certain amount.
Examples of Bias
 The scales read "1 kg" when there is nothing on them
 You always measure your height wearing shoes with thick soles.
 A stopwatch that takes half a second to stop when clicked
In each case all measurements are wrong by the same amount. That is bias.
Degree of Accuracy
Accuracy depends on the instrument we are measuring with. But as a general rule:
The degree of accuracy is half a unit each side of the unit of measure
Examples:
When an instrument measures in "1"s
any value between 6½ and 7½ is measured as "7"
When an instrument measures in "2"s

any value between 7 and 9 is measured as "8"
(Notice that the arrow points to the same spot, but the measured values are different!
Read more at Errors in Measurement . )
Time
Clocks
In our world we have digital clocks (they have digits like 0,1,2,3) ...
... and analog clocks (they have hands) ...

Digital Clocks
Digital Clocks show us the time using numbers, like this:
Hours : Minutes
Examples:
5 Hours and 8 Minutes 9 Hours and 36 Minutes
Clocks with Hands
Clocks can also use hands to show us the Hours and Minutes. We call them "analog" clocks.
The Little Hand shows the Hours:
2 Hours 5 Hours
The Big Hand shows the Minutes:

30 Minutes 15 Minutes
or Half-Past or Quarter-Past
Using both the Big Hand and Little Hand lets us know exactly what time it is:
2:30 or 5:15 or
Half-Past Two Quarter-Past Five
Practice
Now you can:
 practice using these Time Worksheets, or
 play with the two types of clock using the Analog and Digital Clock Animation
Time - AM/PM vs 24 Hour Clock
Normally time is shown as Hours:Minutes
There are 24 Hours in a Day and 60 Minutes in each Hour.
Example: 10:25 means 10 Hours and 25 Minutes
Showing the Time
There are two main ways to show the time: "24 Hour Clock" or "AM/PM":
24 Hour Clock: the time is shown as how many hours and minutes since midnight.
AM/PM (or "12 Hour Clock"): the day is split into:
 the 12 Hours running from Midnight to Noon (the AM hours), and
 the other 12 Hours running from Noon to Midnight (the PM hours).
Like this (try the slider):
24 Hour
AM/PM
14:00
2:00 PM
AM PM
Ante Meridiem* Post Meridiem*
Latin for "before midday" Latin for "after midday"
When: Midnight to Noon Noon to Midnight
24 Hour Clock: 0:00 to 11:59 12:00 to 23:59
*Is that spelled "Meridiem" or "Meridian"? See here .
Converting AM/PM to 24 Hour Clock
Add 12 to any hour after Noon (and subtract 12 for the first hour of the day):
For the first hour of the day (12 Midnight to 12:59 AM), subtract 12 Hours
Examples: 12 Midnight = 0:00, 12:35 AM = 0:35
From 1:00 AM to 12:59 PM, no change
Examples: 11:20 AM = 11:20, 12:30 PM = 12:30
From 1:00 PM to 11:59 PM, add 12 Hours
Examples: 4:45 PM = 16:45, 11:50 PM = 23:50
Converting 24 Hour Clock to AM/PM
For the first hour of the day (0:00 to 0:59), add 12 Hours, make it "AM"
Examples: 0:10 = 12:10 AM, 0:40 = 12:40 AM
From 1:00 to 11:59, just make it "AM"
Examples: 1:15 = 1:15 AM, 11:25 = 11:25 AM
From 12:00 to 12:59, just make it "PM"

Examples: 12:10 = 12:10 PM, 12:55 = 12:55 PM
From 13:00 to 23:59, subtract 12 Hours, make it "PM"
Examples: 14:55 = 2:55 PM, 23:30 = 11:30 PM
Comparison Chart
Here is a side-by-side comparison of the 24 Hour Clock and AM/PM:
Example: on the hour Example: 10 minutes past
24 Hour Clock AM / PM 24 Hour Clock AM / PM
0:00 12 Midnight 0:10 12:10 AM
1:00 1:00 AM 1:10 1:10 AM
2:00 2:00 AM 2:10 2:10 AM
3:00 3:00 AM 3:10 3:10 AM
4:00 4:00 AM 4:10 4:10 AM
5:00 5:00 AM 5:10 5:10 AM
6:00 6:00 AM 6:10 6:10 AM
7:00 7:00 AM 7:10 7:10 AM
8:00 8:00 AM 8:10 8:10 AM
9:00 9:00 AM 9:10 9:10 AM
10:00 10:00 AM 10:10 10:10 AM
11:00 11:00 AM 11:10 11:10 AM
12:00 12 Noon 12:10 12:10 PM
13:00 1:00 PM 13:10 1:10 PM

14:00 2:00 PM 14:10 2:10 PM
15:00 3:00 PM 15:10 3:10 PM
16:00 4:00 PM 16:10 4:10 PM
17:00 5:00 PM 17:10 5:10 PM
18:00 6:00 PM 18:10 6:10 PM
19:00 7:00 PM 19:10 7:10 PM
20:00 8:00 PM 20:10 8:10 PM
21:00 9:00 PM 21:10 9:10 PM
22:00 10:00 PM 22:10 10:10 PM
23:00 11:00 PM 23:10 11:10 PM
Midnight and Noon
"12 AM" and "12 PM" can cause confusion, so we prefer "12 Midnight" and "12 Noon".
What Day is Midnight?
Midnight has another problem: there is nothing to tell us "is this the beginning or ending of the day".
Imagine your friends say they are leaving for holiday at "midnight" on 12th March, what day should
you arrive to say goodbye?
Do you get there on the 11th (assuming they leave at the very start of the 12th), or the 12th
(assuming they leave at the end of the 12th)?
It is better to use:
 11:59 PM or 12:01 AM, or
 23:59 or 0:01 (24-Hour Clock)
which the railroads, airlines and military actually do.
So, when you see something like "offer ends midnight October 15th" tell them to use one minute
before or after so there is no confusion!
Footnote on "Meridiem" vs "Meridian"

Should "AM" be "ante meridiem" or "ante meridian" (likewise for PM)?
The official (according to an American, Australian and British dictionary I checked), and most common
spelling for AM is "ante meridiem" which is a Latin phrase. I recommend that spelling!
But people sometimes use the phrase "ante meridian" (a "meridian" in this case refers to an imaginary
line in the sky when the sun is at its highest point).
Adding and Subtracting Time

Add or Subtract the hours and minutes separately.
But you may need to do some adjusting if the minutes end up 60 or more, or less than zero!
Adding Times
Follow these steps:
 Add the hours
 Add the minutes
 If the minutes are 60 or more, subtract 60 from the minutes and add 1 to hours
Like this:
Easy example: What is 2:45 + 1:10 ?

Add the Hours: 2+1 = 3
Add the Minutes: 45+10 = 55
The minutes are OK, so the answer is 3:55
Hard example: What is 2:45 + 1:20 ?
Add the Hours: 2+1 = 3

Add the Minutes: 45+20 = 65
The minutes are 60 or more, so
 subtract 60 from minutes (65−60 = 5 Minutes)
 and add 1 to Hours (3+1 = 4 Hours)
The answer is 4:05
Subtracting Times
Follow these steps:
 Subtract the hours
 Subtract the minutes
 If the minutes are negative, add 60 to the minutes and subtract 1 from hours.
Like this:
Easy example: What is 4:10 - 1:05 ?
Subtract the Hours: 4−1 = 3

Subtract the Minutes: 10−5 = 5
The minutes are OK, so the answer is 3:05
Hard example: What is 4:10 - 1:35 ?
Subtract the Hours: 4−1 = 3

Subtract the Minutes: 10−35 = −25
The minutes are less than 0, so:

 add 60 to Minutes (−25+60 = 60−25 = 35 Minutes)
 and subtract 1 from Hours (3−1 = 2 Hours)
The answer is 2:35
(Note: did you see how we changed "−25+60" to "60−25" ... that is perfectly fine and makes the
calculation easier.)
Sun Clock
(Note: this clock uses the time on your computer as its reference)
About the Sun Clock
See at a glance who is in Day or Night, and follow the Sunset and Sunrise around the World.
Your local time is shown at the lower left corner, and example times are shown along the bottom, with
"UTC" time highlighted centrally.
About the Map
The Planet Earth's shape is similar to a Sphere , but maps are Flat.
Curved onto Flat doesn't quite work ...
... try wrapping a piece of paper around a ball!
So when we draw a map of the world we have to ask "how will I fit the shapes on the curved surface
on to the flat surface?" This is called Projection, and every method of projection has its good and bad
points.
For the Sun Clock we used a special type of Cylindrical Projection called Plate Carrée,
orEquirectangular Projection, because it works a bit like an x-y graph (which made the
mathematics a lot easier):
(But it does make the land near the poles squashed-and-stretched, and countries near the equator
look smaller than they should.)
For an even nicer looking map, see World Time Zones .
World Time Zones

Here are the time zones of the world. All places in one time zone have the same time, except when a
region has "Daylight Saving Time" when the local time is advanced by one hour. On this map there
is no adjustment for Daylight Saving Time!
(Note: the clock uses the time on your computer as its reference)
Why Different Times?
Because when the Sun is high in the sky in one part of the world, it is night-time in another place.
So for "Midday" to be close to the middle of the day, the world has to be divided into different time
zones.
View Larger
Why does the Sun Rise and Set at Different Times?

We have a special page that explains this here: Earth's Orbit and Daylight .
Earth's Orbit and Daylight

Ever wondered why the Sun "rises" and "sets" at different times? And why the days are longer in
Summer? Watch this animation carefully and you will discover why:
Time Zones
Now have a look at our World Time Zones page, and you will see what the current situation is.
Leap Years
..., 2008, 2012, 2016, 2020, 2024, ... etc
Leap Year
 A normal year has 365 days.
 A Leap Year has 366 days (the extra day is the 29th of February).
How to know if a year is a Leap Year:
Leap Years are any year that can be evenly divided by 4 (such as 2012, 2016, etc)
except if it can be evenly divided by 100, then it isn't (such as 2100, 2200, etc)
except if it can be evenly divided by 400, then it is (such as 2000,

2400)
Why?
Because the Earth rotates about 365.242375 times a year ...
... but a normal year is 365 days, ...
... so something has to be done to "catch up" the extra 0.242375 days a year.
So every 4th year we add an extra day (the 29th of February), which makes365.25 days a
year. This is fairly close, but is wrong by about 1 day every 100 years.
So every 100 years we don't have a leap year, and that gets us 365.24days per year (1
day less in 100 year = -0.01 days per year). Closer, but still not accurate enough!
So another rule says that every 400 years is a leap year again. This gets us365.2425 days
per year (1 day regained every 400 years = 0.0025 days per year), which is close enough
to 365.242375 not to matter much.
So, Which Are and Which Aren't?
So 1600, 2000 and 2400 are leap years but 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200 and 2300 are not.
Apart from that, every year divisible by 4 (2012, 2016, 2020, 2024, etc.) is a leap year.
How far away each year is from the average
As you can see, this keeps us pretty close, and any other adjustments can be done way in the future
(when the Earth may be rotating a little slower, anyway!)

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Elementary Math12

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Elementary Math

Here is a list of our Elementary Mathematics pages, by subject.

Basic Math Definitions

Adding and Subtracting Positive and Negative Numbers

Equal, Less and Greater Than

Worksheets: Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division

Long Division, Long Division Worksheets

Associative, Commutative and Distributive Laws

Prime and Composite Numbers

Prime Numbers Chart

Straight Line Graph

Interactive Cartesian Coordinates

Polar and Cartesian Coordinates

Plane Geometry Menu

Balance when Adding and Subtracting

Introduction to Algebra - Multiplication

Basic Algebra Definitions

Order of Operations - BODMAS, or PEMDAS

Lengths, Areas and Volumes

Area and Perimiter Calculation, How to Convert Areas

How to Convert Volumes

Converting Temperatures (Celsius and Fahrenheit)

Accuracy and Precision

Time AM/PM vs 24 Hour Clock

Adding and Subtracting Time

World Time Zones

Earth's Orbit and Daylight

General Math Tools

Negative Numbers (-) Positive Numbers (+)

Numbers on the left are smaller than numbers on the right.

Numbers on the right are larger than numbers on the left.

Try this interactive number line (click to mark):

© 2015 MathsIsFun.com v0.77

Having money in your pocket is positive.

But owing money is negative.

So John has "−3", Virginia "−5" and Alex "+3"

Using The Number Line

Read How to Use the Number Line to Add and Subtract.

Footnote: Absolute Value

So the absolute value of 6 is 6, and the absolute value of −6 is also 6

The Ten Digits

We can use these on their own to count up to 9:

Example: this is how we write down twelve:

The Number "12"

It says we have 1 Ten and 2 Ones, which makes 12.

This can also be written as 1 × 10 + 2 × 1.

Example: "35" means 3 Tens and 5 Ones, which is also 3 × 10 + 5 × 1

The Number "10"

Hundreds Tens Ones

The Number 143

That shows we have 1 Hundred, 4 Tens and 3 Ones:

 The Place Value of the "1" is 100

 The Place Value of the "4" is 40

 The Place Value of the "3" is 3

This can also be written as 1 × 100 + 4 × 10 + 3 × 1.

Example: "369" means 3 Hundreds, 6 Tens and 9 Ones

 The Place Value of the "6" is 60

 The Place Value of the "9" is 9

Which is also 3 × 100 + 6 × 10 + 9 × 1

We can also use a Zero when there are no Tens:

Example: "104" means 1 Hundred, Zero Tens and 4 Ones.

Hundreds Tens Ones

The Number 104